{
  "index": "1988-B-5",
  "type": "ALG",
  "tag": [
    "ALG",
    "NT",
    "ANA"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "For positive integers $n$, let $M_n$ be the $2n+1$ by $2n+1$\nskew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first $n$\nsubdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each of the remaining\nentries below the main diagonal is -1. Find, with proof, the rank of\n$M_n$. (According to one definition, the rank of a matrix is the\nlargest $k$ such that there is a $k \\times k$ submatrix with nonzero\ndeterminant.)\n\nOne may note that\n\\begin{align*}\nM_1 &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{array}\\right) \\\\\nM_2 &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & -1 & -1 & 1\n& 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 &\n-1 \\\\ -1 & -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{align*}",
  "solution": "Solution 1. We use induction on \\( n \\) to prove that \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=2 n \\). We check the \\( n=1 \\) case by Gaussian elimination.\n\nSuppose \\( n \\geq 2 \\), and that \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n-1}\\right)=2(n-1) \\) is known. Adding multiples of the first two rows of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) to the other rows transforms \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) to a matrix of the form\n\\[\n\\left(\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & -1 & * \\\\\n1 & 0 & * \\\\\n& & \\\\\n& \\mathbf{0} & -\\mathbf{M}_{n-1}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\nin which \\( \\mathbf{0} \\) and \\( * \\) represent blocks of size \\( (2 n-1) \\times 2 \\) and \\( 2 \\times(2 n-1) \\), respectively. Thus \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=2+\\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n-1}\\right)=2+2(n-1)=2 n \\).\n\nSolution 2. Let \\( e_{1}, \\ldots, e_{2 n+1} \\) be the standard basis of \\( \\mathbb{R}^{2 n+1} \\), and let \\( v_{1}, \\ldots \\), \\( v_{2 n+1} \\) be the rows of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\). Let \\( V=\\left\\{\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{2 n+1}\\right) \\in \\mathbb{R}^{2 n+1}: \\sum a_{i}=0\\right\\} \\). We will show that the row space \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right) \\) equals \\( V \\).\n\nWe first verify the following:\n(a) For all \\( m, v_{m} \\in V \\).\n(b) The set \\( \\left\\{e_{m}-e_{m-1}: 2 \\leq m \\leq 2 n+1\\right\\} \\) is a basis of \\( V \\).\n(c) For \\( 2 \\leq m \\leq 2 n+1 \\), the vector \\( e_{m}-e_{m-1} \\) is a linear combination of the \\( v_{i} \\). Proof of (a): \\( v_{m}=\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\left(e_{m-i}-e_{m+i}\\right) \\).\n(All subscripts are to be considered modulo \\( 2 n+1 \\).)\nProof of \\( (b) \\) : The \\( (2 n) \\times(2 n+1) \\) matrix with the \\( e_{m}-e_{m-1} \\) as rows is in row echelon form (with nonzero rows).\n\nProof of (c): By the formula in the proof of (a),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nv_{m}+v_{m+n} & =\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\left(e_{m-i}-e_{m+i}\\right)+\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\left(e_{m+n-i}-e_{m+n+i}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\left(e_{m-i}+e_{m+n-i}\\right)-\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\left(e_{m+i}+e_{m+n+i}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\left(E-e_{m+n}\\right)-\\left(E-e_{m}\\right) \\quad\\left(\\text { where } E=\\sum e_{m}\\right) \\\\\n& =e_{m}-e_{m+n}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\ne_{m}-e_{m-1} & =\\left(e_{m}-e_{m+n}\\right)+\\left(e_{m+n}-e_{m+2 n}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\left(v_{m}+v_{m+n}\\right)+\\left(v_{m+n}+v_{m+2 n}\\right)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n\nNow, (a) implies \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right) \\subseteq V \\), and (b) and (c) imply \\( V \\subseteq \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right) \\). Thus \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=V \\). Hence \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=\\operatorname{dim} V=2 n \\).\n\nSolution 3. The matrix is circulant, i.e., the entry \\( m_{i j} \\) depends only on \\( j-i \\) modulo \\( 2 n+1 \\). Write \\( a_{j-i}=m_{i j} \\), where all subscripts are considered modulo \\( 2 n+1 \\). (Thus \\( a_{i} \\) equals \\( 0,-1,1 \\) according as \\( i=0,1 \\leq i \\leq n \\), or \\( n+1 \\leq i \\leq 2 n \\).) For each of the \\( 2 n+1 \\) complex numbers \\( \\zeta \\) satisfying \\( \\zeta^{2 n+1}=1 \\), let \\( v_{\\zeta}=\\left(1, \\zeta, \\zeta^{2}, \\ldots, \\zeta^{2 n}\\right) \\). The \\( v_{\\zeta} \\) form a basis for \\( \\mathbb{C}^{2 n+1} \\), since they are the columns of a Vandermonde matrix with nonzero determinant: see 1986A6. Since \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) is circulant, \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} v_{\\zeta}=\\lambda_{\\zeta} v_{\\zeta} \\) where \\( \\lambda_{\\zeta}=a_{0}+a_{1} \\zeta+\\cdots+a_{2 n} \\zeta^{2 n} \\). Thus \\( \\left\\{\\lambda_{\\zeta}: \\zeta^{2 n+1}=1\\right\\} \\) are all the eigenvalues of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) with multiplicity. For our \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n}, \\lambda_{1}=0 \\) and for \\( \\zeta \\neq 1 \\),\n\\[\n\\lambda_{\\zeta}=\\zeta+\\cdots+\\zeta^{n}-\\zeta^{n+1}-\\cdots-\\zeta^{2 n}=\\frac{\\zeta\\left(1-\\zeta^{n}\\right)^{2}}{1-\\zeta} \\neq 0\n\\]\nsince \\( \\operatorname{gcd}(n, 2 n+1)=1 \\). It follows that the image of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) (as an endomorphism of \\( \\left.\\mathbb{C}^{2 n+1}\\right) \\) is the span of the \\( v_{\\zeta} \\) with \\( \\zeta \\neq 1 \\), which is \\( 2 n \\)-dimensional, so \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=2 n \\).\n\nRemark. This method lets one compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors (and hence also the determinant) of any circulant matrix. For an application of similar ideas, see 1999B5. For introductory material on circulant matrices, see [Bar, Sect. 13.2] and [Da]. Circulant matrices (and more general objects known as group determinants) played an early role in the development of representation theory for finite groups: see [Co] for a historical overview.\n\nSolution 4. The sum of the rows of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) is 0 , so \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) is singular. (Alternatively, this follows since \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) is skew-symmetric of odd dimension.) Hence the rank can be at most \\( 2 n \\).\n\nTo show that the rank is \\( 2 n \\), we will prove that the submatrix \\( A=\\left(a_{i j}\\right) \\) obtained by deleting row \\( 2 n+1 \\) and column \\( 2 n+1 \\) of \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) has nonzero determinant. By definition, \\( \\operatorname{det} A=\\sum_{\\pi \\in S_{2 n}} \\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi) a_{1 \\pi(1)} \\cdots a_{(2 n) \\pi(2 n)} \\), where \\( S_{2 n} \\) is the group of permutations of \\( \\{1, \\ldots, 2 n\\} \\), and \\( \\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)= \\pm 1 \\) is the sign of the permutation \\( \\pi \\). We will prove that \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\) is nonzero by proving that it is an odd integer. Since \\( a_{i j} \\) is odd unless \\( i=j \\), the term in the sum corresponding to \\( \\pi \\) is 0 if \\( \\pi(i)=i \\) for some \\( i \\), and odd otherwise. Thus \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\equiv f(2 n)(\\bmod 2) \\), where for any integer \\( m \\geq 1, f(m) \\) denotes the number of permutations of \\( \\{1, \\ldots, m\\} \\) having no fixed points. We can compute \\( f(m) \\) using the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle [Ros2, §5.5]: of the \\( m \\) ! permutations, \\( (m-1) \\) ! fix \\( 1,(m-1) \\) ! fix 2 , and so on, but if we subtract all these, then we must add back the \\( (m-2) \\) ! permutations fixing 1 and 2 (since these have been subtracted twice), and so on for all other pairs, and then subtract \\( (m-3) \\) ! for each triple, and so on; this finally yields\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(m)= & m!-\\binom{m}{1}(m-1)!+\\binom{m}{2}(m-2)!-\\cdots \\\\\n& +(-1)^{m-1}\\binom{m}{m-1} 1!+(-1)^{m}\\binom{m}{m} 0! \\\\\n\\equiv & (-1)^{m-1} m+(-1)^{m}(\\bmod 2)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso \\( f(2 n) \\) is odd, as desired.\nRemark. Permutations without fixed points are called derangements. The formula for \\( f(m) \\) can also be written as\n\\[\nf(m)=m!\\left(1-\\frac{1}{1!}+\\frac{1}{2!}-\\frac{1}{3!}+\\cdots+\\frac{(-1)^{m}}{m!}\\right)\n\\]\nwhich is the integer nearest to \\( m!/ e \\).\nSolution 5. As in Solution 4, \\( \\mathbf{M}_{n} \\) is singular, and hence \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right) \\leq 2 n \\). Let \\( A \\) be as in Solution 4. Then \\( A^{2} \\) is equivalent modulo 2 to the \\( 2 n \\times 2 n \\) identity matrix, so \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\neq 0 \\). Thus \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{M}_{n}\\right)=2 n \\).",
  "vars": [
    "k",
    "m",
    "i",
    "j",
    "a_i",
    "v_m",
    "v_i",
    "e_m",
    "E"
  ],
  "params": [
    "n",
    "M_n",
    "M_n-1",
    "M_1",
    "M_2",
    "V"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "k": "indexk",
        "m": "indexm",
        "i": "indexi",
        "j": "indexj",
        "a_i": "coeffai",
        "v_m": "rowvecm",
        "v_i": "rowveci",
        "e_m": "basisem",
        "E": "sumvece",
        "n": "sizeparn",
        "M_n": "matrixmn",
        "M_n-1": "matrixmnminusone",
        "M_1": "matrixmone",
        "M_2": "matrixmtwo",
        "V": "vectorspacev"
      },
      "question": "For positive integers sizeparn, let matrixmn be the 2 sizeparn+1 by 2 sizeparn+1\nskew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first sizeparn\nsubdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each of the remaining\nentries below the main diagonal is −1. Find, with proof, the rank of\nmatrixmn. (According to one definition, the rank of a matrix is the\nlargest indexk such that there is a indexk \\times indexk submatrix with nonzero\ndeterminant.)\n\nOne may note that\n\\begin{align*}\nmatrixmone &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{array}\\right) \\\\\nmatrixmtwo &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & -1 & -1 & 1\n& 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 &\n-1 \\\\ -1 & -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{align*}",
      "solution": "Solution 1. We use induction on sizeparn to prove that \\( \\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=2\\,sizeparn \\). We check the sizeparn=1 case by Gaussian elimination.\n\nSuppose \\( sizeparn \\ge 2 \\), and that \\( \\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmnminusone})=2(sizeparn-1) \\) is known. Adding multiples of the first two rows of \\( \\mathbf{matrixmn} \\) to the other rows transforms \\( \\mathbf{matrixmn} \\) to a matrix of the form\n\\[\n\\left(\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & -1 & * \\\\\n1 & 0 & * \\\\\n& & \\\\\n& \\mathbf{0} & -\\mathbf{matrixmnminusone}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\nin which \\( \\mathbf{0} \\) and \\( * \\) represent blocks of size \\( (2\\,sizeparn-1)\\times 2 \\) and \\( 2\\times(2\\,sizeparn-1) \\), respectively. Thus\n\\( \\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=2+\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmnminusone})=2+2(sizeparn-1)=2\\,sizeparn \\).\n\nSolution 2. Let \\( basisem_{1},\\ldots,basisem_{2\\,sizeparn+1} \\) be the standard basis of \\(\\mathbb R^{2\\,sizeparn+1}\\), and let \\( rowvecm_{1},\\ldots,rowvecm_{2\\,sizeparn+1} \\) be the rows of \\( \\mathbf{matrixmn} \\). Let\n\\[ vectorspacev=\\{(a_{1},\\ldots,a_{2\\,sizeparn+1})\\in\\mathbb R^{2\\,sizeparn+1}:\\sum a_{indexi}=0\\}. \\]\nWe will show that the row space \\( \\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{matrixmn}) \\) equals vectorspacev.\n\nWe first verify the following:\n(a) For all indexm, \\( rowvecm_{indexm}\\in vectorspacev \\).\n(b) The set \\(\\{basisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm-1}:2\\le indexm\\le 2\\,sizeparn+1\\}\\) is a basis of vectorspacev.\n(c) For \\( 2\\le indexm\\le 2\\,sizeparn+1 \\), the vector \\( basisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm-1} \\) is a linear combination of the rowveci.\n\nProof of (a):\n\\[ rowvecm_{indexm}=\\sum_{indexi=1}^{sizeparn}\\bigl(basisem_{indexm-indexi}-basisem_{indexm+indexi}\\bigr). \\]\n(All subscripts are to be considered modulo \\(2\\,sizeparn+1\\).)\n\nProof of (b): The \\((2\\,sizeparn)\\times(2\\,sizeparn+1)\\) matrix with the \\( basisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm-1} \\) as rows is in row-echelon form with non-zero rows.\n\nProof of (c): Using the formula in (a),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nrowvecm_{indexm}+rowvecm_{indexm+sizeparn}&=\\sum_{indexi=1}^{sizeparn}\\bigl(basisem_{indexm-indexi}-basisem_{indexm+indexi}\\bigr)+\\sum_{indexi=1}^{sizeparn}\\bigl(basisem_{indexm+sizeparn-indexi}-basisem_{indexm+sizeparn+indexi}\\bigr)\\\\\n&=\\sum_{indexi=1}^{sizeparn}\\bigl(basisem_{indexm-indexi}+basisem_{indexm+sizeparn-indexi}\\bigr)-\\sum_{indexi=1}^{sizeparn}\\bigl(basisem_{indexm+indexi}+basisem_{indexm+sizeparn+indexi}\\bigr)\\\\\n&=\\bigl(sumvece-basisem_{indexm+sizeparn}\\bigr)-\\bigl(sumvece-basisem_{indexm}\\bigr)\\\\\n&=basisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm+sizeparn}.\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nbasisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm-1}&=\\bigl(basisem_{indexm}-basisem_{indexm+sizeparn}\\bigr)+\\bigl(basisem_{indexm+sizeparn}-basisem_{indexm+2\\,sizeparn}\\bigr)\\\\\n&=\\bigl(rowvecm_{indexm}+rowvecm_{indexm+sizeparn}\\bigr)+\\bigl(rowvecm_{indexm+sizeparn}+rowvecm_{indexm+2\\,sizeparn}\\bigr).\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n\nNow (a) gives \\( \\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})\\subseteq vectorspacev \\), while (b) and (c) give the reverse inclusion. Thus \\( \\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=vectorspacev \\), and so \\( \\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=\\dim vectorspacev=2\\,sizeparn \\).\n\nSolution 3. The matrix is circulant, i.e. the entry \\(m_{indexi\\,indexj}\\) depends only on \\(indexj-indexi\\) modulo \\(2\\,sizeparn+1\\). Write \\(coeffai_{indexj-indexi}=m_{indexi\\,indexj}\\) (all subscripts modulo \\(2\\,sizeparn+1\\)). Thus \\(coeffai_{indexi}\\) equals \\(0,-1,1\\) according as \\(indexi=0,1\\le indexi\\le sizeparn\\), or \\(sizeparn+1\\le indexi\\le 2\\,sizeparn\\). For each of the \\(2\\,sizeparn+1\\) complex numbers \\(\\zeta\\) satisfying \\(\\zeta^{2\\,sizeparn+1}=1\\), put\n\\[v_{\\zeta}=(1,\\zeta,\\zeta^{2},\\ldots,\\zeta^{2\\,sizeparn}).\\]\nThese vectors form a basis of \\(\\mathbb C^{2\\,sizeparn+1}\\) (the columns of a Vandermonde matrix). Because \\(\\mathbf{matrixmn}\\) is circulant,\n\\[\\mathbf{matrixmn}v_{\\zeta}=\\lambda_{\\zeta}v_{\\zeta},\\qquad\\lambda_{\\zeta}=coeffai_{0}+coeffai_{1}\\zeta+\\cdots+coeffai_{2\\,sizeparn}\\zeta^{2\\,sizeparn}.\n\\]\nThus the eigenvalues are the \\(\\lambda_{\\zeta}\\). For \\(\\zeta=1\\) we have \\(\\lambda_{1}=0\\), while for \\(\\zeta\\ne1\\)\n\\[\\lambda_{\\zeta}=\\zeta+\\cdots+\\zeta^{sizeparn}-\\zeta^{sizeparn+1}-\\cdots-\\zeta^{2\\,sizeparn}=\\frac{\\zeta(1-\\zeta^{sizeparn})^{2}}{1-\\zeta}\\ne0,\\]\nsince \\(\\gcd(sizeparn,2\\,sizeparn+1)=1\\). Hence the image of \\(\\mathbf{matrixmn}\\) is the span of the \\(v_{\\zeta}\\) with \\(\\zeta\\ne1\\), which is \\(2\\,sizeparn\\)-dimensional, so \\(\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=2\\,sizeparn \\).\n\nSolution 4. The sum of the rows of \\(\\mathbf{matrixmn}\\) is 0, so it is singular (alternatively, a skew-symmetric matrix of odd dimension is always singular). Hence the rank is at most \\(2\\,sizeparn\\).\n\nTo show the rank is exactly \\(2\\,sizeparn\\), delete the last row and column of \\(\\mathbf{matrixmn}\\) to obtain a submatrix \\(A=(coeffai_{indexi\\,indexj})\\). By definition\n\\[\\det A=\\sum_{\\pi\\in S_{2\\,sizeparn}}\\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)\\,coeffai_{1\\,\\pi(1)}\\cdots coeffai_{(2\\,sizeparn)\\,\\pi(2\\,sizeparn)},\\]\nwhere \\(S_{2\\,sizeparn}\\) is the symmetric group. The entry \\(coeffai_{indexi\\,indexj}\\) is odd unless \\(indexi=indexj\\); hence the term for \\(\\pi\\) vanishes mod 2 if \\(\\pi\\) fixes some index. Thus\n\\[\\det A\\equiv f(2\\,sizeparn)\\pmod2,\\]\nwhere \\(f(indexm)\\) is the number of permutations of \\(\\{1,\\ldots,indexm\\}\\) without fixed points. By Inclusion–Exclusion\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(indexm)&=indexm!-{indexm\\choose1}(indexm-1)!+{indexm\\choose2}(indexm-2)!-\\cdots\\\\\n&\\quad+(-1)^{indexm-1}{indexm\\choose indexm-1}1!+(-1)^{indexm}{indexm\\choose indexm}0!\\\\\n&\\equiv(-1)^{indexm-1}indexm+(-1)^{indexm}\\pmod2,\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso \\(f(2\\,sizeparn)\\) is odd. Therefore \\(\\det A\\ne0\\) and \\(\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=2\\,sizeparn\\).\n\nSolution 5. As in Solution 4, \\(\\mathbf{matrixmn}\\) is singular, hence \\(\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})\\le2\\,sizeparn\\). For the submatrix \\(A\\) defined above we have \\(A^{2}\\equiv I_{2\\,sizeparn}\\pmod2\\), so \\(\\det A\\ne0\\). Consequently \\(\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{matrixmn})=2\\,sizeparn\\)."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "k": "hemisphere",
        "m": "sailboat",
        "j": "crockpot",
        "a_i": "turnstile",
        "v_m": "pinecrest",
        "v_i": "raspberries",
        "e_m": "cabdriver",
        "E": "marigolds",
        "n": "adventure",
        "M_n": "paperclip",
        "M_n-1": "raincloud",
        "M_1": "harmonica",
        "M_2": "snowflake",
        "V": "evergreen"
      },
      "question": "For positive integers $adventure$, let $paperclip$ be the $2adventure+1$ by $2adventure+1$\nskew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first $adventure$\nsubdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each of the remaining\nentries below the main diagonal is -1. Find, with proof, the rank of\n$paperclip$. (According to one definition, the rank of a matrix is the\nlargest $hemisphere$ such that there is a $hemisphere \\times hemisphere$\nsubmatrix with nonzero determinant.)\n\nOne may note that\n\\begin{align*}\nharmonica &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{array}\\right) \\\\\nsnowflake &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & -1 & -1 & 1\n& 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 &\n-1 \\\\ -1 & -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{align*}",
      "solution": "Solution 1. We use induction on $adventure$ to prove that $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=2 adventure$. We check the $adventure=1$ case by Gaussian elimination.\n\nSuppose $adventure \\ge 2$, and that $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{raincloud})=2(adventure-1)$ is known. Adding multiples of the first two rows of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ to the other rows transforms $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ to a matrix of the form\n\\[\n\\left(\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & -1 & * \\\\\n1 & 0 & * \\\\\n& & \\\\\n& \\mathbf{0} & -\\mathbf{raincloud}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\nin which $\\mathbf{0}$ and $*$ represent blocks of size $(2 adventure-1) \\times 2$ and $2 \\times(2 adventure-1)$, respectively. Thus $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=2+\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{raincloud})=2+2(adventure-1)=2 adventure$.\n\nSolution 2. Let $cabdriver_{1},\\ldots,cabdriver_{2 adventure+1}$ be the standard basis of $\\mathbb R^{2 adventure+1}$, and let $pinecrest_{1},\\ldots ,pinecrest_{2 adventure+1}$ be the rows of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$. Let $evergreen=\\{(a_{1},\\ldots,a_{2 adventure+1})\\in\\mathbb R^{2 adventure+1}:\\sum a_{i}=0\\}$. We will show that the row space $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{paperclip})$ equals $evergreen$.\n\nWe first verify the following:\n(a) For all $sailboat,\\,pinecrest_{sailboat}\\in evergreen$.\n(b) The set $\\{cabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat-1}:2\\le sailboat\\le 2 adventure+1\\}$ is a basis of $evergreen$.\n(c) For $2\\le sailboat\\le 2 adventure+1$, the vector $cabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat-1}$ is a linear combination of the $pinecrest_{i}$. Proof of (a): $pinecrest_{sailboat}=\\sum_{i=1}^{adventure}(cabdriver_{sailboat-i}-cabdriver_{sailboat+i})$.\n(All subscripts are to be considered modulo $2 adventure+1$.)\nProof of (b): The $(2 adventure)\\times(2 adventure+1)$ matrix with the $cabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat-1}$ as rows is in row echelon form (with nonzero rows).\n\nProof of (c): By the formula in the proof of (a),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\npinecrest_{sailboat}+pinecrest_{sailboat+adventure}&=\\sum_{i=1}^{adventure}(cabdriver_{sailboat-i}-cabdriver_{sailboat+i})+\\sum_{i=1}^{adventure}(cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure-i}-cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure+i})\\\\\n&=\\sum_{i=1}^{adventure}(cabdriver_{sailboat-i}+cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure-i})-\\sum_{i=1}^{adventure}(cabdriver_{sailboat+i}+cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure+i})\\\\\n&=(marigolds-cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure})-(marigolds-cabdriver_{sailboat})\\quad(\\text{where }marigolds=\\sum cabdriver_{sailboat})\\\\\n&=cabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\ncabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat-1}&=(cabdriver_{sailboat}-cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure})+(cabdriver_{sailboat+adventure}-cabdriver_{sailboat+2 adventure})\\\\\n&=(pinecrest_{sailboat}+pinecrest_{sailboat+adventure})+(pinecrest_{sailboat+adventure}+pinecrest_{sailboat+2 adventure})\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n\nNow, (a) implies $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{paperclip})\\subseteq evergreen$, and (b) and (c) imply $evergreen\\subseteq\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{paperclip})$. Thus $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=evergreen$. Hence $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=\\operatorname{dim} evergreen=2 adventure$.\n\nSolution 3. The matrix is circulant, i.e., the entry $m_{i j}$ depends only on $crockpot-i$ modulo $2 adventure+1$. Write $turnstile_{crockpot-i}=m_{i j}$, where all subscripts are considered modulo $2 adventure+1$. (Thus $turnstile_{i}$ equals $0,-1,1$ according as $i=0,1\\le i\\le adventure$, or $adventure+1\\le i\\le 2 adventure$.) For each of the $2 adventure+1$ complex numbers $\\zeta$ satisfying $\\zeta^{2 adventure+1}=1$, let $v_{\\zeta}=(1,\\zeta,\\zeta^{2},\\ldots,\\zeta^{2 adventure})$. The $v_{\\zeta}$ form a basis for $\\mathbb{C}^{2 adventure+1}$, since they are the columns of a Vandermonde matrix with non-zero determinant: see 1986A6. Since $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ is circulant, $\\mathbf{paperclip}v_{\\zeta}=\\lambda_{\\zeta}v_{\\zeta}$ where $\\lambda_{\\zeta}=turnstile_{0}+turnstile_{1}\\zeta+\\cdots+turnstile_{2 adventure}\\zeta^{2 adventure}$. Thus $\\{\\lambda_{\\zeta}:\\zeta^{2 adventure+1}=1\\}$ are all the eigenvalues of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ with multiplicity. For our $\\mathbf{paperclip},\\,\\lambda_{1}=0$ and for $\\zeta\\ne1$,\n\\[\n\\lambda_{\\zeta}=\\zeta+\\cdots+\\zeta^{adventure}-\\zeta^{adventure+1}-\\cdots-\\zeta^{2 adventure}=\\frac{\\zeta(1-\\zeta^{adventure})^{2}}{1-\\zeta}\\ne0\n\\]\nsince $\\operatorname{gcd}(adventure,2 adventure+1)=1$. It follows that the image of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ (as an endomorphism of $\\mathbb{C}^{2 adventure+1}$) is the span of the $v_{\\zeta}$ with $\\zeta\\ne1$, which is $2 adventure$-dimensional, so $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=2 adventure$.\n\nRemark. This method lets one compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors (and hence also the determinant) of any circulant matrix. For an application of similar ideas, see 1999B5. For introductory material on circulant matrices, see [Bar, Sect. 13.2] and [Da]. Circulant matrices (and more general objects known as group determinants) played an early role in the development of representation theory for finite groups: see [Co] for a historical overview.\n\nSolution 4. The sum of the rows of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ is 0, so $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ is singular. (Alternatively, this follows since $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ is skew-symmetric of odd dimension.) Hence the rank can be at most $2 adventure$.\n\nTo show that the rank is $2 adventure$, we will prove that the submatrix $A=(turnstile_{i j})$ obtained by deleting row $2 adventure+1$ and column $2 adventure+1$ of $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ has non-zero determinant. By definition, $\\det A=\\sum_{\\pi\\in S_{2 adventure}}\\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)\\,turnstile_{1\\pi(1)}\\cdots turnstile_{(2 adventure)\\pi(2 adventure)}$, where $S_{2 adventure}$ is the group of permutations of $\\{1,\\ldots,2 adventure\\}$, and $\\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)=\\pm1$ is the sign of the permutation $\\pi$. We will prove that $\\det A$ is non-zero by proving that it is an odd integer. Since $turnstile_{i j}$ is odd unless $i=j$, the term in the sum corresponding to $\\pi$ is 0 if $\\pi(i)=i$ for some $i$, and odd otherwise. Thus $\\det A\\equiv f(2 adventure)\\pmod2$, where for any integer $sailboat\\ge1$, $f(sailboat)$ denotes the number of permutations of $\\{1,\\ldots,sailboat\\}$ having no fixed points. We can compute $f(sailboat)$ using the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle [Ros2, §5.5]: of the $sailboat!$ permutations, $(sailboat-1)!$ fix 1, $(sailboat-1)!$ fix 2, and so on, but if we subtract all these, then we must add back the $(sailboat-2)!$ permutations fixing 1 and~2 (since these have been subtracted twice), and so on for all other pairs, and then subtract $(sailboat-3)!$ for each triple, and so on; this finally yields\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(sailboat)=&\\,sailboat! - \\binom{sailboat}{1}(sailboat-1)! + \\binom{sailboat}{2}(sailboat-2)! - \\cdots\\\\\n&+(-1)^{sailboat-1}\\binom{sailboat}{sailboat-1}1! + (-1)^{sailboat}\\binom{sailboat}{sailboat}0!\\\\\n\\equiv&\\,(-1)^{sailboat-1}sailboat + (-1)^{sailboat}\\pmod2\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso $f(2 adventure)$ is odd, as desired.\nRemark. Permutations without fixed points are called derangements. The formula for $f(sailboat)$ can also be written as\n\\[\nf(sailboat)=sailboat!\\left(1-\\frac1{1!}+\\frac1{2!}-\\frac1{3!}+\\cdots+\\frac{(-1)^{sailboat}}{sailboat!}\\right)\n\\]\nwhich is the integer nearest to $sailboat!/e$.\n\nSolution 5. As in Solution 4, $\\mathbf{paperclip}$ is singular, and hence $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})\\le2 adventure$. Let $A$ be as in Solution 4. Then $A^{2}$ is equivalent modulo 2 to the $2 adventure\\times2 adventure$ identity matrix, so $\\det A\\ne0$. Thus $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{paperclip})=2 adventure$.",
      "status": "processed"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "k": "constant",
        "m": "fixednumber",
        "i": "motionless",
        "j": "stationary",
        "a_i": "aggregate",
        "v_m": "columnvector",
        "v_i": "scalarvalue",
        "e_m": "dependentvector",
        "E": "emptiness",
        "n": "nonsteady",
        "M_n": "scalarfield",
        "M_{n}": "scalarfield",
        "M_n-1": "vectorformer",
        "M_{n-1}": "vectorformer",
        "M_1": "tensorone",
        "M_{1}": "tensorone",
        "M_2": "tensortwo",
        "M_{2}": "tensortwo",
        "V": "universe"
      },
      "question": "For positive integers $nonsteady$, let $scalarfield$ be the $2nonsteady+1$ by $2nonsteady+1$\nskew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first $nonsteady$\nsubdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each of the remaining\nentries below the main diagonal is -1. Find, with proof, the rank of\n$scalarfield$. (According to one definition, the rank of a matrix is the\nlargest $constant$ such that there is a $constant \\times constant$ submatrix with nonzero\ndeterminant.)\n\nOne may note that\n\\begin{align*}\ntensorone &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{array}\\right) \\\\\ntensortwo &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & -1 & -1 & 1\n& 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 &\n-1 \\\\ -1 & -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{align*}",
      "solution": "Solution 1. We use induction on $nonsteady$ to prove that $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=2 nonsteady$. We check the $nonsteady=1$ case by Gaussian elimination.\n\nSuppose $nonsteady \\ge 2$, and that $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{vectorformer})=2(nonsteady-1)$ is known. Adding multiples of the first two rows of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ to the other rows transforms $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ to a matrix of the form\n\\[\n\\left(\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & -1 & * \\\\\n1 & 0 & * \\\\\n& & \\\\\n& \\mathbf{0} & -\\mathbf{vectorformer}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\nin which $\\mathbf{0}$ and $*$ represent blocks of size $(2 nonsteady-1) \\times 2$ and $2 \\times(2 nonsteady-1)$, respectively. Thus $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=2+\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{vectorformer})=2+2(nonsteady-1)=2 nonsteady$.\n\nSolution 2. Let $e_{1},\\ldots,e_{2 nonsteady+1}$ be the standard basis of $\\mathbb{R}^{2 nonsteady+1}$, and let $v_{1},\\ldots ,v_{2 nonsteady+1}$ be the rows of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$. Let $universe=\\{(aggregate_{1},\\ldots,aggregate_{2 nonsteady+1})\\in\\mathbb{R}^{2 nonsteady+1}:\\sum aggregate_{motionless}=0\\}$. We will show that the row space $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})$ equals $universe$.\n\nWe first verify the following:\n(a) For all $fixednumber$, $columnvector \\in universe$.\n(b) The set $\\{e_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber-1}:2\\le fixednumber\\le 2 nonsteady+1\\}$ is a basis of $universe$.\n(c) For $2\\le fixednumber\\le 2 nonsteady+1$, the vector $e_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber-1}$ is a linear combination of the $scalarvalue$. Proof of (a): $columnvector=\\sum_{motionless=1}^{nonsteady}(e_{fixednumber-motionless}-e_{fixednumber+motionless})$.\n(All subscripts are to be considered modulo $2 nonsteady+1$.)\nProof of (b): The $(2 nonsteady)\\times(2 nonsteady+1)$ matrix with the $e_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber-1}$ as rows is in row echelon form (with nonzero rows).\n\nProof of (c): By the formula in the proof of (a),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\ncolumnvector+v_{fixednumber+nonsteady}&=\\sum_{motionless=1}^{nonsteady}(e_{fixednumber-motionless}-e_{fixednumber+motionless})+\\sum_{motionless=1}^{nonsteady}(e_{fixednumber+nonsteady-motionless}-e_{fixednumber+nonsteady+motionless})\\\\\n&=\\sum_{motionless=1}^{nonsteady}(e_{fixednumber-motionless}+e_{fixednumber+nonsteady-motionless})-\\sum_{motionless=1}^{nonsteady}(e_{fixednumber+motionless}+e_{fixednumber+nonsteady+motionless})\\\\\n&=(emptiness-e_{fixednumber+nonsteady})-(emptiness-e_{fixednumber})\\quad(\\text{where }emptiness=\\sum e_{fixednumber})\\\\\n&=e_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber+nonsteady}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\ne_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber-1}&=(e_{fixednumber}-e_{fixednumber+nonsteady})+(e_{fixednumber+nonsteady}-e_{fixednumber+2 nonsteady})\\\\\n&=(columnvector+v_{fixednumber+nonsteady})+(v_{fixednumber+nonsteady}+v_{fixednumber+2 nonsteady})\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n\nNow, (a) implies $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})\\subseteq universe$, and (b) and (c) imply $universe\\subseteq\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})$. Thus $\\operatorname{RS}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=universe$. Hence $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=\\operatorname{dim}universe=2 nonsteady$.\n\nSolution 3. The matrix is circulant, i.e., the entry $aggregate_{stationary-motionless}$ depends only on $stationary-motionless$ modulo $2 nonsteady+1$. Write $aggregate_{stationary-motionless}=m_{motionless\\,stationary}$, where all subscripts are considered modulo $2 nonsteady+1$. (Thus $aggregate_{motionless}$ equals $0,-1,1$ according as $motionless=0,1\\le motionless\\le nonsteady$, or $nonsteady+1\\le motionless\\le2 nonsteady$.) For each of the $2 nonsteady+1$ complex numbers $\\zeta$ satisfying $\\zeta^{2 nonsteady+1}=1$, let $v_{\\zeta}=(1,\\zeta,\\zeta^{2},\\ldots,\\zeta^{2 nonsteady})$. The $v_{\\zeta}$ form a basis for $\\mathbb{C}^{2 nonsteady+1}$, since they are the columns of a Vandermonde matrix with nonzero determinant: see 1986A6. Since $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ is circulant, $\\mathbf{scalarfield}v_{\\zeta}=\\lambda_{\\zeta}v_{\\zeta}$ where $\\lambda_{\\zeta}=aggregate_{0}+aggregate_{1}\\zeta+\\cdots+aggregate_{2 nonsteady}\\zeta^{2 nonsteady}$. Thus $\\{\\lambda_{\\zeta}:\\zeta^{2 nonsteady+1}=1\\}$ are all the eigenvalues of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ with multiplicity. For our $\\mathbf{scalarfield},\\;\\lambda_{1}=0$ and for $\\zeta\\ne1$,\n\\[\\lambda_{\\zeta}=\\zeta+\\cdots+\\zeta^{nonsteady}-\\zeta^{nonsteady+1}-\\cdots-\\zeta^{2 nonsteady}=\\frac{\\zeta(1-\\zeta^{nonsteady})^{2}}{1-\\zeta}\\ne0\\]\nsince $\\gcd(nonsteady,2 nonsteady+1)=1$. It follows that the image of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ (as an endomorphism of $\\mathbb{C}^{2 nonsteady+1}$) is the span of the $v_{\\zeta}$ with $\\zeta\\ne1$, which is $2 nonsteady$-dimensional, so $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=2 nonsteady$.\n\nRemark. This method lets one compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors (and hence also the determinant) of any circulant matrix. For an application of similar ideas, see 1999B5. For introductory material on circulant matrices, see [Bar, Sect. 13.2] and [Da]. Circulant matrices (and more general objects known as group determinants) played an early role in the development of representation theory for finite groups: see [Co] for a historical overview.\n\nSolution 4. The sum of the rows of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ is 0, so $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ is singular. (Alternatively, this follows since $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ is skew-symmetric of odd dimension.) Hence the rank can be at most $2 nonsteady$.\n\nTo show that the rank is $2 nonsteady$, we will prove that the submatrix $A=(aggregate_{motionless\\,stationary})$ obtained by deleting row $2 nonsteady+1$ and column $2 nonsteady+1$ of $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ has nonzero determinant. By definition,\n$\\det A=\\sum_{\\pi\\in S_{2 nonsteady}}\\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)aggregate_{1\\,\\pi(1)}\\cdots aggregate_{(2 nonsteady)\\,\\pi(2 nonsteady)}$, where $S_{2 nonsteady}$ is the group of permutations of $\\{1,\\ldots,2 nonsteady\\}$, and $\\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)=\\pm1$ is the sign of the permutation $\\pi$. We will prove that $\\det A$ is nonzero by proving that it is an odd integer. Since $aggregate_{motionless\\,stationary}$ is odd unless $motionless=stationary$, the term in the sum corresponding to $\\pi$ is 0 if $\\pi(motionless)=motionless$ for some $motionless$, and odd otherwise. Thus $\\det A\\equiv f(2 nonsteady)\\pmod{2}$, where for any integer $fixednumber\\ge1$, $f(fixednumber)$ denotes the number of permutations of $\\{1,\\ldots,fixednumber\\}$ having no fixed points. We can compute $f(fixednumber)$ using the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle [Ros2, §5.5]: of the $fixednumber!$ permutations, $(fixednumber-1)!$ fix 1, $(fixednumber-1)!$ fix 2, and so on, but if we subtract all these, then we must add back the $(fixednumber-2)!$ permutations fixing 1 and 2 (since these have been subtracted twice), and so on for all other pairs, and then subtract $(fixednumber-3)!$ for each triple, and so on; this finally yields\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(fixednumber)=&\\;fixednumber! - \\binom{fixednumber}{1}(fixednumber-1)! + \\binom{fixednumber}{2}(fixednumber-2)!-\\cdots\\\\\n&+(-1)^{fixednumber-1}\\binom{fixednumber}{fixednumber-1}1!+(-1)^{fixednumber}\\binom{fixednumber}{fixednumber}0!\\\\\n\\equiv&\\;(-1)^{fixednumber-1}fixednumber+(-1)^{fixednumber}\\pmod{2}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso $f(2 nonsteady)$ is odd, as desired.\nRemark. Permutations without fixed points are called derangements. The formula for $f(fixednumber)$ can also be written as\n\\[f(fixednumber)=fixednumber!\\left(1-\\frac1{1!}+\\frac1{2!}-\\frac1{3!}+\\cdots+\\frac{(-1)^{fixednumber}}{fixednumber!}\\right)\\]\nwhich is the integer nearest to $fixednumber!/e$.\n\nSolution 5. As in Solution 4, $\\mathbf{scalarfield}$ is singular, and hence $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})\\le2 nonsteady$. Let $A$ be as in Solution 4. Then $A^{2}$ is equivalent modulo 2 to the $2 nonsteady\\times2 nonsteady$ identity matrix, so $\\det A\\ne0$. Thus $\\operatorname{rank}(\\mathbf{scalarfield})=2 nonsteady$.",
      "error": false
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "k": "htepsylq",
        "m": "wcdjagnu",
        "i": "pmltksvo",
        "j": "grdvnxce",
        "a_i": "kdlzxbvp",
        "v_m": "zfpqledx",
        "v_i": "rcsmuohj",
        "e_m": "yosvickr",
        "E": "bnlewhcz",
        "n": "qjkxmafe",
        "M_n": "pqhxajdo",
        "M_n-1": "ufclxmta",
        "M_1": "owkvyrpl",
        "M_2": "gldzvafe",
        "V": "tsmqwpne"
      },
      "question": "For positive integers $qjkxmafe$, let $pqhxajdo$ be the $2 qjkxmafe+1$ by $2 qjkxmafe+1$\nskew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first $qjkxmafe$\nsubdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each of the remaining\nentries below the main diagonal is -1. Find, with proof, the rank of\n$pqhxajdo$. (According to one definition, the rank of a matrix is the\nlargest $htepsylq$ such that there is a $htepsylq \\times htepsylq$ submatrix with nonzero\ndeterminant.)\n\nOne may note that\n\\begin{align*}\nowkvyrpl &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{array}\\right) \\\\\ngldzvafe &= \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & -1 & -1 & 1\n& 1 \\\\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 &\n-1 \\\\ -1 & -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{align*}",
      "solution": "Solution 1. We use induction on \\( qjkxmafe \\) to prove that \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)=2 qjkxmafe \\). We check the \\( qjkxmafe=1 \\) case by Gaussian elimination.\n\nSuppose \\( qjkxmafe \\geq 2 \\), and that \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{ufclxmta}\\right)=2(qjkxmafe-1) \\) is known. Adding multiples of the first two rows of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) to the other rows transforms \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) to a matrix of the form\n\\[\n\\left(\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & -1 & * \\\\\n1 & 0 & * \\\\\n& & \\\\\n& \\mathbf{0} & -\\mathbf{ufclxmta}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\nin which \\( \\mathbf{0} \\) and \\( * \\) represent blocks of size \\( (2 qjkxmafe-1) \\times 2 \\) and \\( 2 \\times(2 qjkxmafe-1) \\), respectively. Thus \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)=2+\\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{ufclxmta}\\right)=2+2(qjkxmafe-1)=2 qjkxmafe \\).\n\nSolution 2. Let \\( e_{1}, \\ldots, e_{2 qjkxmafe+1} \\) be the standard basis of \\( \\mathbb{R}^{2 qjkxmafe+1} \\), and let \\( v_{1}, \\ldots, v_{2 qjkxmafe+1} \\) be the rows of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\). Let \\( tsmqwpne=\\left\\{\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{2 qjkxmafe+1}\\right) \\in \\mathbb{R}^{2 qjkxmafe+1}: \\sum a_{pmltksvo}=0\\right\\} \\). We will show that the row space \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right) \\) equals \\( tsmqwpne \\).\n\nWe first verify the following:\n(a) For all \\( wcdjagnu, zfpqledx \\in tsmqwpne \\).\n(b) The set \\( \\left\\{e_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu-1}: 2 \\leq wcdjagnu \\leq 2 qjkxmafe+1\\right\\} \\) is a basis of \\( tsmqwpne \\).\n(c) For \\( 2 \\leq wcdjagnu \\leq 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\), the vector \\( e_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu-1} \\) is a linear combination of the \\( rcsmuohj \\). Proof of (a): \\( zfpqledx=\\sum_{pmltksvo=1}^{qjkxmafe}\\left(e_{wcdjagnu-pmltksvo}-e_{wcdjagnu+pmltksvo}\\right) \\).\n(All subscripts are to be considered modulo \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\).)\nProof of \\( (b) \\) : The \\( (2 qjkxmafe) \\times(2 qjkxmafe+1) \\) matrix with the \\( e_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu-1} \\) as rows is in row echelon form (with nonzero rows).\n\nProof of (c): By the formula in the proof of (a),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nzfpqledx+v_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe} & =\\sum_{pmltksvo=1}^{qjkxmafe}\\left(e_{wcdjagnu-pmltksvo}-e_{wcdjagnu+pmltksvo}\\right)+\\sum_{pmltksvo=1}^{qjkxmafe}\\left(e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe-pmltksvo}-e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe+pmltksvo}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\sum_{pmltksvo=1}^{qjkxmafe}\\left(e_{wcdjagnu-pmltksvo}+e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe-pmltksvo}\\right)-\\sum_{pmltksvo=1}^{qjkxmafe}\\left(e_{wcdjagnu+pmltksvo}+e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe+pmltksvo}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\left(bnlewhcz-e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}\\right)-\\left(bnlewhcz-e_{wcdjagnu}\\right) \\quad\\left(\\text { where } bnlewhcz=\\sum e_{wcdjagnu}\\right) \\\\\n& =e_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\ne_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu-1} & =\\left(e_{wcdjagnu}-e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}\\right)+\\left(e_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}-e_{wcdjagnu+2 qjkxmafe}\\right) \\\\\n& =\\left(zfpqledx+v_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}\\right)+\\left(v_{wcdjagnu+qjkxmafe}+v_{wcdjagnu+2 qjkxmafe}\\right)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n\nNow, (a) implies \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right) \\subseteq tsmqwpne \\), and (b) and (c) imply \\( tsmqwpne \\subseteq \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right) \\). Thus \\( \\operatorname{RS}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)= tsmqwpne \\). Hence \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)=\\operatorname{dim} tsmqwpne=2 qjkxmafe \\).\n\nSolution 3. The matrix is circulant, i.e., the entry \\( m_{grdvnxce pmltksvo} \\) depends only on \\( pmltksvo-grdvnxce \\) modulo \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\). Write \\( kdlzxbvp_{pmltksvo-grdvnxce}=m_{grdvnxce pmltksvo} \\), where all subscripts are considered modulo \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\). (Thus \\( kdlzxbvp_{pmltksvo} \\) equals \\( 0,-1,1 \\) according as \\( pmltksvo=0,1 \\leq pmltksvo \\leq qjkxmafe \\), or \\( qjkxmafe+1 \\leq pmltksvo \\leq 2 qjkxmafe \\).) For each of the \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\) complex numbers \\( \\zeta \\) satisfying \\( \\zeta^{2 qjkxmafe+1}=1 \\), let \\( v_{\\zeta}=\\left(1, \\zeta, \\zeta^{2}, \\ldots, \\zeta^{2 qjkxmafe}\\right) \\). The \\( v_{\\zeta} \\) form a basis for \\( \\mathbb{C}^{2 qjkxmafe+1} \\), since they are the columns of a Vandermonde matrix with nonzero determinant: see 1986A6. Since \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) is circulant, \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} v_{\\zeta}=\\lambda_{\\zeta} v_{\\zeta} \\) where \\( \\lambda_{\\zeta}=kdlzxbvp_{0}+kdlzxbvp_{1} \\zeta+\\cdots+kdlzxbvp_{2 qjkxmafe} \\zeta^{2 qjkxmafe} \\). Thus \\( \\left\\{\\lambda_{\\zeta}: \\zeta^{2 qjkxmafe+1}=1\\right\\} \\) are all the eigenvalues of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) with multiplicity. For our \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo}, \\lambda_{1}=0 \\) and for \\( \\zeta \\neq 1 \\),\n\\[\n\\lambda_{\\zeta}=\\zeta+\\cdots+\\zeta^{qjkxmafe}-\\zeta^{qjkxmafe+1}-\\cdots-\\zeta^{2 qjkxmafe}=\\frac{\\zeta\\left(1-\\zeta^{qjkxmafe}\\right)^{2}}{1-\\zeta} \\neq 0\n\\]\nsince \\( \\operatorname{gcd}(qjkxmafe, 2 qjkxmafe+1)=1 \\). It follows that the image of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) (as an endomorphism of \\( \\left.\\mathbb{C}^{2 qjkxmafe+1}\\right) \\) is the span of the \\( v_{\\zeta} \\) with \\( \\zeta \\neq 1 \\), which is \\( 2 qjkxmafe \\)-dimensional, so \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)=2 qjkxmafe \\).\n\nSolution 4. The sum of the rows of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) is 0 , so \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) is singular. (Alternatively, this follows since \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) is skew-symmetric of odd dimension.) Hence the rank can be at most \\( 2 qjkxmafe \\).\n\nTo show that the rank is \\( 2 qjkxmafe \\), we will prove that the submatrix \\( A=\\left(a_{grdvnxce pmltksvo}\\right) \\) obtained by deleting row \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\) and column \\( 2 qjkxmafe+1 \\) of \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) has nonzero determinant. By definition, \\( \\operatorname{det} A=\\sum_{\\pi \\in S_{2 qjkxmafe}} \\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi) a_{1 \\pi(1)} \\cdots a_{(2 qjkxmafe) \\pi(2 qjkxmafe)} \\), where \\( S_{2 qjkxmafe} \\) is the group of permutations of \\{1, \\ldots, 2 qjkxmafe\\}, and \\( \\operatorname{sgn}(\\pi)= \\pm 1 \\) is the sign of the permutation \\( \\pi \\). We will prove that \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\) is nonzero by proving that it is an odd integer. Since \\( a_{grdvnxce pmltksvo} \\) is odd unless \\( grdvnxce=pmltksvo \\), the term in the sum corresponding to \\( \\pi \\) is 0 if \\( \\pi(grdvnxce)=grdvnxce \\) for some \\( grdvnxce \\), and odd otherwise. Thus \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\equiv f(2 qjkxmafe)(\\bmod 2) \\), where for any integer \\( wcdjagnu \\geq 1, f(wcdjagnu) \\) denotes the number of permutations of \\{1, \\ldots, wcdjagnu\\} having no fixed points. We can compute \\( f(wcdjagnu) \\) using the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle [Ros2, §5.5]: of the \\( wcdjagnu ! \\) permutations, \\( (wcdjagnu-1) ! \\) fix 1,(wcdjagnu-1) ! fix 2 , and so on, but if we subtract all these, then we must add back the \\( (wcdjagnu-2) ! \\) permutations fixing 1 and 2 (since these have been subtracted twice), and so on for all other pairs, and then subtract \\( (wcdjagnu-3) ! \\) for each triple, and so on; this finally yields\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(wcdjagnu)= & wcdjagnu!-\\binom{wcdjagnu}{1}(wcdjagnu-1)!+\\binom{wcdjagnu}{2}(wcdjagnu-2)!-\\cdots \\\\\n& +(-1)^{wcdjagnu-1}\\binom{wcdjagnu}{wcdjagnu-1} 1!+(-1)^{wcdjagnu}\\binom{wcdjagnu}{wcdjagnu} 0! \\\\\n\\equiv & (-1)^{wcdjagnu-1} wcdjagnu+(-1)^{wcdjagnu}(\\bmod 2)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\nso \\( f(2 qjkxmafe) \\) is odd, as desired.\nRemark. Permutations without fixed points are called derangements. The formula for \\( f(wcdjagnu) \\) can also be written as\n\\[\nf(wcdjagnu)=wcdjagnu!\\left(1-\\frac{1}{1!}+\\frac{1}{2!}-\\frac{1}{3!}+\\cdots+\\frac{(-1)^{wcdjagnu}}{wcdjagnu!}\\right)\n\\]\nwhich is the integer nearest to \\( wcdjagnu!/ e \\).\n\nSolution 5. As in Solution 4, \\( \\mathbf{pqhxajdo} \\) is singular, and hence \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right) \\leq 2 qjkxmafe \\). Let \\( A \\) be as in Solution 4. Then \\( A^{2} \\) is equivalent modulo 2 to the \\( 2 qjkxmafe \\times 2 qjkxmafe \\) identity matrix, so \\( \\operatorname{det} A \\neq 0 \\). Thus \\( \\operatorname{rank}\\left(\\mathbf{pqhxajdo}\\right)=2 qjkxmafe \\)."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "────────────────\nFix a positive integer n and put m := 4n+5 (so m is odd).  \nDefine the real m × m matrix Tₙ = (t_{ij})_{1≤i,j≤m} by prescribing every entry strictly below the main diagonal and then extending by skew-symmetry:\n\n t_{ij} = ⎧  2    if 1 ≤ j < i ≤ m and 1 ≤ i−j ≤ n+1  \n        4    if n+2 ≤ i−j ≤ 2n+2  \n      −2   if 2n+3 ≤ i−j ≤ 3n+3  \n      −4   if 3n+4 ≤ i−j ≤ 4n+4,\n\nand set t_{ji} := −t_{ij}, t_{ii} := 0.  (In other words, along each of the four circular “bands’’ immediately below the main diagonal the constant values 2, 4, −2, −4 appear in that order.)\n\nDetermine, with proof,\n\n  (a) the rank of Tₙ over ℝ;  \n  (b) an explicit ℝ–basis of the null-space of Tₙ.",
      "solution": "─────────────────\nWe shall prove\n\n                rank_ℝ Tₙ = m − 1 = 4n + 4,  \n           ker_ℝ Tₙ = ⟨(1,1,…,1)⟩.\n\nThe argument is divided into five steps and combines two different techniques: a reduction modulo 5 (for a quick lower bound) and a discrete-Fourier eigenvalue computation exploiting the circulant nature of Tₙ (for a sharp upper bound).\n\nThroughout we write  \n\n             e₁,…,e_m for the standard basis of ℝ^m, \n             ζ_m := e^{2πi/m} for a fixed primitive m-th root of 1.\n\nStep 1 – A universal upper bound.  \nBecause Tₙ is skew-symmetric of odd size, det Tₙ = 0 and rank Tₙ ≤ m−1.  Since the rank of any real skew-symmetric matrix is even, we already know\n\n            rank Tₙ ∈ {0,2,4,…,m−1}.                        (1)\n\nThus it suffices to prove rank Tₙ ≥ m−1.\n\nStep 2 – A convenient reduction modulo 5.  \nObserve that\n\n               2 ≡ −3 ≡ 2,  4 ≡ −1 ≡ 4 (mod 5).\n\nHence, modulo 5 every strict lower-triangular entry of Tₙ equals either 2 or 4, and therefore never vanishes.  Multiplying the whole matrix by 2^{−1} ≡ 3 (mod 5) shows\n\n               Tₙ ≡ 2·K (mod 5)                        (2)\n\nwith K the integer matrix whose strict lower-triangular part is identically 1 and whose strict upper-triangular part is identically −1.  Relation (2) and invertibility of 2 in 𝔽₅ give\n\n               rank_{𝔽₅} Tₙ = rank_{𝔽₅} K.                      (3)\n\nLemma 2.1   For every field 𝔽 of characteristic ≠ 2 one has rank_𝔽 K = m−1.\n\nProof.  \n(i) As before, det K = 0, so rank K ≤ m−1.  \n(ii) Put S_k := R_{k+1} − R_k (1 ≤ k ≤ m−1), where R_i denotes the i-th row of K.  Each S_k contains exactly two non-zero coordinates, both equal to 1, in columns k and k+1.  If Σ_{k} c_k S_k = 0, inspection of column 1 forces c₁ = 0; once c₁ = 0, column 2 forces c₂ = 0, and so on.  Hence all c_k vanish, i.e. the S_k are linearly independent, so rank K ≥ m−1.  Combining (i) and (ii) yields rank K = m−1. ∎\n\nTaking 𝔽 = 𝔽₅ in Lemma 2.1 and using (3) we obtain\n\n               rank_{𝔽₅} Tₙ = m − 1.                        (4)\n\nConsequently there exists an (m−1) × (m−1) principal minor B of Tₙ whose determinant is non-zero modulo 5, and hence non-zero over ℝ.  This proves\n\n               rank_ℝ Tₙ ≥ m − 1.                          (5)\n\nStep 3 – Circulant structure and complex eigenvalues.  \nThe entry t_{ij} depends only on the index difference d := j−i (mod m); more precisely, letting\n\n   a_d := ⎧  0         if d ≡ 0             (mod m)  \n            2         if d ≡ ±1,…,±(n+1)    (mod m)  \n            4         if d ≡ ±(n+2),…,±(2n+2) (mod m)  \n           −2         if d ≡ ±(2n+3),…,±(3n+3) (mod m)  \n           −4         if d ≡ ±(3n+4),…,±(4n+4) (mod m),\n\none has t_{ij} = a_{j−i}.  Hence Tₙ is a real circulant matrix multiplied by the standard skew-symmetric permutation, so the well-known Fourier diagonalisation applies: for every k ∈ {0,…,m−1}\n\n               Tₙ v_k = λ_k v_k,             v_k := (1,ζ_m^k,…,ζ_m^{k(m−1)})ᵗ,     (6)\n\nwhere\n\n               λ_k = Σ_{d=0}^{m−1} a_d ζ_m^{kd}.                (7)\n\nBecause the v_k form a complex basis of ℂ^m, the set {λ_k} is the multiset of complex eigenvalues of Tₙ.\n\nStep 4 – All eigenvalues except λ₀ are non-zero.  \nWe compute λ_k for k≠0.  Write σ := ζ_m^k (so σ^m = 1, σ ≠ 1).  The four “bands’’ contributing to (7) are geometric progressions; summing each and using σ^{n+1} ≠ 1 (because gcd(n+1,m)=1) one finds\n\n  λ_k = (1−σ^{n+1})/(1−σ) · Φ(σ),   where     Φ(σ) := 2σ + 4σ^{n+2} − 2σ^{2n+3} − 4σ^{3n+4}.     (8)\n\nThe prefactor (1−σ^{n+1})/(1−σ) cannot vanish: if σ^{n+1}=1, then σ is a root of unity of order dividing n+1, contradicting gcd(n+1,m)=1.  Thus λ_k = 0 ⇔ Φ(σ)=0.\n\nPut u := σ^{n+1}; since gcd(n+1,m)=1, u is again a primitive m-th root of 1.  Dividing Φ by 2σ and substituting σ^{n+1}=u we obtain\n\n               Φ(σ)/(2σ) = 1 + 2u − u² − 2u³ =: f(u).        (9)\n\nHence λ_k = 0 ⇔ f(u)=0.  Factorising f yields\n\n               f(u) = −(u+1)(2u² − u + 1).                   (10)\n\nCase 1: u = −1.  Then u^2 = 1, so u has order 2, contradicting the primitivity of u (recall m ≥ 9).\n\nCase 2: u is a root of 2u² − u + 1.  Writing u = e^{iθ} (θ ∈ (0,2π)) and taking absolute values we get\n\n                |2u² − u + 1| ≥ 2−1+1 = 2 > 0,                (11)\n\na contradiction, so the quadratic factor has no root on the unit circle.  Therefore f(u) ≠ 0 for every primitive m-th root u, and Φ(σ) ≠ 0 for every σ ≠ 1 satisfying σ^m = 1.  Formula (8) now gives\n\n               λ_0 = 0,             λ_k ≠ 0 for 1≤k≤m−1.    (12)\n\nStep 5 – Conclusion.  \nEquation (12) shows that exactly one eigenvalue of Tₙ is 0, and all others are non-zero.  Hence over ℂ (and therefore over ℝ)\n\n               rank Tₙ = m − 1                                (13)\n\nand the null-space is one-dimensional.  Explicitly, v_0 = (1,1,…,1)ᵗ spans ker Tₙ because λ_0 = 0 in (6).  Combining (5) and (13) with m = 4n+5 we deduce\n\n               rank_ℝ Tₙ = 4n+4,    ker_ℝ Tₙ = ⟨(1,1,…,1)⟩.\n\nThis completes the proof. ∎",
      "_replacement_note": {
        "replaced_at": "2025-07-05T22:17:12.147386",
        "reason": "Original kernel variant was too easy compared to the original problem"
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof",
  "iteratively_fixed": true
}