{
  "index": "1992-B-5",
  "type": "ALG",
  "tag": [
    "ALG",
    "ANA",
    "NT"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "\\[\n\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 4 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 5 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 6 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & n+1\n\\end{array}\n\\right].\n\\]\nIs the set $\\left\\{ \\frac{D_n}{n!} \\right\\}_{n \\geq 2}$ bounded?",
  "solution": "Solution 1. Subtract the first row from each of the other rows, to get\n\\[\nD_{n}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n-2 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & n\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen for \\( 2 \\leq i \\leq n-1 \\), add \\( 2 /(i+1) \\) times the \\( i \\) th column to the first column to obtain\n\\[\nD_{n}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3+\\frac{2}{3}+\\frac{2}{4}+\\cdots+\\frac{2}{n} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n0 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & n\n\\end{array}\\right) .\n\\]\n\nThe resulting matrix is upper triangular, so the determinant is the product of the diagonal elements, which is\n\\[\nn!\\left(1+\\frac{1}{2}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{n}\\right)\n\\]\n\nSolution 2 (J.P. Grossman). We derive a recursion for \\( D_{n+1} \\). Expand (1) along the last row to get \\( D_{n}=n D_{n-1}+(n-1) \\) !. Divide by \\( n \\) ! to obtain\n\\[\n\\frac{D_{n}}{n!}=\\frac{D_{n-1}}{(n-1)!}+\\frac{1}{n}\n\\]\nfrom which the result follows.\nSolution 3. Define\n\\[\nD_{n+1}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n}\\right)=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n1+a_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1+a_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1+a_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1+a_{4} & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1+a_{n}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThe problem asks for \\( D_{n}(2,3, \\ldots, n) \\). We will prove the identity\n\\[\nD_{n+1}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n}\\right)=\\prod_{i=1}^{n} a_{i}+\\sum_{i=1}^{n} \\prod_{\\substack{j=1 \\\\ j \\neq i}}^{n} a_{j}\n\\]\n\nThis formula follows immediately from the recursion\n\\[\nD_{n+1}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n}\\right)=a_{n} D_{n}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n-1}\\right)+a_{n-1} D_{n}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n-2}, 0\\right)\n\\]\n\nTo prove this recursion, subtract the \\( (n-1) \\) st column from the \\( n \\)th column, and then expand along the \\( n \\)th column.\n\nIf all the \\( a_{i} \\) are nonzero, we can write the polynomial \\( D_{n}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n-1}\\right) \\) in the form\n\\[\nD_{n}\\left(a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n-1}\\right)=a_{1} a_{2} \\cdots a_{n-1}\\left(1+\\frac{1}{a_{1}}+\\frac{1}{a_{2}}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{a_{n-1}}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThis problem is the special case \\( a_{i}=i+1 \\).\nRemark. This formula can also be used for a generalization of Problem 1993B5; see page 188.\n\nSolution 4. The following result is Problem 7 of Part VII of [PS], and appeared as Problem 1978A2 [PutnamII, p. 31].\n\nLet \\( a, b, p_{1}, p_{2}, \\ldots, p_{n} \\) be real numbers with \\( a \\neq b \\). Define\n\\[\nf(x)=\\left(p_{1}-x\\right)\\left(p_{2}-x\\right)\\left(p_{3}-x\\right) \\cdots\\left(p_{n}-x\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\np_{1} & a & a & a & \\cdots & a & a \\\\\nb & p_{2} & a & a & \\cdots & a & a \\\\\nb & b & p_{3} & a & \\cdots & a & a \\\\\nb & b & b & p_{4} & \\cdots & a & a \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\nb & b & b & b & \\cdots & p_{n-1} & a \\\\\nb & b & b & b & \\cdots & b & p_{n}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\frac{b f(a)-a f(b)}{b-a}\n\\]\n\nThe left side of (3) is a polynomial in \\( b \\), and hence continuous in \\( b \\). Letting \\( a=1 \\), \\( b \\rightarrow 1 \\), and using L'Hôpital's Rule, we find\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\np_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & p_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & p_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & p_{4} & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & p_{n-1} & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & p_{n}\n\\end{array}\\right)=f(1)-f^{\\prime}(1)\n\\]\n\nLetting \\( p_{i}=a_{i}+1 \\), we recover (2), using for example equation (1) on page 136.",
  "vars": [
    "D_n",
    "n",
    "i",
    "j",
    "x"
  ],
  "params": [
    "a_i",
    "p_i",
    "a",
    "b",
    "f"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "D_n": "determinseq",
        "n": "sizevar",
        "i": "indexone",
        "j": "indextwo",
        "x": "varpoint",
        "a_i": "rowshift",
        "p_i": "paramroot",
        "a": "constalpha",
        "b": "constbeta",
        "f": "polyfunc"
      },
      "question": "\\[\n\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 4 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 5 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 6 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & \\text{sizevar}+1\n\\end{array}\n\\right].\n\\]\nIs the set $\\left\\{ \\frac{\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}}{\\text{sizevar}!} \\right\\}_{\\text{sizevar} \\geq 2}$ bounded?",
      "solution": "Solution 1. Subtract the first row from each of the other rows to get\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n-2 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & \\text{sizevar}\n\\end{array}\\right).\n\\]\n\nThen for $2\\leq \\text{indexone}\\leq \\text{sizevar}-1$ add $2/(\\text{indexone}+1)$ times the $\\text{indexone}$th column to the first column to obtain\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3+\\frac{2}{3}+\\frac{2}{4}+\\cdots+\\frac{2}{\\text{sizevar}} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n0 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & \\text{sizevar}\n\\end{array}\\right).\n\\]\nThe resulting matrix is upper–triangular, so the determinant is the product of the diagonal entries,\n\\[\n\\text{sizevar}!\\left(1+\\frac{1}{2}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{\\text{sizevar}}\\right).\n\\]\n\nSolution 2 (J.P. Grossman). We derive a recursion for $\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}+1}$. Expanding the original matrix along the last row gives\n\\[\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}=\\text{sizevar}\\,\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}-1}+(\\text{sizevar}-1)!.\\]\nDividing by $\\text{sizevar}!$ yields\n\\[\n\\frac{\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}}{\\text{sizevar}!}=\\frac{\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}-1}}{(\\text{sizevar}-1)!}+\\frac{1}{\\text{sizevar}},\n\\]\nfrom which the claimed result follows by induction.\n\nSolution 3. Define\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}+1}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}})=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n1+\\rowshift_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1+\\rowshift_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1+\\rowshift_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1+\\rowshift_{4} & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1+\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}}\n\\end{array}\\right).\n\\]\nThe problem asks for $\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}(2,3,\\ldots,\\text{sizevar})$. We prove the identity\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}+1}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}})=\\prod_{\\text{indexone}=1}^{\\text{sizevar}}\\rowshift_{\\text{indexone}}+\\sum_{\\text{indexone}=1}^{\\text{sizevar}}\\prod_{\\substack{\\indextwo=1\\\\ \\indextwo\\neq\\text{indexone}}}^{\\text{sizevar}}\\rowshift_{\\indextwo}.\n\\]\nThis follows from the recursion\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}+1}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}})=\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}}\\,\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-1})+\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-1}\\,\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-2},0),\n\\]\nobtained by subtracting the $(\\text{sizevar}-1)$st column from the $\\text{sizevar}$th and expanding along the new $\\text{sizevar}$th column.\n\nIf all $\\rowshift_{\\text{indexone}}\\neq0$, we can write\n\\[\n\\text{determinseq}_{\\text{sizevar}}(\\rowshift_{1},\\ldots,\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-1})=\\rowshift_{1}\\rowshift_{2}\\cdots\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-1}\\left(1+\\frac{1}{\\rowshift_{1}}+\\frac{1}{\\rowshift_{2}}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{\\rowshift_{\\text{sizevar}-1}}\\right).\n\\]\nThe original problem is the special case $\\rowshift_{\\text{indexone}}=\\text{indexone}+1$.\n\nRemark. This formula also applies to a generalization of Problem 1993B5; see page 188.\n\nSolution 4. The following result is Problem 7 of Part VII of [PS] and appeared as Problem 1978A2 [PutnamII, p. 31].\n\nLet $\\constalpha,\\constbeta,\\paramroot_{1},\\paramroot_{2},\\ldots,\\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}}$ be real numbers with $\\constalpha\\neq\\constbeta$. Define\n\\[\n\\polyfunc(\\varpoint)=(\\paramroot_{1}-\\varpoint)(\\paramroot_{2}-\\varpoint)\\cdots(\\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}}-\\varpoint).\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\n\\paramroot_{1} & \\constalpha & \\constalpha & \\constalpha & \\cdots & \\constalpha & \\constalpha \\\\\n\\constbeta & \\paramroot_{2} & \\constalpha & \\constalpha & \\cdots & \\constalpha & \\constalpha \\\\\n\\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\paramroot_{3} & \\constalpha & \\cdots & \\constalpha & \\constalpha \\\\\n\\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\paramroot_{4} & \\cdots & \\constalpha & \\constalpha \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n\\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\cdots & \\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}-1} & \\constalpha \\\\\n\\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\constbeta & \\cdots & \\constbeta & \\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\frac{\\constbeta\\,\\polyfunc(\\constalpha)-\\constalpha\\,\\polyfunc(\\constbeta)}{\\constbeta-\\constalpha}.\n\\]\nThe left–hand side is a polynomial in $\\constbeta$ and hence continuous in $\\constbeta$. Letting $\\constalpha=1$, $\\constbeta\\to1$ and using L'Hôpital's rule we obtain\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\n\\paramroot_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & \\paramroot_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & \\paramroot_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & \\paramroot_{4} & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & \\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}-1} & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & \\paramroot_{\\text{sizevar}}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\polyfunc(1)-\\polyfunc^{\\prime}(1).\n\\]\nFinally, setting $\\paramroot_{\\text{indexone}}=\\rowshift_{\\text{indexone}}+1$ recovers the formula established in Solution 3 (see, for example, equation (1) on page 136)."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "D_n": "sequoia",
        "n": "galaxytime",
        "i": "lampflower",
        "j": "stormmirror",
        "x": "pebbleworld",
        "a_i": "ribbonfield",
        "p_i": "candlesky",
        "a": "quartzleaf",
        "b": "tigerwindow",
        "f": "ottershade"
      },
      "question": "\\[\n\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 4 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 5 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 6 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & galaxytime+1\n\\end{array}\n\\right].\n\\]\nIs the set $\\left\\{ \\frac{sequoia}{galaxytime!} \\right\\}_{galaxytime \\geq 2}$ bounded?",
      "solution": "Solution 1. Subtract the first row from each of the other rows, to get\n\\[\nsequoia=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n-2 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & galaxytime\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen for \\( 2 \\leq lampflower \\leq galaxytime-1 \\), add \\( 2 /(lampflower+1) \\) times the \\( lampflower \\) th column to the first column to obtain\n\\[\nsequoia=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3+\\frac{2}{3}+\\frac{2}{4}+\\cdots+\\frac{2}{galaxytime} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n0 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & galaxytime\n\\end{array}\\right) .\n\\]\n\nThe resulting matrix is upper triangular, so the determinant is the product of the diagonal elements, which is\n\\[\ngalaxytime!\\left(1+\\frac{1}{2}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{galaxytime}\\right)\n\\]\n\nSolution 2 (J.P. Grossman). We derive a recursion for \\( sequoia_{galaxytime+1} \\). Expand (1) along the last row to get \\( sequoia=galaxytime \\, sequoia_{galaxytime-1}+(galaxytime-1) !\\). Divide by \\( galaxytime ! \\) to obtain\n\\[\n\\frac{sequoia}{galaxytime!}=\\frac{sequoia_{galaxytime-1}}{(galaxytime-1)!}+\\frac{1}{galaxytime}\n\\]\nfrom which the result follows.\n\nSolution 3. Define\n\\[\nsequoia_{galaxytime+1}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime}\\right)=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n1+ribbonfield_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1+ribbonfield_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1+ribbonfield_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1+ribbonfield_{4} & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1+ribbonfield_{galaxytime}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThe problem asks for \\( sequoia_{galaxytime}(2,3, \\ldots, galaxytime) \\). We will prove the identity\n\\[\nsequoia_{galaxytime+1}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime}\\right)=\\prod_{lampflower=1}^{galaxytime} ribbonfield_{lampflower}+\\sum_{lampflower=1}^{galaxytime} \\prod_{\\substack{stormmirror=1 \\\\ stormmirror \\neq lampflower}}^{galaxytime} ribbonfield_{stormmirror}\n\\]\n\nThis formula follows immediately from the recursion\n\\[\nsequoia_{galaxytime+1}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime}\\right)=ribbonfield_{galaxytime} \\, sequoia_{galaxytime}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1}\\right)+ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1} \\, sequoia_{galaxytime}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime-2}, 0\\right)\n\\]\n\nTo prove this recursion, subtract the \\( (galaxytime-1) \\) st column from the \\( galaxytime \\)th column, and then expand along the \\( galaxytime \\)th column.\n\nIf all the \\( ribbonfield_{lampflower} \\) are nonzero, we can write the polynomial \\( sequoia_{galaxytime}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1}\\right) \\) in the form\n\\[\nsequoia_{galaxytime}\\left(ribbonfield_{1}, \\ldots, ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1}\\right)=ribbonfield_{1} ribbonfield_{2} \\cdots ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1}\\left(1+\\frac{1}{ribbonfield_{1}}+\\frac{1}{ribbonfield_{2}}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{ribbonfield_{galaxytime-1}}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThis problem is the special case \\( ribbonfield_{lampflower}=lampflower+1 \\).\nRemark. This formula can also be used for a generalization of Problem 1993B5; see page 188.\n\nSolution 4. The following result is Problem 7 of Part VII of [PS], and appeared as Problem 1978A2 [PutnamII, p. 31].\n\nLet \\( quartzleaf, tigerwindow, candlesky_{1}, candlesky_{2}, \\ldots, candlesky_{galaxytime} \\) be real numbers with \\( quartzleaf \\neq tigerwindow \\). Define\n\\[\nottershade(pebbleworld)=\\left(candlesky_{1}-pebbleworld\\right)\\left(candlesky_{2}-pebbleworld\\right)\\left(candlesky_{3}-pebbleworld\\right) \\cdots\\left(candlesky_{galaxytime}-pebbleworld\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\ncandlesky_{1} & quartzleaf & quartzleaf & quartzleaf & \\cdots & quartzleaf & quartzleaf \\\\\ntigerwindow & candlesky_{2} & quartzleaf & quartzleaf & \\cdots & quartzleaf & quartzleaf \\\\\ntigerwindow & tigerwindow & candlesky_{3} & quartzleaf & \\cdots & quartzleaf & quartzleaf \\\\\ntigerwindow & tigerwindow & tigerwindow & candlesky_{4} & \\cdots & quartzleaf & quartzleaf \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\ntigerwindow & tigerwindow & tigerwindow & tigerwindow & \\cdots & candlesky_{galaxytime-1} & quartzleaf \\\\\ntigerwindow & tigerwindow & tigerwindow & tigerwindow & \\cdots & tigerwindow & candlesky_{galaxytime}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\frac{tigerwindow \\, ottershade(quartzleaf)-quartzleaf \\, ottershade(tigerwindow)}{tigerwindow-quartzleaf}\n\\]\n\nThe left side of (3) is a polynomial in \\( tigerwindow \\), and hence continuous in \\( tigerwindow \\). Letting \\( quartzleaf=1 \\), \\( tigerwindow \\rightarrow 1 \\), and using L'Hôpital's Rule, we find\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\ncandlesky_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & candlesky_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & candlesky_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & candlesky_{4} & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & candlesky_{galaxytime-1} & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & candlesky_{galaxytime}\n\\end{array}\\right)=ottershade(1)-ottershade^{\\prime}(1)\n\\]\n\nLetting \\( candlesky_{lampflower}=ribbonfield_{lampflower}+1 \\), we recover (2), using for example equation (1) on page 136."
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "D_n": "indeterminate",
        "n": "infinitecount",
        "i": "fixedindex",
        "j": "steadyindex",
        "x": "constantval",
        "a_i": "zeroparam",
        "p_i": "norootval",
        "a": "endpointval",
        "b": "startpoint",
        "f": "constantfn"
      },
      "question": "\\[\n\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 4 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 5 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 6 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & infinitecount+1\n\\end{array}\n\\right].\n\\]\nIs the set $\\left\\{ \\frac{indeterminate}{infinitecount!} \\right\\}_{infinitecount \\ge 2}$ bounded?",
      "solution": "Solution 1. Subtract the first row from each of the other rows, to get\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n-2 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & infinitecount\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen for $ 2 \\le fixedindex \\le infinitecount-1 $, add $ 2 /(fixedindex+1) $ times the $ fixedindex $ th column to the first column to obtain\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3+\\frac{2}{3}+\\frac{2}{4}+\\cdots+\\frac{2}{infinitecount} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n0 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & infinitecount\n\\end{array}\\right) .\n\\]\n\nThe resulting matrix is upper triangular, so the determinant is the product of the diagonal elements, which is\n\\[\ninfinitecount!\\left(1+\\frac{1}{2}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{infinitecount}\\right)\n\\]\n\nSolution 2 (J.P. Grossman). We derive a recursion for $ indeterminate_{infinitecount+1} $. Expand (1) along the last row to get $ indeterminate_{infinitecount}=infinitecount\\, indeterminate_{infinitecount-1}+(infinitecount-1)! $. Divide by $ infinitecount! $ to obtain\n\\[\n\\frac{indeterminate_{infinitecount}}{infinitecount!}=\\frac{indeterminate_{infinitecount-1}}{(infinitecount-1)!}+\\frac{1}{infinitecount}\n\\]\nfrom which the result follows.\n\nSolution 3. Define\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount+1}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount})=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n1+zeroparam_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1+zeroparam_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1+zeroparam_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1+zeroparam_{4} & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1+zeroparam_{infinitecount}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThe problem asks for $ indeterminate_{infinitecount}(2,3, \\ldots, infinitecount) $. We will prove the identity\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount+1}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount})=\\prod_{fixedindex=1}^{infinitecount} zeroparam_{fixedindex}+\\sum_{fixedindex=1}^{infinitecount} \\prod_{\\substack{steadyindex=1 \\\\ steadyindex \\neq fixedindex}}^{infinitecount} zeroparam_{steadyindex}\n\\]\n\nThis formula follows immediately from the recursion\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount+1}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount})=zeroparam_{infinitecount}\\, indeterminate_{infinitecount}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount-1})+zeroparam_{infinitecount-1}\\, indeterminate_{infinitecount}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount-2}, 0)\n\\]\n\nTo prove this recursion, subtract the $(infinitecount-1)$ st column from the $ infinitecount $th column, and then expand along the $ infinitecount $th column.\n\nIf all the $ zeroparam_{fixedindex} $ are nonzero, we can write the polynomial $ indeterminate_{infinitecount}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount-1}) $ in the form\n\\[\nindeterminate_{infinitecount}(zeroparam_{1}, \\ldots, zeroparam_{infinitecount-1})=zeroparam_{1} zeroparam_{2} \\cdots zeroparam_{infinitecount-1}\\left(1+\\frac{1}{zeroparam_{1}}+\\frac{1}{zeroparam_{2}}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{zeroparam_{infinitecount-1}}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThis problem is the special case $ zeroparam_{fixedindex}=fixedindex+1 $.\n\nRemark. This formula can also be used for a generalization of Problem 1993B5; see page 188.\n\nSolution 4. The following result is Problem 7 of Part VII of [PS], and appeared as Problem 1978A2 [PutnamII, p. 31].\n\nLet $ endpointval, startpoint, norootval_{1}, norootval_{2}, \\ldots, norootval_{infinitecount} $ be real numbers with $ endpointval \\neq startpoint $. Define\n\\[\nconstantfn(constantval)=\\left(norootval_{1}-constantval\\right)\\left(norootval_{2}-constantval\\right)\\left(norootval_{3}-constantval\\right) \\cdots\\left(norootval_{infinitecount}-constantval\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\nnorootval_{1} & endpointval & endpointval & endpointval & \\cdots & endpointval & endpointval \\\\\nstartpoint & norootval_{2} & endpointval & endpointval & \\cdots & endpointval & endpointval \\\\\nstartpoint & startpoint & norootval_{3} & endpointval & \\cdots & endpointval & endpointval \\\\\nstartpoint & startpoint & startpoint & norootval_{4} & \\cdots & endpointval & endpointval \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\nstartpoint & startpoint & startpoint & startpoint & \\cdots & norootval_{infinitecount-1} & endpointval \\\\\nstartpoint & startpoint & startpoint & startpoint & \\cdots & startpoint & norootval_{infinitecount}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\frac{startpoint\\, constantfn(endpointval)-endpointval\\, constantfn(startpoint)}{startpoint-endpointval}\n\\]\n\nThe left side of (3) is a polynomial in $ startpoint $, and hence continuous in $ startpoint $. Letting $ endpointval=1 $, $ startpoint \\rightarrow 1 $, and using L'Hôpital's Rule, we find\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\nnorootval_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & norootval_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & norootval_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & norootval_{4} & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & norootval_{infinitecount-1} & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & norootval_{infinitecount}\n\\end{array}\\right)=constantfn(1)-constantfn^{\\prime}(1)\n\\]\n\nLetting $ norootval_{fixedindex}=zeroparam_{fixedindex}+1 $, we recover (2), using for example equation (1) on page 136."
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "D_n": "qzxwvtnpa",
        "n": "lksdjfhqo",
        "i": "mhgtrploa",
        "j": "nvbcsplra",
        "x": "sdkufnqwe",
        "a_i": "plmoknija",
        "p_i": "uhbgtfrde",
        "a": "zxcrtvbhu",
        "b": "qawsedrgy",
        "f": "wsxedcrfv"
      },
      "question": "\\[\n\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 4 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 5 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 6 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & lksdjfhqo+1\n\\end{array}\n\\right].\n\\]\nIs the set $\\left\\{ \\frac{qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}}{lksdjfhqo!} \\right\\}_{lksdjfhqo \\geq 2}$ bounded?",
      "solution": "Solution 1. Subtract the first row from each of the other rows, to get\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n-2 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & lksdjfhqo\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen for $ 2 \\leq mhgtrploa \\leq lksdjfhqo-1 $, add $ 2 /(mhgtrploa+1) $ times the $ mhgtrploa $th column to the first column to obtain\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n3+\\frac{2}{3}+\\frac{2}{4}+\\cdots+\\frac{2}{lksdjfhqo} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n0 & 3 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 4 & 0 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \\cdots & lksdjfhqo\n\\end{array}\\right) .\n\\]\n\nThe resulting matrix is upper triangular, so the determinant is the product of the diagonal elements, which is\n\\[\nlksdjfhqo!\\left(1+\\frac{1}{2}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{lksdjfhqo}\\right)\n\\]\n\nSolution 2 (J.P. Grossman). We derive a recursion for $ qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo+1} $. Expand (1) along the last row to get $ qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}=lksdjfhqo\\,qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo-1}+(lksdjfhqo-1)! $. Divide by $ lksdjfhqo! $ to obtain\n\\[\n\\frac{qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}}{lksdjfhqo!}=\\frac{qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo-1}}{(lksdjfhqo-1)!}+\\frac{1}{lksdjfhqo}\n\\]\nfrom which the result follows.\n\nSolution 3. Define\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo+1}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo}\\right)=\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\n1+plmoknija_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1+plmoknija_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1+plmoknija_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1+plmoknija_{4} & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1+plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThe problem asks for $ qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}(2,3, \\ldots, lksdjfhqo) $. We will prove the identity\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo+1}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo}\\right)=\\prod_{mhgtrploa=1}^{lksdjfhqo} plmoknija_{mhgtrploa}+\\sum_{mhgtrploa=1}^{lksdjfhqo} \\prod_{\\substack{nvbcsplra=1 \\\\ nvbcsplra \\neq mhgtrploa}}^{lksdjfhqo} plmoknija_{nvbcsplra}\n\\]\n\nThis formula follows immediately from the recursion\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo+1}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo}\\right)=plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo}\\,qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}\\right)+plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}\\,qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-2}, 0\\right)\n\\]\n\nTo prove this recursion, subtract the $(lksdjfhqo-1)$st column from the $lksdjfhqo$th column, and then expand along the $lksdjfhqo$th column.\n\nIf all the $ plmoknija_{mhgtrploa} $ are nonzero, we can write the polynomial $ qzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}\\right) $ in the form\n\\[\nqzxwvtnpa_{lksdjfhqo}\\left(plmoknija_{1}, \\ldots, plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}\\right)=plmoknija_{1} plmoknija_{2} \\cdots plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}\\left(1+\\frac{1}{plmoknija_{1}}+\\frac{1}{plmoknija_{2}}+\\cdots+\\frac{1}{plmoknija_{lksdjfhqo-1}}\\right)\n\\]\n\nThis problem is the special case $ plmoknija_{mhgtrploa}=mhgtrploa+1 $.\n\nRemark. This formula can also be used for a generalization of Problem 1993B5; see page 188.\n\nSolution 4. The following result is Problem 7 of Part VII of [PS], and appeared as Problem 1978A2 [PutnamII, p. 31].\n\nLet $ zxcrtvbhu, qawsedrgy, uhbgtfrde_{1}, uhbgtfrde_{2}, \\ldots, uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo} $ be real numbers with $ zxcrtvbhu \\neq qawsedrgy $. Define\n\\[\nwsxedcrfv(sdkufnqwe)=\\left(uhbgtfrde_{1}-sdkufnqwe\\right)\\left(uhbgtfrde_{2}-sdkufnqwe\\right)\\left(uhbgtfrde_{3}-sdkufnqwe\\right) \\cdots\\left(uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo}-sdkufnqwe\\right)\n\\]\n\nThen\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\nuhbgtfrde_{1} & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu & \\cdots & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu \\\\\nqawsedrgy & uhbgtfrde_{2} & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu & \\cdots & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu \\\\\nqawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & uhbgtfrde_{3} & zxcrtvbhu & \\cdots & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu \\\\\nqawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & uhbgtfrde_{4} & \\cdots & zxcrtvbhu & zxcrtvbhu \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\nqawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & \\cdots & uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo-1} & zxcrtvbhu \\\\\nqawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & qawsedrgy & \\cdots & qawsedrgy & uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo}\n\\end{array}\\right)=\\frac{qawsedrgy\\,wsxedcrfv(zxcrtvbhu)-zxcrtvbhu\\,wsxedcrfv(qawsedrgy)}{qawsedrgy-zxcrtvbhu}\n\\]\n\nThe left side of (3) is a polynomial in $ qawsedrgy $, and hence continuous in $ qawsedrgy $. Letting $ zxcrtvbhu=1 $, $ qawsedrgy \\rightarrow 1 $, and using L'Hôpital's Rule, we find\n\\[\n\\operatorname{det}\\left(\\begin{array}{ccccccc}\nuhbgtfrde_{1} & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & uhbgtfrde_{2} & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & uhbgtfrde_{3} & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & uhbgtfrde_{4} & \\cdots & 1 & 1 \\\\\n\\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots & \\vdots \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo-1} & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 & uhbgtfrde_{lksdjfhqo}\n\\end{array}\\right)=wsxedcrfv(1)-wsxedcrfv^{\\prime}(1)\n\\]\n\nLetting $ uhbgtfrde_{mhgtrploa}=plmoknija_{mhgtrploa}+1 $, we recover (2), using for example equation (1) on page 136."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "For every integer $n\\ge 3$ let  \n\\[\nD_{n}=\\operatorname{diag}(3,5,7,\\dots ,2n+1),\\qquad  \nu=\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\1\\\\\\vdots\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}\\in\\mathbf R^{n},\\qquad  \nv=\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\2\\\\\\vdots\\\\ n\\end{pmatrix}\\in\\mathbf R^{n},\n\\]\nand define the real symmetric matrix  \n\\[\nA_{n}:=D_{n}+u u^{\\mathsf T}+v v^{\\mathsf T}.\n\\]\n\nPut  \n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}:=\\det A_{n}, \\qquad S_{n}:=\\frac{\\Delta_{n}}{2^{\\,n}n!}.\n\\]\n\nIntroduce the shorthand quantities  \n\\[\n\\sigma_{0}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{1}{2k+1},\\qquad\n\\sigma_{1}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{k}{2k+1},\\qquad\n\\sigma_{2}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{k^{2}}{2k+1}.\n\\]\n\n(a)  Prove that  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\Delta_{n}\n=\\Bigl(\\prod_{k=1}^{n}(2k+1)\\Bigr)\\Bigl[\\,(1+\\sigma_{0}(n))(1+\\sigma_{2}(n))-\\sigma_{1}(n)^{2}\\Bigr]\\;.}\n\\tag{$\\ast$}\n\n(b)  Set  \n\\[\nC_{n}:=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}\\Bigl(1+\\frac{1}{2k}\\Bigr)=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{2k+1}{2k}.\n\\]\nShow that  \n\\[\nC_{n}=\\sqrt{n}\\,C\\,(1+o(1)),\\qquad n\\to\\infty ,\n\\]\nwith the universal constant  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;C=\\dfrac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\;} \\approx 1.12838.\n\\]\n\n(c)  Using $(\\ast)$ together with part (b) establish the asymptotic law  \n\\[\nS_{n}=c\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)),\\qquad n\\to\\infty ,\n\\]\nwhere  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;c=\\dfrac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\;}\\approx 0.14105.\n\\]\n\n(d)  Deduce that the sequence $\\bigl(S_{n}\\bigr)_{n\\ge 3}$ is unbounded and that $\\Delta_{n}>0$ for all sufficiently large $n$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{Step 1.  Rank–two reduction.}  \nWrite $U=[\\,u\\;|\\;v\\,]\\in\\mathbf R^{n\\times 2}$.  Since $A_{n}=D_{n}+UU^{\\mathsf T}$ and $D_{n}$ is invertible, the matrix–determinant lemma gives  \n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}= \\det(D_{n})\\,\\det\\!\\bigl(I_{2}+U^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U\\bigr).\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\n\\textbf{Step 2.  The $2\\times 2$ core.}  \nBecause $D_{n}^{-1}=\\operatorname{diag}\\bigl(\\tfrac{1}{2k+1}\\bigr)_{k=1}^{n}$, we have  \n\\[\nU^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U=\n\\begin{pmatrix}u^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}u&u^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}v\\\\[2pt]\nv^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}u&v^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}v\\end{pmatrix}\n=\\begin{pmatrix}\\sigma_{0}&\\sigma_{1}\\\\[2pt]\\sigma_{1}&\\sigma_{2}\\end{pmatrix}.\n\\]\nHence  \n\\[\n\\det\\!\\bigl(I_{2}+U^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U\\bigr)\n=(1+\\sigma_{0})(1+\\sigma_{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}.\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\nBecause $\\det D_{n}=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}(2k+1)$, (1)–(2) yield the identity $(\\ast)$ required in part (a).\n\n\\textbf{Step 3.  Asymptotics of $\\sigma_{0},\\sigma_{1},\\sigma_{2}$.}  \nUse the elementary expansions  \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2k+1}=\\frac{1}{2k}\\Bigl(1-\\frac{1}{2k}+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-2}\\bigr)\\Bigr),\\qquad\n\\frac{k}{2k+1}=\\frac12-\\frac{1}{4k}+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-2}\\bigr),\\qquad\n\\frac{k^{2}}{2k+1}=\\frac{k}{2}-\\frac14+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-1}\\bigr).\n\\]\nSummation gives  \n\\[\n\\sigma_{1}(n)=\\frac{n}{2}-\\frac{1}{4}\\ln n+\\mathcal O(1),\\qquad\n\\sigma_{2}(n)=\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+\\mathcal O(n).\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\nFor $\\sigma_{0}(n)$ subtract the even terms of the harmonic series:\n\\[\n\\sigma_{0}(n)=H_{2n+1}-1-\\frac12H_{n}\n              =\\frac12\\ln n+\\frac{\\gamma}{2}+\\ln 2-1+o(1),\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nwhere $H_{m}$ denotes the $m$-th harmonic number and $\\gamma$ is Euler’s constant.\n\n\\textbf{Step 4.  Size of the $2\\times 2$ determinant.}  \nInsert (3)–(4) into (2):\n\\[\n(1+\\sigma_{0})(1+\\sigma_{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}\n=\\sigma_{0}\\sigma_{2}+O(n^{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}\n=\\frac12\\ln n\\cdot\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+O(n^{2})-\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+O(n\\ln n)\n=\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\bigl(1+o(1)\\bigr).\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\n\n\\textbf{Step 5.  Asymptotics of the odd double factorial.}  \nThe exact identity  \n\\[\n(2n+1)!!=\\frac{(2n+1)!}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n\\]\ncombined with Stirling’s formula,\n\\[\nm!=\\sqrt{2\\pi m}\\,m^{m}e^{-m}\\bigl(1+\\mathrm O(m^{-1})\\bigr),\n\\qquad m\\to\\infty,\n\\]\nyields  \n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n(2n+1)!!\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)\\sqrt{4\\pi n}\\,(2n)^{2n}e^{-2n}}{2^{\\,n}\\sqrt{2\\pi n}\\,n^{\\,n}e^{-n}}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,\n        \\frac{(2n)^{2n}}{2^{\\,n}n^{\\,n}}\\,\n        e^{-n}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,\n        2^{\\,n}n^{\\,n}e^{-n}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr).\n\\end{aligned}\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\nTherefore  \n\\[\nC_{n}:=\\frac{(2n+1)!!}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n       =\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\Bigl(1+o(1)\\Bigr),\n\\]\nwhich is exactly the statement of part (b) with $C=\\dfrac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}$.\n\n\\textbf{Step 6.  Putting the pieces together.}  \nCombine $(\\ast)$, (5) and (6):\n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}=2^{\\,n}n!\\,C_{n}\\cdot\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1))\n          =2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\cdot\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1))\n          =2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\frac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)).\n\\]\nDividing by $2^{\\,n}n!$ we obtain  \n\\[\nS_{n}=\\frac{\\Delta_{n}}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n      =\\frac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)),\n\\]\nwhich proves part (c) with $c=\\dfrac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}>0$.\n\n\\textbf{Step 7.  Positivity and unboundedness.}  \nBecause $\\ln n\\to\\infty$, the asymptotic formula in part (c) implies $S_{n}\\to\\infty$.  For all sufficiently large $n$, both the leading constant $c$ and $\\ln n$ are positive, so $\\Delta_{n}>0$ as well.  Hence $\\bigl(S_{n}\\bigr)$ is unbounded and eventually strictly positive, completing part (d).  \n\n\\hfill$\\square$",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.728025",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "•  Rank-2 Perturbation:  Unlike the original rank-1 (“all-ones”) perturbation, Aₙ is the sum of a diagonal matrix and TWO independent rank-1 matrices.  One must invoke the full 2×2 version of the matrix-determinant lemma; elementary row/column operations no longer suffice.\n\n•  Multiple Nested Sums:  Evaluation of the 2×2 determinant requires the simultaneous control of σ₀, σ₁, σ₂, mixing harmonic, linear-growth, and quadratic-growth sums.\n\n•  Asymptotic Analysis:  After the exact reduction, one must still perform a careful asymptotic expansion (Stirling’s formula, integral comparison) to obtain the growth rate.\n\n•  Sign Determination:  The problem asks not only for boundedness but also the eventual sign and precise order of growth, necessitating finer estimates than a simple bounded/unbounded dichotomy.\n\n•  Interaction of Concepts:  Low-rank perturbations, determinant identities, asymptotic series, and factorial estimates all interact.  No single “pattern-matching” trick solves the problem; the solver must orchestrate several advanced techniques, making this variant substantially harder than both the original statement and the intermediate kernel version."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "For every integer $n\\ge 3$ let  \n\\[\nD_{n}=\\operatorname{diag}(3,5,7,\\dots ,2n+1),\\qquad  \nu=\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\1\\\\\\vdots\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}\\in\\mathbf R^{n},\\qquad  \nv=\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\2\\\\\\vdots\\\\ n\\end{pmatrix}\\in\\mathbf R^{n},\n\\]\nand define the real symmetric matrix  \n\\[\nA_{n}:=D_{n}+u u^{\\mathsf T}+v v^{\\mathsf T}.\n\\]\n\nPut  \n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}:=\\det A_{n}, \\qquad S_{n}:=\\frac{\\Delta_{n}}{2^{\\,n}n!}.\n\\]\n\nIntroduce the shorthand quantities  \n\\[\n\\sigma_{0}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{1}{2k+1},\\qquad\n\\sigma_{1}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{k}{2k+1},\\qquad\n\\sigma_{2}(n)=\\sum_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{k^{2}}{2k+1}.\n\\]\n\n(a)  Prove that  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\Delta_{n}\n=\\Bigl(\\prod_{k=1}^{n}(2k+1)\\Bigr)\\Bigl[\\,(1+\\sigma_{0}(n))(1+\\sigma_{2}(n))-\\sigma_{1}(n)^{2}\\Bigr]\\;.}\n\\tag{$\\ast$}\n\n(b)  Set  \n\\[\nC_{n}:=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}\\Bigl(1+\\frac{1}{2k}\\Bigr)=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}\\frac{2k+1}{2k}.\n\\]\nShow that  \n\\[\nC_{n}=\\sqrt{n}\\,C\\,(1+o(1)),\\qquad n\\to\\infty ,\n\\]\nwith the universal constant  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;C=\\dfrac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\;} \\approx 1.12838.\n\\]\n\n(c)  Using $(\\ast)$ together with part (b) establish the asymptotic law  \n\\[\nS_{n}=c\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)),\\qquad n\\to\\infty ,\n\\]\nwhere  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;c=\\dfrac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\;}\\approx 0.14105.\n\\]\n\n(d)  Deduce that the sequence $\\bigl(S_{n}\\bigr)_{n\\ge 3}$ is unbounded and that $\\Delta_{n}>0$ for all sufficiently large $n$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{Step 1.  Rank–two reduction.}  \nWrite $U=[\\,u\\;|\\;v\\,]\\in\\mathbf R^{n\\times 2}$.  Since $A_{n}=D_{n}+UU^{\\mathsf T}$ and $D_{n}$ is invertible, the matrix–determinant lemma gives  \n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}= \\det(D_{n})\\,\\det\\!\\bigl(I_{2}+U^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U\\bigr).\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\n\\textbf{Step 2.  The $2\\times 2$ core.}  \nBecause $D_{n}^{-1}=\\operatorname{diag}\\bigl(\\tfrac{1}{2k+1}\\bigr)_{k=1}^{n}$, we have  \n\\[\nU^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U=\n\\begin{pmatrix}u^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}u&u^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}v\\\\[2pt]\nv^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}u&v^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}v\\end{pmatrix}\n=\\begin{pmatrix}\\sigma_{0}&\\sigma_{1}\\\\[2pt]\\sigma_{1}&\\sigma_{2}\\end{pmatrix}.\n\\]\nHence  \n\\[\n\\det\\!\\bigl(I_{2}+U^{\\mathsf T}D_{n}^{-1}U\\bigr)\n=(1+\\sigma_{0})(1+\\sigma_{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}.\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\nBecause $\\det D_{n}=\\prod_{k=1}^{n}(2k+1)$, (1)–(2) yield the identity $(\\ast)$ required in part (a).\n\n\\textbf{Step 3.  Asymptotics of $\\sigma_{0},\\sigma_{1},\\sigma_{2}$.}  \nUse the elementary expansions  \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2k+1}=\\frac{1}{2k}\\Bigl(1-\\frac{1}{2k}+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-2}\\bigr)\\Bigr),\\qquad\n\\frac{k}{2k+1}=\\frac12-\\frac{1}{4k}+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-2}\\bigr),\\qquad\n\\frac{k^{2}}{2k+1}=\\frac{k}{2}-\\frac14+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(k^{-1}\\bigr).\n\\]\nSummation gives  \n\\[\n\\sigma_{1}(n)=\\frac{n}{2}-\\frac{1}{4}\\ln n+\\mathcal O(1),\\qquad\n\\sigma_{2}(n)=\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+\\mathcal O(n).\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\nFor $\\sigma_{0}(n)$ subtract the even terms of the harmonic series:\n\\[\n\\sigma_{0}(n)=H_{2n+1}-1-\\frac12H_{n}\n              =\\frac12\\ln n+\\frac{\\gamma}{2}+\\ln 2-1+o(1),\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nwhere $H_{m}$ denotes the $m$-th harmonic number and $\\gamma$ is Euler’s constant.\n\n\\textbf{Step 4.  Size of the $2\\times 2$ determinant.}  \nInsert (3)–(4) into (2):\n\\[\n(1+\\sigma_{0})(1+\\sigma_{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}\n=\\sigma_{0}\\sigma_{2}+O(n^{2})-\\sigma_{1}^{2}\n=\\frac12\\ln n\\cdot\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+O(n^{2})-\\frac{n^{2}}{4}+O(n\\ln n)\n=\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\bigl(1+o(1)\\bigr).\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\n\n\\textbf{Step 5.  Asymptotics of the odd double factorial.}  \nThe exact identity  \n\\[\n(2n+1)!!=\\frac{(2n+1)!}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n\\]\ncombined with Stirling’s formula,\n\\[\nm!=\\sqrt{2\\pi m}\\,m^{m}e^{-m}\\bigl(1+\\mathrm O(m^{-1})\\bigr),\n\\qquad m\\to\\infty,\n\\]\nyields  \n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n(2n+1)!!\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)\\sqrt{4\\pi n}\\,(2n)^{2n}e^{-2n}}{2^{\\,n}\\sqrt{2\\pi n}\\,n^{\\,n}e^{-n}}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,\n        \\frac{(2n)^{2n}}{2^{\\,n}n^{\\,n}}\\,\n        e^{-n}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=\\frac{(2n+1)}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,\n        2^{\\,n}n^{\\,n}e^{-n}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr)\\\\\n      &=2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\Bigl(1+\\mathrm O\\!\\bigl(n^{-1}\\bigr)\\Bigr).\n\\end{aligned}\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\nTherefore  \n\\[\nC_{n}:=\\frac{(2n+1)!!}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n       =\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\Bigl(1+o(1)\\Bigr),\n\\]\nwhich is exactly the statement of part (b) with $C=\\dfrac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}$.\n\n\\textbf{Step 6.  Putting the pieces together.}  \nCombine $(\\ast)$, (5) and (6):\n\\[\n\\Delta_{n}=2^{\\,n}n!\\,C_{n}\\cdot\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1))\n          =2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\sqrt{n}\\,\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\cdot\\frac18\\,n^{2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1))\n          =2^{\\,n}n!\\,\\frac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)).\n\\]\nDividing by $2^{\\,n}n!$ we obtain  \n\\[\nS_{n}=\\frac{\\Delta_{n}}{2^{\\,n}n!}\n      =\\frac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}\\,n^{5/2}\\ln n\\,(1+o(1)),\n\\]\nwhich proves part (c) with $c=\\dfrac{1}{4\\sqrt{\\pi}}>0$.\n\n\\textbf{Step 7.  Positivity and unboundedness.}  \nBecause $\\ln n\\to\\infty$, the asymptotic formula in part (c) implies $S_{n}\\to\\infty$.  For all sufficiently large $n$, both the leading constant $c$ and $\\ln n$ are positive, so $\\Delta_{n}>0$ as well.  Hence $\\bigl(S_{n}\\bigr)$ is unbounded and eventually strictly positive, completing part (d).  \n\n\\hfill$\\square$",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.565628",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "•  Rank-2 Perturbation:  Unlike the original rank-1 (“all-ones”) perturbation, Aₙ is the sum of a diagonal matrix and TWO independent rank-1 matrices.  One must invoke the full 2×2 version of the matrix-determinant lemma; elementary row/column operations no longer suffice.\n\n•  Multiple Nested Sums:  Evaluation of the 2×2 determinant requires the simultaneous control of σ₀, σ₁, σ₂, mixing harmonic, linear-growth, and quadratic-growth sums.\n\n•  Asymptotic Analysis:  After the exact reduction, one must still perform a careful asymptotic expansion (Stirling’s formula, integral comparison) to obtain the growth rate.\n\n•  Sign Determination:  The problem asks not only for boundedness but also the eventual sign and precise order of growth, necessitating finer estimates than a simple bounded/unbounded dichotomy.\n\n•  Interaction of Concepts:  Low-rank perturbations, determinant identities, asymptotic series, and factorial estimates all interact.  No single “pattern-matching” trick solves the problem; the solver must orchestrate several advanced techniques, making this variant substantially harder than both the original statement and the intermediate kernel version."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof",
  "iteratively_fixed": true
}