{
  "index": "2016-B-6",
  "type": "ANA",
  "tag": [
    "ANA",
    "NT",
    "COMB",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "Evaluate\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k} \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k2^n + 1}.\n\\]\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
  "solution": "Let $S$ denote the desired sum. We will prove that $S=1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{First solution:}\nWrite\n\\[\n\\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k2^n+1} = \\frac{1}{k+1} + \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k2^n+1}; \n\\]\nthen we may write $S = S_1+S_2$ where \n\\begin{align*} \nS_1 &= \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k(k+1)} \\\\\nS_2 &= \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k} \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k2^n+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe rearrangement is valid because both $S_1$ and $S_2$ converge absolutely in $k$, by comparison to $\\sum 1/k^2$.\n\nTo compute $S_1$, note that \n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{k=1}^N \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k(k+1)} &= \\sum_{k=1}^N  (-1)^{k-1}\\left(\\frac{1}{k}-\\frac{1}{k+1} \\right) \\\\\n&= -1+\\frac{(-1)^N}{N+1}+2\\sum_{k=1}^N \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\n\\end{align*}\nconverges to $2\\ln 2-1$ as $N\\to\\infty$, and so $S_1 = 2\\ln 2-1$.\n\nTo compute $S_2$, write $\\frac{1}{k2^n+1} = \\frac{1}{k2^n}\\cdot \\frac{1}{1+1/(k2^n)}$ as the geometric series $\\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^m}{k^{m+1} 2^{mn+n}}$, whence\n\\[\nS_2 = \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty \\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k+m-1}}{k^{m+2} 2^{mn+n}}.\n\\]\n(This step requires $n \\geq 1$, as otherwise the geometric series would not converge for $k=0$.)\nNow note that this triple sum converges absolutely: we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2} 2^{mn+n}} &= \n\\frac{1}{k^2 2^n} \\cdot \\frac{1}{1-\\frac{1}{k 2^n}} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{k(k2^n-1)} \\leq \\frac{1}{k^2 2^{n-1}}\n\\end{align*}\nand so\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty \\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2} 2^{mn+n}} &\\leq\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty  \\frac{1}{k^2 2^{n-1}}\\\\\n &= \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{2}{k^2} < \\infty.\n \\end{align*}\n\nThus we can rearrange the sum to get\n\\[\nS_2 = \\sum_{m=0}^\\infty (-1)^m \\left( \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2^{mn+n}}\\right) \\left(\\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \n\\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k^{m+2}} \\right).\n\\]\nThe sum in $n$ is the geometric series \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2^{m+1}(1-\\frac{1}{2^{m+1}})} = \\frac{1}{2^{m+1}-1}.\n\\]\nIf we write the sum in $k$ as $S_3$, then note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2}} = S_3 + 2 \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{(2k)^{m+2}}\n= S_3 + \\frac{1}{2^{m+1}} \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2}}\n\\]\n(where we can rearrange terms in the first equality because all of the series converge absolutely), and so \n\\[\nS_3 = \\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{m+1}}\\right)  \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2}}.\n\\]\nIt follows that\n\\begin{align*}\nS_2 &= \\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^m}{2^{m+1}} \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k^{m+2}} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2k^2} \\sum_{m=0}^\\infty \\left(-\\frac{1}{2k}\\right)^m \\\\\n&= \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k(2k+1)} \\\\\n&= 2 \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{2k} - \\frac{1}{2k+1} \\right) = 2(1-\\ln 2).\n\\end{align*}\nFinally, we have $S = S_1 + S_2 = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution:}\n(by Tewodros Amdeberhan)\nSince $\\int_0^1 x^t\\,dx = \\frac{1}{1+t}$ for any $t \\geq 1$, we also have\n\\[\nS = \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty  \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k} \\int_0^1 x^{k2^n}\\,dx.\n\\]\nAgain by absolute convergence, we are free to permute the integral and the sums:\n\\begin{align*}\nS &= \\int_0^1 dx\\, \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k} x^{k2^n} \\\\\n&= \\int_0^1 dx\\, \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\log (1 + x^{2^n}).\n\\end{align*}\nDue to the uniqueness of binary expansions of nonnegative integers, we have the identity\nof formal power series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1 - x} = \\prod_{n=0}^\\infty (1 + x^{2^n});\n\\]\nthe product converges absolutely for $0 \\leq x < 1$. We thus have\n\\begin{align*}\nS &= -\\int_0^1 \\log (1-x)\\,dx \\\\\n&= \\left((1-x) \\log (1-x) - (1-x)\\right)_0^1 \\\\\n&= 1.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution:}\n(by Serin Hong)\nAgain using absolute convergence, we may write\n\\[\nS = \\sum_{m=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{m} \\sum_{k} \\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\n\\]\nwhere $k$ runs over all positive integers for which $m = k2^n+1$ for some $n$.\nIf we write $e$ for the 2-adic valuation of $m-1$ and $j = (m-1)2^{-e}$ for the odd part of $m-1$, then the values of $k$ are $j 2^i$ for $i=0,\\dots,e$. The inner sum can thus be evaluated as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{j} - \\sum_{i=1}^e \\frac{1}{2^i j}\n= \\frac{1}{2^e j} = \\frac{1}{m-1}.\n\\]\nWe thus have\n\\[\nS = \\sum_{m=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{m(m-1)} \\\\\n= \\sum_{m=2}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{m-1} - \\frac{1}{m} \\right) \\\\\n= 1.\n\\]\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution:}\n(by Liang Xiao)\nLet $S_0$ and $S_1$ be the sums $\\sum_k \\frac{1}{k} \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{k2^n+1}$\nwith $k$ running over all odd and all even positive integers, respectively, so that \n\\[\nS = S_0 - S_1.\n\\]\nIn $S_1$, we may write $k = 2\\ell$ to obtain\n\\begin{align*}\nS_1 &= \\sum_{\\ell=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\ell} \\sum_{n=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{\\ell 2^{n+1} + 1} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (S_0 + S_1) - \\sum_{\\ell=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\ell(\\ell+1)} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (S_0 + S_1) - \\frac{1}{2}\n\\end{align*}\nbecause the last sum telescopes; this immediately yields $S = 1$.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{document}",
  "vars": [
    "k",
    "n",
    "m",
    "x",
    "t",
    "i",
    "j",
    "e",
    "l",
    "N"
  ],
  "params": [
    "S",
    "S_0",
    "S_1",
    "S_2",
    "S_3"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "k": "indexer",
        "n": "seriesidx",
        "m": "termpower",
        "x": "integrand",
        "t": "expovar",
        "j": "oddpart",
        "l": "evenidx",
        "N": "cutoffnum",
        "S": "totalsum",
        "S_0": "partialsumzero",
        "S_1": "partialsumone",
        "S_2": "partialsumtwo",
        "S_3": "partialsumthree"
      },
      "question": "Evaluate\n\\[\n\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer} \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx} + 1}.\n\\]\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "Let $\\totalsum$ denote the desired sum. We will prove that $\\totalsum = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{First solution:}\nWrite\n\\[\n\\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1} = \\frac{1}{indexer+1} + \\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1};\n\\]\nthen we may write $\\totalsum = \\partialsumone + \\partialsumtwo$ where\n\\begin{align*}\n\\partialsumone &= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer(indexer+1)}\\\\\n\\partialsumtwo &= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer} \\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe rearrangement is valid because both $\\partialsumone$ and $\\partialsumtwo$ converge absolutely in $indexer$, by comparison to $\\sum 1/indexer^2$.\n\nTo compute $\\partialsumone$, note that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{indexer=1}^{cutoffnum} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer(indexer+1)} &= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{cutoffnum} (-1)^{indexer-1}\\left(\\frac{1}{indexer}-\\frac{1}{indexer+1}\\right)\\\\\n&= -1+\\frac{(-1)^{cutoffnum}}{cutoffnum+1}+2\\sum_{indexer=1}^{cutoffnum} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer}\n\\end{align*}\nconverges to $2\\ln 2-1$ as $cutoffnum\\to\\infty$, and so $\\partialsumone = 2\\ln 2-1$.\n\nTo compute $\\partialsumtwo$, write\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1}= \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}}\\cdot\\frac{1}{1+1/(indexer 2^{seriesidx})}\n\\]\nas the geometric series $\\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{termpower}}{indexer^{termpower+1} 2^{termpower seriesidx + seriesidx}}$, whence\n\\[\n\\partialsumtwo = \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer+termpower-1}}{indexer^{termpower+2} 2^{termpower seriesidx + seriesidx}}.\n\\]\n(This step requires $seriesidx \\ge 1$, as otherwise the geometric series would not converge for $indexer=0$.)\nNow note that this triple sum converges absolutely:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2} 2^{termpower seriesidx + seriesidx}}\n&= \\frac{1}{indexer^{2} 2^{seriesidx}}\\cdot\\frac{1}{1-\\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}}}\\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{indexer(indexer 2^{seriesidx}-1)}\\le \\frac{1}{indexer^{2} 2^{seriesidx-1}}\n\\end{align*}\nand so\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty}\n\\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2} 2^{termpower seriesidx + seriesidx}}\n&\\le \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{2} 2^{seriesidx-1}}\\\\\n&= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{2}{indexer^{2}}<\\infty.\n\\end{align*}\n\nThus we can rearrange the sum to get\n\\[\n\\partialsumtwo\n= \\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} (-1)^{termpower}\\left(\\sum_{seriesidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{2^{termpower seriesidx + seriesidx}}\\right)\n\\left(\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer^{termpower+2}}\\right).\n\\]\nThe sum in $seriesidx$ is the geometric series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2^{termpower+1}\\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{termpower+1}}\\right)}=\\frac{1}{2^{termpower+1}-1}.\n\\]\nIf we write the sum in $indexer$ as $\\partialsumthree$, then note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2}}\n= \\partialsumthree + 2\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{(2indexer)^{termpower+2}}\n= \\partialsumthree + \\frac{1}{2^{termpower+1}}\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2}},\n\\]\nand so\n\\[\n\\partialsumthree=\\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{termpower+1}}\\right)\n\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2}}.\n\\]\nIt follows that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\partialsumtwo &= \\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{termpower}}{2^{termpower+1}} \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer^{termpower+2}}\\\\\n&= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{2indexer^{2}} \\sum_{termpower=0}^{\\infty} \\left(-\\frac{1}{2indexer}\\right)^{termpower}\\\\\n&= \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer(2indexer+1)}\\\\\n&= 2\\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty}\\left(\\frac{1}{2indexer}-\\frac{1}{2indexer+1}\\right)=2(1-\\ln 2).\n\\end{align*}\nFinally, we have $\\totalsum = \\partialsumone + \\partialsumtwo = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution:}\n(by Tewodros Amdeberhan)\nSince $\\int_0^1 integrand^{expovar}\\,d integrand = \\frac{1}{1+expovar}$ for any $expovar \\ge 1$, we also have\n\\[\n\\totalsum = \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer} \\int_0^1 integrand^{indexer 2^{seriesidx}}\\,d integrand.\n\\]\nAgain by absolute convergence, we are free to permute the integral and the sums:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\totalsum &= \\int_0^1 d integrand\\, \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\sum_{indexer=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer} integrand^{indexer 2^{seriesidx}}\\\\\n&= \\int_0^1 d integrand\\, \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\log(1+integrand^{2^{seriesidx}}).\n\\end{align*}\nDue to the uniqueness of binary expansions of non-negative integers, we have the identity of formal power series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1-integrand}= \\prod_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty}\\left(1+integrand^{2^{seriesidx}}\\right);\n\\]\nthe product converges absolutely for $0\\le integrand <1$. We thus have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\totalsum &= -\\int_0^1 \\log(1-integrand)\\,d integrand\\\\\n&= \\left((1-integrand)\\log(1-integrand)-(1-integrand)\\right)_0^1\\\\\n&= 1.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution:}\n(by Serin Hong)\nAgain using absolute convergence, we may write\n\\[\n\\totalsum = \\sum_{termpower=2}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{termpower} \\sum_{indexer} \\frac{(-1)^{indexer-1}}{indexer}\n\\]\nwhere $indexer$ runs over all positive integers for which $termpower = indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1$ for some $seriesidx$.\nIf we write $e$ for the $2$-adic valuation of $termpower-1$ and $oddpart = (termpower-1)2^{-e}$ for the odd part of $termpower-1$, then the values of $indexer$ are $oddpart 2^{i}$ for $i=0,\\dots ,e$. The inner sum can thus be evaluated as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{oddpart}-\\sum_{i=1}^{e} \\frac{1}{2^{i} oddpart}\n= \\frac{1}{2^{e} oddpart}= \\frac{1}{termpower-1}.\n\\]\nWe thus have\n\\[\n\\totalsum = \\sum_{termpower=2}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{termpower(termpower-1)}\n= \\sum_{termpower=2}^{\\infty}\\left(\\frac{1}{termpower-1}-\\frac{1}{termpower}\\right)\n= 1.\n\\]\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution:}\n(by Liang Xiao)\nLet $\\partialsumzero$ and $\\partialsumone$ be the sums $\\sum_{indexer} \\frac{1}{indexer} \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{indexer 2^{seriesidx}+1}$\nwith $indexer$ running over all odd and all even positive integers, respectively, so that\n\\[\n\\totalsum = \\partialsumzero - \\partialsumone.\n\\]\nIn $\\partialsumone$, we may write $indexer = 2\\,evenidx$ to obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n\\partialsumone &= \\sum_{evenidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{2\\,evenidx} \\sum_{seriesidx=0}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{evenidx 2^{seriesidx+1}+1}\\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2}(\\partialsumzero + \\partialsumone)-\\sum_{evenidx=1}^{\\infty} \\frac{1}{2\\,evenidx(evenidx+1)}\\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2}(\\partialsumzero + \\partialsumone)-\\frac{1}{2}\n\\end{align*}\nbecause the last sum telescopes; this immediately yields $\\totalsum = 1$.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "k": "marigold",
        "n": "sandcastle",
        "m": "lighthouse",
        "x": "pancakes",
        "t": "woodpecker",
        "i": "buttercup",
        "j": "grapevine",
        "e": "snowflake",
        "l": "riverbank",
        "N": "dragonfly",
        "S": "labyrinth",
        "S_0": "hummingbird",
        "S_1": "starlight",
        "S_2": "crosswind",
        "S_3": "moonshadow"
      },
      "question": "Evaluate\n\\[\n\\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold} \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle} + 1}.\n\\]\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}\n",
      "solution": "Let $labyrinth$ denote the desired sum. We will prove that $labyrinth=1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{First solution:}\nWrite\n\\[\n\\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}+1} = \\frac{1}{marigold+1} + \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}+1}; \n\\]\nthen we may write $labyrinth = starlight+crosswind$ where \n\\begin{align*} \nstarlight &= \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold(marigold+1)} \\\\\ncrosswind &= \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold} \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe rearrangement is valid because both $starlight$ and $crosswind$ converge absolutely in $marigold$, by comparison to \\sum 1/marigold^2.\n\nTo compute $starlight$, note that \n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{marigold=1}^{dragonfly} \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold(marigold+1)} &= \\sum_{marigold=1}^{dragonfly}  (-1)^{marigold-1}\\left(\\frac{1}{marigold}-\\frac{1}{marigold+1} \\right) \\\\\n&= -1+\\frac{(-1)^{dragonfly}}{dragonfly+1}+2\\sum_{marigold=1}^{dragonfly} \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold}\n\\end{align*}\nconverges to $2\\ln 2-1$ as $dragonfly\\to\\infty$, and so $starlight = 2\\ln 2-1$.\n\nTo compute $crosswind$, write $\\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}+1} = \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}}\\cdot \\frac{1}{1+1/(marigold2^{sandcastle})}$ as the geometric series $\\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{lighthouse}}{marigold^{lighthouse+1} 2^{lighthouse sandcastle+sandcastle}}$, whence\n\\[\ncrosswind = \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty \\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold+lighthouse-1}}{marigold^{lighthouse+2} 2^{lighthouse sandcastle+sandcastle}}.\n\\]\n(This step requires $sandcastle \\geq 1$, as otherwise the geometric series would not converge for $marigold=0$.)\nNow note that this triple sum converges absolutely: we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2} 2^{lighthouse sandcastle+sandcastle}} &= \n\\frac{1}{marigold^2 2^{sandcastle}} \\cdot \\frac{1}{1-\\frac{1}{marigold 2^{sandcastle}}} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{marigold(marigold2^{sandcastle}-1)} \\leq \\frac{1}{marigold^2 2^{sandcastle-1}}\n\\end{align*}\nand so\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty \\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2} 2^{lighthouse sandcastle+sandcastle}} &\\leq\n\\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty  \\frac{1}{marigold^2 2^{sandcastle-1}}\\\\\n &= \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{2}{marigold^2} < \\infty.\n \\end{align*}\n\nThus we can rearrange the sum to get\n\\[\ncrosswind = \\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty (-1)^{lighthouse} \\left( \\sum_{sandcastle=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse sandcastle+sandcastle}}\\right) \\left(\\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \n\\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold^{lighthouse+2}} \\right).\n\\]\nThe sum in $sandcastle$ is the geometric series \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse+1}(1-\\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse+1}})} = \\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse+1}-1}.\n\\]\nIf we write the sum in $marigold$ as $moonshadow$, then note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2}} = moonshadow + 2 \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{(2\\,marigold)^{lighthouse+2}}\n= moonshadow + \\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse+1}} \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2}}\n\\]\n(where we can rearrange terms in the first equality because all of the series converge absolutely), and so \n\\[\nmoonshadow = \\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{lighthouse+1}}\\right)  \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2}}.\n\\]\nIt follows that\n\\begin{align*}\ncrosswind &= \\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{lighthouse}}{2^{lighthouse+1}} \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold^{lighthouse+2}} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2marigold^2} \\sum_{lighthouse=0}^\\infty \\left(-\\frac{1}{2marigold}\\right)^{lighthouse} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold(2marigold+1)} \\\\\n&= 2 \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{2marigold} - \\frac{1}{2marigold+1} \\right) = 2(1-\\ln 2).\n\\end{align*}\nFinally, we have $labyrinth = starlight + crosswind = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution:}\n(by Tewodros Amdeberhan)\nSince $\\int_0^1 pancakes^{woodpecker}\\,d pancakes = \\frac{1}{1+woodpecker}$ for any $woodpecker \\geq 1$, we also have\n\\[\nlabyrinth = \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty  \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold} \\int_0^1 pancakes^{marigold2^{sandcastle}}\\,d pancakes.\n\\]\nAgain by absolute convergence, we are free to permute the integral and the sums:\n\\begin{align*}\nlabyrinth &= \\int_0^1 d pancakes\\, \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\sum_{marigold=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold} pancakes^{marigold2^{sandcastle}} \\\\\n&= \\int_0^1 d pancakes\\, \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\log (1 + pancakes^{2^{sandcastle}}).\n\\end{align*}\nDue to the uniqueness of binary expansions of nonnegative integers, we have the identity\nof formal power series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1 - pancakes} = \\prod_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty (1 + pancakes^{2^{sandcastle}});\n\\]\nthe product converges absolutely for $0 \\leq pancakes < 1$. We thus have\n\\begin{align*}\nlabyrinth &= -\\int_0^1 \\log (1-pancakes)\\,d pancakes \\\\\n&= ((1-pancakes) \\log (1-pancakes) - (1-pancakes))_0^1 \\\\\n&= 1.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution:}\n(by Serin Hong)\nAgain using absolute convergence, we may write\n\\[\nlabyrinth = \\sum_{lighthouse=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{lighthouse} \\sum_{marigold} \\frac{(-1)^{marigold-1}}{marigold}\n\\]\nwhere $marigold$ runs over all positive integers for which $lighthouse = marigold2^{sandcastle}+1$ for some $sandcastle$.\nIf we write $snowflake$ for the 2-adic valuation of $lighthouse-1$ and $grapevine = (lighthouse-1)2^{-snowflake}$ for the odd part of $lighthouse-1$, then the values of $marigold$ are $grapevine 2^{buttercup}$ for $buttercup=0,\\dots,snowflake$. The inner sum can thus be evaluated as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{grapevine} - \\sum_{buttercup=1}^{snowflake} \\frac{1}{2^{buttercup} grapevine}\n= \\frac{1}{2^{snowflake} grapevine} = \\frac{1}{lighthouse-1}.\n\\]\nWe thus have\n\\[\nlabyrinth = \\sum_{lighthouse=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{lighthouse(lighthouse-1)} \\\\\n= \\sum_{lighthouse=2}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{lighthouse-1} - \\frac{1}{lighthouse} \\right) \\\\\n= 1.\n\\]\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution:}\n(by Liang Xiao)\nLet $hummingbird$ and $starlight$ be the sums $\\sum_{marigold} \\frac{1}{marigold} \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{marigold2^{sandcastle}+1}$\nwith $marigold$ running over all odd and all even positive integers, respectively, so that \n\\[\nlabyrinth = hummingbird - starlight.\n\\]\nIn $starlight$, we may write $marigold = 2\\,riverbank$ to obtain\n\\begin{align*}\nstarlight &= \\sum_{riverbank=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\,riverbank} \\sum_{sandcastle=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{riverbank 2^{sandcastle+1} + 1} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (hummingbird + starlight) - \\sum_{riverbank=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\,riverbank(riverbank+1)} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (hummingbird + starlight) - \\frac{1}{2}\n\\end{align*}\nbecause the last sum telescopes; this immediately yields $labyrinth = 1$.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{document}\n"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "k": "termination",
        "n": "continuum",
        "m": "ceiling",
        "x": "verticalaxis",
        "t": "spatiality",
        "i": "wholeness",
        "j": "evenness",
        "e": "mantissa",
        "l": "straighten",
        "N": "starting",
        "S": "difference",
        "S_0": "differencezero",
        "S_1": "differenceone",
        "S_2": "differencetwo",
        "S_3": "differencethree"
      },
      "question": "Evaluate\n\\[\n\\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination} \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination 2^{continuum} + 1}.\n\\]\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "Let $\\difference$ denote the desired sum. We will prove that $\\difference=1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{First solution:}\nWrite\n\\[\n\\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}+1} = \\frac{1}{termination+1} + \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}+1}; \n\\]\nthen we may write $\\difference = \\differenceone+\\differencetwo$ where \n\\begin{align*} \n\\differenceone &= \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination(termination+1)} \\\\\n\\differencetwo &= \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination} \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe rearrangement is valid because both $\\differenceone$ and $\\differencetwo$ converge absolutely in $termination$, by comparison to $\\sum 1/termination^2$.\n\nTo compute $\\differenceone$, note that \n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{termination=1}^{starting} \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination(termination+1)} &= \\sum_{termination=1}^{starting}  (-1)^{termination-1}\\left(\\frac{1}{termination}-\\frac{1}{termination+1} \\right) \\\\\n&= -1+\\frac{(-1)^{starting}}{starting+1}+2\\sum_{termination=1}^{starting} \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination}\n\\end{align*}\nconverges to $2\\ln 2-1$ as $starting\\to\\infty$, and so $\\differenceone = 2\\ln 2-1$.\n\nTo compute $\\differencetwo$, write $\\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}+1} = \\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}}\\cdot \\frac{1}{1+1/(termination2^{continuum})}$ as the geometric series $\\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{ceiling}}{termination^{ceiling+1} 2^{ceiling\\,continuum+continuum}}$, whence\n\\[\n\\differencetwo = \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty \\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination+ceiling-1}}{termination^{ceiling+2} 2^{ceiling\\,continuum+continuum}}.\n\\]\n(This step requires $continuum \\geq 1$, as otherwise the geometric series would not converge for $termination=0$.)\nNow note that this triple sum converges absolutely: we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2} 2^{ceiling\\,continuum+continuum}} &= \n\\frac{1}{termination^2 2^{continuum}} \\cdot \\frac{1}{1-\\frac{1}{termination 2^{continuum}}} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{termination(termination2^{continuum}-1)} \\leq \\frac{1}{termination^2 2^{continuum-1}}\n\\end{align*}\nand so\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty \\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2} 2^{ceiling\\,continuum+continuum}} &\\leq\n\\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty  \\frac{1}{termination^2 2^{continuum-1}}\\\\\n &= \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{2}{termination^2} < \\infty.\n \\end{align*}\n\nThus we can rearrange the sum to get\n\\[\n\\differencetwo = \\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty (-1)^{ceiling} \\left( \\sum_{continuum=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2^{ceiling\\,continuum+continuum}}\\right) \\left(\\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \n\\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination^{ceiling+2}} \\right).\n\\]\nThe sum in $continuum$ is the geometric series \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2^{ceiling+1}(1-\\frac{1}{2^{ceiling+1}})} = \\frac{1}{2^{ceiling+1}-1}.\n\\]\nIf we write the sum in $termination$ as $\\differencethree$, then note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2}} = \\differencethree + 2 \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{(2termination)^{ceiling+2}}\n= \\differencethree + \\frac{1}{2^{ceiling+1}} \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2}}\n\\]\n(where we can rearrange terms in the first equality because all of the series converge absolutely), and so \n\\[\n\\differencethree = \\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{ceiling+1}}\\right)  \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2}}.\n\\]\nIt follows that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\differencetwo &= \\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{ceiling}}{2^{ceiling+1}} \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination^{ceiling+2}} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2termination^2} \\sum_{ceiling=0}^\\infty \\left(-\\frac{1}{2termination}\\right)^{ceiling} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination(2termination+1)} \\\\\n&= 2 \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{2termination} - \\frac{1}{2termination+1} \\right) = 2(1-\\ln 2).\n\\end{align*}\nFinally, we have $\\difference = \\differenceone + \\differencetwo = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution:}\n(by Tewodros Amdeberhan)\nSince $\\int_0^1 verticalaxis^{spatiality}\\,dverticalaxis = \\frac{1}{1+spatiality}$ for any $spatiality \\geq 1$, we also have\n\\[\n\\difference = \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty  \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination} \\int_0^1 verticalaxis^{termination2^{continuum}}\\,dverticalaxis.\n\\]\nAgain by absolute convergence, we are free to permute the integral and the sums:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\difference &= \\int_0^1 dverticalaxis\\, \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\sum_{termination=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination} verticalaxis^{termination2^{continuum}} \\\\\n&= \\int_0^1 dverticalaxis\\, \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\log (1 + verticalaxis^{2^{continuum}}).\n\\end{align*}\nDue to the uniqueness of binary expansions of nonnegative integers, we have the identity\nof formal power series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1 - verticalaxis} = \\prod_{continuum=0}^\\infty (1 + verticalaxis^{2^{continuum}});\n\\]\nthe product converges absolutely for $0 \\leq verticalaxis < 1$. We thus have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\difference &= -\\int_0^1 \\log (1-verticalaxis)\\,dverticalaxis \\\\\n&= \\left((1-verticalaxis) \\log (1-verticalaxis) - (1-verticalaxis)\\right)_0^1 \\\\\n&= 1.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution:}\n(by Serin Hong)\nAgain using absolute convergence, we may write\n\\[\n\\difference = \\sum_{ceiling=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{ceiling} \\sum_{termination} \\frac{(-1)^{termination-1}}{termination}\n\\]\nwhere $termination$ runs over all positive integers for which $ceiling = termination2^{continuum}+1$ for some $continuum$.\nIf we write $mantissa$ for the 2-adic valuation of $ceiling-1$ and $evenness = (ceiling-1)2^{-mantissa}$ for the odd part of $ceiling-1$, then the values of $termination$ are $evenness 2^{wholeness}$ for $wholeness=0,\\dots,mantissa$. The inner sum can thus be evaluated as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{evenness} - \\sum_{wholeness=1}^{mantissa} \\frac{1}{2^{wholeness} evenness}\n= \\frac{1}{2^{mantissa} evenness} = \\frac{1}{ceiling-1}.\n\\]\nWe thus have\n\\[\n\\difference = \\sum_{ceiling=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{ceiling(ceiling-1)} \\\\\n= \\sum_{ceiling=2}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{ceiling-1} - \\frac{1}{ceiling} \\right) \\\\\n= 1.\n\\]\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution:}\n(by Liang Xiao)\nLet $\\differencezero$ and $\\differenceone$ be the sums $\\sum_{termination} \\frac{1}{termination} \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{termination2^{continuum}+1}$\nwith $termination$ running over all odd and all even positive integers, respectively, so that \n\\[\n\\difference = \\differencezero - \\differenceone.\n\\]\nIn $\\differenceone$, we may write $termination = 2\\straighten$ to obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n\\differenceone &= \\sum_{straighten=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\straighten} \\sum_{continuum=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{\\straighten 2^{continuum+1} + 1} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (\\differencezero + \\differenceone) - \\sum_{straighten=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2\\straighten(\\straighten+1)} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (\\differencezero + \\differenceone) - \\frac{1}{2}\n\\end{align*}\nbecause the last sum telescopes; this immediately yields $\\difference = 1$.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "k": "rigbmteq",
        "n": "zapskorn",
        "m": "huytfrad",
        "x": "cvenlops",
        "t": "pkdrixum",
        "i": "gbnlaswe",
        "j": "qidokema",
        "e": "slorpqwe",
        "l": "darpimuc",
        "N": "wexoplin",
        "S": "kvandomes",
        "S_0": "syjhemart",
        "S_1": "pludontex",
        "S_2": "varkemsol",
        "S_3": "juprelask"
      },
      "question": "Evaluate\n\\[\n\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq} \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn} + 1}.\n\\]\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "Let $kvandomes$ denote the desired sum. We will prove that $kvandomes=1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{First solution:}\nWrite\n\\[\n\\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1} = \\frac{1}{rigbmteq+1} + \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1}; \n\\]\nthen we may write $kvandomes = pludontex+varkemsol$ where \n\\begin{align*} \npludontex &= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq(rigbmteq+1)} \\\\\nvarkemsol &= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq} \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe rearrangement is valid because both $pludontex$ and $varkemsol$ converge absolutely in $rigbmteq$, by comparison to $\\sum 1/rigbmteq^2$.\n\nTo compute $pludontex$, note that \n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^{wexoplin} \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq(rigbmteq+1)} &= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^{wexoplin}  (-1)^{rigbmteq-1}\\left(\\frac{1}{rigbmteq}-\\frac{1}{rigbmteq+1} \\right) \\\\\n&= -1+\\frac{(-1)^{wexoplin}}{wexoplin+1}+2\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^{wexoplin} \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq}\n\\end{align*}\nconverges to $2\\ln 2-1$ as $wexoplin\\to\\infty$, and so $pludontex = 2\\ln 2-1$.\n\nTo compute $varkemsol$, write $\\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1} = \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}}\\cdot \\frac{1}{1+1/(rigbmteq2^{zapskorn})}$ as the geometric series $\\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{huytfrad}}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+1} 2^{huytfrad zapskorn+zapskorn}}$, whence\n\\[\nvarkemsol = \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty \\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq+huytfrad-1}}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2} 2^{huytfrad zapskorn+zapskorn}}.\n\\]\n(This step requires $zapskorn \\geq 1$, as otherwise the geometric series would not converge for $rigbmteq=0$.)\nNow note that this triple sum converges absolutely: we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2} 2^{huytfrad zapskorn+zapskorn}} &= \n\\frac{1}{rigbmteq^2 2^{zapskorn}} \\cdot \\frac{1}{1-\\frac{1}{rigbmteq 2^{zapskorn}}} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{rigbmteq(rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}-1)} \\leq \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^2 2^{zapskorn-1}}\n\\end{align*}\nand so\n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty \\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2} 2^{huytfrad zapskorn+zapskorn}} &\\leq\n\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty  \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^2 2^{zapskorn-1}}\\\\\n &= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{2}{rigbmteq^2} < \\infty.\n \\end{align*}\n\nThus we can rearrange the sum to get\n\\[\nvarkemsol = \\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty (-1)^{huytfrad} \\left( \\sum_{zapskorn=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad zapskorn+zapskorn}}\\right) \\left(\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \n\\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2}} \\right).\n\\]\nThe sum in $zapskorn$ is the geometric series \n\\[\n\\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad+1}\\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad+1}}\\right)} = \\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad+1}-1}.\n\\]\nIf we write the sum in $rigbmteq$ as $juprelask$, then note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2}} = juprelask + 2 \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{(2rigbmteq)^{huytfrad+2}}\n= juprelask + \\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad+1}} \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2}}\n\\]\n(where we can rearrange terms in the first equality because all of the series converge absolutely), and so \n\\[\njuprelask = \\left(1-\\frac{1}{2^{huytfrad+1}}\\right)  \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2}}.\n\\]\nIt follows that\n\\begin{align*}\nvarkemsol &= \\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{huytfrad}}{2^{huytfrad+1}} \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq^{huytfrad+2}} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2rigbmteq^2} \\sum_{huytfrad=0}^\\infty \\left(-\\frac{1}{2rigbmteq}\\right)^{huytfrad} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq(2rigbmteq+1)} \\\\\n&= 2 \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{2rigbmteq} - \\frac{1}{2rigbmteq+1} \\right) = 2(1-\\ln 2).\n\\end{align*}\nFinally, we have $kvandomes = pludontex + varkemsol = 1$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution:}\n(by Tewodros Amdeberhan)\nSince $\\int_0^1 cvenlops^{pkdrixum}\\,dcvenlops = \\frac{1}{1+pkdrixum}$ for any $pkdrixum \\geq 1$, we also have\n\\[\nkvandomes = \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty  \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq} \\int_0^1 cvenlops^{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}}\\,dcvenlops.\n\\]\nAgain by absolute convergence, we are free to permute the integral and the sums:\n\\begin{align*}\nkvandomes &= \\int_0^1 dcvenlops\\, \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\sum_{rigbmteq=1}^\\infty \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq} cvenlops^{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}} \\\\\n&= \\int_0^1 dcvenlops\\, \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\log (1 + cvenlops^{2^{zapskorn}}).\n\\end{align*}\nDue to the uniqueness of binary expansions of nonnegative integers, we have the identity\nof formal power series\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1 - cvenlops} = \\prod_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty (1 + cvenlops^{2^{zapskorn}});\n\\]\nthe product converges absolutely for $0 \\leq cvenlops < 1$. We thus have\n\\begin{align*}\nkvandomes &= -\\int_0^1 \\log (1-cvenlops)\\,dcvenlops \\\\\n&= \\left((1-cvenlops) \\log (1-cvenlops) - (1-cvenlops)\\right)_0^1 \\\\\n&= 1.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution:}\n(by Serin Hong)\nAgain using absolute convergence, we may write\n\\[\nkvandomes = \\sum_{huytfrad=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{huytfrad} \\sum_{rigbmteq} \\frac{(-1)^{rigbmteq-1}}{rigbmteq}\n\\]\nwhere $rigbmteq$ runs over all positive integers for which $huytfrad = rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1$ for some $zapskorn$.\nIf we write $slorpqwe$ for the 2-adic valuation of $huytfrad-1$ and $qidokema = (huytfrad-1)2^{-slorpqwe}$ for the odd part of $huytfrad-1$, then the values of $rigbmteq$ are $qidokema 2^{gbnlaswe}$ for $gbnlaswe=0,\\dots,slorpqwe$. The inner sum can thus be evaluated as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{qidokema} - \\sum_{gbnlaswe=1}^{slorpqwe} \\frac{1}{2^{gbnlaswe} qidokema}\n= \\frac{1}{2^{slorpqwe} qidokema} = \\frac{1}{huytfrad-1}.\n\\]\nWe thus have\n\\[\nkvandomes = \\sum_{huytfrad=2}^\\infty \\frac{1}{huytfrad(huytfrad-1)} \\\\\n= \\sum_{huytfrad=2}^\\infty \\left( \\frac{1}{huytfrad-1} - \\frac{1}{huytfrad} \\right) \\\\\n= 1.\n\\]\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution:}\n(by Liang Xiao)\nLet $syjhemart$ and $pludontex$ be the sums $\\sum_{rigbmteq} \\frac{1}{rigbmteq} \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{rigbmteq2^{zapskorn}+1}$\nwith $rigbmteq$ running over all odd and all even positive integers, respectively, so that \n\\[\nkvandomes = syjhemart - pludontex.\n\\]\nIn $pludontex$, we may write $rigbmteq = 2darpimuc$ to obtain\n\\begin{align*}\npludontex &= \\sum_{darpimuc=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2darpimuc} \\sum_{zapskorn=0}^\\infty \\frac{1}{darpimuc 2^{zapskorn+1} + 1} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (syjhemart + pludontex) - \\sum_{darpimuc=1}^\\infty \\frac{1}{2darpimuc(darpimuc+1)} \\\\\n&= \\frac{1}{2} (syjhemart + pludontex) - \\frac{1}{2}\n\\end{align*}\nbecause the last sum telescopes; this immediately yields $kvandomes = 1$.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Determine the exact value of  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\displaystyle \n\\mathcal T\\;=\\;\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{(-1)^{\\,k-1}}{k}\\;\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\frac{1}{\\bigl(k\\,2^{\\,n}+1\\bigr)^{2}} } .\n\\]",
      "solution": "Step 1.  Integral representation of the squared denominator.  \nFor every integer \\(a\\ge 1\\) we have\n\\[\n\\frac1{a^{2}}\n=\\int_{0}^{1}x^{\\,a-1}\\,(-\\log x)\\,dx .\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{(k2^{n}+1)^{2}}\n=\\int_{0}^{1}x^{\\,k2^{n}}\\bigl(-\\log x\\bigr)\\,dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 2.  Insert the integral and justify interchange.  \nAbsolute convergence of the sums easily follows from comparison with  \n\\(\\sum\\!1/k^{2}\\) and \\(\\sum\\!1/2^{n}\\).  Therefore\n\\[\n\\mathcal T\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\!\\!(-\\log x)\\,\n\\Bigl[\\,\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\n\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\n\\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\\,x^{\\,k2^{n}}\n\\Bigr]dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 3.  Sum over \\(k\\).  \nFor any fixed \\(n\\) and \\(|x|<1\\),\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\\,x^{\\,k2^{n}}\n=\\log\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr).\n\\]\n\nStep 4.  Sum over \\(n\\) via the binary-product identity.  \nBecause each real \\(0\\le x<1\\) has a unique binary expansion,\n\\[\n\\prod_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr)=\\frac1{1-x},\n\\qquad\\Longrightarrow\\qquad\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\log\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr)=-\\log(1-x).\n\\]\nThus\n\\[\n\\mathcal T\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\!\\!(-\\log x)\\,[\\, -\\log(1-x)\\,]\\,dx\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 5.  Evaluate \\(\\displaystyle I=\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx\\).  \nExpand \\(\\log(1-x)=-\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{x^{m}}{m}\\) for \\(|x|\\le1\\):\n\\[\nI\n=-\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac1m\n\\int_{0}^{1}x^{m}\\log x\\,dx .\n\\]\nThe inner integral equals \\(-1/(m+1)^{2}\\), hence\n\\[\nI=\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{1}{m(m+1)^{2}}\n      =\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\Bigl(\\frac1m-\\frac1{m+1}-\\frac1{(m+1)^{2}}\\Bigr).\n\\]\nThe first two terms telescope:\n\\[\n\\sum_{m=1}^{N}\\Bigl(\\frac1m-\\frac1{m+1}\\Bigr)=1-\\frac1{N+1}\\xrightarrow[N\\to\\infty]{}1,\n\\]\nand \\(\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\tfrac1{(m+1)^{2}}=\\zeta(2)-1\\).\nTherefore\n\\[\nI=1-\\bigl(\\zeta(2)-1\\bigr)=2-\\zeta(2)=2-\\frac{\\pi^{2}}6.\n\\]\n\nStep 6.  Conclusion.  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\displaystyle\\mathcal T=2-\\frac{\\pi^{2}}6 }.\n\\]",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.845751",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "• Squared Denominator:  Replacing \\(1/(k2^{n}+c)\\) by \\(1/(k2^{n}+1)^{2}\\) destroys the convenient telescoping tricks of the original problem and forces the solver to invent an integral (or Beta-function) representation.  \n\n• Appearance of an Extra Integrand Factor \\((-\\,\\log x)\\):  The square produces an additional logarithm inside the integral, leading to a non-elementary convolution integral \\(\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx\\) whose evaluation requires either series manipulations or Beta–function differentiation, and ultimately the Riemann zeta value \\(\\zeta(2)\\).  \n\n• Two Non-trivial Re-summations:  The solver must (i) turn the alternating harmonic series into a logarithm, and (ii) recognise and use the infinite binary product \\(\\prod(1+x^{2^{n}})\\).  These independent manoeuvres then have to be combined under an integral sign.  \n\n• Deeper Constants:  Unlike the tidy answer “1’’ in the original variant, the enhanced problem culminates in the transcendental constant \\(2-\\pi^{2}/6\\), signalling the necessity of zeta-value computations.  \n\nAll these features demand a wider repertoire (power-series manipulation, interchange of limiting processes, product identities, and special-function integrals), so the enhanced variant is substantially more intricate than both the original and the current kernel version."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Determine the exact value of  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\displaystyle \n\\mathcal T\\;=\\;\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{(-1)^{\\,k-1}}{k}\\;\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\frac{1}{\\bigl(k\\,2^{\\,n}+1\\bigr)^{2}} } .\n\\]",
      "solution": "Step 1.  Integral representation of the squared denominator.  \nFor every integer \\(a\\ge 1\\) we have\n\\[\n\\frac1{a^{2}}\n=\\int_{0}^{1}x^{\\,a-1}\\,(-\\log x)\\,dx .\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{(k2^{n}+1)^{2}}\n=\\int_{0}^{1}x^{\\,k2^{n}}\\bigl(-\\log x\\bigr)\\,dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 2.  Insert the integral and justify interchange.  \nAbsolute convergence of the sums easily follows from comparison with  \n\\(\\sum\\!1/k^{2}\\) and \\(\\sum\\!1/2^{n}\\).  Therefore\n\\[\n\\mathcal T\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\!\\!(-\\log x)\\,\n\\Bigl[\\,\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\n\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\n\\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\\,x^{\\,k2^{n}}\n\\Bigr]dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 3.  Sum over \\(k\\).  \nFor any fixed \\(n\\) and \\(|x|<1\\),\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{(-1)^{k-1}}{k}\\,x^{\\,k2^{n}}\n=\\log\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr).\n\\]\n\nStep 4.  Sum over \\(n\\) via the binary-product identity.  \nBecause each real \\(0\\le x<1\\) has a unique binary expansion,\n\\[\n\\prod_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr)=\\frac1{1-x},\n\\qquad\\Longrightarrow\\qquad\n\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty}\\log\\bigl(1+x^{\\,2^{n}}\\bigr)=-\\log(1-x).\n\\]\nThus\n\\[\n\\mathcal T\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\!\\!(-\\log x)\\,[\\, -\\log(1-x)\\,]\\,dx\n=\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx .\n\\]\n\nStep 5.  Evaluate \\(\\displaystyle I=\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx\\).  \nExpand \\(\\log(1-x)=-\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{x^{m}}{m}\\) for \\(|x|\\le1\\):\n\\[\nI\n=-\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac1m\n\\int_{0}^{1}x^{m}\\log x\\,dx .\n\\]\nThe inner integral equals \\(-1/(m+1)^{2}\\), hence\n\\[\nI=\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\frac{1}{m(m+1)^{2}}\n      =\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\Bigl(\\frac1m-\\frac1{m+1}-\\frac1{(m+1)^{2}}\\Bigr).\n\\]\nThe first two terms telescope:\n\\[\n\\sum_{m=1}^{N}\\Bigl(\\frac1m-\\frac1{m+1}\\Bigr)=1-\\frac1{N+1}\\xrightarrow[N\\to\\infty]{}1,\n\\]\nand \\(\\sum_{m=1}^{\\infty}\\tfrac1{(m+1)^{2}}=\\zeta(2)-1\\).\nTherefore\n\\[\nI=1-\\bigl(\\zeta(2)-1\\bigr)=2-\\zeta(2)=2-\\frac{\\pi^{2}}6.\n\\]\n\nStep 6.  Conclusion.  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\displaystyle\\mathcal T=2-\\frac{\\pi^{2}}6 }.\n\\]",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.647810",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "• Squared Denominator:  Replacing \\(1/(k2^{n}+c)\\) by \\(1/(k2^{n}+1)^{2}\\) destroys the convenient telescoping tricks of the original problem and forces the solver to invent an integral (or Beta-function) representation.  \n\n• Appearance of an Extra Integrand Factor \\((-\\,\\log x)\\):  The square produces an additional logarithm inside the integral, leading to a non-elementary convolution integral \\(\\int_{0}^{1}\\log x\\,\\log(1-x)\\,dx\\) whose evaluation requires either series manipulations or Beta–function differentiation, and ultimately the Riemann zeta value \\(\\zeta(2)\\).  \n\n• Two Non-trivial Re-summations:  The solver must (i) turn the alternating harmonic series into a logarithm, and (ii) recognise and use the infinite binary product \\(\\prod(1+x^{2^{n}})\\).  These independent manoeuvres then have to be combined under an integral sign.  \n\n• Deeper Constants:  Unlike the tidy answer “1’’ in the original variant, the enhanced problem culminates in the transcendental constant \\(2-\\pi^{2}/6\\), signalling the necessity of zeta-value computations.  \n\nAll these features demand a wider repertoire (power-series manipulation, interchange of limiting processes, product identities, and special-function integrals), so the enhanced variant is substantially more intricate than both the original and the current kernel version."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "calculation"
}