{
  "index": "1998-B-6",
  "type": "NT",
  "tag": [
    "NT",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "Prove that, for any integers $a, b, c$, there exists a positive integer\n$n$ such that $\\sqrt{n^3+an^2+bn+c}$ is not an integer.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
  "solution": "First solution: Write $p(n) = n^3 + an^2 + bn + c$. Note that $p(n)$\nand $p(n+2)$ have the same parity, and recall that any perfect square\nis congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4). Thus if $p(n)$ and $p(n+2)$ are perfect\nsquares, they are congruent mod 4. But $p(n+2) - p(n) \\equiv 2n^2 + 2b$\n(mod 4), which is not divisible by 4 if $n$ and $b$ have opposite parity.\n%\n% and likewise for $p(n+1)$ and $p(n+3)$.\n%But the ``third difference'' of $p$ is $p(n) -\n%3p(n+1) + 3p(n+2) - p(n+3) = 6$ (easy calculation), so that $p(n) +\n%p(n+1) - p(n+2) - p(n+3) \\equiv 2$ (mod 4). Thus not all of $p(n), p(n+1),\n%p(n+2), p(n+3)$ can be perfect squares.\n%(n+2)^3 + a(n+2)^2 + b(n+2) + c\n%n^3 + an^2 + bn + c\n%== 2n^2 + 2b\n\nSecond solution:\nWe prove more generally that for any polynomial $P(z)$ with integer\ncoefficients which is not a perfect square, there exists a positive\ninteger $n$ such that $P(n)$ is not a perfect square. Of course it\nsuffices to assume $P(z)$ has no repeated factors, which is to say $P(z)$\nand its derivative $P'(z)$ are relatively prime.\n\nIn particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm on $P(z)$ and $P'(z)$\nwithout dividing, we get an integer $D$ (the discriminant of $P$) such that\nthe greatest common divisor of $P(n)$ and $P'(n)$ divides $D$ for any $n$.\nNow there exist infinitely many primes $p$ such that $p$ divides $P(n)$ for\nsome $n$: if there were only finitely many, say, $p_1, \\dots, p_k$, then\nfor any $n$ divisible by $m = P(0) p_1 p_2 \\cdots p_k$, we have $P(n)\n\\equiv P(0) \\pmod{m}$, that is, $P(n)/P(0)$ is not divisible by $p_1,\n\\dots, p_k$, so must be $\\pm 1$, but then $P$ takes some value infinitely\nmany times, contradiction. In particular, we can choose some such $p$ not\ndividing $D$, and choose $n$ such that $p$ divides $P(n)$. Then $P(n+kp)\n\\equiv P(n) + kp P'(n) (\\mathrm{mod}\\,p)$\n(write out the Taylor series of the left side);\nin particular, since $p$ does not divide $P'(n)$, we can find some $k$\nsuch that $P(n+kp)$ is divisible by $p$ but not by $p^2$, and so\nis not a perfect square.\n\nThird solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and Richard Stanley\nindependently)\nAssume that $n^{3}+an^{2}+bn+c$ is a square for all $n>0$.\nFor sufficiently large $n$,\n\\begin{align*}\n(n^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} an^{1/2} - 1)^{2} &< n^{3} + an^{2}+bn+c \\\\\n&<  (n^{3/2}+ \\frac{1}{2} an^{1/2}+1)^{2};\n\\end{align*}\nthus if $n$ is a large even perfect square, we have $n^{3}+an^{2}+bn+c =\n(n^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} an^{1/2})^{2}$. We conclude this is an\nequality of polynomials, but the right-hand side\nis not a perfect square for $n$ an even non-square, contradiction.\n(The reader might try generalizing this approach to arbitrary polynomials.\nA related argument, due to Greg Kuperberg: write $\\sqrt{n^3+an^2+bn+c}$\nas $n^{3/2}$ times a power series in $1/n$ and take two finite differences\nto get an expression which tends to 0 as $n \\to \\infty$, contradiction.)\n\nNote: in case $n^3 + an^2 + bn + c$ has no repeated factors, it is a\nsquare for only finitely many $n$, by a theorem of Siegel; work of Baker gives\nan explicit (but large) bound on such $n$. (I don't know whether the graders\nwill accept this as a solution, though.)\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
  "vars": [
    "n",
    "z",
    "k",
    "p"
  ],
  "params": [
    "a",
    "b",
    "c",
    "D",
    "m",
    "P"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "n": "indexer",
        "z": "zetavariable",
        "k": "iterater",
        "p": "primevalue",
        "a": "coefalpha",
        "b": "coefbeta",
        "c": "coefgamma",
        "D": "discriminant",
        "m": "modulus",
        "P": "polycapital"
      },
      "question": "Prove that, for any integers $coefalpha, coefbeta, coefgamma$, there exists a positive integer\n$indexer$ such that $\\sqrt{indexer^3+coefalpha indexer^2+coefbeta indexer+coefgamma}$ is not an integer.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "First solution: Write $primevalue(indexer) = indexer^3 + coefalpha indexer^2 + coefbeta indexer + coefgamma$. Note that $primevalue(indexer)$\nand $primevalue(indexer+2)$ have the same parity, and recall that any perfect square\nis congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4). Thus if $primevalue(indexer)$ and $primevalue(indexer+2)$ are perfect\nsquares, they are congruent mod 4. But $primevalue(indexer+2) - primevalue(indexer) \\equiv 2 indexer^2 + 2 coefbeta$\n(mod 4), which is not divisible by 4 if $indexer$ and $coefbeta$ have opposite parity.\n%\n% and likewise for $primevalue(indexer+1)$ and $primevalue(indexer+3)$.\n%But the ``third difference'' of $primevalue$ is $primevalue(indexer) -\n%3primevalue(indexer+1) + 3primevalue(indexer+2) - primevalue(indexer+3) = 6$ (easy calculation), so that $primevalue(indexer) +\n%primevalue(indexer+1) - primevalue(indexer+2) - primevalue(indexer+3) \\equiv 2$ (mod 4). Thus not all of $primevalue(indexer), primevalue(indexer+1),\n%primevalue(indexer+2), primevalue(indexer+3)$ can be perfect squares.\n%(indexer+2)^3 + coefalpha(indexer+2)^2 + coefbeta(indexer+2) + coefgamma\n%indexer^3 + coefalpha indexer^2 + coefbeta indexer + coefgamma\n%== 2 indexer^2 + 2 coefbeta\n\nSecond solution:\nWe prove more generally that for any polynomial $polycapital(zetavariable)$ with integer\ncoefficients which is not a perfect square, there exists a positive\ninteger $indexer$ such that $polycapital(indexer)$ is not a perfect square. Of course it\nsuffices to assume $polycapital(zetavariable)$ has no repeated factors, which is to say $polycapital(zetavariable)$\nand its derivative $polycapital'(zetavariable)$ are relatively prime.\n\nIn particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm on $polycapital(zetavariable)$ and $polycapital'(zetavariable)$\nwithout dividing, we get an integer $discriminant$ (the discriminant of $polycapital$) such that\nthe greatest common divisor of $polycapital(indexer)$ and $polycapital'(indexer)$ divides $discriminant$ for any $indexer$.\nNow there exist infinitely many primes $primevalue$ such that $primevalue$ divides $polycapital(indexer)$ for\nsome $indexer$: if there were only finitely many, say, $primevalue_1, \\dots, primevalue_{iterater}$, then\nfor any $indexer$ divisible by $modulus = polycapital(0) primevalue_1 primevalue_2 \\cdots primevalue_{iterater}$, we have $polycapital(indexer)\n\\equiv polycapital(0) \\pmod{modulus}$, that is, $polycapital(indexer)/polycapital(0)$ is not divisible by $primevalue_1,\n\\dots, primevalue_{iterater}$, so must be $\\pm 1$, but then $polycapital$ takes some value infinitely\nmany times, contradiction. In particular, we can choose some such $primevalue$ not\ndividing $discriminant$, and choose $indexer$ such that $primevalue$ divides $polycapital(indexer)$. Then $polycapital(indexer+iterater primevalue)\n\\equiv polycapital(indexer) + iterater primevalue\\, polycapital'(indexer) (\\mathrm{mod}\\,primevalue)$\n(write out the Taylor series of the left side);\nin particular, since $primevalue$ does not divide $polycapital'(indexer)$, we can find some $iterater$\nsuch that $polycapital(indexer+iterater primevalue)$ is divisible by $primevalue$ but not by $primevalue^2$, and so\nis not a perfect square.\n\nThird solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and Richard Stanley\nindependently)\nAssume that $indexer^{3}+coefalpha indexer^{2}+coefbeta indexer+coefgamma$ is a square for all $indexer>0$.\nFor sufficiently large $indexer$,\n\\begin{align*}\n(indexer^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} coefalpha indexer^{1/2} - 1)^{2} &< indexer^{3} + coefalpha indexer^{2}+coefbeta indexer+coefgamma \\\\\n&<  (indexer^{3/2}+ \\frac{1}{2} coefalpha indexer^{1/2}+1)^{2};\n\\end{align*}\nthus if $indexer$ is a large even perfect square, we have $indexer^{3}+coefalpha indexer^{2}+coefbeta indexer+coefgamma =\n(indexer^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} coefalpha indexer^{1/2})^{2}$. We conclude this is an\nequality of polynomials, but the right-hand side\nis not a perfect square for $indexer$ an even non-square, contradiction.\n(The reader might try generalizing this approach to arbitrary polynomials.\nA related argument, due to Greg Kuperberg: write $\\sqrt{indexer^3+coefalpha indexer^2+coefbeta indexer+coefgamma}$\nas $indexer^{3/2}$ times a power series in $1/indexer$ and take two finite differences\nto get an expression which tends to 0 as $indexer \\to \\infty$, contradiction.)\n\nNote: in case $indexer^3 + coefalpha indexer^2 + coefbeta indexer + coefgamma$ has no repeated factors, it is a\nsquare for only finitely many $indexer$, by a theorem of Siegel; work of Baker gives\nan explicit (but large) bound on such $indexer$. (I don't know whether the graders\nwill accept this as a solution, though.)\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "n": "marshmallow",
        "z": "peppermint",
        "k": "chandelier",
        "p": "toothbrush",
        "a": "crocodile",
        "b": "sunflower",
        "c": "lemonade",
        "D": "raincloud",
        "m": "spaceship",
        "P": "blueberry"
      },
      "question": "Prove that, for any integers $crocodile, sunflower, lemonade$, there exists a positive integer\n$marshmallow$ such that $\\sqrt{marshmallow^3+crocodile\\,marshmallow^2+sunflower\\,marshmallow+lemonade}$ is not an integer.",
      "solution": "First solution: Write $toothbrush(marshmallow) = marshmallow^3 + crocodile\\,marshmallow^2 + sunflower\\,marshmallow + lemonade$. Note that $toothbrush(marshmallow)$\nand $toothbrush(marshmallow+2)$ have the same parity, and recall that any perfect square\nis congruent to $0$ or $1$ (mod $4$). Thus if $toothbrush(marshmallow)$ and $toothbrush(marshmallow+2)$ are perfect\nsquares, they are congruent mod $4$. But $toothbrush(marshmallow+2) - toothbrush(marshmallow) \\equiv 2\\,marshmallow^2 + 2\\,sunflower$ (mod $4$), which is not divisible by $4$ if $marshmallow$ and $sunflower$ have opposite parity.\n%\n% and likewise for $toothbrush(marshmallow+1)$ and $toothbrush(marshmallow+3)$.\n%But the ``third difference'' of $toothbrush$ is $toothbrush(marshmallow) -\n%3toothbrush(marshmallow+1) + 3toothbrush(marshmallow+2) - toothbrush(marshmallow+3) = 6$ (easy calculation), so that $toothbrush(marshmallow) +\n%toothbrush(marshmallow+1) - toothbrush(marshmallow+2) - toothbrush(marshmallow+3) \\equiv 2$ (mod $4$). Thus not all of $toothbrush(marshmallow), toothbrush(marshmallow+1),\n%toothbrush(marshmallow+2), toothbrush(marshmallow+3)$ can be perfect squares.\n%(marshmallow+2)^3 + crocodile(marshmallow+2)^2 + sunflower(marshmallow+2) + lemonade\n%marshmallow^3 + crocodile\\,marshmallow^2 + sunflower\\,marshmallow + lemonade\n%== 2\\,marshmallow^2 + 2\\,sunflower\n\nSecond solution:\nWe prove more generally that for any polynomial $blueberry(peppermint)$ with integer\ncoefficients which is not a perfect square, there exists a positive integer $marshmallow$ such that $blueberry(marshmallow)$ is not a perfect square. Of course it\nsuffices to assume $blueberry(peppermint)$ has no repeated factors, which is to say $blueberry(peppermint)$\nand its derivative $blueberry'(peppermint)$ are relatively prime.\n\nIn particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm on $blueberry(peppermint)$ and $blueberry'(peppermint)$\nwithout dividing, we get an integer $raincloud$ (the discriminant of $blueberry$) such that\nthe greatest common divisor of $blueberry(marshmallow)$ and $blueberry'(marshmallow)$ divides $raincloud$ for any $marshmallow$.\nNow there exist infinitely many primes $toothbrush$ such that $toothbrush$ divides $blueberry(marshmallow)$ for\nsome $marshmallow$: if there were only finitely many, say, $toothbrush_1, \\dots, toothbrush_{chandelier}$, then\nfor any $marshmallow$ divisible by $spaceship = blueberry(0)\\,toothbrush_1\\,toothbrush_2 \\cdots toothbrush_{chandelier}$, we have $blueberry(marshmallow)\n\\equiv blueberry(0) \\pmod{spaceship}$, that is, $blueberry(marshmallow)/blueberry(0)$ is not divisible by $toothbrush_1,\n\\dots, toothbrush_{chandelier}$, so must be $\\pm 1$, but then $blueberry$ takes some value infinitely\nmany times, contradiction. In particular, we can choose some such $toothbrush$ not\ndividing $raincloud$, and choose $marshmallow$ such that $toothbrush$ divides $blueberry(marshmallow)$. Then $blueberry(marshmallow+chandelier\\,toothbrush)\n\\equiv blueberry(marshmallow) + chandelier\\,toothbrush\\,blueberry'(marshmallow) \\pmod{toothbrush}$\n(write out the Taylor series of the left side);\nin particular, since $toothbrush$ does not divide $blueberry'(marshmallow)$, we can find some $chandelier$\nsuch that $blueberry(marshmallow+chandelier\\,toothbrush)$ is divisible by $toothbrush$ but not by $toothbrush^{2}$, and so\nis not a perfect square.\n\nThird solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and Richard Stanley\nindependently)\nAssume that $marshmallow^{3}+crocodile\\,marshmallow^{2}+sunflower\\,marshmallow+lemonade$ is a square for all $marshmallow>0$.\nFor sufficiently large $marshmallow$,\n\\begin{align*}\n(marshmallow^{3/2} + \\tfrac{1}{2} crocodile\\,marshmallow^{1/2} - 1)^{2} &< marshmallow^{3} + crocodile\\,marshmallow^{2}+sunflower\\,marshmallow+lemonade \\\\\n&<  (marshmallow^{3/2}+ \\tfrac{1}{2} crocodile\\,marshmallow^{1/2}+1)^{2};\n\\end{align*}\nthus if $marshmallow$ is a large even perfect square, we have $marshmallow^{3}+crocodile\\,marshmallow^{2}+sunflower\\,marshmallow+lemonade =\n(marshmallow^{3/2} + \\tfrac{1}{2} crocodile\\,marshmallow^{1/2})^{2}$. We conclude this is an\nequality of polynomials, but the right-hand side\nis not a perfect square for $marshmallow$ an even non-square, contradiction.\n(The reader might try generalizing this approach to arbitrary polynomials.\nA related argument, due to Greg Kuperberg: write $\\sqrt{marshmallow^3+crocodile\\,marshmallow^2+sunflower\\,marshmallow+lemonade}$\nas $marshmallow^{3/2}$ times a power series in $1/marshmallow$ and take two finite differences\nto get an expression which tends to $0$ as $marshmallow \\to \\infty$, contradiction.)\n\nNote: in case $marshmallow^3 + crocodile\\,marshmallow^{2} + sunflower\\,marshmallow + lemonade$ has no repeated factors, it is a\nsquare for only finitely many $marshmallow$, by a theorem of Siegel; work of Baker gives\nan explicit (but large) bound on such $marshmallow$. (I don't know whether the graders\nwill accept this as a solution, though.)"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "n": "irrational",
        "z": "constant",
        "k": "immutable",
        "p": "composite",
        "a": "variable",
        "b": "changeable",
        "c": "unstable",
        "D": "indiscrete",
        "m": "quotient",
        "P": "nonpolynomial"
      },
      "question": "Prove that, for any integers $variable, changeable, unstable$, there exists a positive integer\n$irrational$ such that $\\sqrt{irrational^3+variable irrational^2+changeable irrational+unstable}$ is not an integer.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "First solution: Write $composite(irrational) = irrational^3 + variable irrational^2 + changeable irrational + unstable$. Note that $composite(irrational)$\nand $composite(irrational+2)$ have the same parity, and recall that any perfect square\nis congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4). Thus if $composite(irrational)$ and $composite(irrational+2)$ are perfect\nsquares, they are congruent mod 4. But $composite(irrational+2) - composite(irrational) \\equiv 2irrational^2 + 2changeable$\n(mod 4), which is not divisible by 4 if $irrational$ and $changeable$ have opposite parity.\n%\n% and likewise for $composite(irrational+1)$ and $composite(irrational+3)$.\n%But the ``third difference'' of $composite$ is $composite(irrational) -\n%3composite(irrational+1) + 3composite(irrational+2) - composite(irrational+3) = 6$ (easy calculation), so that $composite(irrational) +\n%composite(irrational+1) - composite(irrational+2) - composite(irrational+3) \\equiv 2$ (mod 4). Thus not all of $composite(irrational), composite(irrational+1),\n%composite(irrational+2), composite(irrational+3)$ can be perfect squares.\n%(irrational+2)^3 + variable(irrational+2)^2 + changeable(irrational+2) + unstable\n%irrational^3 + variable irrational^2 + changeable irrational + unstable\n%== 2irrational^2 + 2changeable\n\nSecond solution:\nWe prove more generally that for any polynomial $nonpolynomial(constant)$ with integer\ncoefficients which is not a perfect square, there exists a positive\ninteger $irrational$ such that $nonpolynomial(irrational)$ is not a perfect square. Of course it\nsuffices to assume $nonpolynomial(constant)$ has no repeated factors, which is to say $nonpolynomial(constant)$\nand its derivative $nonpolynomial'(constant)$ are relatively prime.\n\nIn particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm on $nonpolynomial(constant)$ and $nonpolynomial'(constant)$\nwithout dividing, we get an integer $indiscrete$ (the discriminant of $nonpolynomial$) such that\nthe greatest common divisor of $nonpolynomial(irrational)$ and $nonpolynomial'(irrational)$ divides $indiscrete$ for any $irrational$.\nNow there exist infinitely many primes $composite$ such that $composite$ divides $nonpolynomial(irrational)$ for\nsome $irrational$: if there were only finitely many, say, $composite_1, \\dots, composite_{immutable}$, then\nfor any $irrational$ divisible by $quotient = nonpolynomial(0) composite_1 composite_2 \\cdots composite_{immutable}$, we have $nonpolynomial(irrational)\n\\equiv nonpolynomial(0) \\pmod{quotient}$, that is, $nonpolynomial(irrational)/nonpolynomial(0)$ is not divisible by $composite_1,\n\\dots, composite_{immutable}$, so must be $\\pm 1$, but then $nonpolynomial$ takes some value infinitely\nmany times, contradiction. In particular, we can choose some such $composite$ not\ndividing $indiscrete$, and choose $irrational$ such that $composite$ divides $nonpolynomial(irrational)$. Then $nonpolynomial(irrational+immutable composite)\n\\equiv nonpolynomial(irrational) + immutable composite\\, nonpolynomial'(irrational) (\\mathrm{mod}\\,composite)$\n(write out the Taylor series of the left side);\nin particular, since $composite$ does not divide $nonpolynomial'(irrational)$, we can find some $immutable$\nsuch that $nonpolynomial(irrational+immutable composite)$ is divisible by $composite$ but not by $composite^2$, and so\nis not a perfect square.\n\nThird solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and Richard Stanley\nindependently)\nAssume that $irrational^{3}+variable irrational^{2}+changeable irrational+unstable$ is a square for all $irrational>0$.\nFor sufficiently large $irrational$,\n\\begin{align*}\n(irrational^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} variable irrational^{1/2} - 1)^{2} &< irrational^{3} + variable irrational^{2}+changeable irrational+unstable \\\\\n&<  (irrational^{3/2}+ \\frac{1}{2} variable irrational^{1/2}+1)^{2};\n\\end{align*}\nthus if $irrational$ is a large even perfect square, we have $irrational^{3}+variable irrational^{2}+changeable irrational+unstable =\n(irrational^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} variable irrational^{1/2})^{2}$. We conclude this is an\nequality of polynomials, but the right-hand side\nis not a perfect square for $irrational$ an even non-square, contradiction.\n(The reader might try generalizing this approach to arbitrary polynomials.\nA related argument, due to Greg Kuperberg: write $\\sqrt{irrational^3+variable irrational^2+changeable irrational+unstable}$\nas $irrational^{3/2}$ times a power series in $1/irrational$ and take two finite differences\nto get an expression which tends to 0 as $irrational \\to \\infty$, contradiction.)\n\nNote: in case $irrational^3 + variable irrational^2 + changeable irrational + unstable$ has no repeated factors, it is a\nsquare for only finitely many $irrational$, by a theorem of Siegel; work of Baker gives\nan explicit (but large) bound on such $irrational$. (I don't know whether the graders\nwill accept this as a solution, though.)\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "n": "qzxwvtnp",
        "z": "hjgrksla",
        "k": "vrnbqfmc",
        "p": "wxcjtdsl",
        "a": "oqlphzke",
        "b": "vytrnmsw",
        "c": "gshfdmza",
        "D": "rbntwqsa",
        "m": "ukpzgvlo",
        "P": "fjdkslqe"
      },
      "question": "Prove that, for any integers $oqlphzke, vytrnmsw, gshfdmza$, there exists a positive integer\n$qzxwvtnp$ such that $\\sqrt{qzxwvtnp^3+oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^2+vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp+gshfdmza}$ is not an integer.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}",
      "solution": "First solution: Write $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp) = qzxwvtnp^3 + oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^2 + vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp + gshfdmza$. Note that $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp)$\nand $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2)$ have the same parity, and recall that any perfect square\nis congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4). Thus if $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp)$ and $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2)$ are perfect\nsquares, they are congruent mod 4. But $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2) - wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp) \\equiv 2 qzxwvtnp^2 + 2 vytrnmsw$\n(mod 4), which is not divisible by 4 if $qzxwvtnp$ and $vytrnmsw$ have opposite parity.\n%\n% and likewise for $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+1)$ and $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+3)$.\n%But the ``third difference'' of $wxcjtdsl$ is $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp) -\n%3wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+1) + 3wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2) - wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+3) = 6$ (easy calculation), so that $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp) +\n%wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+1) - wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2) - wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+3) \\equiv 2$ (mod 4). Thus not all of $wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp), wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+1),\n%wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+2), wxcjtdsl(qzxwvtnp+3)$ can be perfect squares.\n%(qzxwvtnp+2)^3 + oqlphzke (qzxwvtnp+2)^2 + vytrnmsw (qzxwvtnp+2) + gshfdmza\n%qzxwvtnp^3 + oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^2 + vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp + gshfdmza\n%== 2 qzxwvtnp^2 + 2 vytrnmsw\n\nSecond solution:\nWe prove more generally that for any polynomial $fjdkslqe(hjgrksla)$ with integer\ncoefficients which is not a perfect square, there exists a positive\ninteger $qzxwvtnp$ such that $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)$ is not a perfect square. Of course it\nsuffices to assume $fjdkslqe(hjgrksla)$ has no repeated factors, which is to say $fjdkslqe(hjgrksla)$\nand its derivative $fjdkslqe'(hjgrksla)$ are relatively prime.\n\nIn particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm on $fjdkslqe(hjgrksla)$ and $fjdkslqe'(hjgrksla)$\nwithout dividing, we get an integer $rbntwqsa$ (the discriminant of $fjdkslqe$) such that\nthe greatest common divisor of $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)$ and $fjdkslqe'(qzxwvtnp)$ divides $rbntwqsa$ for any $qzxwvtnp$.\nNow there exist infinitely many primes $wxcjtdsl$ such that $wxcjtdsl$ divides $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)$ for\nsome $qzxwvtnp$: if there were only finitely many, say, $wxcjtdsl_1, \\dots, wxcjtdsl_{vrnbqfmc}$, then\nfor any $qzxwvtnp$ divisible by $ukpzgvlo = fjdkslqe(0) wxcjtdsl_1 wxcjtdsl_2 \\cdots wxcjtdsl_{vrnbqfmc}$, we have $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)\n\\equiv fjdkslqe(0) \\pmod{ukpzgvlo}$, that is, $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)/fjdkslqe(0)$ is not divisible by $wxcjtdsl_1,\n\\dots, wxcjtdsl_{vrnbqfmc}$, so must be $\\pm 1$, but then $fjdkslqe$ takes some value infinitely\nmany times, contradiction. In particular, we can choose some such $wxcjtdsl$ not\ndividing $rbntwqsa$, and choose $qzxwvtnp$ such that $wxcjtdsl$ divides $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp)$. Then $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp+vrnbqfmc wxcjtdsl)\n\\equiv fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp) + vrnbqfmc wxcjtdsl\\, fjdkslqe'(qzxwvtnp) (\\mathrm{mod}\\, wxcjtdsl)$\n(write out the Taylor series of the left side);\nin particular, since $wxcjtdsl$ does not divide $fjdkslqe'(qzxwvtnp)$, we can find some $vrnbqfmc$\nsuch that $fjdkslqe(qzxwvtnp+vrnbqfmc wxcjtdsl)$ is divisible by $wxcjtdsl$ but not by $wxcjtdsl^2$, and so\nis not a perfect square.\n\nThird solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and Richard Stanley\nindependently)\nAssume that $qzxwvtnp^{3}+oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{2}+vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp+gshfdmza$ is a square for all $qzxwvtnp>0$.\nFor sufficiently large $qzxwvtnp$,\n\\begin{align*}\n(qzxwvtnp^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{1/2} - 1)^{2} &< qzxwvtnp^{3} + oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{2}+vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp+gshfdmza \\\\\n&<  (qzxwvtnp^{3/2}+ \\frac{1}{2} oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{1/2}+1)^{2};\n\\end{align*}\nthus if $qzxwvtnp$ is a large even perfect square, we have $qzxwvtnp^{3}+oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{2}+vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp+gshfdmza =\n(qzxwvtnp^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{2} oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^{1/2})^{2}$. We conclude this is an\nequality of polynomials, but the right-hand side\nis not a perfect square for $qzxwvtnp$ an even non-square, contradiction.\n(The reader might try generalizing this approach to arbitrary polynomials.\nA related argument, due to Greg Kuperberg: write $\\sqrt{qzxwvtnp^3+oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^2+vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp+gshfdmza}$\nas $qzxwvtnp^{3/2}$ times a power series in $1/qzxwvtnp$ and take two finite differences\nto get an expression which tends to 0 as $qzxwvtnp \\to \\infty$, contradiction.)\n\nNote: in case $qzxwvtnp^3 + oqlphzke qzxwvtnp^2 + vytrnmsw qzxwvtnp + gshfdmza$ has no repeated factors, it is a\nsquare for only finitely many $qzxwvtnp$, by a theorem of Siegel; work of Baker gives\nan explicit (but large) bound on such $qzxwvtnp$. (I don't know whether the graders\nwill accept this as a solution, though.)\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\end{document}"
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let d,\\,b,\\,r be arbitrary integers.  Prove that there exists a positive integer n such that\n\\[\\sqrt{\\,5n^{3}+dn^{2}+bn+r\\,}\\]\nis not an integer.",
      "solution": "Proof. Let q(n)=5n³+dn²+bn+r.  Suppose, to the contrary, that q(k) is a perfect square for every positive integer k.  We shall derive a contradiction by examining q(n)−q(n−2).\n\n1.  Compute Δ=q(n)−q(n−2):\n   n³−(n−2)³ =6n²−12n+8,\n   n²−(n−2)² =4n−4,\n   n−(n−2) =2.\n  Hence\n   Δ=5(6n²−12n+8)+d(4n−4)+2b\n     =30n²−60n+40+4dn−4d+2b.\n\n2.  Reduce mod 4:\n   30n²≡2n²,\n   −60n≡0,\n   40≡0,\n   4dn−4d≡0,\n   2b≡2b.\n  Therefore\n   Δ≡2n²+2b =2(n²+b)  (mod 4).\n\n3.  If two integers are perfect squares, their difference mod 4 can only be 0,1, or3.  It can never be 2.  Thus if Δ≡2 (mod 4), q(n) and q(n−2) cannot both be squares.\n\n4.  To ensure Δ≡2, choose n≡1−b (mod 2).  Then n²≡n≡1−b (mod 2), so n²+b≡1 (mod 2) and hence\n   Δ≡2(n²+b)≡2·1=2  (mod 4).\n\n5.  Finally, to apply our assumption to both q(n) and q(n−2), we need n−2>0.  So pick any integer n≥3 satisfying n≡1−b (mod 2).  Then n>2 and n−2>0, so by hypothesis both q(n) and q(n−2) are squares.  But step 3 shows this is impossible.  This contradiction shows our assumption was false.\n\nTherefore there must exist at least one positive integer m for which q(m)=5m³+dm²+bm+r is not a perfect square.  Equivalently, √(5m³+dm²+bm+r) is not an integer, as required.  □",
      "_meta": {
        "core_steps": [
          "Set p(n)=n^3+an^2+bn+c and compare the two values p(n) and p(n+2).",
          "Recall that any perfect square is 0 or 1 mod 4, so two squares must be congruent mod 4.",
          "Compute Δ=p(n+2)−p(n)≡2(n^2+b) (mod 4).",
          "Choose n with parity opposite to b so Δ≡2 (mod 4), impossible if both p(n) and p(n+2) were squares.",
          "Therefore at least one of the pair is not a square, giving the required positive n."
        ],
        "mutable_slots": {
          "slot1": {
            "description": "Leading coefficient of n^3 – any odd integer works because (odd)·((n+2)^3−n^3) is still 2 n² mod 4.",
            "original": "1"
          },
          "slot2": {
            "description": "Coefficient of n^2 – vanishes mod 4 in Δ, so it can be changed freely.",
            "original": "a"
          },
          "slot3": {
            "description": "Constant term – cancels out when forming Δ, hence irrelevant.",
            "original": "c"
          },
          "slot4": {
            "description": "Sign of the shift: one may compare p(n) with p(n−2) instead of p(n+2); the argument is unchanged.",
            "original": "+2"
          }
        }
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}