{
  "index": "1963-B-2",
  "type": "NT",
  "tag": [
    "NT",
    "ANA"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "2. Let \\( S \\) be the set of all numbers of the form \\( 2^{m} 3^{n} \\), where \\( m \\) and \\( n \\) are integers, and let \\( P \\) be the set of all positive real numbers. Is \\( S \\) dense in \\( P \\) ?",
  "solution": "Solution. Because the logarithm function and its inverse, the exponential function, are continuous, the proposed question amounts to asking whether numbers of the form\n\\[\nm \\log 2+n \\log 3, \\quad m \\text { and } n \\text { integers, }\n\\]\nare dense in all of \\( \\mathbf{R} \\). We use the following theorem.\nTheorem 1. If \\( \\alpha, \\beta \\in \\mathbf{R} \\), then the numbers of the form \\( m \\alpha+n \\beta \\), \\( m \\) and \\( n \\) integers, are dense in \\( \\mathbf{R} \\) unless there are integers \\( p \\) and \\( q \\) not both zero such that\n\\[\np \\alpha+q \\beta=0\n\\]\n(A proof of this theorem is given below.)\nIn our particular case, \\( \\alpha=\\log 2 \\) and \\( \\beta=\\log 3 \\) and, on taking exponentials, (1) becomes\n\\[\n2^{p} 3^{q}=1\n\\]\nfor integers \\( p \\) and \\( q \\) not both zero. This is clearly impossible by the unique factorization theorem. So we conclude that \\( S \\) is dense in \\( P \\).\n\nTo prove the theorem, we start with another theorem.\nTheorem 2. If \\( T \\) is a subgroup of the additive group of \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), then either \\( T=\\{0\\}, T \\) consists of all multiples of some positive number, or \\( T \\) is dense in \\( \\mathbf{R} \\).\n\nProof of Theorem 2. If \\( T \\) contains no positive numbers, then \\( T=\\{0\\} \\).\nSuppose \\( T \\) contains a least positive number, say \\( x \\). We shall prove that \\( T \\) consists of all multiples of \\( x \\). Clearly, \\( T \\) contains all multiples of \\( x \\). Suppose \\( y \\in T \\). There is an integer \\( n \\) such that \\( n \\leq y / x<n+1 \\). Then \\( z=y-n x \\) is in \\( T \\) and \\( 0 \\leq z<x \\). Since \\( x \\) is the least positive element of \\( T, z=0 \\); thus, \\( y=n x \\). This proves that \\( T \\) consists of all multiples of \\( x \\).\n\nSuppose \\( T \\) contains a positive number \\( x \\), but no least positive number. Let \\( I=(a, a+\\delta) \\) be an open interval in \\( \\mathbf{R} \\). Since \\( T \\) has infinitely many elements in \\( (0, x) \\), two of them, say \\( t_{1} \\) and \\( t_{2} \\), are within \\( \\delta \\) of one another. We may assume \\( t_{1}<t_{2} \\). Then \\( s=t_{2}-t_{1} \\) is in \\( T \\) and \\( 0<s<\\delta \\). All multiples of \\( s \\) are in \\( T \\), and some multiple of \\( s \\) lies in the interval \\( I \\), so \\( T \\cap I \\neq \\emptyset \\). Since \\( I \\) was arbitrary, \\( T \\) is dense in this case.\n\nProof of Theorem 1. The numbers of the form \\( m \\alpha+n \\beta \\) are a subgroup \\( T \\) of \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), and \\( \\alpha \\in T \\) and \\( \\beta \\in T \\). Suppose \\( T \\) is not dense in \\( \\mathbf{R} \\). Then, by the preceding theorem, \\( T \\) consists of all multiples of some non-negative number \\( x \\). Say \\( \\alpha=q x, \\beta=-p x \\), where \\( p \\) and \\( q \\) are integers. Then\n\\[\np \\alpha+q \\beta=0\n\\]\n\nIf here \\( p=q=0 \\), then \\( \\alpha=\\beta=0 \\) and (1) can be satisfied trivially.",
  "vars": [
    "m",
    "n",
    "p",
    "q",
    "x",
    "y",
    "z",
    "t_1",
    "t_2",
    "s",
    "a",
    "\\\\delta"
  ],
  "params": [
    "S",
    "P",
    "T",
    "I",
    "\\\\alpha",
    "\\\\beta",
    "R"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "m": "exponenttwo",
        "n": "exponentthree",
        "p": "coeffalpha",
        "q": "coeffbeta",
        "x": "posgenerator",
        "y": "arbitraryelem",
        "z": "remainder",
        "t_1": "subgroupfirst",
        "t_2": "subgroupsecond",
        "s": "differencesmall",
        "a": "intervalstart",
        "\\delta": "intervalwidth",
        "S": "powerset",
        "P": "positivereals",
        "T": "subgroupreal",
        "I": "openinterval",
        "\\alpha": "alphaparam",
        "\\beta": "betaparam",
        "R": "realnumberset"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( \\mathrm{powerset} \\) be the set of all numbers of the form \\( 2^{\\mathrm{exponenttwo}} 3^{\\mathrm{exponentthree}} \\), where \\( \\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\) are integers, and let \\( \\mathrm{positivereals} \\) be the set of all positive real numbers. Is \\( \\mathrm{powerset} \\) dense in \\( \\mathrm{positivereals} \\) ?",
      "solution": "Because the logarithm function and its inverse, the exponential function, are continuous, the proposed question amounts to asking whether numbers of the form\n\\[\n\\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\log 2+\\mathrm{exponentthree} \\log 3, \\quad \\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\text { and } \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\text { integers, }\n\\]\nare dense in all of \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\). We use the following theorem.\nTheorem 1. If \\( \\mathrm{alphaparam}, \\mathrm{betaparam} \\in \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\), then the numbers of the form \\( \\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\, \\mathrm{alphaparam}+ \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\, \\mathrm{betaparam} \\), \\( \\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\) integers, are dense in \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\) unless there are integers \\( \\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\) not both zero such that\n\\[\n\\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\, \\mathrm{alphaparam}+ \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\, \\mathrm{betaparam}=0\n\\]\n(A proof of this theorem is given below.)\nIn our particular case, \\( \\mathrm{alphaparam}=\\log 2 \\) and \\( \\mathrm{betaparam}=\\log 3 \\) and, on taking exponentials, (1) becomes\n\\[\n2^{\\mathrm{coeffalpha}} 3^{\\mathrm{coeffbeta}}=1\n\\]\nfor integers \\( \\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\) not both zero. This is clearly impossible by the unique factorization theorem. So we conclude that \\( \\mathrm{powerset} \\) is dense in \\( \\mathrm{positivereals} \\).\n\nTo prove the theorem, we start with another theorem.\nTheorem 2. If \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) is a subgroup of the additive group of \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\), then either \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal}=\\{0\\}, \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) consists of all multiples of some positive number, or \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) is dense in \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\).\n\nProof of Theorem 2. If \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) contains no positive numbers, then \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal}=\\{0\\} \\).\nSuppose \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) contains a least positive number, say \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). We shall prove that \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) consists of all multiples of \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). Clearly, \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) contains all multiples of \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). Suppose \\( \\mathrm{arbitraryelem} \\in \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\). There is an integer \\( \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\) such that \\( \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\leq \\mathrm{arbitraryelem} / \\mathrm{posgenerator}<\\mathrm{exponentthree}+1 \\). Then \\( \\mathrm{remainder}=\\mathrm{arbitraryelem}-\\mathrm{exponentthree} \\, \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\) is in \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) and \\( 0 \\leq \\mathrm{remainder}<\\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). Since \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\) is the least positive element of \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal}, \\mathrm{remainder}=0 \\); thus, \\( \\mathrm{arbitraryelem}= \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\,\\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). This proves that \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) consists of all multiples of \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\).\n\nSuppose \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) contains a positive number \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\), but no least positive number. Let \\( \\mathrm{openinterval}= (\\mathrm{intervalstart}, \\mathrm{intervalstart}+ \\mathrm{intervalwidth}) \\) be an open interval in \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\). Since \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) has infinitely many elements in \\( (0, \\mathrm{posgenerator}) \\), two of them, say \\( \\mathrm{subgroupfirst} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{subgroupsecond} \\), are within \\( \\mathrm{intervalwidth} \\) of one another. We may assume \\( \\mathrm{subgroupfirst}<\\mathrm{subgroupsecond} \\). Then \\( \\mathrm{differencesmall}= \\mathrm{subgroupsecond}-\\mathrm{subgroupfirst} \\) is in \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) and \\( 0<\\mathrm{differencesmall}<\\mathrm{intervalwidth} \\). All multiples of \\( \\mathrm{differencesmall} \\) are in \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\), and some multiple of \\( \\mathrm{differencesmall} \\) lies in the interval \\( \\mathrm{openinterval} \\), so \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\cap \\mathrm{openinterval} \\neq \\emptyset \\). Since \\( \\mathrm{openinterval} \\) was arbitrary, \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) is dense in this case.\n\nProof of Theorem 1. The numbers of the form \\( \\mathrm{exponenttwo} \\, \\mathrm{alphaparam}+ \\mathrm{exponentthree} \\, \\mathrm{betaparam} \\) are a subgroup \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) of \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\), and \\( \\mathrm{alphaparam} \\in \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{betaparam} \\in \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\). Suppose \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) is not dense in \\( \\mathrm{realnumberset} \\). Then, by the preceding theorem, \\( \\mathrm{subgroupreal} \\) consists of all multiples of some non-negative number \\( \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\). Say \\( \\mathrm{alphaparam}= \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\, \\mathrm{posgenerator}, \\mathrm{betaparam}= -\\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\, \\mathrm{posgenerator} \\), where \\( \\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\) and \\( \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\) are integers. Then\n\\[\n\\mathrm{coeffalpha} \\, \\mathrm{alphaparam}+ \\mathrm{coeffbeta} \\, \\mathrm{betaparam}=0\n\\]\n\nIf here \\( \\mathrm{coeffalpha}=\\mathrm{coeffbeta}=0 \\), then \\( \\mathrm{alphaparam}= \\mathrm{betaparam}=0 \\) and (1) can be satisfied trivially."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "m": "crescent",
        "n": "galactic",
        "p": "marigold",
        "q": "tangerine",
        "x": "silhouette",
        "y": "harmonica",
        "z": "pendulum",
        "t_1": "coriander",
        "t_2": "cardamom",
        "s": "labyrinth",
        "a": "dandelion",
        "\\delta": "heliotrope",
        "S": "rainfall",
        "P": "sunlight",
        "T": "butterfly",
        "I": "spectrum",
        "\\alpha": "longitude",
        "\\beta": "latitude",
        "R": "hinterland"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( rainfall \\) be the set of all numbers of the form \\( 2^{crescent} 3^{galactic} \\), where \\( crescent \\) and \\( galactic \\) are integers, and let \\( sunlight \\) be the set of all positive real numbers. Is \\( rainfall \\) dense in \\( sunlight \\) ?",
      "solution": "Solution. Because the logarithm function and its inverse, the exponential function, are continuous, the proposed question amounts to asking whether numbers of the form\n\\[\ncrescent \\log 2+galactic \\log 3, \\quad crescent \\text { and } galactic \\text { integers, }\n\\]\nare dense in all of \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\). We use the following theorem.\nTheorem 1. If \\( longitude, latitude \\in \\mathbf{hinterland} \\), then the numbers of the form \\( crescent \\, longitude+galactic \\, latitude \\), \\( crescent \\) and \\( galactic \\) integers, are dense in \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\) unless there are integers \\( marigold \\) and \\( tangerine \\) not both zero such that\n\\[\nmarigold \\, longitude+tangerine \\, latitude=0\n\\]\n(A proof of this theorem is given below.)\nIn our particular case, \\( longitude=\\log 2 \\) and \\( latitude=\\log 3 \\) and, on taking exponentials, (1) becomes\n\\[\n2^{marigold} 3^{tangerine}=1\n\\]\nfor integers \\( marigold \\) and \\( tangerine \\) not both zero. This is clearly impossible by the unique factorization theorem. So we conclude that \\( rainfall \\) is dense in \\( sunlight \\).\n\nTo prove the theorem, we start with another theorem.\nTheorem 2. If \\( butterfly \\) is a subgroup of the additive group of \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\), then either \\( butterfly=\\{0\\}, butterfly \\) consists of all multiples of some positive number, or \\( butterfly \\) is dense in \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\).\n\nProof of Theorem 2. If \\( butterfly \\) contains no positive numbers, then \\( butterfly=\\{0\\} \\).\nSuppose \\( butterfly \\) contains a least positive number, say \\( silhouette \\). We shall prove that \\( butterfly \\) consists of all multiples of \\( silhouette \\). Clearly, \\( butterfly \\) contains all multiples of \\( silhouette \\). Suppose \\( harmonica \\in butterfly \\). There is an integer \\( galactic \\) such that \\( galactic \\leq harmonica / silhouette<galactic+1 \\). Then \\( pendulum=harmonica-galactic \\, silhouette \\) is in \\( butterfly \\) and \\( 0 \\leq pendulum<silhouette \\). Since \\( silhouette \\) is the least positive element of \\( butterfly, pendulum=0 \\); thus, \\( harmonica=galactic \\, silhouette \\). This proves that \\( butterfly \\) consists of all multiples of \\( silhouette \\).\n\nSuppose \\( butterfly \\) contains a positive number \\( silhouette \\), but no least positive number. Let \\( spectrum=(dandelion, dandelion+heliotrope) \\) be an open interval in \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\). Since \\( butterfly \\) has infinitely many elements in \\( (0, silhouette) \\), two of them, say \\( coriander \\) and \\( cardamom \\), are within \\( heliotrope \\) of one another. We may assume \\( coriander<cardamom \\). Then \\( labyrinth=cardamom-coriander \\) is in \\( butterfly \\) and \\( 0<labyrinth<heliotrope \\). All multiples of \\( labyrinth \\) are in \\( butterfly \\), and some multiple of \\( labyrinth \\) lies in the interval \\( spectrum \\), so \\( butterfly \\cap spectrum \\neq \\emptyset \\). Since \\( spectrum \\) was arbitrary, \\( butterfly \\) is dense in this case.\n\nProof of Theorem 1. The numbers of the form \\( crescent \\, longitude+galactic \\, latitude \\) are a subgroup \\( butterfly \\) of \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\), and \\( longitude \\in butterfly \\) and \\( latitude \\in butterfly \\). Suppose \\( butterfly \\) is not dense in \\( \\mathbf{hinterland} \\). Then, by the preceding theorem, \\( butterfly \\) consists of all multiples of some non-negative number \\( silhouette \\). Say \\( longitude=tangerine \\, silhouette, \\, latitude=-marigold \\, silhouette \\), where \\( marigold \\) and \\( tangerine \\) are integers. Then\n\\[\nmarigold \\, longitude+tangerine \\, latitude=0\n\\]\n\nIf here \\( marigold=tangerine=0 \\), then \\( longitude=latitude=0 \\) and (1) can be satisfied trivially."
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "m": "fractionalvalue",
        "n": "decimalindex",
        "p": "irrational",
        "q": "noninteger",
        "x": "maxnegative",
        "y": "belowzero",
        "z": "highestpeak",
        "t_1": "smoothone",
        "t_2": "smoothtwo",
        "s": "grandgap",
        "a": "terminus",
        "\\delta": "colossal",
        "S": "nullspace",
        "P": "negatives",
        "T": "disarray",
        "I": "closedset",
        "\\alpha": "omegavar",
        "\\beta": "gammavar",
        "R": "integers"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( nullspace \\) be the set of all numbers of the form \\( 2^{fractionalvalue} 3^{decimalindex} \\), where \\( fractionalvalue \\) and \\( decimalindex \\) are integers, and let \\( negatives \\) be the set of all positive real numbers. Is \\( nullspace \\) dense in \\( negatives \\) ?",
      "solution": "Solution. Because the logarithm function and its inverse, the exponential function, are continuous, the proposed question amounts to asking whether numbers of the form\n\\[\nfractionalvalue \\log 2+decimalindex \\log 3, \\quad fractionalvalue \\text { and } decimalindex \\text { integers, }\n\\]\nare dense in all of \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\). We use the following theorem.\nTheorem 1. If \\( omegavar, gammavar \\in \\mathbf{integers} \\), then the numbers of the form \\( fractionalvalue \nomegavar+decimalindex \\gammavar \\), \\( fractionalvalue \\) and \\( decimalindex \\) integers, are dense in \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\) unless there are integers \\( irrational \\) and \\( noninteger \\) not both zero such that\n\\[\nirrational \\, omegavar+noninteger \\, gammavar=0\n\\]\n(A proof of this theorem is given below.)\nIn our particular case, \\( omegavar=\\log 2 \\) and \\( gammavar=\\log 3 \\) and, on taking exponentials, (1) becomes\n\\[\n2^{irrational} 3^{noninteger}=1\n\\]\nfor integers \\( irrational \\) and \\( noninteger \\) not both zero. This is clearly impossible by the unique factorization theorem. So we conclude that \\( nullspace \\) is dense in \\( negatives \\).\n\nTo prove the theorem, we start with another theorem.\nTheorem 2. If \\( disarray \\) is a subgroup of the additive group of \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\), then either \\( disarray=\\{0\\}, disarray \\) consists of all multiples of some positive number, or \\( disarray \\) is dense in \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\).\n\nProof of Theorem 2. If \\( disarray \\) contains no positive numbers, then \\( disarray=\\{0\\} \\).\nSuppose \\( disarray \\) contains a least positive number, say \\( maxnegative \\). We shall prove that \\( disarray \\) consists of all multiples of \\( maxnegative \\). Clearly, \\( disarray \\) contains all multiples of \\( maxnegative \\). Suppose \\( belowzero \\in disarray \\). There is an integer \\( decimalindex \\) such that \\( decimalindex \\leq belowzero / maxnegative<decimalindex+1 \\). Then \\( highestpeak=belowzero-decimalindex \\, maxnegative \\) is in \\( disarray \\) and \\( 0 \\leq highestpeak<maxnegative \\). Since \\( maxnegative \\) is the least positive element of \\( disarray, highestpeak=0 \\); thus, \\( belowzero=decimalindex \\, maxnegative \\). This proves that \\( disarray \\) consists of all multiples of \\( maxnegative \\).\n\nSuppose \\( disarray \\) contains a positive number \\( maxnegative \\), but no least positive number. Let \\( closedset=(terminus, terminus+colossal) \\) be an open interval in \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\). Since \\( disarray \\) has infinitely many elements in \\( (0, maxnegative) \\), two of them, say \\( smoothone \\) and \\( smoothtwo \\), are within \\( colossal \\) of one another. We may assume \\( smoothone<smoothtwo \\). Then \\( grandgap=smoothtwo-smoothone \\) is in \\( disarray \\) and \\( 0<grandgap<colossal \\). All multiples of \\( grandgap \\) are in \\( disarray \\), and some multiple of \\( grandgap \\) lies in the interval \\( closedset \\), so \\( disarray \\cap closedset \\neq \\emptyset \\). Since \\( closedset \\) was arbitrary, \\( disarray \\) is dense in this case.\n\nProof of Theorem 1. The numbers of the form \\( fractionalvalue \\omegavar+decimalindex \\gammavar \\) are a subgroup \\( disarray \\) of \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\), and \\( omegavar \\in disarray \\) and \\( gammavar \\in disarray \\). Suppose \\( disarray \\) is not dense in \\( \\mathbf{integers} \\). Then, by the preceding theorem, \\( disarray \\) consists of all multiples of some non-negative number \\( maxnegative \\). Say \\( omegavar=noninteger \\, maxnegative, \\gammavar=-irrational \\, maxnegative \\), where \\( irrational \\) and \\( noninteger \\) are integers. Then\n\\[\nirrational \\, omegavar+noninteger \\, gammavar=0\n\\]\n\nIf here \\( irrational=noninteger=0 \\), then \\( omegavar=\\gammavar=0 \\) and (1) can be satisfied trivially."
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "m": "qzxwvtnp",
        "n": "hjgrksla",
        "p": "vldopqke",
        "q": "znrmctoy",
        "x": "kefjtbsa",
        "y": "moqndple",
        "z": "rbxhgcta",
        "t_1": "awpmzqer",
        "t_2": "cloynbas",
        "s": "ghtmslke",
        "a": "dbvqzarj",
        "\\delta": "\\kruvpmse",
        "S": "ulqmsdpa",
        "P": "jwacyhti",
        "T": "fqnvebro",
        "I": "pbxrlmaq",
        "\\alpha": "\\imjghsne",
        "\\beta": "\\qtnsdhro",
        "R": "wexlpzcu"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( ulqmsdpa \\) be the set of all numbers of the form \\( 2^{qzxwvtnp} 3^{hjgrksla} \\), where \\( qzxwvtnp \\) and \\( hjgrksla \\) are integers, and let \\( jwacyhti \\) be the set of all positive real numbers. Is \\( ulqmsdpa \\) dense in \\( jwacyhti \\) ?",
      "solution": "Solution. Because the logarithm function and its inverse, the exponential function, are continuous, the proposed question amounts to asking whether numbers of the form\n\\[\nqzxwvtnp \\log 2+hjgrksla \\log 3, \\quad qzxwvtnp \\text { and } hjgrksla \\text { integers, }\n\\]\nare dense in all of \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\). We use the following theorem.\nTheorem 1. If \\( \\imjghsne, \\qtnsdhro \\in \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\), then the numbers of the form \\( qzxwvtnp \\imjghsne+hjgrksla \\qtnsdhro \\), \\( qzxwvtnp \\) and \\( hjgrksla \\) integers, are dense in \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\) unless there are integers \\( vldopqke \\) and \\( znrmctoy \\) not both zero such that\n\\[\nvldopqke \\imjghsne+znrmctoy \\qtnsdhro=0\n\\]\n(A proof of this theorem is given below.)\nIn our particular case, \\( \\imjghsne=\\log 2 \\) and \\( \\qtnsdhro=\\log 3 \\) and, on taking exponentials, (1) becomes\n\\[\n2^{vldopqke} 3^{znrmctoy}=1\n\\]\nfor integers \\( vldopqke \\) and \\( znrmctoy \\) not both zero. This is clearly impossible by the unique factorization theorem. So we conclude that \\( ulqmsdpa \\) is dense in \\( jwacyhti \\).\n\nTo prove the theorem, we start with another theorem.\nTheorem 2. If \\( fqnvebro \\) is a subgroup of the additive group of \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\), then either \\( fqnvebro=\\{0\\}, fqnvebro \\) consists of all multiples of some positive number, or \\( fqnvebro \\) is dense in \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\).\n\nProof of Theorem 2. If \\( fqnvebro \\) contains no positive numbers, then \\( fqnvebro=\\{0\\} \\).\nSuppose \\( fqnvebro \\) contains a least positive number, say \\( kefjtbsa \\). We shall prove that \\( fqnvebro \\) consists of all multiples of \\( kefjtbsa \\). Clearly, \\( fqnvebro \\) contains all multiples of \\( kefjtbsa \\). Suppose \\( moqndple \\in fqnvebro \\). There is an integer \\( hjgrksla \\) such that \\( hjgrksla \\leq moqndple / kefjtbsa<hjgrksla+1 \\). Then \\( rbxhgcta=moqndple-hjgrksla kefjtbsa \\) is in \\( fqnvebro \\) and \\( 0 \\leq rbxhgcta<kefjtbsa \\). Since \\( kefjtbsa \\) is the least positive element of \\( fqnvebro, rbxhgcta=0 \\); thus, \\( moqndple=hjgrksla kefjtbsa \\). This proves that \\( fqnvebro \\) consists of all multiples of \\( kefjtbsa \\).\n\nSuppose \\( fqnvebro \\) contains a positive number \\( kefjtbsa \\), but no least positive number. Let \\( pbxrlmaq=(dbvqzarj, dbvqzarj+\\kruvpmse) \\) be an open interval in \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\). Since \\( fqnvebro \\) has infinitely many elements in \\( (0, kefjtbsa) \\), two of them, say \\( awpmzqer \\) and \\( cloynbas \\), are within \\( \\kruvpmse \\) of one another. We may assume \\( awpmzqer<cloynbas \\). Then \\( ghtmslke=cloynbas-awpmzqer \\) is in \\( fqnvebro \\) and \\( 0<ghtmslke<\\kruvpmse \\). All multiples of \\( ghtmslke \\) are in \\( fqnvebro \\), and some multiple of \\( ghtmslke \\) lies in the interval \\( pbxrlmaq \\), so \\( fqnvebro \\cap pbxrlmaq \\neq \\emptyset \\). Since \\( pbxrlmaq \\) was arbitrary, \\( fqnvebro \\) is dense in this case.\n\nProof of Theorem 1. The numbers of the form \\( qzxwvtnp \\imjghsne+hjgrksla \\qtnsdhro \\) are a subgroup \\( fqnvebro \\) of \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\), and \\( \\imjghsne \\in fqnvebro \\) and \\( \\qtnsdhro \\in fqnvebro \\). Suppose \\( fqnvebro \\) is not dense in \\( \\mathbf{wexlpzcu} \\). Then, by the preceding theorem, \\( fqnvebro \\) consists of all multiples of some non-negative number \\( kefjtbsa \\). Say \\( \\imjghsne=znrmctoy kefjtbsa, \\qtnsdhro=-vldopqke kefjtbsa \\), where \\( vldopqke \\) and \\( znrmctoy \\) are integers. Then\n\\[\nvldopqke \\imjghsne+znrmctoy \\qtnsdhro=0\n\\]\n\nIf here \\( vldopqke=znrmctoy=0 \\), then \\( \\imjghsne=\\qtnsdhro=0 \\) and (1) can be satisfied trivially."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let\n\\[\nS=\\Bigl\\{\\,2^{m_{1}}\\;3^{m_{2}}\\;5^{m_{3}}\\;7^{m_{4}}\n : (m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})\\in\\mathbf Z^{4}\\ \\text{ satisfy }\\!\n \\begin{aligned}\n   m_{1}+2m_{2}+3m_{3}+4m_{4}&=0,\\\\\n   m_{2}-m_{3}+2m_{4}&=0,\\\\\n   \\gcd(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})&=1\n \\end{aligned}\\Bigr\\}.\n\\]\nProve that the subset \\(S\\cap(0,1)\\) is dense in the open interval \\((0,1)\\).\n\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%",
      "solution": "Step 1.  Parametrising all integer solutions.  \nFrom\n\\[\nm_{2}-m_{3}+2m_{4}=0\n\\quad\\Longrightarrow\\quad\nm_{2}=m_{3}-2m_{4}.\n\\]\nInsert this into the first relation:\n\\[\nm_{1}+2(m_{3}-2m_{4})+3m_{3}+4m_{4}=m_{1}+5m_{3}=0,\n\\]\nhence\n\\[\n(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})=(-5k,\\;k-2\\ell,\\;k,\\;\\ell),\n\\qquad k,\\ell\\in\\mathbf Z. \\tag{1}\n\\]\n\nStep 2.  The primitivity constraint.  \nFor \\((m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})\\) as in (1) we clearly have\n\\[\n\\gcd(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})=\\gcd(k,\\ell). \\tag{2}\n\\]\nThus the required primitivity is equivalent to \\(\\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\).\n\nStep 3.  A two–parameter multiplicative description.  \nDefine\n\\[\n\\alpha=\\frac{15}{32},\\qquad \\beta=\\frac{7}{9}; \\qquad 0<\\alpha,\\beta<1. \\tag{3}\n\\]\nThen, using (1),\n\\[\n2^{m_{1}}3^{m_{2}}5^{m_{3}}7^{m_{4}}\n=2^{-5k}\\;3^{\\,k-2\\ell}\\;5^{\\,k}\\;7^{\\,\\ell}\n=\\bigl(2^{-5}3^{\\,1}5^{\\,1}\\bigr)^{k}\\,\n  \\bigl(3^{-2}7^{\\,1}\\bigr)^{\\ell}\n=\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}. \\tag{4}\n\\]\nConsequently\n\\[\nS=\\bigl\\{\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}:(k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\bigr\\}. \\tag{5}\n\\]\n\nStep 4.  \\(\\mathbf Q\\)-linear independence of \\(\\log\\alpha,\\log\\beta\\).  \nAssume \\(p\\log\\alpha+q\\log\\beta=0\\) with \\(p,q\\in\\mathbf Z\\).  \nExponentiating gives\n\\[\n2^{-5p}\\;3^{\\,p-2q}\\;5^{\\,p}\\;7^{\\,q}=1.\n\\]\nBy unique factorisation we must have \\(p=q=0\\).  \nHence\n\\[\n\\frac{\\log\\alpha}{\\log\\beta}\\notin\\mathbf Q.\\tag{6}\n\\]\n\nStep 5.  Density of primitive integer combinations.  \n\nLemma.  \nLet \\(a,b\\in\\mathbf R\\setminus\\{0\\}\\) with \\(a/b\\notin\\mathbf Q\\).  \nPut\n\\[\nV=\\bigl\\{ka+\\ell b:(k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\bigr\\}.\n\\]\nThen \\(V\\) is dense in \\(\\mathbf R\\).  \nConsequently the subset\n\\[\nV_{-}:=\\bigl\\{ka+\\ell b\\in V:ka+\\ell b<0\\bigr\\}\n\\]\nis dense in \\((-\\infty,0)\\).\n\nProof.  \nThe density of \\(V\\) is the same argument already given in the original solution (Step 5 of the draft): starting from any approximation by \\(\\langle a,b\\rangle\\), add a sufficiently small primitive step obtained from continued fractions to eliminate common divisors while keeping the error within a prescribed bound.  We repeat the crucial inequality for completeness.\n\nFix \\(x\\in\\mathbf R\\) and \\(\\varepsilon>0\\).  \nChoose \\((k_{0},\\ell_{0})\\in\\mathbf Z^{2}\\) such that\n\\[\n\\lvert k_{0}a+\\ell_{0}b-x\\rvert<\\varepsilon/2. \\tag{7}\n\\]\nBecause \\(a/b\\notin\\mathbf Q\\), the continued–fraction theory supplies infinitely many coprime pairs \\((u,v)\\) with\n\\[\n\\lvert ua+vb\\rvert<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2(\\lvert k_{0}\\rvert+\\lvert\\ell_{0}\\rvert+1)}. \\tag{8}\n\\]\nPut \\(d=\\gcd(k_{0},\\ell_{0})\\).  \nAmong the \\(d\\) residue classes modulo \\(d\\) there exists\n\\(t\\in\\{0,1,\\dots,d-1\\}\\) such that \\(\\gcd(k_{0}+tu,\\ell_{0}+tv)=1\\).  \nLet\n\\[\n(k,\\ell)=(k_{0}+tu,\\ \\ell_{0}+tv). \\tag{9}\n\\]\nThen \\(\\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\) and\n\\[\n\\lvert ka+\\ell b-x\\rvert\n\\le\\lvert k_{0}a+\\ell_{0}b-x\\rvert\n     +\\lvert t\\rvert\\lvert ua+vb\\rvert\n<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2}\n +d\\cdot\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2(\\lvert k_{0}\\rvert+\\lvert\\ell_{0}\\rvert+1)}\n\\le\\varepsilon.\n\\]\nThus \\(V\\) is dense.\n\nTo obtain density in \\((-\\infty,0)\\) simply approximate a negative \\(x\\) and observe that the approximation delivered above can be made negative as well: if the found value \\(ka+\\ell b\\) happens to be positive we replace \\((u,v)\\) by \\((-u,-v)\\) in (8); this flips the sign of the corrective step while keeping coprimality and the error bound, so one of the two choices yields a negative value within \\(\\varepsilon\\). \\(\\square\\)\n\nApplying the lemma with\n\\[\na=\\log\\alpha<0,\\qquad b=\\log\\beta<0\n\\]\nand using (6) gives\n\\[\n\\bigl\\{\\,k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta:\n        (k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1,\\ k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta<0\n  \\bigr\\}\n\\]\nis dense in \\((-\\infty,0)\\). \\tag{10}\n\nStep 6.  Transfer to the multiplicative setting.  \nThe exponential map \\(\\exp:\\mathbf R\\to(0,\\infty)\\) is a homeomorphism.  \nExponentiating every element of the dense set (10) we obtain\n\\[\nS_{-}:=\\bigl\\{\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}:\n        (k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1,\\ k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta<0\n      \\bigr\\}\\subseteq S\\cap(0,1). \\tag{11}\n\\]\nBecause \\(\\exp\\) is continuous and strictly increasing, the density of (10) in \\((-\\infty,0)\\) implies the density of \\(S_{-}\\) in \\((0,1)\\).\n\nFinally, \\(S_{-}\\subseteq S\\cap(0,1)\\subseteq(0,1)\\), so \\(S\\cap(0,1)\\) is dense in the open unit interval. \\(\\blacksquare\\)\n\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.543935",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension of variables.  \n   The original problem involved two independent exponents; the enhanced variant starts with four exponents subject to two simultaneous linear constraints, raising the algebraic dimension and forcing a non-trivial kernel analysis.\n\n2. Additional constraints.  \n   Two independent homogeneous equations link the exponents, so one must first compute a lattice basis for a 2-dimensional kernel inside ℤ⁴ before any classical density argument can begin.\n\n3. More sophisticated structures.  \n   The solution requires:  \n   • kernel computation of an integer matrix,  \n   • rewriting the multiplicative set as a rank-2 free abelian group,  \n   • proving ℚ-linear independence of two specific logarithms via unique prime factorisation, and  \n   • invoking the structure theorem for additive subgroups of ℝ.\n\n4. Deeper theoretical requirements.  \n   Beyond the unique factorisation argument, one must know (or re-prove) that a non-cyclic additive subgroup of ℝ is automatically dense – an application of Kronecker’s theorem or the standard subgroup lemma used in Diophantine approximation.\n\n5. More steps, tighter inter-concept connections.  \n   The solver must weave together linear algebra (kernel basis), algebraic number theory (prime factor independence), group theory (classification of subgroups of ℝ), and topology (continuity of exp/log and consequences for density).  Each of these steps is absent or trivial in the original statement, making the new kernel variant substantially more intricate and demanding."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let\n\\[\nS=\\Bigl\\{\\,2^{m_{1}}\\;3^{m_{2}}\\;5^{m_{3}}\\;7^{m_{4}}\n : (m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})\\in\\mathbf Z^{4}\\ \\text{ satisfy }\\!\n \\begin{aligned}\n   m_{1}+2m_{2}+3m_{3}+4m_{4}&=0,\\\\\n   m_{2}-m_{3}+2m_{4}&=0,\\\\\n   \\gcd(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})&=1\n \\end{aligned}\\Bigr\\}.\n\\]\nProve that the subset \\(S\\cap(0,1)\\) is dense in the open interval \\((0,1)\\).\n\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%",
      "solution": "Step 1.  Parametrising all integer solutions.  \nFrom\n\\[\nm_{2}-m_{3}+2m_{4}=0\n\\quad\\Longrightarrow\\quad\nm_{2}=m_{3}-2m_{4}.\n\\]\nInsert this into the first relation:\n\\[\nm_{1}+2(m_{3}-2m_{4})+3m_{3}+4m_{4}=m_{1}+5m_{3}=0,\n\\]\nhence\n\\[\n(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})=(-5k,\\;k-2\\ell,\\;k,\\;\\ell),\n\\qquad k,\\ell\\in\\mathbf Z. \\tag{1}\n\\]\n\nStep 2.  The primitivity constraint.  \nFor \\((m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})\\) as in (1) we clearly have\n\\[\n\\gcd(m_{1},m_{2},m_{3},m_{4})=\\gcd(k,\\ell). \\tag{2}\n\\]\nThus the required primitivity is equivalent to \\(\\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\).\n\nStep 3.  A two–parameter multiplicative description.  \nDefine\n\\[\n\\alpha=\\frac{15}{32},\\qquad \\beta=\\frac{7}{9}; \\qquad 0<\\alpha,\\beta<1. \\tag{3}\n\\]\nThen, using (1),\n\\[\n2^{m_{1}}3^{m_{2}}5^{m_{3}}7^{m_{4}}\n=2^{-5k}\\;3^{\\,k-2\\ell}\\;5^{\\,k}\\;7^{\\,\\ell}\n=\\bigl(2^{-5}3^{\\,1}5^{\\,1}\\bigr)^{k}\\,\n  \\bigl(3^{-2}7^{\\,1}\\bigr)^{\\ell}\n=\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}. \\tag{4}\n\\]\nConsequently\n\\[\nS=\\bigl\\{\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}:(k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\bigr\\}. \\tag{5}\n\\]\n\nStep 4.  \\(\\mathbf Q\\)-linear independence of \\(\\log\\alpha,\\log\\beta\\).  \nAssume \\(p\\log\\alpha+q\\log\\beta=0\\) with \\(p,q\\in\\mathbf Z\\).  \nExponentiating gives\n\\[\n2^{-5p}\\;3^{\\,p-2q}\\;5^{\\,p}\\;7^{\\,q}=1.\n\\]\nBy unique factorisation we must have \\(p=q=0\\).  \nHence\n\\[\n\\frac{\\log\\alpha}{\\log\\beta}\\notin\\mathbf Q.\\tag{6}\n\\]\n\nStep 5.  Density of primitive integer combinations.  \n\nLemma.  \nLet \\(a,b\\in\\mathbf R\\setminus\\{0\\}\\) with \\(a/b\\notin\\mathbf Q\\).  \nPut\n\\[\nV=\\bigl\\{ka+\\ell b:(k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\bigr\\}.\n\\]\nThen \\(V\\) is dense in \\(\\mathbf R\\).  \nConsequently the subset\n\\[\nV_{-}:=\\bigl\\{ka+\\ell b\\in V:ka+\\ell b<0\\bigr\\}\n\\]\nis dense in \\((-\\infty,0)\\).\n\nProof.  \nThe density of \\(V\\) is the same argument already given in the original solution (Step 5 of the draft): starting from any approximation by \\(\\langle a,b\\rangle\\), add a sufficiently small primitive step obtained from continued fractions to eliminate common divisors while keeping the error within a prescribed bound.  We repeat the crucial inequality for completeness.\n\nFix \\(x\\in\\mathbf R\\) and \\(\\varepsilon>0\\).  \nChoose \\((k_{0},\\ell_{0})\\in\\mathbf Z^{2}\\) such that\n\\[\n\\lvert k_{0}a+\\ell_{0}b-x\\rvert<\\varepsilon/2. \\tag{7}\n\\]\nBecause \\(a/b\\notin\\mathbf Q\\), the continued–fraction theory supplies infinitely many coprime pairs \\((u,v)\\) with\n\\[\n\\lvert ua+vb\\rvert<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2(\\lvert k_{0}\\rvert+\\lvert\\ell_{0}\\rvert+1)}. \\tag{8}\n\\]\nPut \\(d=\\gcd(k_{0},\\ell_{0})\\).  \nAmong the \\(d\\) residue classes modulo \\(d\\) there exists\n\\(t\\in\\{0,1,\\dots,d-1\\}\\) such that \\(\\gcd(k_{0}+tu,\\ell_{0}+tv)=1\\).  \nLet\n\\[\n(k,\\ell)=(k_{0}+tu,\\ \\ell_{0}+tv). \\tag{9}\n\\]\nThen \\(\\gcd(k,\\ell)=1\\) and\n\\[\n\\lvert ka+\\ell b-x\\rvert\n\\le\\lvert k_{0}a+\\ell_{0}b-x\\rvert\n     +\\lvert t\\rvert\\lvert ua+vb\\rvert\n<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2}\n +d\\cdot\\frac{\\varepsilon}{2(\\lvert k_{0}\\rvert+\\lvert\\ell_{0}\\rvert+1)}\n\\le\\varepsilon.\n\\]\nThus \\(V\\) is dense.\n\nTo obtain density in \\((-\\infty,0)\\) simply approximate a negative \\(x\\) and observe that the approximation delivered above can be made negative as well: if the found value \\(ka+\\ell b\\) happens to be positive we replace \\((u,v)\\) by \\((-u,-v)\\) in (8); this flips the sign of the corrective step while keeping coprimality and the error bound, so one of the two choices yields a negative value within \\(\\varepsilon\\). \\(\\square\\)\n\nApplying the lemma with\n\\[\na=\\log\\alpha<0,\\qquad b=\\log\\beta<0\n\\]\nand using (6) gives\n\\[\n\\bigl\\{\\,k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta:\n        (k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1,\\ k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta<0\n  \\bigr\\}\n\\]\nis dense in \\((-\\infty,0)\\). \\tag{10}\n\nStep 6.  Transfer to the multiplicative setting.  \nThe exponential map \\(\\exp:\\mathbf R\\to(0,\\infty)\\) is a homeomorphism.  \nExponentiating every element of the dense set (10) we obtain\n\\[\nS_{-}:=\\bigl\\{\\alpha^{k}\\beta^{\\ell}:\n        (k,\\ell)\\in\\mathbf Z^{2},\\ \\gcd(k,\\ell)=1,\\ k\\log\\alpha+\\ell\\log\\beta<0\n      \\bigr\\}\\subseteq S\\cap(0,1). \\tag{11}\n\\]\nBecause \\(\\exp\\) is continuous and strictly increasing, the density of (10) in \\((-\\infty,0)\\) implies the density of \\(S_{-}\\) in \\((0,1)\\).\n\nFinally, \\(S_{-}\\subseteq S\\cap(0,1)\\subseteq(0,1)\\), so \\(S\\cap(0,1)\\) is dense in the open unit interval. \\(\\blacksquare\\)\n\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.451054",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension of variables.  \n   The original problem involved two independent exponents; the enhanced variant starts with four exponents subject to two simultaneous linear constraints, raising the algebraic dimension and forcing a non-trivial kernel analysis.\n\n2. Additional constraints.  \n   Two independent homogeneous equations link the exponents, so one must first compute a lattice basis for a 2-dimensional kernel inside ℤ⁴ before any classical density argument can begin.\n\n3. More sophisticated structures.  \n   The solution requires:  \n   • kernel computation of an integer matrix,  \n   • rewriting the multiplicative set as a rank-2 free abelian group,  \n   • proving ℚ-linear independence of two specific logarithms via unique prime factorisation, and  \n   • invoking the structure theorem for additive subgroups of ℝ.\n\n4. Deeper theoretical requirements.  \n   Beyond the unique factorisation argument, one must know (or re-prove) that a non-cyclic additive subgroup of ℝ is automatically dense – an application of Kronecker’s theorem or the standard subgroup lemma used in Diophantine approximation.\n\n5. More steps, tighter inter-concept connections.  \n   The solver must weave together linear algebra (kernel basis), algebraic number theory (prime factor independence), group theory (classification of subgroups of ℝ), and topology (continuity of exp/log and consequences for density).  Each of these steps is absent or trivial in the original statement, making the new kernel variant substantially more intricate and demanding."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}