{
  "index": "2018-A-6",
  "type": "GEO",
  "tag": [
    "GEO",
    "ALG",
    "NT"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "Suppose that $A,B,C,$ and $D$ are distinct points, no three of which lie on a line,\nin the Euclidean plane. Show\nthat if the squares of the lengths of the line segments $AB$, $AC$, $AD$, $BC$, $BD$, and $CD$\nare rational numbers, then\nthe quotient\n\\[\n\\frac{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle ABC)}{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle ABD)}\n\\]\nis a rational number.",
  "solution": "\\textbf{First solution.}\nChoose a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the midpoint of $AB$ and positive $x$-axis containing $A$.\nBy the condition on $AB$, we have $A = (\\sqrt{a}, 0)$, $B = (-\\sqrt{a}, 0)$ for some positive rational number $a$.\nLet $(x_1, y_1)$ and $(x_2, y_2)$ be the respective coordinates of $C$ and $D$; by computing the lengths\nof the segments $AC, BC, AD, BD, CD$, we see that the quantities\n\\begin{gather*}\n(x_1 - \\sqrt{a})^2 + y_1^2, \\quad (x_1 + \\sqrt{a})^2 + y_1^2, \\\\\n(x_2 - \\sqrt{a})^2 + y_2^2, \\quad (x_2 + \\sqrt{a})^2 + y_2^2, \\\\\n(x_1 - x_2)^2 + (y_1 - y_2)^2\n\\end{gather*}\nare all rational numbers. By adding and subtracting the first two quantities, and similarly for the next two, we see that the quantities\n\\[\nx_1^2 + y_1^2,\\quad x_1 \\sqrt{a}, \\quad x_2^2 + y_2^2, \\quad x_2 \\sqrt{a}\n\\]\nare rational numbers. Since $a$ is a rational number, so then are\n\\begin{align*}\nx_1^2 &= \\frac{(x_1 \\sqrt{a})^2}{a} \\\\\nx_2^2 &= \\frac{(x_2 \\sqrt{a})^2}{a} \\\\\nx_1x_2 &= \\frac{(x_1 \\sqrt{a})(x_2 \\sqrt{a})}{a} \\\\\ny_1^2 &= (x_1^2 + y_1^2) - x_1^2 \\\\\ny_2^2 &= (x_2^2 + y_2^2) - x_2^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNow note that the quantity\n\\[\n(x_1 - x_2)^2 + (y_1 - y_2)^2 = x_1^2 -2x_1 x_2 + x_2^2 + y_1^2 - 2y_1y_2 + y_2^2\n\\]\nis known to be rational, as is every summand on the right except $-2y_1y_2$; thus $y_1y_2$ is also rational.\nSince $y_1^2$ is also rational, so then is $y_1/y_2 = (y_1y_2)/(y_1^2)$;\nsince\n\\[\n\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle ABC) = \\sqrt{a} y_1, \\qquad \\mathrm{area}(\\triangle ABD) = \\sqrt{a} y_2,\n\\]\nthis yields the desired result.\n\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution.} (by Manjul Bhargava)\nLet $\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{c}, \\mathbf{d}$ be the vectors $AB, AC, AD$ viewed as column vectors.\nThe desired ratio is given by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{c})}{\\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{d})} &= \\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{c})^T \\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{c}) }{ \\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{c})^T\\det(\\mathbf{b},\\mathbf{d})} \\\\\n&= \\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{b} & \\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{c} \\\\\n\\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{b} & \\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{c}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\det \\begin{pmatrix}\n\\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{b} & \\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{d} \\\\\n\\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{b} & \\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{d}\n\\end{pmatrix}^{-1}.\n\\end{align*}\n\nThe square of the length of $AB$ is $\\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{b}$, so this quantity is rational.\nThe square of the lengths of $AC$ and $BC$ are $\\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{c}$ and\n$(\\mathbf{c} - \\mathbf{b}) \\cdot (\\mathbf{c} - \\mathbf{b}) = \\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{b} + \\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{c}\n- 2 \\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{c}$, so $\\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{c} = \\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{b}$ is rational.\nSimilarly, using $AD$ and $BD$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{d} \\cdot \\mathbf{d}$ and $\\mathbf{b} \\cdot \\mathbf{d}$ is rational; then using $CD$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{c} \\cdot \\mathbf{d}$ is rational.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution.}\n(by David Rusin)\nRecall that Heron's formula (for the area of a triangle in terms of its side length) admits the following three-dimensional analogue due to Piero della Francesca: if $V$ denotes the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices $A,B,C,D \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$, then\n\\[\n288 V^2 = \\det\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & AB^2 & AC^2 & AD^2 & 1 \\\\\nAB^2 & 0 & BC^2 & BD^2 & 1 \\\\\nAC^2 & BC^2 & 0 & CD^2 & 1 \\\\\nAD^2 & BD^2 & CD^2 & 0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\]\nIn particular, the determinant vanishes if and only if $A,B,C,D$ are coplanar. From the identity\n\\begin{gather*}\n64(4 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ABC)^2 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ABD)^2 - 9 AB^2 V^2) \\\\\n= (AB^4 - AB^2(AC^2 + AD^2 + BC^2 + BD^2 - 2CD^2) \\\\ + (AC^2-BC^2)(AD^2-BD^2))^2\n\\end{gather*}\nwe see that $\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ABC) \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ABD)$ is rational;\nsince each of the areas has rational square, we deduce the claim.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution.}\n(by Greg Martin)\nDefine the signed angles $\\alpha = \\angle BAC, \\beta = \\angle BAD, \\gamma = \\angle CAD$, so that $\\alpha + \\gamma = \\beta$. By the Law of Cosines,\n\\begin{align*}\n2 AB \\cdot AC \\cos \\alpha &= AB^2 + AC^2 - BC^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2  AB \\cdot AD \\cos \\beta &= AB^2 + AD^2 - BD^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2  AC \\cdot AD \\cos \\gamma &= AC^2 + AD^2 - CD^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $(2 AB \\cdot AC \\cos \\alpha)^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and so\n$\\cos^2 \\alpha \\in \\mathbb{Q}$ and $\\sin^2 \\alpha = 1 - \\cos^2 \\alpha \\in \\mathbb{Q}$,\nand similarly for the other two angles.\n\nApplying the addition formula to $\\cos \\beta$, we deduce that\n\\[\n2  AB \\cdot AD \\cos \\alpha \\cos \\gamma - \n2 AB \\cdot AD \\sin \\alpha \\sin \\gamma \\in \\mathbb{Q}. \n\\]\nThe first of these terms equals\n\\[\n\\frac{(2 AB \\cdot AC \\cos \\alpha)(2 AB \\cdot AC \\cos \\alpha)}{AC^2} \\in \\mathbb{Q},\n\\]\nso the second term must also be rational. But now\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ABC)}{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle ACD)}\n&= \\frac{AB \\cdot AC \\sin \\alpha}{AC \\cdot AD \\sin \\gamma} \\\\\n&= \\frac{2 AB \\cdot AD \\sin \\alpha \\sin \\gamma}{2 AD^2 \\sin^2 \\gamma} \\in \\mathbb{Q}\n\\end{align*}\nas desired.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nDerek Smith observes that this result\nis Proposition 1 of: M. Knopf, J. Milzman, D. Smith, D. Zhu and D. Zirlin,\nLattice embeddings of planar point sets, \\textit{Discrete and Computational Geometry} \\textbf{56} (2016), 693--710.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nIt is worth pointing out that it is indeed possible to choose points $A,B,C,D$ satisfying the conditions of the problem;\n one can even ensure that the lengths of all four segments are themselves rational.\nFor example, it was originally observed by Euler that one can find an infinite set of points on the unit circle whose pairwise distances are all rational numbers.\nOne way to see this is to apply the linear fractional transformation $f(z) = \\frac{z+i}{z-i}$ to the Riemann sphere to carry the real axis (plus $\\infty$) to the unit circle, then compute that\n\\[\n\\left| f(z_1) - f(z_2) \\right| = \\frac{2|z_1-z_2||}{|(z_1-i)(z_2-i)|}.\n\\]\nLet $S$ be the set of rational numbers $z$ for which $2(z^2 + 1)$ is a perfect square; the set $f(S)$ has the desired property provided that it is infinite. That can be checked in various ways; for instance, the equation\n$2(x^2+1) = (2y)^2$ equates to $x^2-2y^2 = -1$ (a modified Brahmagupta-Pell equation), which has infinitely many solutions even over the integers:\n\\[\nx + y \\sqrt{2} = (1 + \\sqrt{2})^{2n+1}.\n\\]",
  "vars": [
    "A",
    "B",
    "C",
    "D",
    "x",
    "y",
    "z",
    "b",
    "c",
    "d",
    "V",
    "S",
    "x_1",
    "y_1",
    "x_2",
    "y_2",
    "\\\\alpha",
    "\\\\beta",
    "\\\\gamma"
  ],
  "params": [
    "a",
    "n"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [
    "i"
  ],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "A": "vertexalp",
        "B": "vertexbet",
        "C": "vertexgam",
        "D": "vertexdel",
        "x": "coordx",
        "y": "coordy",
        "z": "coordz",
        "b": "vectb",
        "c": "vectc",
        "d": "vectd",
        "V": "tetvolume",
        "S": "rationalset",
        "x_1": "coordxone",
        "y_1": "coordyone",
        "x_2": "coordxtwo",
        "y_2": "coordytwo",
        "\\alpha": "anglealpha",
        "\\beta": "anglebeta",
        "\\gamma": "anglegamma",
        "a": "rationala",
        "n": "integern"
      },
      "question": "Suppose that $vertexalp,vertexbet,vertexgam,$ and $vertexdel$ are distinct points, no three of which lie on a line,\nin the Euclidean plane. Show\nthat if the squares of the lengths of the line segments $vertexalpvertexbet$, $vertexalpvertexgam$, $vertexalpvertexdel$, $vertexbetvertexgam$, $vertexbetvertexdel$, and $vertexgamvertexdel$\nare rational numbers, then\nthe quotient\n\\[\n\\frac{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexgam)}{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexdel)}\n\\]\nis a rational number.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution.}\nChoose a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the midpoint of $vertexalpvertexbet$ and positive $coordx$-axis containing $vertexalp$.\nBy the condition on $vertexalpvertexbet$, we have $vertexalp = (\\sqrt{rationala}, 0)$, $vertexbet = (-\\sqrt{rationala}, 0)$ for some positive rational number $rationala$.\nLet $(coordxone, coordyone)$ and $(coordxtwo, coordytwo)$ be the respective coordinates of $vertexgam$ and $vertexdel$; by computing the lengths\nof the segments $vertexalpvertexgam, vertexbetvertexgam, vertexalpvertexdel, vertexbetvertexdel, vertexgamvertexdel$, we see that the quantities\n\\begin{gather*}\n(coordxone - \\sqrt{rationala})^2 + coordyone^2, \\quad (coordxone + \\sqrt{rationala})^2 + coordyone^2, \\\\\n(coordxtwo - \\sqrt{rationala})^2 + coordytwo^2, \\quad (coordxtwo + \\sqrt{rationala})^2 + coordytwo^2, \\\\\n(coordxone - coordxtwo)^2 + (coordyone - coordytwo)^2\n\\end{gather*}\nare all rational numbers. By adding and subtracting the first two quantities, and similarly for the next two, we see that the quantities\n\\[\ncoordxone^2 + coordyone^2,\\quad coordxone \\sqrt{rationala}, \\quad coordxtwo^2 + coordytwo^2, \\quad coordxtwo \\sqrt{rationala}\n\\]\nare rational numbers. Since $rationala$ is a rational number, so then are\n\\begin{align*}\ncoordxone^2 &= \\frac{(coordxone \\sqrt{rationala})^2}{rationala} \\\\\ncoordxtwo^2 &= \\frac{(coordxtwo \\sqrt{rationala})^2}{rationala} \\\\\ncoordxone\\,coordxtwo &= \\frac{(coordxone \\sqrt{rationala})(coordxtwo \\sqrt{rationala})}{rationala} \\\\\ncoordyone^2 &= (coordxone^2 + coordyone^2) - coordxone^2 \\\\\ncoordytwo^2 &= (coordxtwo^2 + coordytwo^2) - coordxtwo^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNow note that the quantity\n\\[\n(coordxone - coordxtwo)^2 + (coordyone - coordytwo)^2 = coordxone^2 -2\\,coordxone\\,coordxtwo + coordxtwo^2 + coordyone^2 - 2\\,coordyone\\,coordytwo + coordytwo^2\n\\]\nis known to be rational, as is every summand on the right except $-2\\,coordyone\\,coordytwo$; thus $coordyone\\,coordytwo$ is also rational.\nSince $coordyone^2$ is also rational, so then is $coordyone/coordytwo = (coordyone\\,coordytwo)/(coordyone^2)$;\nsince\n\\[\n\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexgam) = \\sqrt{rationala}\\, coordyone, \\qquad \\mathrm{area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexdel) = \\sqrt{rationala}\\, coordytwo,\n\\]\nthis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution.} (by Manjul Bhargava)\nLet $\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectc}, \\mathbf{vectd}$ be the vectors $vertexalpvertexbet, vertexalpvertexgam, vertexalpvertexdel$ viewed as column vectors.\nThe desired ratio is given by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectc})}{\\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectd})} &= \\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectc})^T \\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectc}) }{ \\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectc})^T\\det(\\mathbf{vectb},\\mathbf{vectd})} \\\\\n&= \\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb} & \\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc} \\\\\n\\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb} & \\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\det \\begin{pmatrix}\n\\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb} & \\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectd} \\\\\n\\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb} & \\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectd}\n\\end{pmatrix}^{-1}.\n\\end{align*}\n\nThe square of the length of $vertexalpvertexbet$ is $\\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb}$, so this quantity is rational.\nThe square of the lengths of $vertexalpvertexgam$ and $vertexbetvertexgam$ are $\\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc}$ and\n$(\\mathbf{vectc} - \\mathbf{vectb}) \\cdot (\\mathbf{vectc} - \\mathbf{vectb}) = \\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb} + \\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc}\n- 2 \\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc}$, so $\\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectc} = \\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectb}$ is rational.\nSimilarly, using $vertexalpvertexdel$ and $vertexbetvertexdel$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{vectd} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectd}$ and $\\mathbf{vectb} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectd}$ are rational; then using $vertexgamvertexdel$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{vectc} \\cdot \\mathbf{vectd}$ is rational.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution.}\n(by David Rusin)\nRecall that Heron's formula (for the area of a triangle in terms of its side length) admits the following three-dimensional analogue due to Piero della Francesca: if $tetvolume$ denotes the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices $vertexalp,vertexbet,vertexgam,vertexdel \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$, then\n\\[\n288\\, tetvolume^2 = \\det\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & vertexalpvertexbet^2 & vertexalpvertexgam^2 & vertexalpvertexdel^2 & 1 \\\\\nvertexalpvertexbet^2 & 0 & vertexbetvertexgam^2 & vertexbetvertexdel^2 & 1 \\\\\nvertexalpvertexgam^2 & vertexbetvertexgam^2 & 0 & vertexgamvertexdel^2 & 1 \\\\\nvertexalpvertexdel^2 & vertexbetvertexdel^2 & vertexgamvertexdel^2 & 0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\]\nIn particular, the determinant vanishes if and only if $vertexalp,vertexbet,vertexgam,vertexdel$ are coplanar. From the identity\n\\begin{gather*}\n64\\bigl(4\\, \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexgam)^2\\, \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexdel)^2 - 9\\, vertexalpvertexbet^2\\, tetvolume^2\\bigr) \\\\\n= \\bigl(vertexalpvertexbet^4 - vertexalpvertexbet^2(vertexalpvertexgam^2 + vertexalpvertexdel^2 + vertexbetvertexgam^2 + vertexbetvertexdel^2 - 2\\, vertexgamvertexdel^2) \\\\ + (vertexalpvertexgam^2-vertexbetvertexgam^2)(vertexalpvertexdel^2-vertexbetvertexdel^2)\\bigr)^2\n\\end{gather*}\nwe see that $\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexgam)\\, \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexdel)$ is rational;\nsince each of the areas has rational square, we deduce the claim.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution.}\n(by Greg Martin)\nDefine the signed angles $anglealpha = \\angle vertexbet\\,vertexalp\\,vertexgam$, $anglebeta = \\angle vertexbet\\,vertexalp\\,vertexdel$, $anglegamma = \\angle vertexgam\\,vertexalp\\,vertexdel$, so that $anglealpha + anglegamma = anglebeta$. By the Law of Cosines,\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexgam \\cos anglealpha &= vertexalpvertexbet^2 + vertexalpvertexgam^2 - vertexbetvertexgam^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2\\,  vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\cos anglebeta &= vertexalpvertexbet^2 + vertexalpvertexdel^2 - vertexbetvertexdel^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2\\,  vertexalpvertexgam \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\cos anglegamma &= vertexalpvertexgam^2 + vertexalpvertexdel^2 - vertexgamvertexdel^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $(2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexgam \\cos anglealpha)^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and so\n$\\cos^2 anglealpha \\in \\mathbb{Q}$ and $\\sin^2 anglealpha = 1 - \\cos^2 anglealpha \\in \\mathbb{Q}$,\nand similarly for the other two angles.\n\nApplying the addition formula to $\\cos anglebeta$, we deduce that\n\\[\n2\\,  vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\cos anglealpha \\cos anglegamma - \n2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\sin anglealpha \\sin anglegamma \\in \\mathbb{Q}. \n\\]\nThe first of these terms equals\n\\[\n\\frac{(2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexgam \\cos anglealpha)(2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexgam \\cos anglealpha)}{vertexalpvertexgam^2} \\in \\mathbb{Q},\n\\]\nso the second term must also be rational. But now\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexbetvertexgam)}{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle vertexalpvertexgamvertexdel)}\n&= \\frac{vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexgam \\sin anglealpha}{vertexalpvertexgam \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\sin anglegamma} \\\\\n&= \\frac{2\\, vertexalpvertexbet \\cdot vertexalpvertexdel \\sin anglealpha \\sin anglegamma}{2\\, vertexalpvertexdel^2 \\sin^2 anglegamma} \\in \\mathbb{Q}\n\\end{align*}\nas desired.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nDerek Smith observes that this result\nis Proposition 1 of: M. Knopf, J. Milzman, D. Smith, D. Zhu and D. Zirlin,\nLattice embeddings of planar point sets, \\textit{Discrete and Computational Geometry} \\textbf{56} (2016), 693--710.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nIt is worth pointing out that it is indeed possible to choose points $vertexalp,vertexbet,vertexgam,vertexdel$ satisfying the conditions of the problem;\n one can even ensure that the lengths of all four segments are themselves rational.\nFor example, it was originally observed by Euler that one can find an infinite set of points on the unit circle whose pairwise distances are all rational numbers.\nOne way to see this is to apply the linear fractional transformation $f(coordz) = \\frac{coordz+i}{coordz-i}$ to the Riemann sphere to carry the real axis (plus $\\infty$) to the unit circle, then compute that\n\\[\n\\left| f(coordz_1) - f(coordz_2) \\right| = \\frac{2|coordz_1-coordz_2||}{|(coordz_1-i)(coordz_2-i)|}.\n\\]\nLet $rationalset$ be the set of rational numbers $coordz$ for which $2(coordz^2 + 1)$ is a perfect square; the set $f(rationalset)$ has the desired property provided that it is infinite. That can be checked in various ways; for instance, the equation\n$2(coordx^2+1) = (2coordy)^2$ equates to $coordx^2-2coordy^2 = -1$ (a modified Brahmagupta-Pell equation), which has infinitely many solutions even over the integers:\n\\[\ncoordx + coordy \\sqrt{2} = (1 + \\sqrt{2})^{2\\,integern+1}.\n\\]"
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "A": "pineapple",
        "B": "sunflower",
        "C": "bookshelf",
        "D": "rainstorm",
        "x": "chocolate",
        "y": "kangaroo",
        "z": "alligator",
        "b": "waterfall",
        "c": "horsewhip",
        "d": "raspberry",
        "V": "parchment",
        "S": "marshland",
        "x_1": "lemonade",
        "y_1": "toothpaste",
        "x_2": "skateboard",
        "y_2": "ambergris",
        "\\alpha": "quasarwind",
        "\\beta": "thunderbolt",
        "\\gamma": "whirlwind",
        "a": "chandelier",
        "n": "rainshower"
      },
      "question": "Suppose that $pineapple,sunflower,bookshelf,$ and $rainstorm$ are distinct points, no three of which lie on a line,\nin the Euclidean plane. Show\nthat if the squares of the lengths of the line segments $pineapplesunflower$, $pineapplebookshelf$, $pineapplerainstorm$, $sunflowerbookshelf$, $sunflowerrainstorm$, and $bookshelfrainstorm$\nare rational numbers, then\nthe quotient\n\\[\n\\frac{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerbookshelf)}{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerrainstorm)}\n\\]\nis a rational number.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution.}\nChoose a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the midpoint of $pineapplesunflower$ and positive $chocolate$-axis containing $pineapple$.\nBy the condition on $pineapplesunflower$, we have $pineapple = (\\sqrt{chandelier}, 0)$, $sunflower = (-\\sqrt{chandelier}, 0)$ for some positive rational number $chandelier$.\nLet $(lemonade, toothpaste)$ and $(skateboard, ambergris)$ be the respective coordinates of $bookshelf$ and $rainstorm$; by computing the lengths\nof the segments $pineapplebookshelf, sunflowerbookshelf, pineapplerainstorm, sunflowerrainstorm, bookshelfrainstorm$, we see that the quantities\n\\begin{gather*}\n(lemonade - \\sqrt{chandelier})^2 + toothpaste^2, \\quad (lemonade + \\sqrt{chandelier})^2 + toothpaste^2, \\\\\n(skateboard - \\sqrt{chandelier})^2 + ambergris^2, \\quad (skateboard + \\sqrt{chandelier})^2 + ambergris^2, \\\\\n(lemonade - skateboard)^2 + (toothpaste - ambergris)^2\n\\end{gather*}\nare all rational numbers. By adding and subtracting the first two quantities, and similarly for the next two, we see that the quantities\n\\[\nlemonade^2 + toothpaste^2,\\quad lemonade \\sqrt{chandelier}, \\quad skateboard^2 + ambergris^2, \\quad skateboard \\sqrt{chandelier}\n\\]\nare rational numbers. Since $chandelier$ is a rational number, so then are\n\\begin{align*}\nlemonade^2 &= \\frac{(lemonade \\sqrt{chandelier})^2}{chandelier} \\\\\nskateboard^2 &= \\frac{(skateboard \\sqrt{chandelier})^2}{chandelier} \\\\\nlemonade \\, skateboard &= \\frac{(lemonade \\sqrt{chandelier})(skateboard \\sqrt{chandelier})}{chandelier} \\\\\ntoothpaste^2 &= (lemonade^2 + toothpaste^2) - lemonade^2 \\\\\nambergris^2 &= (skateboard^2 + ambergris^2) - skateboard^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNow note that the quantity\n\\[\n(lemonade - skateboard)^2 + (toothpaste - ambergris)^2 = lemonade^2 -2\\,lemonade \\, skateboard + skateboard^2 + toothpaste^2 - 2\\,toothpaste \\, ambergris + ambergris^2\n\\]\nis known to be rational, as is every summand on the right except $-2\\,toothpaste \\, ambergris$; thus $toothpaste \\, ambergris$ is also rational.\nSince $toothpaste^2$ is also rational, so then is $toothpaste/ambergris = (toothpaste \\, ambergris)/(toothpaste^2)$;\nsince\n\\[\n\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerbookshelf) = \\sqrt{chandelier} \\, toothpaste, \\qquad \\mathrm{area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerrainstorm) = \\sqrt{chandelier} \\, ambergris,\n\\]\nthis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution.} (by Manjul Bhargava)\nLet $\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{horsewhip}, \\mathbf{raspberry}$ be the vectors $pineapplesunflower, pineapplebookshelf, pineapplerainstorm$ viewed as column vectors.\nThe desired ratio is given by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{horsewhip})}{\\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{raspberry})} &= \\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{horsewhip})^T \\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{horsewhip}) }{ \\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{horsewhip})^T\\det(\\mathbf{waterfall},\\mathbf{raspberry})} \\\\\n&= \\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall} & \\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip} \\\\\n\\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall} & \\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\det \\begin{pmatrix}\n\\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall} & \\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{raspberry} \\\\\n\\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall} & \\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{raspberry}\n\\end{pmatrix}^{-1}.\n\\end{align*}\n\nThe square of the length of $pineapplesunflower$ is $\\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall}$, so this quantity is rational.\nThe square of the lengths of $pineapplebookshelf$ and $sunflowerbookshelf$ are $\\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip}$ and\n$(\\mathbf{horsewhip} - \\mathbf{waterfall}) \\cdot (\\mathbf{horsewhip} - \\mathbf{waterfall}) = \\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall} + \\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip}\n- 2 \\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip}$, so $\\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{horsewhip} = \\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{waterfall}$ is rational.\nSimilarly, using $pineapplerainstorm$ and $sunflowerrainstorm$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{raspberry} \\cdot \\mathbf{raspberry}$ and $\\mathbf{waterfall} \\cdot \\mathbf{raspberry}$ are rational; then using $bookshelfrainstorm$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{horsewhip} \\cdot \\mathbf{raspberry}$ is rational.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution.}\n(by David Rusin)\nRecall that Heron's formula (for the area of a triangle in terms of its side length) admits the following three-dimensional analogue due to Piero della Francesca: if $parchment$ denotes the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices $pineapple,sunflower,bookshelf,rainstorm \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$, then\n\\[\n288 parchment^2 = \\det\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & pineapplesunflower^2 & pineapplebookshelf^2 & pineapplerainstorm^2 & 1 \\\\\npineapplesunflower^2 & 0 & sunflowerbookshelf^2 & sunflowerrainstorm^2 & 1 \\\\\npineapplebookshelf^2 & sunflowerbookshelf^2 & 0 & bookshelfrainstorm^2 & 1 \\\\\npineapplerainstorm^2 & sunflowerrainstorm^2 & bookshelfrainstorm^2 & 0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\]\nIn particular, the determinant vanishes if and only if $pineapple,sunflower,bookshelf,rainstorm$ are coplanar. From the identity\n\\begin{gather*}\n64(4 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerbookshelf)^2 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerrainstorm)^2 - 9 pineapplesunflower^2 parchment^2) \\\\\n= (pineapplesunflower^4 - pineapplesunflower^2(pineapplebookshelf^2 + pineapplerainstorm^2 + sunflowerbookshelf^2 + sunflowerrainstorm^2 - 2 bookshelfrainstorm^2) \\\\ + (pineapplebookshelf^2-sunflowerbookshelf^2)(pineapplerainstorm^2-sunflowerrainstorm^2))^2\n\\end{gather*}\nwe see that $\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerbookshelf) \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerrainstorm)$ is rational;\nsince each of the areas has rational square, we deduce the claim.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution.}\n(by Greg Martin)\nDefine the signed angles $quasarwind = \\angle BAC, thunderbolt = \\angle BAD, whirlwind = \\angle CAD$, so that $quasarwind + whirlwind = thunderbolt$. By the Law of Cosines,\n\\begin{align*}\n2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplebookshelf \\cos quasarwind &= pineapplesunflower^2 + pineapplebookshelf^2 - sunflowerbookshelf^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2  pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\cos thunderbolt &= pineapplesunflower^2 + pineapplerainstorm^2 - sunflowerrainstorm^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2  pineapplebookshelf \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\cos whirlwind &= pineapplebookshelf^2 + pineapplerainstorm^2 - bookshelfrainstorm^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $(2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplebookshelf \\cos quasarwind)^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and so\n$\\cos^2 quasarwind \\in \\mathbb{Q}$ and $\\sin^2 quasarwind = 1 - \\cos^2 quasarwind \\in \\mathbb{Q}$,\nand similarly for the other two angles.\n\nApplying the addition formula to $\\cos thunderbolt$, we deduce that\n\\[\n2  pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\cos quasarwind \\cos whirlwind - \n2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\sin quasarwind \\sin whirlwind \\in \\mathbb{Q}. \n\\]\nThe first of these terms equals\n\\[\n\\frac{(2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplebookshelf \\cos quasarwind)(2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplebookshelf \\cos quasarwind)}{pineapplebookshelf^2} \\in \\mathbb{Q},\n\\]\nso the second term must also be rational. But now\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplesunflowerbookshelf)}{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle pineapplebookshelfrainstorm)}\n&= \\frac{pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplebookshelf \\sin quasarwind}{pineapplebookshelf \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\sin whirlwind} \\\\\n&= \\frac{2 pineapplesunflower \\cdot pineapplerainstorm \\sin quasarwind \\sin whirlwind}{2 pineapplerainstorm^2 \\sin^2 whirlwind} \\in \\mathbb{Q}\n\\end{align*}\nas desired.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nDerek Smith observes that this result\nis Proposition 1 of: M. Knopf, J. Milzman, D. Smith, D. Zhu and D. Zirlin,\nLattice embeddings of planar point sets, \\textit{Discrete and Computational Geometry} \\textbf{56} (2016), 693--710.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nIt is worth pointing out that it is indeed possible to choose points $pineapple,sunflower,bookshelf,rainstorm$ satisfying the conditions of the problem;\n one can even ensure that the lengths of all four segments are themselves rational.\nFor example, it was originally observed by Euler that one can find an infinite set of points on the unit circle whose pairwise distances are all rational numbers.\nOne way to see this is to apply the linear fractional transformation $f(alligator) = \\frac{alligator+i}{alligator-i}$ to the Riemann sphere to carry the real axis (plus $\\infty$) to the unit circle, then compute that\n\\[\n\\left| f(alligator_1) - f(alligator_2) \\right| = \\frac{2|alligator_1-alligator_2||}{|(alligator_1-i)(alligator_2-i)|}.\n\\]\nLet $marshland$ be the set of rational numbers $alligator$ for which $2(alligator^2 + 1)$ is a perfect square; the set $f(marshland)$ has the desired property provided that it is infinite. That can be checked in various ways; for instance, the equation\n$2(chocolate^2+1) = (2kangaroo)^2$ equates to $chocolate^2-2kangaroo^2 = -1$ (a modified Brahmagupta-Pell equation), which has infinitely many solutions even over the integers:\n\\[\nchocolate + kangaroo \\sqrt{2} = (1 + \\sqrt{2})^{2 rainshower +1}.\n\\]"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "A": "nowherept",
        "B": "voidpoint",
        "C": "absentpt",
        "D": "nullpoint",
        "x": "anticoord",
        "y": "voidcoord",
        "z": "nullcoord",
        "b": "scalarvar",
        "c": "scalaralt",
        "d": "scalaroth",
        "V": "zerovolum",
        "S": "nullsetxx",
        "x_1": "anticorone",
        "y_1": "voidcorone",
        "x_2": "anticortwo",
        "y_2": "voidcortwo",
        "\\alpha": "flatline",
        "\\beta": "rightline",
        "\\gamma": "leftline",
        "a": "irrationl",
        "n": "fractionl"
      },
      "question": "Suppose that $nowherept,voidpoint,absentpt,$ and $nullpoint$ are distinct points, no three of which lie on a line, in the Euclidean plane. Show that if the squares of the lengths of the line segments $nowhereptvoidpoint$, $nowhereptabsentpt$, $nowhereptnullpoint$, $voidpointabsentpt$, $voidpointnullpoint$, and $absentptnullpoint$ are rational numbers, then the quotient\n\\[\n\\frac{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointabsentpt)}{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointnullpoint)}\n\\]\nis a rational number.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution.}\\nChoose a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the midpoint of $nowhereptvoidpoint$ and positive $anticoord$-axis containing $nowherept$. By the condition on $nowhereptvoidpoint$, we have $nowherept = (\\sqrt{irrationl}, 0)$, $voidpoint = (-\\sqrt{irrationl}, 0)$ for some positive rational number $irrationl$. Let $(anticorone, voidcorone)$ and $(anticortwo, voidcortwo)$ be the respective coordinates of $absentpt$ and $nullpoint$; by computing the lengths of the segments $nowhereptabsentpt, voidpointabsentpt, nowhereptnullpoint, voidpointnullpoint, absentptnullpoint$, we see that the quantities\\n\\[\\n(anticorone - \\sqrt{irrationl})^2 + voidcorone^2, \\quad (anticorone + \\sqrt{irrationl})^2 + voidcorone^2, \\\\ (anticortwo - \\sqrt{irrationl})^2 + voidcortwo^2, \\quad (anticortwo + \\sqrt{irrationl})^2 + voidcortwo^2, \\\\ (anticorone - anticortwo)^2 + (voidcorone - voidcortwo)^2\\n\\]\\nare all rational numbers. By adding and subtracting the first two quantities, and similarly for the next two, we see that the quantities\\n\\[anticorone^2 + voidcorone^2,\\quad anticorone \\sqrt{irrationl}, \\quad anticortwo^2 + voidcortwo^2, \\quad anticortwo \\sqrt{irrationl}\\]\\nare rational numbers. Since $irrationl$ is a rational number, so then are\\n\\[\\begin{aligned}anticorone^2 &= \\frac{(anticorone \\sqrt{irrationl})^2}{irrationl} \\\\ anticortwo^2 &= \\frac{(anticortwo \\sqrt{irrationl})^2}{irrationl} \\\\ anticorone \\, anticortwo &= \\frac{(anticorone \\sqrt{irrationl})(anticortwo \\sqrt{irrationl})}{irrationl} \\\\ voidcorone^2 &= (anticorone^2 + voidcorone^2) - anticorone^2 \\\\ voidcortwo^2 &= (anticortwo^2 + voidcortwo^2) - anticortwo^2.\\end{aligned}\\]\\nNow note that the quantity\\n\\[(anticorone - anticortwo)^2 + (voidcorone - voidcortwo)^2 = anticorone^2 -2 anticorone \\, anticortwo + anticortwo^2 + voidcorone^2 - 2 voidcorone \\, voidcortwo + voidcortwo^2\\]\\nis known to be rational, as is every summand on the right except $-2 voidcorone \\, voidcortwo$; thus $voidcorone \\, voidcortwo$ is also rational. Since $voidcorone^2$ is also rational, so then is $\\dfrac{voidcorone}{voidcortwo} = \\dfrac{voidcorone \\, voidcortwo}{voidcorone^2}$; since\\n\\[\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointabsentpt) = \\sqrt{irrationl}\\, voidcorone, \\qquad \\mathrm{area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointnullpoint) = \\sqrt{irrationl}\\, voidcortwo,\\]\\nthis yields the desired result.\\n\\n\\textbf{Second solution.} (by Manjul Bhargava)\\nLet $\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaralt}, \\mathbf{scalaroth}$ be the vectors $nowhereptvoidpoint, nowhereptabsentpt, nowhereptnullpoint$ viewed as column vectors. The desired ratio is given by\\n\\[\\begin{aligned}\\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaralt})}{\\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaroth})} &= \\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaralt})^T \\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaralt}) }{ \\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaralt})^T\\det(\\mathbf{scalarvar},\\mathbf{scalaroth})} \\\\ &= \\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar} & \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\\\ \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar} & \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\end{pmatrix}\\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar} & \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaroth} \\\\ \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar} & \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaroth} \\end{pmatrix}^{-1}.\\end{aligned}\\]\\nThe square of the length of $nowhereptvoidpoint$ is $\\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar}$, so this quantity is rational. The square of the lengths of $nowhereptabsentpt$ and $voidpointabsentpt$ are $\\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt}$ and $(\\mathbf{scalaralt} - \\mathbf{scalarvar}) \\cdot (\\mathbf{scalaralt} - \\mathbf{scalarvar}) = \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar} + \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt} - 2 \\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt}$, so $\\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaralt} = \\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalarvar}$ is rational. Similarly, using $nowhereptnullpoint$ and $voidpointnullpoint$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{scalaroth} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaroth}$ and $\\mathbf{scalarvar} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaroth}$ are rational; then using $absentptnullpoint$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{scalaralt} \\cdot \\mathbf{scalaroth}$ is rational.\\n\\n\\textbf{Third solution.} (by David Rusin)\\nRecall that Heron's formula (for the area of a triangle in terms of its side length) admits the following three-dimensional analogue due to Piero della Francesca: if $zerovolum$ denotes the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices $nowherept,voidpoint,absentpt,nullpoint \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$, then\\n\\[288 zerovolum^2 = \\det\\begin{pmatrix}0 & nowhereptvoidpoint^2 & nowhereptabsentpt^2 & nowhereptnullpoint^2 & 1 \\\\ nowhereptvoidpoint^2 & 0 & voidpointabsentpt^2 & voidpointnullpoint^2 & 1 \\\\ nowhereptabsentpt^2 & voidpointabsentpt^2 & 0 & absentptnullpoint^2 & 1 \\\\ nowhereptnullpoint^2 & voidpointnullpoint^2 & absentptnullpoint^2 & 0 & 1 \\\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0\\end{pmatrix}\\]\\nIn particular, the determinant vanishes if and only if $nowherept,voidpoint,absentpt,nullpoint$ are coplanar. From the identity\\n\\[\\begin{gathered}64(4 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointabsentpt)^2 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointnullpoint)^2 - 9 nowhereptvoidpoint^2 zerovolum^2) \\\\ = (nowhereptvoidpoint^4 - nowhereptvoidpoint^2(nowhereptabsentpt^2 + nowhereptnullpoint^2 + voidpointabsentpt^2 + voidpointnullpoint^2 - 2 absentptnullpoint^2) \\\\ + (nowhereptabsentpt^2-voidpointabsentpt^2)(nowhereptnullpoint^2-voidpointnullpoint^2))^2\\end{gathered}\\]\\nwe see that $\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointabsentpt) \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointnullpoint)$ is rational; since each of the areas has rational square, we deduce the claim.\\n\\n\\textbf{Fourth solution.} (by Greg Martin)\\nDefine the signed angles $flatline = \\angle voidpointnowhereptabsentpt, \\; rightline = \\angle voidpointnowhereptnullpoint, \\; leftline = \\angle absentptnowhereptnullpoint$, so that $flatline + leftline = rightline$. By the Law of Cosines,\\n\\[\\begin{aligned}2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptabsentpt \\cos flatline &= nowhereptvoidpoint^2 + nowhereptabsentpt^2 - voidpointabsentpt^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\ 2  nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\cos rightline &= nowhereptvoidpoint^2 + nowhereptnullpoint^2 - voidpointnullpoint^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\ 2  nowhereptabsentpt \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\cos leftline &= nowhereptabsentpt^2 + nowhereptnullpoint^2 - absentptnullpoint^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\\end{aligned}\\]\\nIn particular, $(2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptabsentpt \\cos flatline)^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and so $\\cos^2 flatline \\in \\mathbb{Q}$ and $\\sin^2 flatline = 1 - \\cos^2 flatline \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and similarly for the other two angles.\\n\\nApplying the addition formula to $\\cos rightline$, we deduce that\\n\\[2  nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\cos flatline \\cos leftline - 2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\sin flatline \\sin leftline \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\\]\\nThe first of these terms equals\\n\\[\\frac{(2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptabsentpt \\cos flatline)(2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptabsentpt \\cos flatline)}{nowhereptabsentpt^2} \\in \\mathbb{Q},\\]\\nso the second term must also be rational. But now\\n\\[\\begin{aligned}\\frac{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptvoidpointabsentpt)}{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle nowhereptabsentptnullpoint)} &= \\frac{nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptabsentpt \\sin flatline}{nowhereptabsentpt \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\sin leftline} \\\\ &= \\frac{2 nowhereptvoidpoint \\cdot nowhereptnullpoint \\sin flatline \\sin leftline}{2 nowhereptnullpoint^2 \\sin^2 leftline} \\in \\mathbb{Q}\\end{aligned}\\]\\nas desired.\\n\\n\\textbf{Remark.}\\nDerek Smith observes that this result is Proposition 1 of: M. Knopf, J. Milzman, D. Smith, D. Zhu and D. Zirlin, Lattice embeddings of planar point sets, \\textit{Discrete and Computational Geometry} \\textbf{56} (2016), 693--710.\\n\\n\\textbf{Remark.}\\nIt is worth pointing out that it is indeed possible to choose points nowherept,voidpoint,absentpt,nullpoint satisfying the conditions of the problem; one can even ensure that the lengths of all four segments are themselves rational. For example, it was originally observed by Euler that one can find an infinite set of points on the unit circle whose pairwise distances are all rational numbers. One way to see this is to apply the linear fractional transformation $f(nullcoord) = \\frac{nullcoord+i}{nullcoord-i}$ to the Riemann sphere to carry the real axis (plus $\\infty$) to the unit circle, then compute that\\n\\[\\left| f(nullcoord_1) - f(nullcoord_2) \\right| = \\frac{2|nullcoord_1-nullcoord_2||}{|(nullcoord_1-i)(nullcoord_2-i)|}.\\]\\nLet $nullsetxx$ be the set of rational numbers $nullcoord$ for which $2(nullcoord^2 + 1)$ is a perfect square; the set $f(nullsetxx)$ has the desired property provided that it is infinite. That can be checked in various ways; for instance, the equation $2(x^2+1) = (2y)^2$ equates to $x^2-2y^2 = -1$ (a modified Brahmagupta-Pell equation), which has infinitely many solutions even over the integers: $x + y \\sqrt{2} = (1 + \\sqrt{2})^{2fractionl+1}.$"
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "A": "qzxwvtnp",
        "B": "hjgrksla",
        "C": "mfldpwoe",
        "D": "tchmrazb",
        "x": "pnwrqvzd",
        "y": "lkshzpcm",
        "z": "rbqsgtne",
        "b": "cvuhgypo",
        "c": "zxrqmpna",
        "d": "ywlbvske",
        "V": "owfhizmt",
        "S": "nejxakgo",
        "x_1": "blskawvq",
        "y_1": "dmlqzhty",
        "x_2": "rpzchwkn",
        "y_2": "fuqenjrs",
        "\\alpha": "qsrtuvwx",
        "\\beta": "kldprmno",
        "\\gamma": "wifzchos",
        "a": "sdpqkrzf",
        "n": "uvjwxnec"
      },
      "question": "Suppose that $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mfldpwoe,$ and $tchmrazb$ are distinct points, no three of which lie on a line,\nin the Euclidean plane. Show\nthat if the squares of the lengths of the line segments $qzxwvtnphjgrksla$, $qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe$, $qzxwvtnptchmrazb$, $hjgrkslamfldpwoe$, $hjgrkslatchmrazb$, and $mfldpwoetchmrazb$\nare rational numbers, then\nthe quotient\n\\[\n\\frac{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslamfldpwoe)}{\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslatchmrazb)}\n\\]\nis a rational number.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution.}\nChoose a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the midpoint of $qzxwvtnphjgrksla$ and positive $pnwrqvzd$-axis containing $qzxwvtnp$.\nBy the condition on $qzxwvtnphjgrksla$, we have $qzxwvtnp = (\\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}, 0)$, $hjgrksla = (-\\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}, 0)$ for some positive rational number $sdpqkrzf$.\nLet $(blskawvq, dmlqzhty)$ and $(rpzchwkn, fuqenjrs)$ be the respective coordinates of $mfldpwoe$ and $tchmrazb$; by computing the lengths\nof the segments $qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe, hjgrkslamfldpwoe, qzxwvtnptchmrazb, hjgrkslatchmrazb, mfldpwoetchmrazb$, we see that the quantities\n\\begin{gather*}\n(blskawvq - \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2 + dmlqzhty^2, \\quad (blskawvq + \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2 + dmlqzhty^2, \\\\\n(rpzchwkn - \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2 + fuqenjrs^2, \\quad (rpzchwkn + \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2 + fuqenjrs^2, \\\\\n(blskawvq - rpzchwkn)^2 + (dmlqzhty - fuqenjrs)^2\n\\end{gather*}\nare all rational numbers. By adding and subtracting the first two quantities, and similarly for the next two, we see that the quantities\n\\[\nblskawvq^2 + dmlqzhty^2,\\quad blskawvq \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}, \\quad rpzchwkn^2 + fuqenjrs^2, \\quad rpzchwkn \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}\n\\]\nare rational numbers. Since $sdpqkrzf$ is a rational number, so then are\n\\begin{align*}\nblskawvq^2 &= \\frac{(blskawvq \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2}{sdpqkrzf} \\\\\nrpzchwkn^2 &= \\frac{(rpzchwkn \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})^2}{sdpqkrzf} \\\\\nblskawvq rpzchwkn &= \\frac{(blskawvq \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})(rpzchwkn \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf})}{sdpqkrzf} \\\\\ndmlqzhty^2 &= (blskawvq^2 + dmlqzhty^2) - blskawvq^2 \\\\\nfuqenjrs^2 &= (rpzchwkn^2 + fuqenjrs^2) - rpzchwkn^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNow note that the quantity\n\\[\n(blskawvq - rpzchwkn)^2 + (dmlqzhty - fuqenjrs)^2 = blskawvq^2 -2 blskawvq rpzchwkn + rpzchwkn^2 + dmlqzhty^2 - 2 dmlqzhty fuqenjrs + fuqenjrs^2\n\\]\nis known to be rational, as is every summand on the right except $-2 dmlqzhty fuqenjrs$; thus $dmlqzhty fuqenjrs$ is also rational.\nSince $dmlqzhty^2$ is also rational, so then is $\\frac{dmlqzhty}{fuqenjrs} = \\frac{dmlqzhty fuqenjrs}{dmlqzhty^2}$;\nsince\n\\[\n\\mathrm{area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslamfldpwoe) = \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}\\, dmlqzhty, \\qquad \\mathrm{area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslatchmrazb) = \\sqrt{sdpqkrzf}\\, fuqenjrs,\n\\]\nthis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Second solution.} (by Manjul Bhargava)\nLet $\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{zxrqmpna}, \\mathbf{ywlbvske}$ be the vectors $qzxwvtnphjgrksla, qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe, qzxwvtnptchmrazb$ viewed as column vectors.\nThe desired ratio is given by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{zxrqmpna})}{\\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{ywlbvske})} &= \\frac{\\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{zxrqmpna})^T \\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{zxrqmpna}) }{ \\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{zxrqmpna})^T\\det(\\mathbf{cvuhgypo},\\mathbf{ywlbvske})} \\\\\n&= \\det \\begin{pmatrix} \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} & \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\\\\n\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} & \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\det \\begin{pmatrix}\n\\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} & \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{ywlbvske} \\\\\n\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} & \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{ywlbvske}\n\\end{pmatrix}^{-1}.\n\\end{align*}\n\nThe square of the length of $qzxwvtnphjgrksla$ is $\\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo}$, so this quantity is rational.\nThe square of the lengths of $qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe$ and $hjgrkslamfldpwoe$ are $\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna}$ and\n$(\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} - \\mathbf{cvuhgypo}) \\cdot (\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} - \\mathbf{cvuhgypo}) = \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} + \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna}\n- 2 \\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna}$, so $\\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} = \\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{cvuhgypo}$ is rational.\nSimilarly, using $qzxwvtnptchmrazb$ and $hjgrkslatchmrazb$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{ywlbvske} \\cdot \\mathbf{ywlbvske}$ and $\\mathbf{cvuhgypo} \\cdot \\mathbf{ywlbvske}$ are rational; then using $mfldpwoetchmrazb$, we deduce that $\\mathbf{zxrqmpna} \\cdot \\mathbf{ywlbvske}$ is rational.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Third solution.}\n(by David Rusin)\nRecall that Heron's formula (for the area of a triangle in terms of its side length) admits the following three-dimensional analogue due to Piero della Francesca: if $owfhizmt$ denotes the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mfldpwoe,tchmrazb \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$, then\n\\[\n288 \\, owfhizmt^2 = \\det\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & qzxwvtnphjgrksla^2 & qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2 & qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 & 1 \\\\\nqzxwvtnphjgrksla^2 & 0 & hjgrkslamfldpwoe^2 & hjgrkslatchmrazb^2 & 1 \\\\\nqzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2 & hjgrkslamfldpwoe^2 & 0 & mfldpwoetchmrazb^2 & 1 \\\\\nqzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 & hjgrkslatchmrazb^2 & mfldpwoetchmrazb^2 & 0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\]\nIn particular, the determinant vanishes if and only if $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mfldpwoe,tchmrazb$ are coplanar. From the identity\n\\begin{gather*}\n64(4 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslamfldpwoe)^2 \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslatchmrazb)^2 - 9 qzxwvtnphjgrksla^2 \\, owfhizmt^2) \\\\\n= (qzxwvtnphjgrksla^4 - qzxwvtnphjgrksla^2(qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2 + qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 + hjgrkslamfldpwoe^2 + hjgrkslatchmrazb^2 - 2 mfldpwoetchmrazb^2) \\\\ + (qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2-hjgrkslamfldpwoe^2)(qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2-hjgrkslatchmrazb^2))^2\n\\end{gather*}\nwe see that $\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslamfldpwoe) \\, \\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslatchmrazb)$ is rational;\nsince each of the areas has rational square, we deduce the claim.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Fourth solution.}\n(by Greg Martin)\nDefine the signed angles $\\qsrtuvwx = \\angle hjgrkslaqzxwvtnpmfldpwoe$, $\\kldprmno = \\angle hjgrkslaqzxwvtnptchmrazb$, $\\wifzchos = \\angle qzxwvtnpmfldpwoetchmrazb$, so that $\\qsrtuvwx + \\wifzchos = \\kldprmno$. By the Law of Cosines,\n\\begin{align*}\n2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cos \\qsrtuvwx &= qzxwvtnphjgrksla^2 + qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2 - hjgrkslamfldpwoe^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\cos \\kldprmno &= qzxwvtnphjgrksla^2 + qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 - hjgrkslatchmrazb^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\\\\n2 \\, qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\cos \\wifzchos &= qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2 + qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 - mfldpwoetchmrazb^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $(2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cos \\qsrtuvwx)^2 \\in \\mathbb{Q}$, and so\n$\\cos^2 \\qsrtuvwx \\in \\mathbb{Q}$ and $\\sin^2 \\qsrtuvwx = 1 - \\cos^2 \\qsrtuvwx \\in \\mathbb{Q}$,\nand similarly for the other two angles.\n\nApplying the addition formula to $\\cos \\kldprmno$, we deduce that\n\\[\n2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\cos \\qsrtuvwx \\cos \\wifzchos - \n2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\sin \\qsrtuvwx \\sin \\wifzchos \\in \\mathbb{Q}. \n\\]\nThe first of these terms equals\n\\[\n\\frac{(2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cos \\qsrtuvwx)(2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cos \\qsrtuvwx)}{qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe^2} \\in \\mathbb{Q},\n\\]\nso the second term must also be rational. But now\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnphjgrkslamfldpwoe)}{\\mathrm{Area}(\\triangle qzxwvtnpmfldpwoetchmrazb)}\n&= \\frac{qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\sin \\qsrtuvwx}{qzxwvtnpmfldpwoe \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\sin \\wifzchos} \\\\\n&= \\frac{2 \\, qzxwvtnphjgrksla \\cdot qzxwvtnptchmrazb \\sin \\qsrtuvwx \\sin \\wifzchos}{2 \\, qzxwvtnptchmrazb^2 \\sin^2 \\wifzchos} \\in \\mathbb{Q}\n\\end{align*}\nas desired.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nDerek Smith observes that this result\nis Proposition 1 of: M. Knopf, J. Milzman, D. Smith, D. Zhu and D. Zirlin,\nLattice embeddings of planar point sets, \\textit{Discrete and Computational Geometry} \\textbf{56} (2016), 693--710.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.}\nIt is worth pointing out that it is indeed possible to choose points $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mfldpwoe,tchmrazb$ satisfying the conditions of the problem;\n one can even ensure that the lengths of all four segments are themselves rational.\nFor example, it was originally observed by Euler that one can find an infinite set of points on the unit circle whose pairwise distances are all rational numbers.\nOne way to see this is to apply the linear fractional transformation $f(rbqsgtne) = \\frac{rbqsgtne+i}{rbqsgtne-i}$ to the Riemann sphere to carry the real axis (plus $\\infty$) to the unit circle, then compute that\n\\[\n\\left| f(rbqsgtne_1) - f(rbqsgtne_2) \\right| = \\frac{2|rbqsgtne_1-rbqsgtne_2||}{|(rbqsgtne_1-i)(rbqsgtne_2-i)|}.\n\\]\nLet $nejxakgo$ be the set of rational numbers $rbqsgtne$ for which $2(rbqsgtne^2 + 1)$ is a perfect square; the set $f(nejxakgo)$ has the desired property provided that it is infinite. That can be checked in various ways; for instance, the equation\n$2(pnwrqvzd^2+1) = (2lkshzpcm)^2$ equates to $pnwrqvzd^2-2lkshzpcm^2 = -1$ (a modified Brahmagupta-Pell equation), which has infinitely many solutions even over the integers:\n\\[\npnwrqvzd + lkshzpcm \\sqrt{2} = (1 + \\sqrt{2})^{2uvjwxnec+1}.\n\\]"
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $n\\ge 2$ and let  \n $P_0,P_1,\\dots ,P_n\\in\\mathbb R^{\\,n}$  \nbe $n+1$ affinely independent points (so they form an $n$-simplex).  \nAssume that every squared edge–length is rational:\n\n $\\;|P_iP_j|^{2}\\in\\mathbb Q\\quad(0\\le i<j\\le n).$\n\nFor each index $k$ put  \n\n $\\Delta_k:=\\operatorname{conv}\\bigl(\\{P_0,\\dots ,P_n\\}\\setminus\\{P_k\\}\\bigr)$  \n\nand denote its \\,$(n-1)$–dimensional volume by  \n\n $V_k:=\\operatorname{Vol}_{\\,n-1}(\\Delta_k).$\n\nProve that  \n\n $\\displaystyle\\left(\\frac{V_r}{V_s}\\right)^{\\!2}\\in\\mathbb Q\\qquad\\text{for every }0\\le r,s\\le n.$  \n\nEquivalently,\n\n $(V_0^{2}:V_1^{2}:\\dots :V_n^{2})$\n\nis proportional to a vector with rational coordinates.  \n(Show also that each individual number $V_k^{2}$ is itself rational.)\n\nRemark.  The statement cannot in general be strengthened to $V_r/V_s\\in\\mathbb Q$ for $n\\ge 3$; the standard tetrahedron\n$P_0=(0,0,0),\\;P_1=(1,0,0),\\;P_2=(0,1,0),\\;P_3=(0,0,1)$ gives $\\dfrac{V_1}{V_0}=1/\\sqrt3\\notin\\mathbb Q$.",
      "solution": "Throughout we write “volume’’ for non–oriented Euclidean volume.  All linear–algebraic identities below are standard.\n\n1.  A Gram-determinant formula for the facet volumes  \n-----------------------------------------------------\nFix a facet $\\Delta_k$ and rename the remaining vertices  \n$Q_1,Q_2,\\dots ,Q_{n}=P_{0},\\dots ,\\widehat{P_k},\\dots ,P_n$ (any ordering will do).  \nChoose $Q_1$ as origin and set  \n\n $\\mathbf v_i := Q_i-Q_1\\in\\mathbb R^{\\,n}\\qquad(2\\le i\\le n).$\n\nThe $(n-1)$ vectors $\\mathbf v_2,\\dots ,\\mathbf v_n$ span $\\Delta_k$.  Put  \n\n $G_k:=\\bigl(\\langle\\mathbf v_i,\\mathbf v_j\\rangle\\bigr)_{2\\le i,j\\le n}$,\n\nthe $(n-1)\\times(n-1)$ Gram matrix.  Then  \n\n $V_k^{2}=\\dfrac{\\det G_k}{\\bigl((n-1)!\\bigr)^{2}}\\;.$ (1)\n\n2.  All entries of the Gram matrices are rational  \n-------------------------------------------------\nTo compute the scalar products $\\langle\\mathbf v_i,\\mathbf v_j\\rangle$ observe that for any pair\n$Q_a,Q_b$ we have  \n\n $|Q_aQ_b|^{2}=|Q_aQ_1|^{2}+|Q_bQ_1|^{2}-2\\langle \\mathbf v_a,\\mathbf v_b\\rangle.$\n\nThe three squared lengths on the right are rational by hypothesis, hence each inner product\n$\\langle\\mathbf v_a,\\mathbf v_b\\rangle$ is rational.  In particular every entry of every Gram\nmatrix $G_k$ is rational, so  \n\n $\\det G_k\\in\\mathbb Q\\quad\\text{for all }k.$ (2)\n\n3.  Rationality of the squared facet volumes  \n--------------------------------------------\nInsert (2) into the volume formula (1):\n\n $V_k^{2}=\\dfrac{\\det G_k}{((n-1)!)^{2}}\\in\\mathbb Q\\qquad(k=0,1,\\dots ,n).$\n\nThus each $V_k^{2}$ is rational, proving the first requested claim.\n\n4.  Rationality of every squared ratio  \n--------------------------------------\nBecause all $V_k^{2}$ are rational and positive, for any indices $r,s$ we get  \n\n $\\Bigl(\\dfrac{V_r}{V_s}\\Bigr)^{2}=\\dfrac{V_r^{2}}{V_s^{2}}\\in\\mathbb Q,$\n\nas desired.  Consequently  \n\n $(V_0^{2}:V_1^{2}:\\dots :V_n^{2})\\in\\mathbb P^{\\,n}(\\mathbb Q)$,\n\ni.e. the vector of squared facet–volumes is projectively rational.\n\n5.  Why the exponent “2’’ is best possible  \n------------------------------------------\nFor $n\\ge 3$ the ratio $V_r/V_s$ need not be rational.  The tetrahedron mentioned in the\nstatement has $V_0=\\dfrac{\\sqrt3}{2}$ and $V_1=\\dfrac12$, giving\n$V_1/V_0=1/\\sqrt3\\notin\\mathbb Q$ although $(V_1/V_0)^{2}=1/3\\in\\mathbb Q$. Q.E.D.",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.854116",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "• Higher dimension: The problem is promoted from planar geometry (n = 2) to arbitrary dimension n ≥ 2, forcing the solver to juggle facets, hyperplanes, and volumes instead of simple areas.\n\n• More variables and constraints: We now have n + 1 points and (n + 1 choose 2) rationality conditions, far more than the six distances of the original statement.\n\n• Additional structures: The argument requires a careful blend of Euclidean geometry, linear algebra (Gram matrices, kernels over ℚ), and affine-geometric height/volume formulas.\n\n• Deeper theory: To eliminate square–roots the solution constructs a rational normal vector by solving a homogeneous linear system over ℚ, a step that is invisible in two dimensions but essential in higher codimension.\n\n• Multiple interacting concepts: The proof intertwines choice of coordinates, rational linear algebra, orthogonality, and volume–height relations, and must work uniformly in every dimension.\n\nThese layers create a substantial increase in technical sophistication over both the original problem and the existing kernel variant."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $n\\ge 2$ and let  \n $P_0,P_1,\\dots ,P_n\\in\\mathbb R^{\\,n}$  \nbe $n+1$ affinely independent points (so they form an $n$-simplex).  \nAssume that every squared edge–length is rational:\n\n $\\;|P_iP_j|^{2}\\in\\mathbb Q\\quad(0\\le i<j\\le n).$\n\nFor each index $k$ put  \n\n $\\Delta_k:=\\operatorname{conv}\\bigl(\\{P_0,\\dots ,P_n\\}\\setminus\\{P_k\\}\\bigr)$  \n\nand denote its \\,$(n-1)$–dimensional volume by  \n\n $V_k:=\\operatorname{Vol}_{\\,n-1}(\\Delta_k).$\n\nProve that  \n\n $\\displaystyle\\left(\\frac{V_r}{V_s}\\right)^{\\!2}\\in\\mathbb Q\\qquad\\text{for every }0\\le r,s\\le n.$  \n\nEquivalently,\n\n $(V_0^{2}:V_1^{2}:\\dots :V_n^{2})$\n\nis proportional to a vector with rational coordinates.  \n(Show also that each individual number $V_k^{2}$ is itself rational.)\n\nRemark.  The statement cannot in general be strengthened to $V_r/V_s\\in\\mathbb Q$ for $n\\ge 3$; the standard tetrahedron\n$P_0=(0,0,0),\\;P_1=(1,0,0),\\;P_2=(0,1,0),\\;P_3=(0,0,1)$ gives $\\dfrac{V_1}{V_0}=1/\\sqrt3\\notin\\mathbb Q$.",
      "solution": "Throughout we write “volume’’ for non–oriented Euclidean volume.  All linear–algebraic identities below are standard.\n\n1.  A Gram-determinant formula for the facet volumes  \n-----------------------------------------------------\nFix a facet $\\Delta_k$ and rename the remaining vertices  \n$Q_1,Q_2,\\dots ,Q_{n}=P_{0},\\dots ,\\widehat{P_k},\\dots ,P_n$ (any ordering will do).  \nChoose $Q_1$ as origin and set  \n\n $\\mathbf v_i := Q_i-Q_1\\in\\mathbb R^{\\,n}\\qquad(2\\le i\\le n).$\n\nThe $(n-1)$ vectors $\\mathbf v_2,\\dots ,\\mathbf v_n$ span $\\Delta_k$.  Put  \n\n $G_k:=\\bigl(\\langle\\mathbf v_i,\\mathbf v_j\\rangle\\bigr)_{2\\le i,j\\le n}$,\n\nthe $(n-1)\\times(n-1)$ Gram matrix.  Then  \n\n $V_k^{2}=\\dfrac{\\det G_k}{\\bigl((n-1)!\\bigr)^{2}}\\;.$ (1)\n\n2.  All entries of the Gram matrices are rational  \n-------------------------------------------------\nTo compute the scalar products $\\langle\\mathbf v_i,\\mathbf v_j\\rangle$ observe that for any pair\n$Q_a,Q_b$ we have  \n\n $|Q_aQ_b|^{2}=|Q_aQ_1|^{2}+|Q_bQ_1|^{2}-2\\langle \\mathbf v_a,\\mathbf v_b\\rangle.$\n\nThe three squared lengths on the right are rational by hypothesis, hence each inner product\n$\\langle\\mathbf v_a,\\mathbf v_b\\rangle$ is rational.  In particular every entry of every Gram\nmatrix $G_k$ is rational, so  \n\n $\\det G_k\\in\\mathbb Q\\quad\\text{for all }k.$ (2)\n\n3.  Rationality of the squared facet volumes  \n--------------------------------------------\nInsert (2) into the volume formula (1):\n\n $V_k^{2}=\\dfrac{\\det G_k}{((n-1)!)^{2}}\\in\\mathbb Q\\qquad(k=0,1,\\dots ,n).$\n\nThus each $V_k^{2}$ is rational, proving the first requested claim.\n\n4.  Rationality of every squared ratio  \n--------------------------------------\nBecause all $V_k^{2}$ are rational and positive, for any indices $r,s$ we get  \n\n $\\Bigl(\\dfrac{V_r}{V_s}\\Bigr)^{2}=\\dfrac{V_r^{2}}{V_s^{2}}\\in\\mathbb Q,$\n\nas desired.  Consequently  \n\n $(V_0^{2}:V_1^{2}:\\dots :V_n^{2})\\in\\mathbb P^{\\,n}(\\mathbb Q)$,\n\ni.e. the vector of squared facet–volumes is projectively rational.\n\n5.  Why the exponent “2’’ is best possible  \n------------------------------------------\nFor $n\\ge 3$ the ratio $V_r/V_s$ need not be rational.  The tetrahedron mentioned in the\nstatement has $V_0=\\dfrac{\\sqrt3}{2}$ and $V_1=\\dfrac12$, giving\n$V_1/V_0=1/\\sqrt3\\notin\\mathbb Q$ although $(V_1/V_0)^{2}=1/3\\in\\mathbb Q$. Q.E.D.",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.651451",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "• Higher dimension: The problem is promoted from planar geometry (n = 2) to arbitrary dimension n ≥ 2, forcing the solver to juggle facets, hyperplanes, and volumes instead of simple areas.\n\n• More variables and constraints: We now have n + 1 points and (n + 1 choose 2) rationality conditions, far more than the six distances of the original statement.\n\n• Additional structures: The argument requires a careful blend of Euclidean geometry, linear algebra (Gram matrices, kernels over ℚ), and affine-geometric height/volume formulas.\n\n• Deeper theory: To eliminate square–roots the solution constructs a rational normal vector by solving a homogeneous linear system over ℚ, a step that is invisible in two dimensions but essential in higher codimension.\n\n• Multiple interacting concepts: The proof intertwines choice of coordinates, rational linear algebra, orthogonality, and volume–height relations, and must work uniformly in every dimension.\n\nThese layers create a substantial increase in technical sophistication over both the original problem and the existing kernel variant."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}