{
  "index": "2019-B-2",
  "type": "ANA",
  "tag": [
    "ANA",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "For all $n \\geq 1$, let\n\\[\na_n = \\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\frac{\\sin \\left( \\frac{(2k-1)\\pi}{2n} \\right)}{\\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{(k-1)\\pi}{2n} \\right) \\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{k\\pi}{2n} \\right)}.\n\\]\nDetermine\n\\[\n\\lim_{n \\to \\infty} \\frac{a_n}{n^3}.\n\\]",
  "solution": "The answer is $\\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 1.}\nBy the double angle and sum-product identities for cosine, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(k-1)\\pi}{2n}\\right) - 2\\cos^2 \\left(\\frac{k\\pi}{2n}\\right) &= \\cos\\left(\\frac{(k-1)\\pi}{n}\\right) - \\cos\\left(\\frac{k\\pi}{n}\\right) \\\\\n&= 2\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2k-1)\\pi}{2n}\\right) \\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2n}\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nand it follows that the summand in $a_n$ can be written as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2n}\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(k-1)\\pi}{2n}\\right)}+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{k\\pi}{2n}\\right)}\\right).\n\\]\nThus the sum telescopes and we find that\n\\[\na_n = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2n}\\right)} \\left(-1+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(n-1)\\pi}{2n}\\right)}\\right) =\n- \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2n}\\right)}+ \\frac{1}{\\sin^3\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2n}\\right)}.\n\\]\nFinally, since $\\lim_{x\\to 0} \\frac{\\sin x}{x} = 1$, we have $\\lim_{n\\to\\infty} \\left( n\\sin\\frac{\\pi}{2n} \\right) = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, and thus\n$\\lim_{n\\to\\infty} \\frac{a_n}{n^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 2.}\nWe first substitute $n-k$ for $k$ to obtain\n\\[\na_n=\\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\frac{\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2k+1)\\pi}{2n}\\right)}{\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{(k+1)\\pi}{2n}\\right)\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{k\\pi}{2n}\\right)}.\n\\]\nWe then use the estimate\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin x}{x} = 1 + O(x^2) \\qquad (x \\in [0, \\pi])\n\\]\nto rewrite the summand as\n\\[\n\\frac{\\left( \\frac{(2k-1)\\pi}{2n} \\right)}{\\left(\\frac{(k+1)\\pi}{2n}\\right)^2 \\left(\\frac{k\\pi}{2n}\\right)^2} \\left(1 + O\\left( \\frac{k^2}{n^2} \\right) \\right)\n\\]\nwhich simplifies to\n\\[\n\\frac{8 (2k-1) n^3}{k^2 (k+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{n}{k} \\right).\n\\]\nConsequently,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{a_n}{n^3} &= \\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\left( \\frac{8 (2k-1)}{k^2 (k+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{1}{kn^2} \\right) \\right) \\\\\n&= \\frac{8}{\\pi^3} \\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\frac{(2k-1)}{k^2 (k+1)^2} \n+ O \\left( \\frac{\\log n}{n^2} \\right). \n\\end{align*}\nFinally, note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\frac{(2k-1)}{k^2 (k+1)^2} = \n\\sum_{k=1}^{n-1} \\left( \\frac{1}{k^2} - \\frac{1}{(k+1)^2}\\right) = 1 - \\frac{1}{n^2}\n\\]\nconverges to 1, and so $\\lim_{n \\to \\infty} \\frac{a_n}{n^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$.",
  "vars": [
    "n",
    "k",
    "x",
    "a_n"
  ],
  "params": [],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "n": "posint",
        "k": "indexk",
        "x": "anglex",
        "a_n": "seqterm"
      },
      "question": "For all $posint \\geq 1$, let\n\\[\nseqterm = \\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\frac{\\sin \\left( \\frac{(2 indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint} \\right)}{\\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{(indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint} \\right) \\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{indexk\\pi}{2 posint} \\right)}.\n\\]\nDetermine\n\\[\n\\lim_{posint \\to \\infty} \\frac{seqterm}{posint^3}.\n\\]",
      "solution": "The answer is $\\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 1.}\nBy the double angle and sum-product identities for cosine, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right) - 2\\cos^2 \\left(\\frac{indexk\\pi}{2 posint}\\right) &= \\cos\\left(\\frac{(indexk-1)\\pi}{posint}\\right) - \\cos\\left(\\frac{indexk\\pi}{posint}\\right) \\\\\n&= 2\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2 indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right) \\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint}\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nand it follows that the summand in $seqterm$ can be written as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{indexk\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}\\right).\n\\]\nThus the sum telescopes and we find that\n\\[\nseqterm = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)} \\left(-1+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(posint-1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}\\right) =\n- \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}+ \\frac{1}{\\sin^3\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}.\n\\]\nFinally, since $\\lim_{anglex\\to 0} \\frac{\\sin anglex}{anglex} = 1$, we have $\\lim_{posint\\to\\infty} \\left( posint\\sin\\frac{\\pi}{2 posint} \\right) = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, and thus\n$\\lim_{posint\\to\\infty} \\frac{seqterm}{posint^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 2.}\nWe first substitute $posint-indexk$ for $indexk$ to obtain\n\\[\nseqterm=\\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\frac{\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2 indexk+1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}{\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{(indexk+1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{indexk\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)}.\n\\]\nWe then use the estimate\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin anglex}{anglex} = 1 + O(anglex^2) \\qquad (anglex \\in [0, \\pi])\n\\]\nto rewrite the summand as\n\\[\n\\frac{\\left( \\frac{(2 indexk-1)\\pi}{2 posint} \\right)}{\\left(\\frac{(indexk+1)\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)^2 \\left(\\frac{indexk\\pi}{2 posint}\\right)^2} \\left(1 + O\\left( \\frac{indexk^2}{posint^2} \\right) \\right)\n\\]\nwhich simplifies to\n\\[\n\\frac{8 (2 indexk-1) posint^3}{indexk^2 (indexk+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{posint}{indexk} \\right).\n\\]\nConsequently,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{seqterm}{posint^3} &= \\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\left( \\frac{8 (2 indexk-1)}{indexk^2 (indexk+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{1}{indexk posint^2} \\right) \\right) \\\\\n&= \\frac{8}{\\pi^3} \\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\frac{(2 indexk-1)}{indexk^2 (indexk+1)^2} \n+ O \\left( \\frac{\\log posint}{posint^2} \\right). \n\\end{align*}\nFinally, note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\frac{(2 indexk-1)}{indexk^2 (indexk+1)^2} = \n\\sum_{indexk=1}^{posint-1} \\left( \\frac{1}{indexk^2} - \\frac{1}{(indexk+1)^2}\\right) = 1 - \\frac{1}{posint^2}\n\\]\nconverges to 1, and so $\\lim_{posint \\to \\infty} \\frac{seqterm}{posint^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. "
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "n": "sandcastle",
        "k": "whispering",
        "x": "alabaster",
        "a_n": "lighthouse"
      },
      "question": "For all $sandcastle \\geq 1$, let\n\\[\nlighthouse = \\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\frac{\\sin \\left( \\frac{(2whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle} \\right)}{\\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{(whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle} \\right) \\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{whispering\\pi}{2sandcastle} \\right)}.\n\\]\nDetermine\n\\[\n\\lim_{sandcastle \\to \\infty} \\frac{lighthouse}{sandcastle^3}.\n\\]",
      "solution": "The answer is $\\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 1.}\nBy the double angle and sum-product identities for cosine, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right) - 2\\cos^2 \\left(\\frac{whispering\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right) &= \\cos\\left(\\frac{(whispering-1)\\pi}{sandcastle}\\right) - \\cos\\left(\\frac{whispering\\pi}{sandcastle}\\right) \\\\\n&= 2\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right) \\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nand it follows that the summand in $lighthouse$ can be written as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{whispering\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}\\right).\n\\]\nThus the sum telescopes and we find that\n\\[\nlighthouse = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)} \\left(-1+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(sandcastle-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}\\right) =\n- \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}+ \\frac{1}{\\sin^3\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}.\n\\]\nFinally, since $\\lim_{alabaster\\to 0} \\frac{\\sin alabaster}{alabaster} = 1$, we have $\\lim_{sandcastle\\to\\infty} \\left( sandcastle\\sin\\frac{\\pi}{2sandcastle} \\right) = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, and thus\n$\\lim_{sandcastle\\to\\infty} \\frac{lighthouse}{sandcastle^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 2.}\nWe first substitute $sandcastle-whispering$ for $whispering$ to obtain\n\\[\nlighthouse=\\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\frac{\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2whispering+1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}{\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{(whispering+1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{whispering\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)}.\n\\]\nWe then use the estimate\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin alabaster}{alabaster} = 1 + O(alabaster^2) \\qquad (alabaster \\in [0, \\pi])\n\\]\nto rewrite the summand as\n\\[\n\\frac{\\left( \\frac{(2whispering-1)\\pi}{2sandcastle} \\right)}{\\left(\\frac{(whispering+1)\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)^2 \\left(\\frac{whispering\\pi}{2sandcastle}\\right)^2} \\left(1 + O\\left( \\frac{whispering^2}{sandcastle^2} \\right) \\right)\n\\]\nwhich simplifies to\n\\[\n\\frac{8 (2whispering-1) sandcastle^3}{whispering^2 (whispering+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{sandcastle}{whispering} \\right).\n\\]\nConsequently,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{lighthouse}{sandcastle^3} &= \\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\left( \\frac{8 (2whispering-1)}{whispering^2 (whispering+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{1}{whispering sandcastle^2} \\right) \\right) \\\\\n&= \\frac{8}{\\pi^3} \\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\frac{(2whispering-1)}{whispering^2 (whispering+1)^2} \n+ O \\left( \\frac{\\log sandcastle}{sandcastle^2} \\right). \n\\end{align*}\nFinally, note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\frac{(2whispering-1)}{whispering^2 (whispering+1)^2} = \n\\sum_{whispering=1}^{sandcastle-1} \\left( \\frac{1}{whispering^2} - \\frac{1}{(whispering+1)^2}\\right) = 1 - \\frac{1}{sandcastle^2}\n\\]\nconverges to 1, and so $\\lim_{sandcastle \\to \\infty} \\frac{lighthouse}{sandcastle^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. "
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "n": "infiniteval",
        "k": "totality",
        "x": "constanty",
        "a_n": "fixedterm"
      },
      "question": "For all $infiniteval \\geq 1$, let\n\\[\nfixedterm = \\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\frac{\\sin \\left( \\frac{(2totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval} \\right)}{\\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{(totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval} \\right) \\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{totality\\pi}{2infiniteval} \\right)}.\n\\]\nDetermine\n\\[\n\\lim_{infiniteval \\to \\infty} \\frac{fixedterm}{infiniteval^3}.\n\\]",
      "solution": "The answer is $\\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 1.}\nBy the double angle and sum-product identities for cosine, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right) - 2\\cos^2 \\left(\\frac{totality\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right) &= \\cos\\left(\\frac{(totality-1)\\pi}{infiniteval}\\right) - \\cos\\left(\\frac{totality\\pi}{infiniteval}\\right) \\\\\n&= 2\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right) \\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nand it follows that the summand in $fixedterm$ can be written as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{totality\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}\\right).\n\\]\nThus the sum telescopes and we find that\n\\[\nfixedterm = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)} \\left(-1+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(infiniteval-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}\\right) =\n- \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}+ \\frac{1}{\\sin^3\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}.\n\\]\nFinally, since $\\lim_{constanty\\to 0} \\frac{\\sin constanty}{constanty} = 1$, we have $\\lim_{infiniteval\\to\\infty} \\left( infiniteval\\sin\\frac{\\pi}{2infiniteval} \\right) = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, and thus\n$\\lim_{infiniteval\\to\\infty} \\frac{fixedterm}{infiniteval^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 2.}\nWe first substitute $infiniteval-totality$ for $totality$ to obtain\n\\[\nfixedterm=\\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\frac{\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2totality+1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}{\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{(totality+1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{totality\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)}.\n\\]\nWe then use the estimate\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin constanty}{constanty} = 1 + O(constanty^2) \\qquad (constanty \\in [0, \\pi])\n\\]\nto rewrite the summand as\n\\[\n\\frac{\\left( \\frac{(2totality-1)\\pi}{2infiniteval} \\right)}{\\left(\\frac{(totality+1)\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)^2 \\left(\\frac{totality\\pi}{2infiniteval}\\right)^2} \\left(1 + O\\left( \\frac{totality^2}{infiniteval^2} \\right) \\right)\n\\]\nwhich simplifies to\n\\[\n\\frac{8 (2totality-1) infiniteval^3}{totality^2 (totality+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{infiniteval}{totality} \\right).\n\\]\nConsequently,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{fixedterm}{infiniteval^3} &= \\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\left( \\frac{8 (2totality-1)}{totality^2 (totality+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{1}{totality infiniteval^2} \\right) \\right) \\\\\n&= \\frac{8}{\\pi^3} \\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\frac{(2totality-1)}{totality^2 (totality+1)^2} \n+ O \\left( \\frac{\\log infiniteval}{infiniteval^2} \\right). \n\\end{align*}\nFinally, note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\frac{(2totality-1)}{totality^2 (totality+1)^2} = \n\\sum_{totality=1}^{infiniteval-1} \\left( \\frac{1}{totality^2} - \\frac{1}{(totality+1)^2}\\right) = 1 - \\frac{1}{infiniteval^2}\n\\]\nconverges to 1, and so $\\lim_{infiniteval \\to \\infty} \\frac{fixedterm}{infiniteval^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. "
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "n": "qzxwvtnp",
        "k": "hjgrksla",
        "x": "mndclype",
        "a_n": "vbrqtpse"
      },
      "question": "For all $qzxwvtnp \\geq 1$, let\n\\[\nvbrqtpse = \\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\frac{\\sin \\left( \\frac{(2hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp} \\right)}{\\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{(hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp} \\right) \\cos^2 \\left( \\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp} \\right)}.\n\\]\nDetermine\n\\[\n\\lim_{qzxwvtnp \\to \\infty} \\frac{vbrqtpse}{qzxwvtnp^3}.\n\\]",
      "solution": "The answer is $\\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 1.}\nBy the double angle and sum-product identities for cosine, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n2\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right) - 2\\cos^2 \\left(\\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right) &= \\cos\\left(\\frac{(hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{qzxwvtnp}\\right) - \\cos\\left(\\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{qzxwvtnp}\\right) \\\\\n&= 2\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right) \\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nand it follows that the summand in $vbrqtpse$ can be written as\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}\\right).\n\\]\nThus the sum telescopes and we find that\n\\[\nvbrqtpse = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)} \\left(-1+\\frac{1}{\\cos^2\\left(\\frac{(qzxwvtnp-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}\\right) =\n- \\frac{1}{\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}+ \\frac{1}{\\sin^3\\left(\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}.\n\\]\nFinally, since $\\lim_{mndclype\\to 0} \\frac{\\sin mndclype}{mndclype} = 1$, we have $\\lim_{qzxwvtnp\\to\\infty} \\left( qzxwvtnp\\sin\\frac{\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp} \\right) = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, and thus\n$\\lim_{qzxwvtnp\\to\\infty} \\frac{vbrqtpse}{qzxwvtnp^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. \n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Solution 2.}\nWe first substitute $qzxwvtnp-hjgrksla$ for $hjgrksla$ to obtain\n\\[\nvbrqtpse=\\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\frac{\\sin\\left(\\frac{(2hjgrksla+1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}{\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{(hjgrksla+1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)}.\n\\]\nWe then use the estimate\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin mndclype}{mndclype} = 1 + O(mndclype^2) \\qquad (mndclype \\in [0, \\pi])\n\\]\nto rewrite the summand as\n\\[\n\\frac{\\left( \\frac{(2hjgrksla-1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp} \\right)}{\\left(\\frac{(hjgrksla+1)\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)^2 \\left(\\frac{hjgrksla\\pi}{2qzxwvtnp}\\right)^2} \\left(1 + O\\left( \\frac{hjgrksla^2}{qzxwvtnp^2} \\right) \\right)\n\\]\nwhich simplifies to\n\\[\n\\frac{8 (2hjgrksla-1) qzxwvtnp^3}{hjgrksla^2 (hjgrksla+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{qzxwvtnp}{hjgrksla} \\right).\n\\]\nConsequently,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac{vbrqtpse}{qzxwvtnp^3} &= \\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\left( \\frac{8 (2hjgrksla-1)}{hjgrksla^2 (hjgrksla+1)^2 \\pi^3} + O\\left( \\frac{1}{hjgrksla qzxwvtnp^2} \\right) \\right) \\\\\n&= \\frac{8}{\\pi^3} \\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\frac{(2hjgrksla-1)}{hjgrksla^2 (hjgrksla+1)^2} \n+ O \\left( \\frac{\\log qzxwvtnp}{qzxwvtnp^2} \\right). \n\\end{align*}\nFinally, note that\n\\[\n\\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\frac{(2hjgrksla-1)}{hjgrksla^2 (hjgrksla+1)^2} = \n\\sum_{hjgrksla=1}^{qzxwvtnp-1} \\left( \\frac{1}{hjgrksla^2} - \\frac{1}{(hjgrksla+1)^2}\\right) = 1 - \\frac{1}{qzxwvtnp^2}\n\\]\nconverges to 1, and so $\\lim_{qzxwvtnp \\to \\infty} \\frac{vbrqtpse}{qzxwvtnp^3} = \\frac{8}{\\pi^3}$. "
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "For every positive integer n that is NOT divisible by 5, define\n\nb_n \\,=\\, \\sum_{k=0}^{n-2} \\frac{\\displaystyle \\sin\\Bigl(\\tfrac{(2k+1)\\,5\\pi}{2n}\\Bigr)}{\\displaystyle \\cos^{2}\\Bigl(\\tfrac{5k\\pi}{2n}\\Bigr)\\,\\cos^{2}\\Bigl(\\tfrac{5(k+1)\\pi}{2n}\\Bigr)}\\,.\n\nEvaluate the limit\n\n\\[\\lim_{\\substack{n\\to\\infty\\\\5\\nmid n}} \\frac{b_n}{n^{3}}.\\]\n\n(That is, the limit is taken along the subsequence of positive integers that are not multiples of 5, so that every denominator occurring in the sum is non–zero.)",
      "solution": "Introduce the step size\n\\[\\delta:=\\frac{5\\pi}{2n}\\qquad (5\\nmid n),\\]\nso that\n\\[(2k+1)\\frac{5\\pi}{2n}=(2k+1)\\delta,\\qquad \\frac{5k\\pi}{2n}=k\\delta,\\qquad \\frac{5(k+1)\\pi}{2n}=(k+1)\\delta.\\]\n\n1.  Start with\n\\[2\\cos^{2}x-2\\cos^{2}y=\\cos 2x-\\cos 2y=-2\\sin(x+y)\\,\\sin(x-y).\\]\nPutting \\(x=k\\delta\\) and \\(y=(k+1)\\delta\\) gives\n\\[2\\cos^{2}(k\\delta)-2\\cos^{2}((k+1)\\delta)=2\\sin\\bigl((2k+1)\\delta\\bigr)\\sin\\delta.\\]\n\n2.  Divide both sides by\n\\(2\\sin\\delta\\,\\cos^{2}(k\\delta)\\cos^{2}((k+1)\\delta)\\;(\\neq0\\text{ because }5\\nmid n)\\) to get the identity\n\\[\n\\frac{\\sin\\bigl((2k+1)\\delta\\bigr)}{\\cos^{2}(k\\delta)\\cos^{2}((k+1)\\delta)}\n=\\frac{1}{\\sin\\delta}\\Bigl(\\sec^{2}((k+1)\\delta)-\\sec^{2}(k\\delta)\\Bigr).\n\\]\n\n3.  Substitute this into the definition of \\(b_n\\):\n\\[\n b_n = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\delta}\\sum_{k=0}^{n-2}\\Bigl(\\sec^{2}((k+1)\\delta)-\\sec^{2}(k\\delta)\\Bigr).\n\\]\nThe sum telescopes:\n\\[\n b_n = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\delta}\\Bigl(\\sec^{2}((n-1)\\delta)-\\sec^{2}(0)\\Bigr).\n\\]\nBecause \\((n-1)\\delta = \\tfrac{5\\pi}{2}-\\delta\\), we have \\(\\cos((n-1)\\delta)=\\sin\\delta\\), hence\n\\[\\sec^{2}((n-1)\\delta)=\\frac{1}{\\sin^{2}\\delta}.\\]\nTherefore\n\\[\n b_n = \\frac{1}{\\sin\\delta}\\Bigl(\\frac{1}{\\sin^{2}\\delta}-1\\Bigr)=\\frac{1}{\\sin^{3}\\delta}-\\frac{1}{\\sin\\delta}.\n\\]\n\n4.  As \\(n\\to\\infty\\) (with \\(5\\nmid n\\)) we have \\(\\delta=\\tfrac{5\\pi}{2n}\\to0\\), and \\(\\sin\\delta\\sim\\delta\\).  Hence\n\\[\n b_n \\sim \\frac{1}{\\delta^{3}} = \\Bigl(\\frac{2n}{5\\pi}\\Bigr)^{3}=\\frac{8}{125\\,\\pi^{3}}\\,n^{3}.\n\\]\n\n5.  Dividing by \\(n^{3}\\) and taking the limit along the subsequence \\(5\\nmid n\\) we obtain\n\\[\n \\boxed{\\displaystyle \\lim_{\\substack{n\\to\\infty\\\\5\\nmid n}} \\frac{b_n}{n^{3}} = \\frac{8}{125\\,\\pi^{3}} }.\n\\]\n\nBecause no term of the sum is ever undefined when \\(5\\nmid n\\), every step above is completely rigorous.",
      "_meta": {
        "core_steps": [
          "Apply the double–angle identity to relate 2 cos² terms at consecutive indices to a product involving sin((2k−1)·π/2n)·sin(π/2n).",
          "Rewrite each summand as (1/ sin(π/2n))·[−sec²((k−1)·π/2n)+sec²(k·π/2n)], revealing a telescoping difference.",
          "Execute the telescoping sum to obtain a_n = −1/sin(π/2n) + 1/ sin³(π/2n).",
          "Use the small-angle approximation sin x ≈ x to find the dominant term ∼ (2n/π)³ and divide by n³.",
          "Take the limit n→∞ to get the constant 8/π³."
        ],
        "mutable_slots": {
          "slot1": {
            "description": "Common angular scale used inside all sine/cosine arguments.",
            "original": "π"
          },
          "slot2": {
            "description": "Divisor that determines the basic increment Δθ = (angular scale)/(2n) between successive cosine arguments.",
            "original": "2"
          },
          "slot3": {
            "description": "Index gap between the two cosine-squared terms that are subtracted (currently k−(k−1)=1).",
            "original": "1"
          }
        }
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "calculation",
  "iteratively_fixed": true
}