{
  "index": "1960-A-7",
  "type": "NT",
  "tag": [
    "NT",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "7. Let \\( N(n) \\) denote the smallest positive integer \\( N \\) such that \\( x^{N}=1 \\) for every permutation \\( \\boldsymbol{x} \\) on \\( \\boldsymbol{n} \\) symbols, where 1 denotes the identity permutation. Prove that if \\( n>1 \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{N(n)}{N(n-1)} & =1 \\text { if } n \\text { is divisible by } 2 \\text { distinct primes, } \\\\\n& =p \\text { if } n \\text { is a power of a prime } p\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]",
  "solution": "Solution. Let \\( L(n) \\) be the least common multiple of the integers 1,2 , \\( \\ldots, n \\). Then \\( L(n-1) \\mid L(n) \\) for \\( n=2,3, \\ldots \\) We shall prove that \\( N(n) \\) \\( =L(n) \\) for all \\( n \\).\n\nIn any group an element of order \\( i \\) satisfies \\( x^{N}=1 \\) if and only if \\( i \\mid N \\). Since the permutation group \\( \\Sigma \\) on \\( n \\) symbols contains elements of each of the orders \\( 1,2, \\ldots, n \\), we have \\( i \\mid N(n) \\) for \\( i=1,2, \\ldots, n \\) and therefore \\( L(n) \\mid N(n) \\). Conversely, every permutation in \\( \\Sigma \\) is the product of commuting cycles, each of which is of order at most \\( n \\), so \\( x^{L(n)}=1 \\) for all \\( x \\in \\Sigma \\). Hence \\( L(n) \\geq N(n) \\), and therefore \\( L(n)=N(n) \\).\n\nSuppose \\( n \\) is an integer greater than one but not a prime power. Then \\( n \\) can be written as the product of two smaller integers that are relatively prime, say \\( n=a b \\). Then \\( a \\) and \\( b \\) both divide \\( L(n-1) \\). Since they are relatively prime, \\( a b=n \\) also divides \\( L(n-1) \\). Therefore, \\( L(n) \\mid L(n-1) \\) and hence \\( L(n)=L(n-1) \\) in this case. On the other hand, suppose \\( n \\) is a power of a prime \\( p \\), say \\( n=p^{\\prime \\prime} \\). Then \\( n / p \\mid L(n-1) \\), so \\( n \\mid p L(n-1) \\), and therefore \\( L(n) \\mid p L(n-1) \\). Now any integer less than \\( n \\) is divisible by a power of \\( p \\) no greater than \\( p^{\\prime \\prime-1} \\), so \\( p^{n} \\nsucc L(n-1) \\) and hence \\( L(n) \\neq \\) \\( L(n-1) \\). Thus \\( L(n) / L(n-1) \\) divides \\( p \\), but \\( L(n) / L(n-1) \\neq 1 \\). Since \\( p \\) is a prime, we have \\( L(n) / L(n-1)=p \\) in this case.\n\nSince \\( L(n)=N(n) \\), we have proved\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{N(n)}{N(n-1)} & =1 \\quad \\text { if } n \\text { is divisible by two distinct primes } \\\\\n& =p \\quad \\text { if } n \\text { is a power of a prime } p .\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]",
  "vars": [
    "n",
    "x",
    "i",
    "N",
    "L",
    "a",
    "b",
    "p"
  ],
  "params": [
    "\\\\Sigma"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "n": "varcount",
        "x": "permutarg",
        "i": "orderidx",
        "N": "minpower",
        "L": "lcmvalue",
        "a": "factorone",
        "b": "factortwo",
        "p": "primeval",
        "\\Sigma": "permgroup"
      },
      "question": "7. Let \\( minpower(varcount) \\) denote the smallest positive integer \\( minpower \\) such that \\( permutarg^{minpower}=1 \\) for every permutation \\( \\boldsymbol{permutarg} \\) on \\( \\boldsymbol{varcount} \\) symbols, where 1 denotes the identity permutation. Prove that if \\( varcount>1 \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{minpower(varcount)}{minpower(varcount-1)} & =1 \\text { if } varcount \\text { is divisible by } 2 \\text { distinct primes, } \\\\\n& =primeval \\text { if } varcount \\text { is a power of a prime } primeval\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n",
      "solution": "Solution. Let \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\) be the least common multiple of the integers 1,2 , \\( \\ldots, varcount \\). Then \\( lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\mid lcmvalue(varcount) \\) for \\( varcount=2,3, \\ldots \\) We shall prove that \\( minpower(varcount)=lcmvalue(varcount) \\) for all \\( varcount \\).\n\nIn any group an element of order \\( orderidx \\) satisfies \\( permutarg^{minpower}=1 \\) if and only if \\( orderidx \\mid minpower \\). Since the permutation group \\( permgroup \\) on \\( varcount \\) symbols contains elements of each of the orders \\( 1,2, \\ldots, varcount \\), we have \\( orderidx \\mid minpower(varcount) \\) for \\( orderidx=1,2, \\ldots, varcount \\) and therefore \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\mid minpower(varcount) \\). Conversely, every permutation in \\( permgroup \\) is the product of commuting cycles, each of which is of order at most \\( varcount \\), so \\( permutarg^{lcmvalue(varcount)}=1 \\) for all \\( permutarg \\in permgroup \\). Hence \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\geq minpower(varcount) \\), and therefore \\( lcmvalue(varcount)=minpower(varcount) \\).\n\nSuppose \\( varcount \\) is an integer greater than one but not a prime power. Then \\( varcount \\) can be written as the product of two smaller integers that are relatively prime, say \\( varcount=factorone factortwo \\). Then \\( factorone \\) and \\( factortwo \\) both divide \\( lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\). Since they are relatively prime, \\( factorone factortwo=varcount \\) also divides \\( lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\). Therefore, \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\mid lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\) and hence \\( lcmvalue(varcount)=lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\) in this case. On the other hand, suppose \\( varcount \\) is a power of a prime \\( primeval \\), say \\( varcount=primeval^{\\prime \\prime} \\). Then \\( varcount / primeval \\mid lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\), so \\( varcount \\mid primeval lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\), and therefore \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\mid primeval lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\). Now any integer less than \\( varcount \\) is divisible by a power of \\( primeval \\) no greater than \\( primeval^{\\prime \\prime-1} \\), so \\( primeval^{varcount} \\nsucc lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\) and hence \\( lcmvalue(varcount) \\neq lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\). Thus \\( lcmvalue(varcount) / lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\) divides \\( primeval \\), but \\( lcmvalue(varcount) / lcmvalue(varcount-1) \\neq 1 \\). Since \\( primeval \\) is a prime, we have \\( lcmvalue(varcount) / lcmvalue(varcount-1)=primeval \\) in this case.\n\nSince \\( lcmvalue(varcount)=minpower(varcount) \\), we have proved\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{minpower(varcount)}{minpower(varcount-1)} & =1 \\quad \\text { if } varcount \\text { is divisible by two distinct primes } \\\\\n& =primeval \\quad \\text { if } varcount \\text { is a power of a prime } primeval .\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n"
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "n": "compasspt",
        "x": "lighthouse",
        "i": "notebookr",
        "N": "watercraft",
        "L": "bridgehead",
        "a": "sunflower",
        "b": "blackboard",
        "p": "starlitsky",
        "\\Sigma": "hinterland"
      },
      "question": "7. Let \\( watercraft(compasspt) \\) denote the smallest positive integer \\( watercraft \\) such that \\( lighthouse^{watercraft}=1 \\) for every permutation \\( \\boldsymbol{lighthouse} \\) on \\( \\boldsymbol{compasspt} \\) symbols, where 1 denotes the identity permutation. Prove that if \\( compasspt>1 \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{watercraft(compasspt)}{watercraft(compasspt-1)} & =1 \\text { if } compasspt \\text { is divisible by } 2 \\text { distinct primes, } \\\\\n& =starlitsky \\text { if } compasspt \\text { is a power of a prime } starlitsky\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]",
      "solution": "Solution. Let \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\) be the least common multiple of the integers 1,2 , \\( \\ldots, compasspt \\). Then \\( bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\mid bridgehead(compasspt) \\) for \\( compasspt=2,3, \\ldots \\) We shall prove that \\( watercraft(compasspt) =bridgehead(compasspt) \\) for all \\( compasspt \\).\n\nIn any group an element of order \\( notebookr \\) satisfies \\( lighthouse^{watercraft}=1 \\) if and only if \\( notebookr \\mid watercraft \\). Since the permutation group \\( hinterland \\) on \\( compasspt \\) symbols contains elements of each of the orders \\( 1,2, \\ldots, compasspt \\), we have \\( notebookr \\mid watercraft(compasspt) \\) for \\( notebookr=1,2, \\ldots, compasspt \\) and therefore \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\mid watercraft(compasspt) \\). Conversely, every permutation in \\( hinterland \\) is the product of commuting cycles, each of which is of order at most \\( compasspt \\), so \\( lighthouse^{bridgehead(compasspt)}=1 \\) for all \\( lighthouse \\in hinterland \\). Hence \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\geq watercraft(compasspt) \\), and therefore \\( bridgehead(compasspt)=watercraft(compasspt) \\).\n\nSuppose \\( compasspt \\) is an integer greater than one but not a prime power. Then \\( compasspt \\) can be written as the product of two smaller integers that are relatively prime, say \\( compasspt=sunflower blackboard \\). Then \\( sunflower \\) and \\( blackboard \\) both divide \\( bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\). Since they are relatively prime, \\( sunflower blackboard=compasspt \\) also divides \\( bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\). Therefore, \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\mid bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\) and hence \\( bridgehead(compasspt)=bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\) in this case. On the other hand, suppose \\( compasspt \\) is a power of a prime \\( starlitsky \\), say \\( compasspt=starlitsky^{\\prime \\prime} \\). Then \\( compasspt / starlitsky \\mid bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\), so \\( compasspt \\mid starlitsky bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\), and therefore \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\mid starlitsky bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\). Now any integer less than \\( compasspt \\) is divisible by a power of \\( starlitsky \\) no greater than \\( starlitsky^{\\prime \\prime-1} \\), so \\( starlitsky^{compasspt} \\nsucc bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\) and hence \\( bridgehead(compasspt) \\neq bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\). Thus \\( bridgehead(compasspt) / bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\) divides \\( starlitsky \\), but \\( bridgehead(compasspt) / bridgehead(compasspt-1) \\neq 1 \\). Since \\( starlitsky \\) is a prime, we have \\( bridgehead(compasspt) / bridgehead(compasspt-1)=starlitsky \\) in this case.\n\nSince \\( bridgehead(compasspt)=watercraft(compasspt) \\), we have proved\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{watercraft(compasspt)}{watercraft(compasspt-1)} & =1 \\quad \\text { if } compasspt \\text { is divisible by two distinct primes } \\\\\n& =starlitsky \\quad \\text { if } compasspt \\text { is a power of a prime } starlitsky .\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "n": "infinitude",
        "x": "fixedpoint",
        "i": "limitless",
        "N": "maximizer",
        "L": "gcdvalue",
        "a": "nonfactor",
        "b": "nondivisor",
        "p": "composite",
        "\\Sigma": "asymmetric"
      },
      "question": "7. Let \\( maximizer(infinitude) \\) denote the smallest positive integer \\( maximizer \\) such that \\( fixedpoint^{maximizer}=1 \\) for every permutation \\( \\boldsymbol{fixedpoint} \\) on \\( \\boldsymbol{infinitude} \\) symbols, where 1 denotes the identity permutation. Prove that if \\( infinitude>1 \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{maximizer(infinitude)}{maximizer(infinitude-1)} & =1 \\text { if } infinitude \\text { is divisible by } 2 \\text { distinct primes, } \\\\\n& =composite \\text { if } infinitude \\text { is a power of a prime } composite\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]",
      "solution": "Solution. Let \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\) be the least common multiple of the integers 1,2 , \\( \\ldots, infinitude \\). Then \\( gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\mid gcdvalue(infinitude) \\) for \\( infinitude=2,3, \\ldots \\) We shall prove that \\( maximizer(infinitude) \\) \\( =gcdvalue(infinitude) \\) for all \\( infinitude \\).\n\nIn any group an element of order \\( limitless \\) satisfies \\( fixedpoint^{maximizer}=1 \\) if and only if \\( limitless \\mid maximizer \\). Since the permutation group \\( asymmetric \\) on \\( infinitude \\) symbols contains elements of each of the orders \\( 1,2, \\ldots, infinitude \\), we have \\( limitless \\mid maximizer(infinitude) \\) for \\( limitless=1,2, \\ldots, infinitude \\) and therefore \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\mid maximizer(infinitude) \\). Conversely, every permutation in \\( asymmetric \\) is the product of commuting cycles, each of which is of order at most \\( infinitude \\), so \\( fixedpoint^{gcdvalue(infinitude)}=1 \\) for all \\( fixedpoint \\in asymmetric \\). Hence \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\geq maximizer(infinitude) \\), and therefore \\( gcdvalue(infinitude)=maximizer(infinitude) \\).\n\nSuppose \\( infinitude \\) is an integer greater than one but not a prime power. Then \\( infinitude \\) can be written as the product of two smaller integers that are relatively prime, say \\( infinitude=nonfactor nondivisor \\). Then \\( nonfactor \\) and \\( nondivisor \\) both divide \\( gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\). Since they are relatively prime, \\( nonfactor nondivisor=infinitude \\) also divides \\( gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\). Therefore, \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\mid gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\) and hence \\( gcdvalue(infinitude)=gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\) in this case. On the other hand, suppose \\( infinitude \\) is a power of a prime \\( composite \\), say \\( infinitude=composite^{\\prime \\prime} \\). Then \\( infinitude / composite \\mid gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\), so \\( infinitude \\mid composite gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\), and therefore \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\mid composite gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\). Now any integer less than \\( infinitude \\) is divisible by a power of \\( composite \\) no greater than \\( composite^{\\prime \\prime-1} \\), so \\( composite^{infinitude} \\nsucc gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\) and hence \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) \\neq \\) \\( gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\). Thus \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) / gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\) divides \\( composite \\), but \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) / gcdvalue(infinitude-1) \\neq 1 \\). Since \\( composite \\) is a prime, we have \\( gcdvalue(infinitude) / gcdvalue(infinitude-1)=composite \\) in this case.\n\nSince \\( gcdvalue(infinitude)=maximizer(infinitude) \\), we have proved\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{maximizer(infinitude)}{maximizer(infinitude-1)} & =1 \\quad \\text { if } infinitude \\text { is divisible by two distinct primes } \\\\\n& =composite \\quad \\text { if } infinitude \\text { is a power of a prime } composite .\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]"
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "n": "qbldjtra",
        "x": "qzxwvtnp",
        "i": "hjgrksla",
        "N": "zxlkwqpe",
        "L": "mznrfyod",
        "a": "cfvkyspa",
        "b": "tmrwexgh",
        "p": "slkajdne",
        "\\Sigma": "jznfqvrt"
      },
      "question": "7. Let \\( zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\) denote the smallest positive integer \\( zxlkwqpe \\) such that \\( qzxwvtnp^{zxlkwqpe}=1 \\) for every permutation \\( \\boldsymbol{qzxwvtnp} \\) on \\( \\boldsymbol{qbldjtra} \\) symbols, where 1 denotes the identity permutation. Prove that if \\( qbldjtra>1 \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra)}{zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra-1)} & =1 \\text { if } qbldjtra \\text { is divisible by } 2 \\text { distinct primes, } \\\\\n& =slkajdne \\text { if } qbldjtra \\text { is a power of a prime } slkajdne\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]",
      "solution": "Solution. Let \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\) be the least common multiple of the integers 1,2 , \\( \\ldots, qbldjtra \\). Then \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\mid mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\) for \\( qbldjtra=2,3, \\ldots \\) We shall prove that \\( zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) =mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\) for all \\( qbldjtra \\).\n\nIn any group an element of order \\( hjgrksla \\) satisfies \\( qzxwvtnp^{zxlkwqpe}=1 \\) if and only if \\( hjgrksla \\mid zxlkwqpe \\). Since the permutation group \\( jznfqvrt \\) on \\( qbldjtra \\) symbols contains elements of each of the orders \\( 1,2, \\ldots, qbldjtra \\), we have \\( hjgrksla \\mid zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\) for \\( hjgrksla=1,2, \\ldots, qbldjtra \\) and therefore \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\mid zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\). Conversely, every permutation in \\( jznfqvrt \\) is the product of commuting cycles, each of which is of order at most \\( qbldjtra \\), so \\( qzxwvtnp^{mznrfyod(qbldjtra)}=1 \\) for all \\( qzxwvtnp \\in jznfqvrt \\). Hence \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\geq zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\), and therefore \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra)=zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\).\n\nSuppose \\( qbldjtra \\) is an integer greater than one but not a prime power. Then \\( qbldjtra \\) can be written as the product of two smaller integers that are relatively prime, say \\( qbldjtra=cfvkyspa tmrwexgh \\). Then \\( cfvkyspa \\) and \\( tmrwexgh \\) both divide \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\). Since they are relatively prime, \\( cfvkyspa tmrwexgh=qbldjtra \\) also divides \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\). Therefore, \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\mid mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\) and hence \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra)=mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\) in this case. On the other hand, suppose \\( qbldjtra \\) is a power of a prime \\( slkajdne \\), say \\( qbldjtra=slkajdne^{\\prime \\prime} \\). Then \\( qbldjtra / slkajdne \\mid mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\), so \\( qbldjtra \\mid slkajdne mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\), and therefore \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\mid slkajdne mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\). Now any integer less than \\( qbldjtra \\) is divisible by a power of \\( slkajdne \\) no greater than \\( slkajdne^{\\prime \\prime-1} \\), so \\( slkajdne^{qbldjtra} \\nsucc mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\) and hence \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) \\neq mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\). Thus \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) / mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\) divides \\( slkajdne \\), but \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) / mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1) \\neq 1 \\). Since \\( slkajdne \\) is a prime, we have \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra) / mznrfyod(qbldjtra-1)=slkajdne \\) in this case.\n\nSince \\( mznrfyod(qbldjtra)=zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra) \\), we have proved\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra)}{zxlkwqpe(qbldjtra-1)} & =1 \\quad \\text { if } qbldjtra \\text { is divisible by two distinct primes } \\\\\n& =slkajdne \\quad \\text { if } qbldjtra \\text { is a power of a prime } slkajdne .\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]"
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Fix a prime number $p$.  For every integer $n\\ge 1$ put  \n\\[\nG_{n}:=GL_{n}\\!\\bigl(\\mathbb{F}_{p}\\bigr),\n\\qquad \nE_{p}(n):=\\min\\Bigl\\{\\,e\\in\\mathbb{N}_{>0}\\;\\Bigm|\\;\n                 g^{\\,e}=I_{n}\\;\\forall\\,g\\in G_{n}\\Bigr\\}.\n\\]\nThus $E_{p}(n)$ is the exponent of the finite group $G_{n}$.\n\nA)  Prove the classical formula\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)=p^{\\lceil\\log _{p} n\\rceil}\\;\n            \\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le n}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr),\n\\qquad n\\ge 1.\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\nB)  For $n\\ge 2$ define  \n\\[\nQ_{p}(n):=\\frac{E_{p}(n)}{E_{p}(n-1)} .\n\\]\n\n(i)  Put $\\displaystyle L_{m}:=\\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le m}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr)$ and  \n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{p}(n):=\\lceil\\log _{p}n\\rceil-\\lceil\\log _{p}(n-1)\\rceil\n        \\;=\\;\n        \\begin{cases}\n           1,&\\;n-1\\text{ is a (non–negative) power of }p,\\\\[4pt]\n           0,&\\;\\text{otherwise.}\n        \\end{cases}\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\nShow that\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)=p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\,\n         \\Phi_{n}(p),\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\nwhere $\\Phi_{n}$ denotes the $n$-th cyclotomic polynomial.\n\n(Hint: prove directly that for every prime $r\\neq p$\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(L_{n}\\bigr)-v_{r}\\!\\bigl(L_{n-1}\\bigr)\n\\;=\\;\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr).\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nFor $r$ odd the right–hand side is either $0$, $1$, or\n$v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,\\operatorname{ord}_{r}(p)}-1\\bigr)$;\nfor $r=2$ one has\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{2}(p)\\bigr)=v_{2}(p+1),\\qquad\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{2^{k}}(p)\\bigr)=1\\;(k\\ge 2),\\qquad\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=0\\text{ otherwise.}\n\\]\nYou will need the Lifting–the–Exponent lemma, including the special\n$r=2$ case.)\n\n(ii)  A prime $r$ is called a \\emph{primitive prime divisor} of\n$(p,n)$ if $r\\mid p^{\\,n}-1$ but $r\\nmid p^{\\,d}-1$ for every\n$1\\le d<n$.  Using (3) together with Bang–Zsigmondy’s theorem,\nprove that $\\Phi_{n}(p)$, and hence $Q_{p}(n)$, possesses a primitive\nprime divisor for every pair $(p,n)$ with $n\\ge 2$, except for the\nfollowing two (and only these two) families of exceptions:\n\\[\n\\bigl(p,n\\bigr)=(2,6)\\quad\\text{or}\\quad\n\\bigl(p,n\\bigr)=\\bigl(2^{k}-1,2\\bigr)\\quad\\text{with }k\\ge 2\\text{ and }2^{k}-1\\text{ prime.}\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\n\n(iii)  Assume $p$ is odd.  Determine exactly for which $n$ the\nquotient $Q_{p}(n)$ is even, and compute the $2$-adic valuation\n$v_{2}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)$ in those cases.\n\n(iv)  (Extra credit)  Describe the $p$-adic valuation\n$v_{p}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)$ explicitly and deduce that the sequence\n$\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)_{n\\ge 2}$ takes on infinitely many pairwise\ndifferent integral values.",
      "solution": "Throughout $v_{r}(\\,\\cdot\\,)$ denotes the $r$–adic valuation and  \n\\[\np^{\\,n}-1=\\prod_{d\\mid n}\\Phi_{d}(p)\\qquad(n\\ge 1)\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\nis the cyclotomic factorisation.  External ingredients are the\nLifting–the–Exponent (LTE) lemma and Bang–Zsigmondy’s theorem.\n\nStep 1 – Establishing formula (1).\n\nWrite\n\\[\nL_{n}:=\\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le n}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr),\n\\qquad \nc(n):=\\lceil\\log_{p}n\\rceil .\n\\]\n\n(1a)  An upper bound for the orders of \\emph{all} elements.\n\nGiven $g\\in G_{n}$, let $g=su$ be its multiplicative Jordan\ndecomposition with $s$ semisimple and $u$ unipotent, $su=us$.\n\n•  For the unipotent part we have $(u-I_{n})^{n}=0$, whence\n$u^{p^{\\,c(n)}}=I_{n}$; therefore\n\\[\n\\operatorname{ord}(u)\\mid p^{\\,c(n)} .\n\\tag{7}\n\\]\n\n•  The semisimple part $s$ is diagonalizable over a suitable extension\nfield of $\\mathbb{F}_{p}$.  Every eigenvalue of $s$ lives in\n$\\mathbb{F}_{p^{\\,d}}^{\\times}$ for some $d\\le n$, so\n$\\operatorname{ord}(s)\\mid p^{\\,d}-1$ and thus\n\\[\n\\operatorname{ord}(s)\\mid L_{n}.\n\\tag{8}\n\\]\n\nBecause $p^{\\,c(n)}$ and $L_{n}$ are coprime,\n$\\operatorname{ord}(g)=\\operatorname{lcm}\\bigl(\\operatorname{ord}(s),\n\\operatorname{ord}(u)\\bigr)$ divides $p^{\\,c(n)}L_{n}$.\n\nHence\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)\\le p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n}.\n\\tag{9}\n\\]\n\n(1b)  Achieving the bound.\n\n•  A single Jordan block $J_{n}(1)$ of size $n$ is an element of\n$G_{n}$ whose order equals $p^{\\,c(n)}$ by (7).\n\n•  For every $1\\le d\\le n$ choose a generator $\\alpha_{d}$ of the\ncyclic group $\\mathbb{F}_{p^{\\,d}}^{\\times}$, and let\n$C_{d}\\in G_{d}$ be the companion matrix of its minimal polynomial.\nThen $\\operatorname{ord}(C_{d})=p^{\\,d}-1$.  Embed $C_{d}$ into\n$G_{n}$ via the block diagonal matrix\n$\\operatorname{diag}(C_{d},I_{n-d})$; its order is still\n$p^{\\,d}-1$.\n\nConsequently the set of orders occurring in $G_{n}$ contains both\n$p^{\\,c(n)}$ and every integer $p^{\\,d}-1$ with $1\\le d\\le n$.  Their\nleast common multiple is exactly $p^{\\,c(n)}L_{n}$.  Therefore\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)\\ge p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n}.\n\\tag{10}\n\\]\n\nCombining (9) and (10) yields\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)=p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n},\n\\]\nwhich is precisely the desired formula (1).  ∎\n\nStep 2 – Reducing $Q_{p}(n)$ to the ratio $L_{n}/L_{n-1}$.\n\nFrom (1) we obtain, for all $n\\ge 2$,\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)\n   =p^{\\,c(n)-c(n-1)}\\cdot\\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\n   =p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\,\n    \\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}} .\n\\tag{11}\n\\]\n\nStep 3 – A valuation–wise study of $L_{n}/L_{n-1}$.\n\nFix a prime $r\\neq p$ and set\n\\[\ns:=\\operatorname{ord}_{r}(p)\n     =\\min\\bigl\\{d\\ge 1\\mid p^{\\,d}\\equiv 1\\bmod r\\bigr\\}.\n\\]\n\nStep 3a – Odd primes $r\\ge 3$.\n\nFor every $k\\ge 0$ the LTE lemma gives\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s r^{\\,k}}-1\\bigr)\n      =v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr)+k .\n\\tag{12}\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\nv_{r}(L_{m})\n      =v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr)\n        +\\max\\!\\bigl\\{k\\mid s r^{\\,k}\\le m\\bigr\\}.\n\\tag{13}\n\\]\nPut \n\\[\nt(m):=\\max\\!\\bigl\\{k\\mid s r^{\\,k}\\le m\\bigr\\}\\quad(\\!-1\\text{ if the set is empty}).\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)\n      =t(n)-t(n-1)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr),& n=s,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=s\\,r^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 1),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{14}\n\\]\n\nStep 3b – The prime $r=2$ (with $p$ odd).\n\nWrite\n\\[\n\\gamma:=v_{2}(p-1)\\ (\\ge 1),\\qquad \\delta:=v_{2}(p+1)\\ (\\ge 1).\n\\]\nFor \\emph{even} $d$ LTE gives\n\\[\nv_{2}(p^{\\,d}-1)=\\gamma+\\delta+v_{2}(d)-1,\n\\tag{15}\n\\]\nwhile for \\emph{odd} $d$ one has $v_{2}(p^{\\,d}-1)=\\gamma$.\nArguing as in (13) one obtains\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\n\\delta,& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{16}\n\\]\n\nStep 3c – Valuations of the cyclotomic factor.\n\nBy (6) and Möbius inversion we have\n\\[\n\\Phi_{s r^{\\,k}}(p)=\n\\frac{p^{\\,s r^{\\,k}}-1}{p^{\\,s r^{\\,k-1}}-1}\\quad(k\\ge 1),\n\\qquad\n\\Phi_{s}(p)=\\frac{p^{\\,s}-1}{\\displaystyle\\prod_{d\\mid s,\\;d<s}\\!\\!\\Phi_{d}(p)}.\n\\]\nBecause $s$ is the \\emph{exact} order of $p$ modulo $r$, the prime\n$r$ divides $p^{\\,s}-1$ but none of the factors in the denominator\nabove.  Combining this with (12) we find\n\\[\nv_{r}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr),& n=s,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=s\\,r^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 1),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise},\n\\end{cases}\\quad (r\\ge 3),\n\\tag{17}\n\\]\nwhile for $r=2$ and $p$ odd one checks directly (using (15)) that\n\\[\nv_{2}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\n\\delta,& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{18}\n\\]\n\nStep 3d – Comparison.\n\nComparing (14) with (17) for $r\\ge 3$ and (16) with (18) for $r=2$ we\nobtain\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)\n     =v_{r}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)\\qquad\n     (r\\neq p,\\;n\\ge 2).\n\\]\nSince this equality holds for every prime $r\\neq p$, we conclude\n\\[\n\\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}=\\Phi_{n}(p)\\qquad (n\\ge 2).\n\\tag{19}\n\\]\n\nStep 4 – Completion of Part B(i).\n\nInsert (19) into (11):\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)=p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\Phi_{n}(p),\n\\]\nwhich is exactly (3). ∎\n\nStep 5 – Primitive prime divisors, Part B(ii).\n\nBang–Zsigmondy’s theorem states that $p^{\\,n}-1$ has a primitive prime\ndivisor except in the two cases\n\\[\n(p,n)=(2,6)\\quad\\text{or}\\quad\nn=2,\\;p+1\\text{ a power of }2 .\n\\tag{20}\n\\]\nBecause the factor $p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}$ in $Q_{p}(n)$ is a power\nof $p$, every primitive prime divisor of $p^{\\,n}-1$ divides\n$\\Phi_{n}(p)$ and hence $Q_{p}(n)$.  Conversely, if $(p,n)$ is\nexceptional in (20), then $\\Phi_{n}(p)$ possesses no primitive prime\ndivisor.  Translating (20) gives exactly the exceptional families in\n(5). ∎\n\nStep 6 – Parity for odd $p$, Part B(iii).\n\nBecause $\\gcd(p,2)=1$, parity is governed by $\\Phi_{n}(p)$.  Taking\n$r=2$ in (18) yields\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{2}(p+1),& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{21}\n\\]\nThus $Q_{p}(n)$ is even precisely for $n=2$ or $n=2^{\\,k}$ with\n$k\\ge 2$, and the $2$–adic valuations are given by (21). ∎\n\nStep 7 – The $p$-adic valuation, Part B(iv).\n\nFrom (3) we obtain\n\\[\nv_{p}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)=\\varepsilon_{p}(n)=\n\\begin{cases}\n1,& n-1=p^{\\,k}\\text{ for some }k\\ge 0,\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{22}\n\\]\nHence $Q_{p}(n)$ is divisible by $p$ exactly for the infinite\nsubsequence $n=p^{\\,k}+1\\;(k\\ge 0)$ and is coprime to $p$ otherwise.\nCoupled with Step 5 this shows that, aside from the finitely many\nexceptional pairs in (5), each $Q_{p}(n)$ contains a new primitive\nprime factor.  Therefore the sequence\n$\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)_{n\\ge 2}$ assumes infinitely many pairwise\ndifferent integral values. ∎",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.520964",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1.  Higher-dimensional objects: The setting moves from permutations to\n    full linear groups GLₙ(𝔽ₚ), whose elements have far richer structure\n    (Jordan and rational canonical forms, field extensions, Singer cycles).\n\n2.  Sophisticated tools: The solution demands both linear-algebraic\n    classification (to compute the exponent) and deep number theory\n    (Zsigmondy’s theorem about primitive prime divisors) rather than the\n    elementary lcm computation that sufficed for Sₙ.\n\n3.  More cases and more values:\n    Whereas the original quotient could only be 1 or a single prime,\n    the enhanced quotient can equal p+1, the prime 3, or infinitely many\n    different primitive primes rₙ, depending delicately on n and p.\n\n4.  Interacting concepts:\n    The proof intertwines matrix theory, finite-field arithmetic, group\n    exponents, and results on prime divisors of exponential sequences.\n\n5.  Greater length and depth:\n    Establishing the exponent already requires a two-stage argument\n    (upper bound via block orders, lower bound via Singer cycles),\n    and analysing the quotient needs an independent heavy theorem.\n    Consequently the solution is considerably longer and conceptually\n    denser than that for the symmetric-group analogue."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Fix a prime number $p$.  For every integer $n\\ge 1$ put  \n\\[\nG_{n}:=GL_{n}\\!\\bigl(\\mathbb{F}_{p}\\bigr),\n\\qquad \nE_{p}(n):=\\min\\Bigl\\{\\,e\\in\\mathbb{N}_{>0}\\;\\Bigm|\\;\n                 g^{\\,e}=I_{n}\\;\\forall\\,g\\in G_{n}\\Bigr\\}.\n\\]\nThus $E_{p}(n)$ is the exponent of the finite group $G_{n}$.\n\nA)  Prove the classical formula\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)=p^{\\lceil\\log _{p} n\\rceil}\\;\n            \\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le n}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr),\n\\qquad n\\ge 1.\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\nB)  For $n\\ge 2$ define  \n\\[\nQ_{p}(n):=\\frac{E_{p}(n)}{E_{p}(n-1)} .\n\\]\n\n(i)  Put $\\displaystyle L_{m}:=\\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le m}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr)$ and  \n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{p}(n):=\\lceil\\log _{p}n\\rceil-\\lceil\\log _{p}(n-1)\\rceil\n        \\;=\\;\n        \\begin{cases}\n           1,&\\;n-1\\text{ is a (non–negative) power of }p,\\\\[4pt]\n           0,&\\;\\text{otherwise.}\n        \\end{cases}\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\nShow that\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)=p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\,\n         \\Phi_{n}(p),\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\nwhere $\\Phi_{n}$ denotes the $n$-th cyclotomic polynomial.\n\n(Hint: prove directly that for every prime $r\\neq p$\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(L_{n}\\bigr)-v_{r}\\!\\bigl(L_{n-1}\\bigr)\n\\;=\\;\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr).\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nFor $r$ odd the right–hand side is either $0$, $1$, or\n$v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,\\operatorname{ord}_{r}(p)}-1\\bigr)$;\nfor $r=2$ one has\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{2}(p)\\bigr)=v_{2}(p+1),\\qquad\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{2^{k}}(p)\\bigr)=1\\;(k\\ge 2),\\qquad\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=0\\text{ otherwise.}\n\\]\nYou will need the Lifting–the–Exponent lemma, including the special\n$r=2$ case.)\n\n(ii)  A prime $r$ is called a \\emph{primitive prime divisor} of\n$(p,n)$ if $r\\mid p^{\\,n}-1$ but $r\\nmid p^{\\,d}-1$ for every\n$1\\le d<n$.  Using (3) together with Bang–Zsigmondy’s theorem,\nprove that $\\Phi_{n}(p)$, and hence $Q_{p}(n)$, possesses a primitive\nprime divisor for every pair $(p,n)$ with $n\\ge 2$, except for the\nfollowing two (and only these two) families of exceptions:\n\\[\n\\bigl(p,n\\bigr)=(2,6)\\quad\\text{or}\\quad\n\\bigl(p,n\\bigr)=\\bigl(2^{k}-1,2\\bigr)\\quad\\text{with }k\\ge 2\\text{ and }2^{k}-1\\text{ prime.}\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\n\n(iii)  Assume $p$ is odd.  Determine exactly for which $n$ the\nquotient $Q_{p}(n)$ is even, and compute the $2$-adic valuation\n$v_{2}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)$ in those cases.\n\n(iv)  (Extra credit)  Describe the $p$-adic valuation\n$v_{p}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)$ explicitly and deduce that the sequence\n$\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)_{n\\ge 2}$ takes on infinitely many pairwise\ndifferent integral values.",
      "solution": "Throughout $v_{r}(\\,\\cdot\\,)$ denotes the $r$–adic valuation and  \n\\[\np^{\\,n}-1=\\prod_{d\\mid n}\\Phi_{d}(p)\\qquad(n\\ge 1)\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\nis the cyclotomic factorisation.  External ingredients are the\nLifting–the–Exponent (LTE) lemma and Bang–Zsigmondy’s theorem.\n\nStep 1 – Establishing formula (1).\n\nWrite\n\\[\nL_{n}:=\\operatorname{lcm}_{1\\le d\\le n}\\bigl(p^{\\,d}-1\\bigr),\n\\qquad \nc(n):=\\lceil\\log_{p}n\\rceil .\n\\]\n\n(1a)  An upper bound for the orders of \\emph{all} elements.\n\nGiven $g\\in G_{n}$, let $g=su$ be its multiplicative Jordan\ndecomposition with $s$ semisimple and $u$ unipotent, $su=us$.\n\n•  For the unipotent part we have $(u-I_{n})^{n}=0$, whence\n$u^{p^{\\,c(n)}}=I_{n}$; therefore\n\\[\n\\operatorname{ord}(u)\\mid p^{\\,c(n)} .\n\\tag{7}\n\\]\n\n•  The semisimple part $s$ is diagonalizable over a suitable extension\nfield of $\\mathbb{F}_{p}$.  Every eigenvalue of $s$ lives in\n$\\mathbb{F}_{p^{\\,d}}^{\\times}$ for some $d\\le n$, so\n$\\operatorname{ord}(s)\\mid p^{\\,d}-1$ and thus\n\\[\n\\operatorname{ord}(s)\\mid L_{n}.\n\\tag{8}\n\\]\n\nBecause $p^{\\,c(n)}$ and $L_{n}$ are coprime,\n$\\operatorname{ord}(g)=\\operatorname{lcm}\\bigl(\\operatorname{ord}(s),\n\\operatorname{ord}(u)\\bigr)$ divides $p^{\\,c(n)}L_{n}$.\n\nHence\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)\\le p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n}.\n\\tag{9}\n\\]\n\n(1b)  Achieving the bound.\n\n•  A single Jordan block $J_{n}(1)$ of size $n$ is an element of\n$G_{n}$ whose order equals $p^{\\,c(n)}$ by (7).\n\n•  For every $1\\le d\\le n$ choose a generator $\\alpha_{d}$ of the\ncyclic group $\\mathbb{F}_{p^{\\,d}}^{\\times}$, and let\n$C_{d}\\in G_{d}$ be the companion matrix of its minimal polynomial.\nThen $\\operatorname{ord}(C_{d})=p^{\\,d}-1$.  Embed $C_{d}$ into\n$G_{n}$ via the block diagonal matrix\n$\\operatorname{diag}(C_{d},I_{n-d})$; its order is still\n$p^{\\,d}-1$.\n\nConsequently the set of orders occurring in $G_{n}$ contains both\n$p^{\\,c(n)}$ and every integer $p^{\\,d}-1$ with $1\\le d\\le n$.  Their\nleast common multiple is exactly $p^{\\,c(n)}L_{n}$.  Therefore\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)\\ge p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n}.\n\\tag{10}\n\\]\n\nCombining (9) and (10) yields\n\\[\nE_{p}(n)=p^{\\,c(n)}\\,L_{n},\n\\]\nwhich is precisely the desired formula (1).  ∎\n\nStep 2 – Reducing $Q_{p}(n)$ to the ratio $L_{n}/L_{n-1}$.\n\nFrom (1) we obtain, for all $n\\ge 2$,\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)\n   =p^{\\,c(n)-c(n-1)}\\cdot\\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\n   =p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\,\n    \\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}} .\n\\tag{11}\n\\]\n\nStep 3 – A valuation–wise study of $L_{n}/L_{n-1}$.\n\nFix a prime $r\\neq p$ and set\n\\[\ns:=\\operatorname{ord}_{r}(p)\n     =\\min\\bigl\\{d\\ge 1\\mid p^{\\,d}\\equiv 1\\bmod r\\bigr\\}.\n\\]\n\nStep 3a – Odd primes $r\\ge 3$.\n\nFor every $k\\ge 0$ the LTE lemma gives\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s r^{\\,k}}-1\\bigr)\n      =v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr)+k .\n\\tag{12}\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\nv_{r}(L_{m})\n      =v_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr)\n        +\\max\\!\\bigl\\{k\\mid s r^{\\,k}\\le m\\bigr\\}.\n\\tag{13}\n\\]\nPut \n\\[\nt(m):=\\max\\!\\bigl\\{k\\mid s r^{\\,k}\\le m\\bigr\\}\\quad(\\!-1\\text{ if the set is empty}).\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)\n      =t(n)-t(n-1)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr),& n=s,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=s\\,r^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 1),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{14}\n\\]\n\nStep 3b – The prime $r=2$ (with $p$ odd).\n\nWrite\n\\[\n\\gamma:=v_{2}(p-1)\\ (\\ge 1),\\qquad \\delta:=v_{2}(p+1)\\ (\\ge 1).\n\\]\nFor \\emph{even} $d$ LTE gives\n\\[\nv_{2}(p^{\\,d}-1)=\\gamma+\\delta+v_{2}(d)-1,\n\\tag{15}\n\\]\nwhile for \\emph{odd} $d$ one has $v_{2}(p^{\\,d}-1)=\\gamma$.\nArguing as in (13) one obtains\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\n\\delta,& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{16}\n\\]\n\nStep 3c – Valuations of the cyclotomic factor.\n\nBy (6) and Möbius inversion we have\n\\[\n\\Phi_{s r^{\\,k}}(p)=\n\\frac{p^{\\,s r^{\\,k}}-1}{p^{\\,s r^{\\,k-1}}-1}\\quad(k\\ge 1),\n\\qquad\n\\Phi_{s}(p)=\\frac{p^{\\,s}-1}{\\displaystyle\\prod_{d\\mid s,\\;d<s}\\!\\!\\Phi_{d}(p)}.\n\\]\nBecause $s$ is the \\emph{exact} order of $p$ modulo $r$, the prime\n$r$ divides $p^{\\,s}-1$ but none of the factors in the denominator\nabove.  Combining this with (12) we find\n\\[\nv_{r}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{r}\\!\\bigl(p^{\\,s}-1\\bigr),& n=s,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=s\\,r^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 1),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise},\n\\end{cases}\\quad (r\\ge 3),\n\\tag{17}\n\\]\nwhile for $r=2$ and $p$ odd one checks directly (using (15)) that\n\\[\nv_{2}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\n\\delta,& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{18}\n\\]\n\nStep 3d – Comparison.\n\nComparing (14) with (17) for $r\\ge 3$ and (16) with (18) for $r=2$ we\nobtain\n\\[\nv_{r}\\!\\Bigl(\\tfrac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}\\Bigr)\n     =v_{r}\\bigl(\\Phi_{n}(p)\\bigr)\\qquad\n     (r\\neq p,\\;n\\ge 2).\n\\]\nSince this equality holds for every prime $r\\neq p$, we conclude\n\\[\n\\frac{L_{n}}{L_{n-1}}=\\Phi_{n}(p)\\qquad (n\\ge 2).\n\\tag{19}\n\\]\n\nStep 4 – Completion of Part B(i).\n\nInsert (19) into (11):\n\\[\nQ_{p}(n)=p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}\\Phi_{n}(p),\n\\]\nwhich is exactly (3). ∎\n\nStep 5 – Primitive prime divisors, Part B(ii).\n\nBang–Zsigmondy’s theorem states that $p^{\\,n}-1$ has a primitive prime\ndivisor except in the two cases\n\\[\n(p,n)=(2,6)\\quad\\text{or}\\quad\nn=2,\\;p+1\\text{ a power of }2 .\n\\tag{20}\n\\]\nBecause the factor $p^{\\,\\varepsilon_{p}(n)}$ in $Q_{p}(n)$ is a power\nof $p$, every primitive prime divisor of $p^{\\,n}-1$ divides\n$\\Phi_{n}(p)$ and hence $Q_{p}(n)$.  Conversely, if $(p,n)$ is\nexceptional in (20), then $\\Phi_{n}(p)$ possesses no primitive prime\ndivisor.  Translating (20) gives exactly the exceptional families in\n(5). ∎\n\nStep 6 – Parity for odd $p$, Part B(iii).\n\nBecause $\\gcd(p,2)=1$, parity is governed by $\\Phi_{n}(p)$.  Taking\n$r=2$ in (18) yields\n\\[\nv_{2}\\!\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)=\n\\begin{cases}\nv_{2}(p+1),& n=2,\\\\[4pt]\n1,& n=2^{\\,k}\\;(k\\ge 2),\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{21}\n\\]\nThus $Q_{p}(n)$ is even precisely for $n=2$ or $n=2^{\\,k}$ with\n$k\\ge 2$, and the $2$–adic valuations are given by (21). ∎\n\nStep 7 – The $p$-adic valuation, Part B(iv).\n\nFrom (3) we obtain\n\\[\nv_{p}\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)=\\varepsilon_{p}(n)=\n\\begin{cases}\n1,& n-1=p^{\\,k}\\text{ for some }k\\ge 0,\\\\[4pt]\n0,&\\text{otherwise}.\n\\end{cases}\n\\tag{22}\n\\]\nHence $Q_{p}(n)$ is divisible by $p$ exactly for the infinite\nsubsequence $n=p^{\\,k}+1\\;(k\\ge 0)$ and is coprime to $p$ otherwise.\nCoupled with Step 5 this shows that, aside from the finitely many\nexceptional pairs in (5), each $Q_{p}(n)$ contains a new primitive\nprime factor.  Therefore the sequence\n$\\bigl(Q_{p}(n)\\bigr)_{n\\ge 2}$ assumes infinitely many pairwise\ndifferent integral values. ∎",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.436184",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1.  Higher-dimensional objects: The setting moves from permutations to\n    full linear groups GLₙ(𝔽ₚ), whose elements have far richer structure\n    (Jordan and rational canonical forms, field extensions, Singer cycles).\n\n2.  Sophisticated tools: The solution demands both linear-algebraic\n    classification (to compute the exponent) and deep number theory\n    (Zsigmondy’s theorem about primitive prime divisors) rather than the\n    elementary lcm computation that sufficed for Sₙ.\n\n3.  More cases and more values:\n    Whereas the original quotient could only be 1 or a single prime,\n    the enhanced quotient can equal p+1, the prime 3, or infinitely many\n    different primitive primes rₙ, depending delicately on n and p.\n\n4.  Interacting concepts:\n    The proof intertwines matrix theory, finite-field arithmetic, group\n    exponents, and results on prime divisors of exponential sequences.\n\n5.  Greater length and depth:\n    Establishing the exponent already requires a two-stage argument\n    (upper bound via block orders, lower bound via Singer cycles),\n    and analysing the quotient needs an independent heavy theorem.\n    Consequently the solution is considerably longer and conceptually\n    denser than that for the symmetric-group analogue."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}