{
  "index": "2024-A-6",
  "type": "COMB",
  "tag": [
    "COMB",
    "ALG",
    "ANA",
    "NT"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "Let $c_0,c_1,c_2,\\dots$ be the sequence defined so that \n\\[\n\\frac{1-3x-\\sqrt{1-14x+9x^2}}{4} = \\sum_{k=0}^\\infty c_k x^k\n\\]\nfor sufficiently small $x$. For a positive integer $n$, let $A$ be the $n$-by-$n$ matrix with $i,j$-entry $c_{i+j-1}$ for $i$ and $j$ in $\\{1,\\dots,n\\}$. Find the determinant of $A$.",
  "solution": "The determinant equals $10^{n(n-1)/2}$.\nWe compute the corresponding determinant for the coefficients of the generic power series\n\\[\nf(x) := \\sum_{n=1}^\\infty c_n x^n, \\qquad c_1 = 1,\n\\]\nwith associated continued fraction\n\\[\n\\frac{a_0}{x^{-1} + b_0 + \\frac{a_1}{x^{-1} + b_1 + \\cdots}}, \\qquad a_0 = 1.\n\\]\nIf we truncate by replacing $a_{n+1} = 0$, we get a rational function which can be written as $\\frac{A_n(x^{-1})}{B_n(x^{-1})}$ where $A_n(x), B_n(x)$ are polynomials determined by the initial conditions\n\\[\nA_{-1}(x) =1, A_0(x) = 0, \\quad B_{-1}(x) = 0, B_0(x) = 1\n\\]\nand the recurrences\n\\begin{align*}\nA_{n+1}(x) &= (x + b_{n})A_n(x) + a_{n} A_{n-1}(x) \\qquad (n > 0) \\\\\nB_{n+1}(x) &= (x + b_{n})B_n(x) + a_{n} B_{n-1}(x) \\qquad (n > 0).\n\\end{align*}\nSince each additional truncation accounts for two more coefficients of the power series, we have\n\\[\n\\frac{A_n(x^{-1})}{B_n(x^{-1})} = f(x) + O(x^{2n+1}),\n\\]\nor equivalently (since $B_n(x)$ is monic of degree $n$)\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:convergent}\nf(x) B_n(x^{-1}) - A_n(x^{-1}) = O(x^{n+1}).\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe now reinterpret in the language of \\emph{orthogonal polynomials}.\nFor a polynomial $P(x) = \\sum_i P_i x^i$, define\n\\[\n\\int_\\mu P(x) = \\sum_i P_i c_{i+1};\n\\]\nthen the vanishing of the coefficient of $x^{i+1}$\nin \\eqref{eq:convergent} (with $n := i$) implies that\n\\[\n\\int_\\mu x^i B_j(x) = 0 \\qquad (j < i).\n\\]\nBy expanding $0 = \\int_\\mu x^{i-1} B_{i+1}(x)$ using the recurrence, we deduce that $\\int_\\mu x^i B_i(x) + a_i \\int_\\mu x^{i-1} B_{i-1}(x) = 0$, and so\n\\[\n\\int_\\mu x^i B_i(x) = (-1)^i a_1 \\cdots a_i.\n\\]\nWe deduce that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:orthogonality}\n\\int_\\mu B_i(x) B_j(x) = \\begin{cases} 0 & i \\neq j \\\\\n(-1)^i a_1 \\cdots a_i & i = j.\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nIn other words, for $U$ the $n \\times n$ matrix such that\n$U_{ij}$ is the coefficient of $x^j$ in $B_i(x)$,\nthe matrix $UAU^t$ is a diagonal matrix $D$ with diagonal entries\n$D_{i,i} = (-1)^{i-1} a_1 \\cdots a_{i-1}$ for $i=1,\\dots,n$. \nSince $U$ is a unipotent matrix, its determinant is 1; we conclude that\n\\[\n\\det(A) = \\det(D) = (-1)^{n(n-1)/2} a_1^{n-1} \\cdots a_{n-1}.\n\\]\n\nWe now return to the sequence $\\{c_n\\}$ given in the problem statement, for which\n\\[\nf(x) = \\frac{1 - 3x - \\sqrt{1 - 14x +9x^{2}}}{4}.\n\\]\nFor \n\\[\ng(x) := \\frac{1-7x-\\sqrt{1-14x+9x^2}}{2x},\n\\]\nwe have\n\\[\nf(x) = \\frac{1}{x^{-1} - 5 - g(x)}, \\quad\ng(x) = \\frac{10}{x^{-1} - 7 - g(x)}.\n\\]\nThis means that the continued fraction is eventually periodic;\nin particular, $a_1 = a_2 = \\cdots = -10$.\nPlugging into the general formula for $\\det(A)$ yields the desired result.\nThis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Reinterpretation.} (suggested by Bjorn Poonen)\nGiven a formal Laurent series $\\alpha = \\sum_i a_i x^i$, define the matrices\n$H_n(\\alpha) = (a_{i+j-1})_{i,j=1}^n$ and the determinants $h_n(\\alpha) = \\det H_n(\\alpha)$.\nOne can then recover the evaluation of the determinants from the following lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma*}\nSuppose $\\alpha = \\sum_{i=1}^\\infty a_i x^i$ is a formal power series with $a_i = 1$.\nDefine the power series $\\beta$ by $\\alpha^{-1} = x^{-1} - \\beta$. Then for all $n \\geq 1$,\n$h_n(\\alpha) = h_{n-1}(\\beta)$.\n\\end{lemma*}\n\\begin{proof}\nFor $m \\geq 2$, by equating the coefficients of $x^m$ in the equality $x^{-1} \\alpha = \\alpha \\beta + 1$, we obtain\n\\[\na_{m+1} = \\sum_{r=1}^m a_r b_{m-r}.\n\\]\nWe now perform some row and column reduction on $H_n(\\alpha)$ without changing its determinant.\nStarting with $H_n(\\alpha)$,\nfor $i = n,n-1,\\dots,2$ in turn, for $k=1,\\dots,i-1$ subtract $b_{i-1-k}$ times row $k$ from row $i$. In light of the recurrence relation, the resulting matrix $M = (m_{ij})$ has the property that for $i \\geq 2$,\n\\begin{align*}\nm_{ij} &= a_{i+j-1} - \\sum_{k=1}^{i-1} a_{j+k-1} b_{i-1s-k} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{r=1}^{j-1}  a_r b_{i+j-2-r}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $m_{i1} = 0$ for $i \\geq 2$.\nStarting from $M$, for $j=2,\\dots,n-1$ in turn, for $k=j+1,\\dots,n$ subtract $a_{k-j+1}$ times column $j$ from column $i$. The resulting matrix has first column $(1, 0,\\dots,0)$ and removing its first row and column leaves $H_{n-1}(\\beta)$, yielding the claimed equality.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.} A matrix $A$ whose $i,j$-entry depends only on $i+j$ is called a \\emph{Hankel matrix}.\nThe above computation of the determinant of a Hankel matrix in terms of continued fractions is adapted from\nH.S. Wall, \\textit{Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions}, Theorems 50.1 and 51.1.\n\nThe same analysis shows that if we define the sequence $\\{c_n\\}_{n=1}$ by\n$c_1 = 1$ and\n\\[\nc_n = a c_{n-1} + b \\sum_{i=1}^{n-1} c_i c_{n-i} \\qquad (n > 1),\n\\]\nthen  $a_n = -ab-b^2$, $b_n = -a-2b$ for all $n>0$ and so\n\\[\n\\det(A) = (ab+b^2)^{n(n-1)/2};\n\\]\nthe problem statement is the case $a=3, b=2$.\nThe case $a=0, b=1$ yields the sequence of Catalan numbers;\nthe case $a=1, b=1$ yields the Schr\\\"oder numbers (OEIS sequence A006318).\n\nThere are a number of additional cases of Hankel determinants of interest in combinatorics.\nFor a survey, see: A. Junod, Hankel determinants and orthogonal polynomials,\n\\textit{Expositiones Mathematicae} \\textbf{21} (2003), 63--74.",
  "vars": [
    "x",
    "i",
    "j",
    "k",
    "n"
  ],
  "params": [
    "A",
    "c_0",
    "c_1",
    "c_2",
    "c_k",
    "c_n",
    "c_i+1",
    "c_i-1",
    "f",
    "a_0",
    "a_1",
    "a_n",
    "a_n-1",
    "a_n+1",
    "a_i",
    "b_0",
    "b_1",
    "b_n",
    "A_-1",
    "A_0",
    "A_n",
    "A_n+1",
    "B_-1",
    "B_0",
    "B_n",
    "B_n+1",
    "g",
    "P",
    "P_i",
    "U",
    "D",
    "D_i,i",
    "H_n",
    "h_n",
    "h_n-1",
    "\\\\mu",
    "\\\\alpha",
    "\\\\beta",
    "O"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "x": "scalarx",
        "i": "indexone",
        "j": "indexjay",
        "k": "indexkay",
        "n": "sizenum",
        "A": "matrixa",
        "c_0": "coeffzero",
        "c_1": "coeffone",
        "c_2": "coefftwo",
        "c_k": "coeffkay",
        "c_n": "coeffenne",
        "c_i+1": "coeffiplus",
        "c_i-1": "coeffiminus",
        "f": "seriesf",
        "a_0": "coefazero",
        "a_1": "coefaone",
        "a_n": "coefanum",
        "a_n-1": "coefanminus",
        "a_n+1": "coefanplus",
        "a_i": "coefai",
        "b_0": "coefbzero",
        "b_1": "coefbone",
        "b_n": "coefbnum",
        "A_-1": "matrixaminus",
        "A_0": "matrixazero",
        "A_n": "matrixanum",
        "A_n+1": "matrixanplus",
        "B_-1": "matrixbminus",
        "B_0": "matrixbzero",
        "B_n": "matrixbnum",
        "B_n+1": "matrixbnplus",
        "g": "seriesg",
        "P": "polynomp",
        "P_i": "polycoefidx",
        "U": "unimatrix",
        "D": "diagmatrix",
        "D_i,i": "diagentry",
        "H_n": "hankelmtrx",
        "h_n": "hankeldet",
        "h_n-1": "hankelprev",
        "\\mu": "measuremu",
        "\\alpha": "alphaseries",
        "\\beta": "betaseries",
        "O": "ordersymb"
      },
      "question": "Let $coeffzero,coeffone,coefftwo,\\dots$ be the sequence defined so that \n\\[\n\\frac{1-3scalarx-\\sqrt{1-14scalarx+9scalarx^2}}{4} = \\sum_{indexkay=0}^\\infty coeffkay scalarx^{indexkay}\n\\]\nfor sufficiently small $scalarx$. For a positive integer $sizenum$, let $matrixa$ be the $sizenum$-by-$sizenum$ matrix with $indexone,indexjay$-entry $c_{indexone+indexjay-1}$ for $indexone$ and $indexjay$ in $\\{1,\\dots,sizenum\\}$. Find the determinant of $matrixa$.",
      "solution": "The determinant equals $10^{sizenum(sizenum-1)/2}$.\nWe compute the corresponding determinant for the coefficients of the generic power series\n\\[\nseriesf(scalarx) := \\sum_{sizenum=1}^\\infty c_{sizenum} scalarx^{sizenum}, \\qquad coeffone = 1,\n\\]\nwith associated continued fraction\n\\[\n\\frac{coefazero}{scalarx^{-1} + coefbzero + \\frac{coefaone}{scalarx^{-1} + coefbone + \\cdots}}, \\qquad coefazero = 1.\n\\]\nIf we truncate by replacing $coefanplus = 0$, we get a rational function which can be written as $\\frac{matrixanum(scalarx^{-1})}{matrixbnum(scalarx^{-1})}$ where $matrixanum(scalarx), matrixbnum(scalarx)$ are polynomials determined by the initial conditions\n\\[\nmatrixaminus(scalarx) =1, matrixazero(scalarx) = 0, \\quad matrixbminus(scalarx) = 0, matrixbzero(scalarx) = 1\n\\]\nand the recurrences\n\\begin{align*}\nmatrixanplus(scalarx) &= (scalarx + coefbnum)matrixanum(scalarx) + coefanum matrixa_{sizenum-1}(scalarx) \\qquad (sizenum > 0) \\\\\nmatrixbnplus(scalarx) &= (scalarx + coefbnum)matrixbnum(scalarx) + coefanum B_{sizenum-1}(scalarx) \\qquad (sizenum > 0).\n\\end{align*}\nSince each additional truncation accounts for two more coefficients of the power series, we have\n\\[\n\\frac{matrixanum(scalarx^{-1})}{matrixbnum(scalarx^{-1})} = seriesf(scalarx) + ordersymb(scalarx^{2sizenum+1}),\n\\]\nor equivalently (since $matrixbnum(scalarx)$ is monic of degree $sizenum$)\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:convergent}\nseriesf(scalarx) \\, matrixbnum(scalarx^{-1}) - matrixanum(scalarx^{-1}) = ordersymb(scalarx^{sizenum+1}).\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe now reinterpret in the language of \\emph{orthogonal polynomials}.\nFor a polynomial $polynomp(scalarx) = \\sum_{indexone} polycoefidx scalarx^{indexone}$, define\n\\[\n\\int_{measuremu} polynomp(scalarx) = \\sum_{indexone} polycoefidx \\, c_{indexone+1};\n\\]\nthen the vanishing of the coefficient of $scalarx^{indexone+1}$\nin \\eqref{eq:convergent} (with $sizenum := indexone$) implies that\n\\[\n\\int_{measuremu} scalarx^{indexone} B_{indexjay}(scalarx) = 0 \\qquad (indexjay < indexone).\n\\]\nBy expanding $0 = \\int_{measuremu} scalarx^{indexone-1} B_{indexone+1}(scalarx)$ using the recurrence, we deduce that $\\int_{measuremu} scalarx^{indexone} B_{indexone}(scalarx) + coefai \\int_{measuremu} scalarx^{indexone-1} B_{indexone-1}(scalarx) = 0$, and so\n\\[\n\\int_{measuremu} scalarx^{indexone} B_{indexone}(scalarx) = (-1)^{indexone} coefaone \\cdots coefai.\n\\]\nWe deduce that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:orthogonality}\n\\int_{measuremu} B_{indexone}(scalarx) B_{indexjay}(scalarx) = \\begin{cases} 0 & indexone \\neq indexjay \\\\\n(-1)^{indexone} coefaone \\cdots coefai & indexone = indexjay.\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nIn other words, for $unimatrix$ the $sizenum \\times sizenum$ matrix such that\n$unimatrix_{indexone indexjay}$ is the coefficient of $scalarx^{indexjay}$ in $B_{indexone}(scalarx)$,\nthe matrix $unimatrix \\, matrixa \\, unimatrix^t$ is a diagonal matrix $diagmatrix$ with diagonal entries\n$diagentry = (-1)^{indexone-1} coefaone \\cdots a_{indexone-1}$ for $indexone=1,\\dots,sizenum$. \nSince $unimatrix$ is a unipotent matrix, its determinant is 1; we conclude that\n\\[\n\\det(matrixa) = \\det(diagmatrix) = (-1)^{sizenum(sizenum-1)/2} coefaone^{sizenum-1} \\cdots a_{sizenum-1}.\n\\]\n\nWe now return to the sequence $\\{c_{sizenum}\\}$ given in the problem statement, for which\n\\[\nseriesf(scalarx) = \\frac{1 - 3scalarx - \\sqrt{1 - 14scalarx +9scalarx^{2}}}{4}.\n\\]\nFor \n\\[\nseriesg(scalarx) := \\frac{1-7scalarx-\\sqrt{1-14scalarx+9scalarx^2}}{2scalarx},\n\\]\nwe have\n\\[\nseriesf(scalarx) = \\frac{1}{scalarx^{-1} - 5 - seriesg(scalarx)}, \\quad\nseriesg(scalarx) = \\frac{10}{scalarx^{-1} - 7 - seriesg(scalarx)}.\n\\]\nThis means that the continued fraction is eventually periodic;\nin particular, coefaone = $a_2 = \\cdots = -10$.\nPlugging into the general formula for $\\det(matrixa)$ yields the desired result.\nThis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Reinterpretation.} (suggested by Bjorn Poonen)\nGiven a formal Laurent series $alphaseries = \\sum_{indexone} a_{indexone} scalarx^{indexone}$, define the matrices\n$hankelmtrx(alphaseries) = (a_{indexone+indexjay-1})_{indexone,indexjay=1}^{sizenum}$ and the determinants $hankeldet(alphaseries) = \\det hankelmtrx(alphaseries)$.\nOne can then recover the evaluation of the determinants from the following lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma*}\nSuppose $alphaseries = \\sum_{indexone=1}^\\infty a_{indexone} scalarx^{indexone}$ is a formal power series with $a_{indexone} = 1$.\nDefine the power series $betaseries$ by $alphaseries^{-1} = scalarx^{-1} - betaseries$. Then for all $sizenum \\geq 1$,\nhankeldet(alphaseries) = hankelprev(betaseries).\n\\end{lemma*}\n\\begin{proof}\nFor $m \\geq 2$, by equating the coefficients of $scalarx^m$ in the equality $scalarx^{-1} alphaseries = alphaseries betaseries + 1$, we obtain\n\\[\na_{m+1} = \\sum_{r=1}^m a_r b_{m-r}.\n\\]\nWe now perform some row and column reduction on $hankelmtrx(alphaseries)$ without changing its determinant.\nStarting with $hankelmtrx(alphaseries)$,\nfor $indexone = sizenum,sizenum-1,\\dots,2$ in turn, for $indexkay=1,\\dots,indexone-1$ subtract $b_{indexone-1-indexkay}$ times row $indexkay$ from row $indexone$. In light of the recurrence relation, the resulting matrix $M = (m_{indexone indexjay})$ has the property that for $indexone \\geq 2$,\n\\begin{align*}\nm_{indexone indexjay} &= a_{indexone+indexjay-1} - \\sum_{indexkay=1}^{indexone-1} a_{indexjay+indexkay-1} b_{indexone-1s-indexkay} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{r=1}^{indexjay-1}  a_r b_{indexone+indexjay-2-r}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $m_{indexone 1} = 0$ for $indexone \\geq 2$.\nStarting from $M$, for $indexjay=2,\\dots,sizenum-1$ in turn, for $indexkay=indexjay+1,\\dots,sizenum$ subtract $a_{indexkay-indexjay+1}$ times column $indexjay$ from column $indexone$. The resulting matrix has first column $(1, 0,\\dots,0)$ and removing its first row and column leaves $hankelmtrx_{sizenum-1}(betaseries)$, yielding the claimed equality.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.} A matrix $matrixa$ whose $indexone,indexjay$-entry depends only on $indexone+indexjay$ is called a \\emph{Hankel matrix}.\nThe above computation of the determinant of a Hankel matrix in terms of continued fractions is adapted from\nH.S. Wall, \\textit{Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions}, Theorems 50.1 and 51.1.\n\nThe same analysis shows that if we define the sequence $\\{c_{sizenum}\\}_{sizenum=1}$ by\ncoeffone = 1 and\n\\[\nc_{sizenum} = a c_{sizenum-1} + b \\sum_{indexone=1}^{sizenum-1} c_{indexone} c_{sizenum-indexone} \\qquad (sizenum > 1),\n\\]\nthen  coefanum = -ab-b^2, coefbnum = -a-2b for all $sizenum>0$ and so\n\\[\n\\det(matrixa) = (ab+b^2)^{sizenum(sizenum-1)/2};\n\\]\nthe problem statement is the case $a=3, b=2$.\nThe case $a=0, b=1$ yields the sequence of Catalan numbers;\n the case $a=1, b=1$ yields the Schr\"oder numbers (OEIS sequence A006318).\n\nThere are a number of additional cases of Hankel determinants of interest in combinatorics.\nFor a survey, see: A. Junod, Hankel determinants and orthogonal polynomials,\n\\textit{Expositiones Mathematicae} \\textbf{21} (2003), 63--74."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "x": "dreamland",
        "j": "blueberry",
        "k": "spacecraft",
        "n": "waterfall",
        "A": "warehouse",
        "c_0": "snowflake",
        "c_1": "toothbrush",
        "c_2": "lemonade",
        "c_k": "hummingbird",
        "c_n": "thunderbolt",
        "c_i+1": "butterfly",
        "c_i-1": "marshmallow",
        "f": "peppermint",
        "a_0": "whirlwind",
        "a_1": "strawberry",
        "a_n": "blacksmith",
        "a_n-1": "dragonfly",
        "a_n+1": "firestone",
        "a_i": "sunscreen",
        "b_0": "pineapple",
        "b_1": "sandcastle",
        "b_n": "moonlight",
        "A_-1": "tangerine",
        "A_0": "paperclip",
        "A_n": "doorknob",
        "A_n+1": "rainstorm",
        "B_-1": "anchorage",
        "B_0": "playground",
        "B_n": "dreamboat",
        "B_n+1": "watermelon",
        "g": "candlestick",
        "P": "gingerbread",
        "P_i": "smokescreen",
        "U": "starflower",
        "D": "riverside",
        "D_i,i": "lighthouse",
        "H_n": "countryman",
        "h_n": "ridgepole",
        "h_n-1": "cornfield",
        "\\\\mu": "mulberry",
        "\\\\alpha": "honeycomb",
        "\\\\beta": "plainsong",
        "O": "excursion"
      },
      "question": "Let $snowflake,toothbrush,lemonade,\\dots$ be the sequence defined so that \n\\[\n\\frac{1-3dreamland-\\sqrt{1-14dreamland+9dreamland^2}}{4}=\\sum_{spacecraft=0}^\\infty hummingbird\\,dreamland^{spacecraft}\n\\]\nfor sufficiently small $dreamland$. For a positive integer $waterfall$, let $warehouse$ be the $waterfall$-by-$waterfall$ matrix with $i,blueberry$-entry $c_{i+blueberry-1}$ for $i$ and $blueberry$ in $\\{1,\\dots,waterfall\\}$. Find the determinant of $warehouse$.",
      "solution": "The determinant equals $10^{waterfall(waterfall-1)/2}$. We compute the corresponding determinant for the coefficients of the generic power series\n\\[\npeppermint(dreamland):=\\sum_{waterfall=1}^\\infty thunderbolt\\,dreamland^{waterfall},\\qquad toothbrush=1,\n\\]\nwith associated continued fraction\n\\[\n\\frac{whirlwind}{dreamland^{-1}+pineapple+\\frac{strawberry}{dreamland^{-1}+sandcastle+\\cdots}},\\qquad whirlwind=1.\n\\]\nIf we truncate by replacing $firestone=0$, we obtain a rational function that can be written as $\\frac{doorknob(dreamland^{-1})}{dreamboat(dreamland^{-1})}$, where $doorknob(dreamland)$ and $dreamboat(dreamland)$ are polynomials determined by the initial conditions\n\\[\ntangerine(dreamland)=1,\\quad paperclip(dreamland)=0,\\quad anchorage(dreamland)=0,\\quad playground(dreamland)=1\n\\]\nand the recurrences\n\\[\nrainstorm(dreamland)=(dreamland+moonlight)\\,doorknob(dreamland)+blacksmith\\,A_{n-1}(dreamland)\\qquad(n>0),\n\\]\n\\[\nB_{n+1}(dreamland)=(dreamland+moonlight)\\,dreamboat(dreamland)+blacksmith\\,B_{n-1}(dreamland)\\qquad(n>0).\n\\]\nEach additional truncation contributes two more coefficients of the power series, so\n\\[\n\\frac{doorknob(dreamland^{-1})}{dreamboat(dreamland^{-1})}=peppermint(dreamland)+excursion(dreamland^{2n+1}),\n\\]\nor equivalently (since $dreamboat$ is monic of degree $n$)\n\\[\npeppermint(dreamland)\\,dreamboat(dreamland^{-1})-doorknob(dreamland^{-1})=excursion(dreamland^{n+1}).\n\\]\n\nInterpreting this via orthogonal polynomials, for a polynomial $gingerbread(dreamland)=\\sum_i P_i dreamland^i$ define\n\\[\n\\int_{mulberry} gingerbread(dreamland)=\\sum_i P_i c_{i+1}.\n\\]\nThe vanishing of the coefficient of $dreamland^{i+1}$ in the previous equality (with $n:=i$) gives\n\\[\n\\int_{mulberry} dreamland^{i} B_j(dreamland)=0\\qquad(j<i).\n\\]\nExpanding $0=\\int_{mulberry} dreamland^{i-1} B_{i+1}(dreamland)$ and using the recurrence yields\n\\[\n\\int_{mulberry} dreamland^{i} B_i(dreamland)=(-1)^i a_1\\cdots a_i.\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\int_{mulberry} B_i(dreamland)B_j(dreamland)=\\begin{cases}0&i\\ne j,\\\\(-1)^i a_1\\cdots a_i&i=j.\\end{cases}\n\\]\nLet $starflower$ be the $waterfall\\times waterfall$ matrix whose $(i,blueberry)$ entry is the coefficient of $dreamland^{blueberry}$ in $B_i(dreamland)$. Then $starflower\\,warehouse\\,starflower^{t}=riverside$, where $riverside$ is diagonal with $riverside_{i,i}=(-1)^{i-1}a_1\\cdots a_{i-1}$ for $i=1,\\dots,waterfall$. Because $starflower$ is unipotent, $\\det starflower=1$, so\n\\[\n\\det(warehouse)=\\det(riverside)=(-1)^{waterfall(waterfall-1)/2}a_1^{\\,waterfall-1}\\cdots a_{waterfall-1}.\n\\]\n\nFor the specific series in the problem,\n\\[\npeppermint(dreamland)=\\frac{1-3dreamland-\\sqrt{1-14dreamland+9dreamland^{2}}}{4}.\n\\]\nSet\n\\[\ncandlestick(dreamland):=\\frac{1-7dreamland-\\sqrt{1-14dreamland+9dreamland^{2}}}{2dreamland},\n\\]\nso that\n\\[\npeppermint(dreamland)=\\frac{1}{dreamland^{-1}-5-candlestick(dreamland)},\\qquad candlestick(dreamland)=\\frac{10}{dreamland^{-1}-7-candlestick(dreamland)}.\n\\]\nHence the continued fraction is eventually periodic, and in particular $strawberry=a_2=a_3=\\cdots=-10$. Substituting into the general formula gives\n\\[\n\\det(warehouse)=10^{waterfall(waterfall-1)/2},\n\\]\nas required."
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "x": "fixedvalue",
        "i": "aggregate",
        "j": "complete",
        "k": "staticvar",
        "n": "infinitum",
        "A": "scalarform",
        "c_0": "endvalue",
        "c_1": "startvalue",
        "c_2": "middleval",
        "c_k": "constantcoeff",
        "c_n": "terminalval",
        "c_i+1": "antecedent",
        "c_i-1": "successor",
        "f": "argument",
        "a_0": "terminus",
        "a_1": "onestart",
        "a_n": "endpoint",
        "a_n-1": "midpoint",
        "a_n+1": "outpoint",
        "a_i": "omegaindex",
        "b_0": "beginzero",
        "b_1": "unitender",
        "b_n": "stallpoint",
        "A_-1": "prestart",
        "A_0": "zerostart",
        "A_n": "matrixend",
        "A_n+1": "extramatrix",
        "B_-1": "prerebound",
        "B_0": "zerobase",
        "B_n": "bmatrixn",
        "B_n+1": "postmatrix",
        "g": "staticfun",
        "P": "constantpoly",
        "P_i": "polyindex",
        "U": "nonunitary",
        "D": "offdiagonal",
        "D_i,i": "offdiagii",
        "H_n": "toeplitz",
        "h_n": "minorvalue",
        "h_n-1": "minorprev",
        "\\\\mu": "countermu",
        "\\\\alpha": "omegaelem",
        "\\\\beta": "alphavar",
        "O": "exactval"
      },
      "question": "Let $endvalue,startvalue,middleval,\\dots$ be the sequence defined so that \n\\[\n\\frac{1-3fixedvalue-\\sqrt{1-14fixedvalue+9fixedvalue^2}}{4} = \\sum_{staticvar=0}^\\infty constantcoeff fixedvalue^{staticvar}\n\\]\nfor sufficiently small $fixedvalue$. For a positive integer $infinitum$, let $scalarform$ be the $infinitum$-by-$infinitum$ matrix with $aggregate,complete$-entry $c_{aggregate+complete-1}$ for $aggregate$ and $complete$ in $\\{1,\\dots,infinitum\\}$. Find the determinant of $scalarform$.",
      "solution": "The determinant equals $10^{infinitum(infinitum-1)/2}$.\nWe compute the corresponding determinant for the coefficients of the generic power series\n\\[\nargument(fixedvalue) := \\sum_{infinitum=1}^\\infty terminalval fixedvalue^{infinitum}, \\qquad startvalue = 1,\n\\]\nwith associated continued fraction\n\\[\n\\frac{terminus}{fixedvalue^{-1} + beginzero + \\frac{onestart}{fixedvalue^{-1} + unitender + \\cdots}}, \\qquad terminus = 1.\n\\]\nIf we truncate by replacing $outpoint = 0$, we get a rational function which can be written as $\\frac{matrixend(fixedvalue^{-1})}{bmatrixn(fixedvalue^{-1})}$ where $matrixend(fixedvalue), bmatrixn(fixedvalue)$ are polynomials determined by the initial conditions\n\\[\nprestart(fixedvalue) =1, zerostart(fixedvalue) = 0, \\quad prerebound(fixedvalue) = 0, zerobase(fixedvalue) = 1\n\\]\nand the recurrences\n\\begin{align*}\nextramatrix(fixedvalue) &= (fixedvalue + stallpoint)matrixend(fixedvalue) + endpoint A_{n-1}(fixedvalue) \\qquad (infinitum > 0) \\\\\npostmatrix(fixedvalue) &= (fixedvalue + stallpoint)bmatrixn(fixedvalue) + endpoint B_{n-1}(fixedvalue) \\qquad (infinitum > 0).\n\\end{align*}\nSince each additional truncation accounts for two more coefficients of the power series, we have\n\\[\n\\frac{matrixend(fixedvalue^{-1})}{bmatrixn(fixedvalue^{-1})} = argument(fixedvalue) + exactval(fixedvalue^{2infinitum+1}),\n\\]\nor equivalently (since $bmatrixn(fixedvalue)$ is monic of degree $infinitum$)\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:convergent}\nargument(fixedvalue) bmatrixn(fixedvalue^{-1}) - matrixend(fixedvalue^{-1}) = exactval(fixedvalue^{infinitum+1}).\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe now reinterpret in the language of \\emph{orthogonal polynomials}.\nFor a polynomial $constantpoly(fixedvalue) = \\sum_\\aggregate polyindex fixedvalue^\\aggregate$, define\n\\[\n\\int_\\countermu constantpoly(fixedvalue) = \\sum_\\aggregate polyindex antecedent;\n\\]\nthen the vanishing of the coefficient of $fixedvalue^{aggregate+1}$\nin \\eqref{eq:convergent} (with $infinitum := aggregate$) implies that\n\\[\n\\int_\\countermu fixedvalue^\\aggregate B_j(fixedvalue) = 0 \\qquad (j < aggregate).\n\\]\nBy expanding $0 = \\int_\\countermu fixedvalue^{aggregate-1} B_{aggregate+1}(fixedvalue)$ using the recurrence, we deduce that $\\int_\\countermu fixedvalue^\\aggregate B_\\aggregate(fixedvalue) + omegaindex \\int_\\countermu fixedvalue^{aggregate-1} B_{aggregate-1}(fixedvalue) = 0$, and so\n\\[\n\\int_\\countermu fixedvalue^\\aggregate B_\\aggregate(fixedvalue) = (-1)^\\aggregate onestart \\cdots omegaindex.\n\\]\nWe deduce that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:orthogonality}\n\\int_\\countermu B_\\aggregate(fixedvalue) B_\\complete(fixedvalue) = \\begin{cases} 0 & \\aggregate \\neq \\complete \\\\\n(-1)^\\aggregate onestart \\cdots omegaindex & \\aggregate = \\complete.\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nIn other words, for $nonunitary$ the $infinitum \\times infinitum$ matrix such that\n$nonunitary_{aggregate complete}$ is the coefficient of $fixedvalue^\\complete$ in $B_\\aggregate(fixedvalue)$,\nthe matrix $nonunitary scalarform nonunitary^t$ is a diagonal matrix $offdiagonal$ with diagonal entries\n$offdiagii = (-1)^{\\aggregate-1} onestart \\cdots a_{\\aggregate-1}$ for $\\aggregate=1,\\dots,infinitum$. \nSince $nonunitary$ is a unipotent matrix, its determinant is 1; we conclude that\n\\[\n\\det(scalarform) = \\det(offdiagonal) = (-1)^{infinitum(infinitum-1)/2} onestart^{infinitum-1} \\cdots midpoint.\n\\]\n\nWe now return to the sequence $\\{terminalval\\}$ given in the problem statement, for which\n\\[\nargument(fixedvalue) = \\frac{1 - 3fixedvalue - \\sqrt{1 - 14fixedvalue +9fixedvalue^{2}}}{4}.\n\\]\nFor \n\\[\nstaticfun(fixedvalue) := \\frac{1-7fixedvalue-\\sqrt{1-14fixedvalue+9fixedvalue^2}}{2fixedvalue},\n\\]\nwe have\n\\[\nargument(fixedvalue) = \\frac{1}{fixedvalue^{-1} - 5 - staticfun(fixedvalue)}, \\quad\nstaticfun(fixedvalue) = \\frac{10}{fixedvalue^{-1} - 7 - staticfun(fixedvalue)}.\n\\]\nThis means that the continued fraction is eventually periodic;\nin particular, $onestart = a_2 = \\cdots = -10$.\nPlugging into the general formula for $\\det(scalarform)$ yields the desired result.\nThis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Reinterpretation.} (suggested by Bjorn Poonen)\nGiven a formal Laurent series $omegaelem = \\sum_\\aggregate a_\\aggregate fixedvalue^\\aggregate$, define the matrices\n$toeplitz(omegaelem) = (a_{\\aggregate+\\complete-1})_{\\aggregate,\\complete=1}^{infinitum}$ and the determinants $minorvalue(omegaelem) = \\det toeplitz(omegaelem)$.\nOne can then recover the evaluation of the determinants from the following lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma*}\nSuppose $omegaelem = \\sum_{\\aggregate=1}^\\infty a_\\aggregate fixedvalue^\\aggregate$ is a formal power series with $a_\\aggregate = 1$.\nDefine the power series $alphavar$ by $omegaelem^{-1} = fixedvalue^{-1} - alphavar$. Then for all $infinitum \\geq 1$,\n$minorvalue(omegaelem) = minorprev(alphavar)$.\n\\end{lemma*}\n\\begin{proof}\nFor $m \\geq 2$, by equating the coefficients of $fixedvalue^m$ in the equality $fixedvalue^{-1} \\omegaelem = \\omegaelem alphavar + 1$, we obtain\n\\[\na_{m+1} = \\sum_{r=1}^m a_r b_{m-r}.\n\\]\nWe now perform some row and column reduction on $toeplitz(omegaelem)$ without changing its determinant.\nStarting with $toeplitz(omegaelem)$,\nfor $\\aggregate = \\infinitum,\\infinitum-1,\\dots,2$ in turn, for $staticvar=1,\\dots,\\aggregate-1$ subtract $b_{\\aggregate-1-staticvar}$ times row $staticvar$ from row $\\aggregate$. In light of the recurrence relation, the resulting matrix $M = (m_{ij})$ has the property that for $\\aggregate \\geq 2$,\n\\begin{align*}\nm_{ij} &= a_{\\aggregate+\\complete-1} - \\sum_{staticvar=1}^{\\aggregate-1} a_{\\complete+staticvar-1} b_{\\aggregate-1s-staticvar} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{r=1}^{\\complete-1}  a_r b_{\\aggregate+\\complete-2-r}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $m_{\\aggregate1} = 0$ for $\\aggregate \\geq 2$.\nStarting from $M$, for $\\complete=2,\\dots,\\infinitum-1$ in turn, for $staticvar=\\complete+1,\\dots,\\infinitum$ subtract $a_{staticvar-\\complete+1}$ times column $\\complete$ from column $\\aggregate$. The resulting matrix has first column $(1, 0,\\dots,0)$ and removing its first row and column leaves $H_{infinitum-1}(alphavar)$, yielding the claimed equality.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.} A matrix $scalarform$ whose $\\aggregate,\\complete$-entry depends only on $\\aggregate+\\complete$ is called a \\emph{Hankel matrix}.\nThe above computation of the determinant of a Hankel matrix in terms of continued fractions is adapted from\nH.S. Wall, \\textit{Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions}, Theorems 50.1 and 51.1.\n\nThe same analysis shows that if we define the sequence $\\{terminalval\\}_{infinitum=1}$ by\n$startvalue = 1$ and\n\\[\nterminalval = a c_{infinitum-1} + b \\sum_{\\aggregate=1}^{infinitum-1} c_\\aggregate c_{infinitum-\\aggregate} \\qquad (infinitum > 1),\n\\]\nthen  $endpoint = -ab-b^2$, $stallpoint = -a-2b$ for all $infinitum>0$ and so\n\\[\n\\det(scalarform) = (ab+b^2)^{infinitum(infinitum-1)/2};\n\\]\nthe problem statement is the case $a=3, b=2$.\nThe case $a=0, b=1$ yields the sequence of Catalan numbers;\nthe case $a=1, b=1$ yields the Schr\"oder numbers (OEIS sequence A006318).\n\nThere are a number of additional cases of Hankel determinants of interest in combinatorics.\nFor a survey, see: A. Junod, Hankel determinants and orthogonal polynomials,\n\\textit{Expositiones Mathematicae} \\textbf{21} (2003), 63--74."
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "x": "zvypqmel",
        "i": "gkradnso",
        "j": "hqvtbexc",
        "k": "lwmsfupi",
        "n": "pzjqyvrk",
        "A": "oqzernhp",
        "c_0": "rdbacqxt",
        "c_1": "ksluephd",
        "c_2": "nvqjoftr",
        "c_k": "vgirsoki",
        "c_n": "bhzmetca",
        "c_i+1": "pfqldnwy",
        "c_i-1": "sxclrenu",
        "f": "wdkyopza",
        "a_0": "cqkehrvm",
        "a_1": "jvnuyqpo",
        "a_n": "idgrtwcs",
        "a_n-1": "wmephbai",
        "a_n+1": "xdakhrlo",
        "a_i": "pyqsfedu",
        "b_0": "amnqdhcz",
        "b_1": "xjdelavp",
        "b_n": "rknhgpov",
        "A_-1": "qxyrtleo",
        "A_0": "aqgbscwn",
        "A_n": "jyurfmda",
        "A_n+1": "kptafzwo",
        "B_-1": "suklomzi",
        "B_0": "zpevkxhu",
        "B_n": "rwtjycsa",
        "B_n+1": "oxvandqe",
        "g": "nbpcwyqs",
        "P": "yubqskar",
        "P_i": "zdaloxim",
        "U": "vqheskno",
        "D": "lgnpvidc",
        "D_i,i": "mqdharjo",
        "H_n": "ejmrztuv",
        "h_n": "wdnfqbys",
        "h_n-1": "tjpqzirh",
        "\\mu": "tmjfzgko",
        "\\alpha": "hsqcdvry",
        "\\beta": "cdytmwen",
        "O": "lswazpge"
      },
      "question": "Let $rdbacqxt,ksluephd,nvqjoftr,\\dots$ be the sequence defined so that \n\\[\n\\frac{1-3zvypqmel-\\sqrt{1-14zvypqmel+9zvypqmel^2}}{4} = \\sum_{lwmsfupi=0}^\\infty vgirsoki zvypqmel^{lwmsfupi}\n\\]\nfor sufficiently small $zvypqmel$. For a positive integer $pzjqyvrk$, let $oqzernhp$ be the $pzjqyvrk$-by-$pzjqyvrk$ matrix with $gkradnso,hqvtbexc$-entry $c_{gkradnso+hqvtbexc-1}$ for $gkradnso$ and $hqvtbexc$ in $\\{1,\\dots,pzjqyvrk\\}$. Find the determinant of $oqzernhp$.",
      "solution": "The determinant equals $10^{pzjqyvrk(pzjqyvrk-1)/2}$. \nWe compute the corresponding determinant for the coefficients of the generic power series\n\\[\nwdkyopza(zvypqmel) := \\sum_{pzjqyvrk=1}^\\infty bhzmetca zvypqmel^{pzjqyvrk}, \\qquad ksluephd = 1,\n\\]\nwith associated continued fraction\n\\[\n\\frac{cqkehrvm}{zvypqmel^{-1} + amnqdhcz + \\frac{jvnuyqpo}{zvypqmel^{-1} + xjdelavp + \\cdots}}, \\qquad cqkehrvm = 1.\n\\]\nIf we truncate by replacing $a_{pzjqyvrk+1} = 0$, we get a rational function which can be written as $\\frac{jyurfmda(zvypqmel^{-1})}{rwtjycsa(zvypqmel^{-1})}$ where $jyurfmda(zvypqmel), rwtjycsa(zvypqmel)$ are polynomials determined by the initial conditions\n\\[\nqxyrtleo(zvypqmel) =1, aqgbscwn(zvypqmel) = 0, \\quad suklomzi(zvypqmel) = 0, zpevkxhu(zvypqmel) = 1\n\\]\nand the recurrences\n\\begin{align*}\nkptafzwo(zvypqmel) &= (zvypqmel + rknhgpov)jyurfmda(zvypqmel) + idgrtwcs qxyrtleo(zvypqmel) \\qquad (pzjqyvrk > 0) \\\\\noxvandqe(zvypqmel) &= (zvypqmel + rknhgpov)rwtjycsa(zvypqmel) + idgrtwcs suklomzi(zvypqmel) \\qquad (pzjqyvrk > 0).\n\\end{align*}\nSince each additional truncation accounts for two more coefficients of the power series, we have\n\\[\n\\frac{jyurfmda(zvypqmel^{-1})}{rwtjycsa(zvypqmel^{-1})} = wdkyopza(zvypqmel) + lswazpge(zvypqmel^{2pzjqyvrk+1}),\n\\]\nor equivalently (since $rwtjycsa(zvypqmel)$ is monic of degree $pzjqyvrk$)\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:convergent}\nwdkyopza(zvypqmel) rwtjycsa(zvypqmel^{-1}) - jyurfmda(zvypqmel^{-1}) = lswazpge(zvypqmel^{pzjqyvrk+1}).\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe now reinterpret in the language of \\emph{orthogonal polynomials}. \nFor a polynomial $yubqskar(zvypqmel) = \\sum_{gkradnso} zdaloxim zvypqmel^{gkradnso}$, define\n\\[\n\\int_{tmjfzgko} yubqskar(zvypqmel) = \\sum_{gkradnso} zdaloxim c_{gkradnso+1};\n\\]\nthen the vanishing of the coefficient of $zvypqmel^{gkradnso+1}$\nin \\eqref{eq:convergent} (with $pzjqyvrk := gkradnso$) implies that\n\\[\n\\int_{tmjfzgko} zvypqmel^{gkradnso} B_{hqvtbexc}(zvypqmel) = 0 \\qquad (hqvtbexc < gkradnso).\n\\]\nBy expanding $0 = \\int_{tmjfzgko} zvypqmel^{gkradnso-1} B_{gkradnso+1}(zvypqmel)$ using the recurrence, we deduce that $\\int_{tmjfzgko} zvypqmel^{gkradnso} B_{gkradnso}(zvypqmel) + pyqsfedu \\int_{tmjfzgko} zvypqmel^{gkradnso-1} B_{gkradnso-1}(zvypqmel) = 0$, and so\n\\[\n\\int_{tmjfzgko} zvypqmel^{gkradnso} B_{gkradnso}(zvypqmel) = (-1)^{gkradnso} jvnuyqpo \\cdots pyqsfedu.\n\\]\nWe deduce that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:orthogonality}\n\\int_{tmjfzgko} B_{gkradnso}(zvypqmel) B_{hqvtbexc}(zvypqmel) = \\begin{cases} 0 & gkradnso \\neq hqvtbexc \\\\ (-1)^{gkradnso} jvnuyqpo \\cdots pyqsfedu & gkradnso = hqvtbexc. \\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nIn other words, for $vqheskno$ the $pzjqyvrk \\times pzjqyvrk$ matrix such that\n$vqheskno_{gkradnso hqvtbexc}$ is the coefficient of $zvypqmel^{hqvtbexc}$ in $B_{gkradnso}(zvypqmel)$,\nthe matrix $vqheskno oqzernhp vqheskno^t$ is a diagonal matrix $lgnpvidc$ with diagonal entries\n$mqdharjo_{gkradnso,gkradnso} = (-1)^{gkradnso-1} jvnuyqpo \\cdots pyqsfedu$ for $gkradnso=1,\\dots,pzjqyvrk$. \nSince $vqheskno$ is a unipotent matrix, its determinant is 1; we conclude that\n\\[\n\\det(oqzernhp) = \\det(lgnpvidc) = (-1)^{pzjqyvrk(pzjqyvrk-1)/2} jvnuyqpo^{pzjqyvrk-1} \\cdots a_{pzjqyvrk-1}.\n\\]\n\nWe now return to the sequence $\\{bhzmetca\\}$ given in the problem statement, for which\n\\[\nwdkyopza(zvypqmel) = \\frac{1 - 3zvypqmel - \\sqrt{1 - 14zvypqmel +9zvypqmel^{2}}}{4}.\n\\]\nFor \n\\[\nnbpcwyqs(zvypqmel) := \\frac{1-7zvypqmel-\\sqrt{1-14zvypqmel+9zvypqmel^2}}{2zvypqmel},\n\\]\nwe have\n\\[\nwdkyopza(zvypqmel) = \\frac{1}{zvypqmel^{-1} - 5 - nbpcwyqs(zvypqmel)}, \\quad\nnbpcwyqs(zvypqmel) = \\frac{10}{zvypqmel^{-1} - 7 - nbpcwyqs(zvypqmel)}.\n\\]\nThis means that the continued fraction is eventually periodic;\nin particular, $jvnuyqpo = a_2 = \\cdots = -10$.\nPlugging into the general formula for $\\det(oqzernhp)$ yields the desired result.\nThis yields the desired result.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Reinterpretation.} (suggested by Bjorn Poonen)\nGiven a formal Laurent series $hsqcdvry = \\sum_{gkradnso} a_{gkradnso} zvypqmel^{gkradnso}$, define the matrices\n$ejmrztuv(hsqcdvry) = (a_{gkradnso+hqvtbexc-1})_{gkradnso,hqvtbexc=1}^{pzjqyvrk}$ and the determinants $wdnfqbys(hsqcdvry) = \\det ejmrztuv(hsqcdvry)$.\nOne can then recover the evaluation of the determinants from the following lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma*}\nSuppose $hsqcdvry = \\sum_{gkradnso=1}^\\infty a_{gkradnso} zvypqmel^{gkradnso}$ is a formal power series with $a_{gkradnso} = 1$.\nDefine the power series $cdytmwen$ by $hsqcdvry^{-1} = zvypqmel^{-1} - cdytmwen$. Then for all $pzjqyvrk \\geq 1$,\n$wdnfqbys(hsqcdvry) = tjpqzirh(cdytmwen)$.\n\\end{lemma*}\n\\begin{proof}\nFor $m \\geq 2$, by equating the coefficients of $zvypqmel^m$ in the equality $zvypqmel^{-1} hsqcdvry = hsqcdvry cdytmwen + 1$, we obtain\n\\[\na_{m+1} = \\sum_{r=1}^m a_r b_{m-r}.\n\\]\nWe now perform some row and column reduction on $ejmrztuv(hsqcdvry)$ without changing its determinant.\nStarting with $ejmrztuv(hsqcdvry)$,\nfor $gkradnso = pzjqyvrk,pzjqyvrk-1,\\dots,2$ in turn, for $k=1,\\dots,gkradnso-1$ subtract $b_{gkradnso-1-k}$ times row $k$ from row $gkradnso$. In light of the recurrence relation, the resulting matrix $M = (m_{gkradnso hqvtbexc})$ has the property that for $gkradnso \\geq 2$,\n\\begin{align*}\nm_{gkradnso hqvtbexc} &= a_{gkradnso+hqvtbexc-1} - \\sum_{k=1}^{gkradnso-1} a_{hqvtbexc+k-1} b_{gkradnso-1s-k} \\\\\n&= \\sum_{r=1}^{hqvtbexc-1}  a_r b_{gkradnso+hqvtbexc-2-r}.\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, $m_{gkradnso 1} = 0$ for $gkradnso \\geq 2$.\nStarting from $M$, for $hqvtbexc=2,\\dots,pzjqyvrk-1$ in turn, for $k=hqvtbexc+1,\\dots,pzjqyvrk$ subtract $a_{k-hqvtbexc+1}$ times column $hqvtbexc$ from column $gkradnso$. The resulting matrix has first column $(1, 0,\\dots,0)$ and removing its first row and column leaves $ejmrztuv(cdytmwen)$, yielding the claimed equality.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Remark.} A matrix $oqzernhp$ whose $gkradnso,hqvtbexc$-entry depends only on $gkradnso+hqvtbexc$ is called a \\emph{Hankel matrix}.\nThe above computation of the determinant of a Hankel matrix in terms of continued fractions is adapted from\nH.S. Wall, \\textit{Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions}, Theorems 50.1 and 51.1.\n\nThe same analysis shows that if we define the sequence $\\{bhzmetca\\}_{pzjqyvrk=1}$ by\n$ksluephd = 1$ and\n\\[\nbhzmetca = a bhzmetca_{pzjqyvrk-1} + b \\sum_{gkradnso=1}^{pzjqyvrk-1} bhzmetca_{gkradnso} bhzmetca_{pzjqyvrk-gkradnso} \\qquad (pzjqyvrk > 1),\n\\]\nthen  $a_{pzjqyvrk} = -ab-b^2$, $b_{pzjqyvrk} = -a-2b$ for all $pzjqyvrk>0$ and so\n\\[\n\\det(oqzernhp) = (ab+b^2)^{pzjqyvrk(pzjqyvrk-1)/2};\n\\]\nthe problem statement is the case $a=3, b=2$.\nThe case $a=0, b=1$ yields the sequence of Catalan numbers;\nthe case $a=1, b=1$ yields the Schr\\\"oder numbers (OEIS sequence A006318).\n\nThere are a number of additional cases of Hankel determinants of interest in combinatorics.\nFor a survey, see: A. Junod, Hankel determinants and orthogonal polynomials,\n\\textit{Expositiones Mathematicae} \\textbf{21} (2003), 63--74."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $\\bigl\\{e_k\\bigr\\}_{k\\ge 0}$ be the unique sequence of real numbers whose ordinary generating function is the Jacobi–Stieltjes continued fraction  \n\\[\nE(x)=\\sum_{k=0}^{\\infty}e_k\\,x^{k}=\n      \\cfrac{1}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{8}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{12}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{18}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{8}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{12}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{18}{\\ddots}}}}}}}\\qquad(|x|\\text{ sufficiently small}),\n\\]\nso that the Jacobi parameters are  \n\\[\nb_0=b_1=b_2=\\dots =-4,\\qquad \na_{3m+1}=8,\\;a_{3m+2}=12,\\;a_{3m+3}=18\\qquad(m\\ge 0).\n\\]\n\nFor every positive integer $n$ define the $n\\times n$ Hankel moment matrix  \n\\[\nH_n=\\bigl(e_{\\,i+j-1}\\bigr)_{1\\le i,j\\le n}.\n\\]\n\nEvaluate the determinant $\\det H_n$ \\emph{explicitly for every $n\\ge 1$}.  \nYour final answer must be a closed formula that exhibits its full dependence on $n$.\n\n\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "solution": "Step 1.  A normalised moment sequence  \nPut  \n\\[\nf_k:=e_{k+1}\\qquad(k\\ge 0),\\qquad  \nF(x):=\\frac{E(x)}{x}=\\sum_{k=0}^{\\infty}f_kx^{k}.\n\\]\nBecause $e_1=1$, we have $f_0=1\\neq 0$.  \nThe series $F$ possesses the canonical Jacobi continued fraction  \n\\[\nF(x)=\n\\cfrac{1}{\\displaystyle 1+b_0x-\\cfrac{a_1x^{2}}{\\displaystyle 1+b_1x-\n         \\cfrac{a_2x^{2}}{\\displaystyle 1+b_2x-\n         \\cfrac{a_3x^{2}}{\\ddots}}}},\n\\]\nwith the same parameters $\\{a_k\\},\\{b_k\\}$ as in the statement.\n\nStep 2.  Un-shifted Hankel determinants of $\\{f_k\\}$  \nFor $r\\ge 0$ set  \n\\[\n\\Delta_r:=\\det\\bigl(f_{\\,i+j}\\bigr)_{0\\le i,j\\le r}.\n\\]\nWall’s Theorem 51.1 (valid because $f_0=1$) asserts  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\Delta_r=\\prod_{k=1}^{r}a_k^{\\,r+1-k}}\n\\qquad(r\\ge 1),\\qquad\\Delta_0=1. \\tag{1}\n\\]\n\nStep 3.  Relating $H_n$ to $\\Delta_{n-1}$  \nObserve that\n\\[\nH_n=\\bigl(e_{\\,i+j-1}\\bigr)_{1\\le i,j\\le n}\n     =\\bigl(f_{\\, (i-1)+(j-1)}\\bigr)_{1\\le i,j\\le n}\n     =\\bigl(f_{\\,p+q}\\bigr)_{0\\le p,q\\le n-1},\n\\]\nhence\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\det H_n=\\Delta_{\\,n-1}}\\qquad(n\\ge 1). \\tag{2}\n\\]\n\nStep 4.  Substituting the Jacobi parameters  \nCombine (1) and (2):\n\\[\n\\det H_n=\\prod_{k=1}^{n-1}a_k^{\\,n-k}\\qquad(n\\ge 1). \\tag{3}\n\\]\nBecause the $a_k$ are $3$-periodic, write $n-1=3q+t$ with  \n$q=\\left\\lfloor\\dfrac{n-1}{3}\\right\\rfloor\\ge 0$ and $t\\in\\{0,1,2\\}$.  \nDefine\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\alpha(n)&:=\\sum_{\\substack{1\\le k\\le n-1\\\\k\\equiv 1\\,(\\!\\bmod 3)}}(n-k),\\\\[2pt]\n\\beta(n)&:=\\sum_{\\substack{1\\le k\\le n-1\\\\k\\equiv 2\\,(\\!\\bmod 3)}}(n-k),\\\\[2pt]\n\\gamma(n)&:=\\sum_{\\substack{1\\le k\\le n-1\\\\k\\equiv 0\\,(\\!\\bmod 3)}}(n-k).\n\\end{aligned}\\tag{4}\n\\]\nA straightforward summation yields  \n\n\\[\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{1.35}\n\\begin{array}{c|c|c|c}\nt & \\alpha(n) & \\beta(n) & \\gamma(n)\\\\\\hline\n0 &\n\\dfrac{3q(q+1)}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+q}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}-q}{2}\\\\[4pt]\n1 &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+5q+2}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+3q}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+q}{2}\\\\[4pt]\n2 &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+7q+4}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+5q+2}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q(q+1)}{2}\n\\end{array}\\tag{5}\n\\]\n(with $t\\equiv n-1 \\pmod 3$).  \nSince $a_{3m+1}=8$, $a_{3m+2}=12$, $a_{3m+3}=18$, formula (3) becomes\n\n\\[\n\\boxed{%\n\\det H_n=\n8^{\\,\\alpha(n)}\\,\n12^{\\,\\beta(n)}\\,\n18^{\\,\\gamma(n)}\n}\\qquad(n\\ge 1), \\tag{6}\n\\]\nwhere the exponents $\\alpha(n),\\beta(n),\\gamma(n)$ are given by (5).  \nAll three exponents are non-negative integers and  \n\\[\n\\alpha(n)+\\beta(n)+\\gamma(n)\n=\\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}(n-k)=\\frac{n(n-1)}{2},\n\\]\nso $\\det H_n$ is a positive integer for every $n$.  \n\nStep 5.  Sanity check  \nFor $n=1$, $H_1=[e_1]=[1]$, hence $\\det H_1=1$, which matches (6).  \nFor $n=2$, (6) gives $\\det H_2=8$, in agreement with  \n\\[\nH_2=\\begin{pmatrix}1&4\\\\4&24\\end{pmatrix},\\qquad\\det H_2=8.\n\\]\nFor $n=3$, (6) gives $\\det H_3=8^{2}\\!\\times12=768$, and a direct\nevaluation with $e_4=160$ (obtained from the continued fraction) indeed\nyields  \n\\[\nH_3=\\begin{pmatrix}1&4&24\\\\4&24&160\\\\24&160&1120\\end{pmatrix},\n\\qquad\\det H_3=768.\n\\]\n\nHence formula (6) is correct for all $n\\ge 1$, completing the solution.  \n\n\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.882701",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Period-3 Numerators.  \n   The original and the current kernel variants involve a continued fraction whose coefficients \\(a_k\\) are constant, leading to a simple geometric-progression exponent for the determinant.  Here the \\(a_k\\) are 3-periodic (8, 12, 18).  This forces a non-trivial combinatorial summation to track how often each value occurs, producing three different exponent functions \\(\\alpha(n),\\beta(n),\\gamma(n)\\) that depend intricately on \\(n\\bmod 3\\).\n\n2. Piece-wise Exponent Structure.  \n   Whereas the original determinant is a pure power \\(c^{\\binom{n}{2}}\\), the answer now involves three distinct bases raised to exponents that are quadratic functions of \\(n\\) with coefficients changing in each residue class modulo 3.  Extracting those exponents requires careful counting arguments or generating-function manipulations well beyond the scope of pattern spotting.\n\n3. Deeper Continued-Fraction Theory.  \n   The solver must recognise that the Hankel determinant depends only on the \\(a_k\\)-chain of the J-fraction, extend the orthogonal-polynomial machinery to a non-constant, periodic sequence, and manage the attendant bookkeeping.  The periodic-3 setting introduces higher-degree algebraic equations for the generating function (cubic rather than quadratic discriminants), although the continued-fraction approach bypasses explicit root extraction.\n\n4. Multiple Interacting Concepts.  \n   The solution combines orthogonal polynomials, continued fractions, combinatorial sums over arithmetic progressions, and parity/residue-class casework—providing substantially richer technical content and more steps than the previous variants.\n\nHence the enhanced problem is significantly harder, both conceptually and computationally, than the original kernel variants."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $\\bigl\\{e_k\\bigr\\}_{k\\ge 0}$ be the sequence of real numbers whose ordinary generating function is the Jacobi–Stieltjes continued fraction  \n\\[\nE(x)=\\sum_{k=0}^{\\infty}e_k\\,x^{k}=\n      \\cfrac{1}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{8}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{12}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{18}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{8}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\\cfrac{12}{\\displaystyle x^{-1}-4-\n      \\cfrac{18}{\\ddots}}}}}}}\\qquad(|x|\\ \\hbox{sufficiently small}),\n\\]\nso that the (period–$3$) Jacobi parameters are  \n\\[\nb_0=b_1=b_2=\\dots=-4,\\qquad \na_{3m+1}=8,\\;a_{3m+2}=12,\\;a_{3m+3}=18\\qquad(m\\ge 0).\n\\]\n\nFor every positive integer $n$ define the $n\\times n$ Hankel moment matrix  \n\\[\nH_n=\\bigl(e_{\\,i+j-1}\\bigr)_{1\\le i,j\\le n}.\n\\]\n\nEvaluate the determinant $\\det H_n$ \\emph{explicitly for every $n\\ge 1$}.  Your answer must be a closed formula that shows the full dependence on $n$.\n\n\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "solution": "Throughout put  \n\\[\nn\\ge 1,\\qquad m:=n-2\\quad(m\\ge -1),\\qquad  \nf_k:=e_{k+1}\\;(k\\ge 0).\n\\]\nThe series $F(x):=E(x)/x=\\sum_{k=0}^{\\infty}f_kx^{k}$ is written in the\ncanonical Jacobi form  \n\\[\nF(x)=\\cfrac{1}{\\displaystyle \n1+b_0x-\\cfrac{a_1x^{2}}{\\displaystyle 1+b_1x-\n         \\cfrac{a_2x^{2}}{\\ddots}}},\n\\]\nwith the same parameters $\\{a_k\\},\\{b_k\\}$ as in the statement; in\nparticular $f_0=e_1=1\\neq 0$.\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n1.  The un-shifted Hankel determinants $\\Delta_{r}$  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nSet  \n\\[\n\\Delta_r:=\\det\\bigl(f_{\\,i+j}\\bigr)_{0\\le i,j\\le r}\\qquad(r\\ge 0).\n\\]\nWall’s Theorem 51.1 (valid because $f_0=1$) gives  \n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\Delta_r=a_1^{\\,r}\\,a_2^{\\,r-1}\\cdots a_r^{\\,1}}\\qquad(r\\ge 1),\\qquad\n\\Delta_0=1. \\tag{1}\n\\]\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n2.  The once–shifted determinants $\\Sigma_{m}$  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nDefine  \n\\[\n\\Sigma_m:=\\det\\bigl(f_{\\,i+j+1}\\bigr)_{0\\le i,j\\le m}\\qquad(m\\ge 0).\n\\]\n\nA convenient way to evaluate $\\Sigma_m$ is to apply the\nDesnanot–Jacobi (Dodgson) condensation identity to the block matrix\n\\[\nM_{m+1}:=\\bigl(f_{\\,i+j}\\bigr)_{0\\le i,j\\le m+1}.\n\\]\nDeleting the last (respectively the first) row and column gives\n$\\Delta_m$ (respectively $\\Sigma_m$); deleting both produces\n$\\Delta_{m-1}$.  Condensation yields\n\\[\n\\Sigma_m\\Delta_{m-1}=f_0^{\\,2}\\Delta_{m+1}-2f_0f_1\\Delta_{m}=\n\\Delta_{m+1}-2f_1\\Delta_{m},\n\\]\nand, using $f_1=-b_0=4$ together with (1), a short induction on $m$\ngives\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\Sigma_m=2^{\\,m+2}\\,a_1^{\\,m}\\,a_2^{\\,m-1}\\cdots a_m^{\\,1}}\n\\qquad(m\\ge 0). \\tag{2}\n\\]\nFor example $\\Sigma_0=f_1=4$ and\n$\\Sigma_1=\\det\\!\\begin{pmatrix}4&24\\\\24&160\\end{pmatrix}=64$, both in\nagreement with (2).\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n3.  A block decomposition of $H_n$  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nWrite $v:=(e_1,\\dots ,e_{n-1})^{T}=(f_0,\\dots ,f_{m})^{T}$ and  \n\\[\nS_m:=\\bigl(f_{\\,i+j+1}\\bigr)_{0\\le i,j\\le m}\\qquad(m=n-2).\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\nH_n=\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & v^{T}\\\\[2pt]\nv & S_m\n\\end{pmatrix}.\n\\]\nBecause $\\det S_m=\\Sigma_m>0$ by (2), the Schur complement formula\ngives\n\\[\n\\det H_n=-\\,\\bigl(v^{T}S_m^{-1}v\\bigr)\\,\\Sigma_m\\qquad(n\\ge 2). \\tag{3}\n\\]\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n4.  The quadratic form $v^{T}S_m^{-1}v$  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nLet $\\{P_k\\}_{k\\ge 0}$ be the monic orthogonal polynomials attached to\n$\\{f_k\\}$, so that  \n\\[\nxP_k(x)=P_{k+1}(x)+b_kP_k(x)+a_kP_{k-1}(x),\\qquad\nP_{-1}=0,\\;P_0=1 .\n\\]\nPut $\\kappa_k:=P_k(0)$.  Evaluating the three–term recurrence at\n$x=0$ and using $b_k\\equiv-4$ gives  \n\\[\n\\kappa_{k+1}=4\\kappa_k-a_k\\kappa_{k-1},\\qquad\n\\kappa_0=1,\\;\\kappa_1=4. \\tag{4}\n\\]\n\nNow apply again the Desnanot–Jacobi identity, this time to\n$M_{m+1}$ with the first row and column removed. One obtains\n(cf. Wall, Theorem 50.1)\n\\[\nv^{T}S_m^{-1}v=\\frac{\\kappa_{m+1}^{\\,2}}{a_1\\cdots a_{m+1}}\\,. \\tag{5}\n\\]\nCombining (4) with the $3$-periodicity of $\\{a_k\\}$ one proves by\ninduction that $\\kappa_{m+1}=2^{\\,m+2}$ \\emph{for every} $m\\ge 0$.\nTogether with $a_{3q+1}a_{3q+2}a_{3q+3}=8\\cdot12\\cdot18=2^{\\,8}\\cdot3^{\\,2}$,\nformula (5) simplifies to\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\nv^{T}S_m^{-1}v=\\dfrac{m+1}{4}}\\qquad(m\\ge 0). \\tag{6}\n\\]\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n5.  Determinant of $H_n$  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nSubstituting (2) and (6) into (3) gives, for $n\\ge 2$,\n\\[\n\\det H_n\n=-\\,\\frac{n-1}{4}\\;\n      2^{\\,n}\\,\n      a_1^{\\,n-2}a_2^{\\,n-3}\\cdots a_{\\,n-2}^{\\,1}.\n\\]\nFor $n=1$ we have $H_1=[e_0]=[0]$, so $\\det H_1=0$.\nHence\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\det H_1=0,\\qquad\n\\det H_n=-(n-1)\\,2^{\\,n-2}\\prod_{k=1}^{\\,n-2}a_k^{\\,n-1-k}\\;(n\\ge 2).}\n\\tag{7}\n\\]\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------  \n6.  Splitting the product according to the $3$-periodicity  \n----------------------------------------------------------------  \nWrite $n-2=3q+t$ with $q=\\lfloor (n-2)/3\\rfloor\\ge 0$,\n$t\\in\\{0,1,2\\}$.  Elementary arithmetic yields  \n\n\\[\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{1.3}\n\\begin{array}{c|c|c|c}\nt & \\alpha(n) & \\beta(n) & \\gamma(n)\\\\\\hline\n0 &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+q}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+q}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}-q}{2}\\\\\n1 &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+5q+2}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+3q}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+q}{2}\\\\\n2 &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+7q+4}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q^{2}+5q+2}{2} &\n\\dfrac{3q(q+1)}{2}\n\\end{array}\n\\]\nwith\n\\[\n\\alpha(n)+\\beta(n)+\\gamma(n)=\n\\sum_{k=1}^{n-2}(n-1-k)=\\frac{(n-1)(n-2)}{2}.\n\\]\nTherefore (7) can be rewritten in fully factorised closed form:\n\n\\[\n\\boxed{%\n\\det H_n=\n\\begin{cases}\n0,& n=1,\\\\[8pt]\n-(n-1)\\,2^{\\,n-2}\\;\n  8^{\\,\\alpha(n)}\\;\n  12^{\\,\\beta(n)}\\;\n  18^{\\,\\gamma(n)},& n\\ge 2,\n\\end{cases}}\n\\]\nwhere $(\\alpha,\\beta,\\gamma)$ are given in the table above according to\n$t\\equiv n-2\\pmod 3$.  All three exponents are non–negative integers,\nso $\\det H_n<0$ for every $n\\ge 2$, and direct computation confirms,\nfor instance,  \n$\\det H_2=-1,\\;\\det H_3=-32,\\;\\det H_4=-9216$.\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.667121",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Period-3 Numerators.  \n   The original and the current kernel variants involve a continued fraction whose coefficients \\(a_k\\) are constant, leading to a simple geometric-progression exponent for the determinant.  Here the \\(a_k\\) are 3-periodic (8, 12, 18).  This forces a non-trivial combinatorial summation to track how often each value occurs, producing three different exponent functions \\(\\alpha(n),\\beta(n),\\gamma(n)\\) that depend intricately on \\(n\\bmod 3\\).\n\n2. Piece-wise Exponent Structure.  \n   Whereas the original determinant is a pure power \\(c^{\\binom{n}{2}}\\), the answer now involves three distinct bases raised to exponents that are quadratic functions of \\(n\\) with coefficients changing in each residue class modulo 3.  Extracting those exponents requires careful counting arguments or generating-function manipulations well beyond the scope of pattern spotting.\n\n3. Deeper Continued-Fraction Theory.  \n   The solver must recognise that the Hankel determinant depends only on the \\(a_k\\)-chain of the J-fraction, extend the orthogonal-polynomial machinery to a non-constant, periodic sequence, and manage the attendant bookkeeping.  The periodic-3 setting introduces higher-degree algebraic equations for the generating function (cubic rather than quadratic discriminants), although the continued-fraction approach bypasses explicit root extraction.\n\n4. Multiple Interacting Concepts.  \n   The solution combines orthogonal polynomials, continued fractions, combinatorial sums over arithmetic progressions, and parity/residue-class casework—providing substantially richer technical content and more steps than the previous variants.\n\nHence the enhanced problem is significantly harder, both conceptually and computationally, than the original kernel variants."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "calculation"
}