{
  "index": "1953-B-2",
  "type": "NT",
  "tag": [
    "NT",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "2. Let \\( a_{0}, a_{1}, \\ldots, a_{n} \\) be real numbers and let \\( f(x)=a_{0}+a_{1} x+\\ldots+ \\) \\( a_{n} x^{n} \\). Suppose that, for every integer \\( i, f(i) \\) is an integer. Prove that \\( n!\\cdot a_{k} \\) is an integer for each \\( k \\).",
  "solution": "Solution. For any function \\( g \\) defined on \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), let \\( \\Delta g \\) be the first difference defined by\n\\[\n\\Delta g(x)=g(x+1)-g(x)\n\\]\nand let \\( \\Delta^{2} g=\\Delta(\\Delta g), \\Delta^{3} g=\\Delta\\left(\\Delta^{2} g\\right) \\), etc. Then if \\( f \\) is a polynomial of degree \\( \\leq n \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nf(x)= & f(0)+(\\Delta f(0)) x+\\frac{1}{2!}\\left(\\Delta^{2} f(0)\\right) x(x-1) \\\\\n& +\\frac{1}{3!}\\left(\\Delta^{3} f(0)\\right) x(x-1)(x-2) \\\\\n& +\\cdots+\\frac{1}{n!}\\left(\\Delta^{\\prime \\prime} f(0)\\right) x(x-1) \\cdots(x-n+1)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n(This is Taylor's series for the calculus of finite differences. To prove the validity of (1), let \\( g(x) \\) represent the right-hand member of (1). Then evidently \\( g \\) is a polynomial of degree at most \\( n \\). Moreover, \\( \\Delta^{i} g(0)=\\Delta^{i} f(0) \\) for \\( i=0,1, \\ldots, n \\), and it follows by induction that \\( g(i)=f(i) \\) for \\( i=0,1 \\), \\( \\ldots, n \\). But two polynomials of degree at most \\( n \\) that agree at \\( n+1 \\) points are identical, so \\( f=g \\).)\n\nSince the given polynomial \\( f \\) takes integer values for integer arguments, it is obvious that \\( \\Delta^{i} f(0) \\) is an integer for \\( i=0,1,2, \\ldots \\). Then from (1) it is obvious that \\( n!f(x) \\) is a polynomial in \\( x \\) with integer coefficients. But the coefficients in the representation of a function by a polynomial are unique (if such a representation exists), so \\( n!a_{k} \\) is an integer for \\( k=0 \\), \\( 1,2, \\ldots, n \\).\n\nRemark. If \\( f(x)=x^{n} \\), the numbers\n\\[\n\\left[\\Delta^{k} x^{\\prime \\prime}\\right]_{x=0}, \\quad k=0,1, \\ldots, n\n\\]\nare called the differences of zero, and the numbers\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{k!}\\left[\\Delta^{k} x^{n}\\right]_{x=0}, \\quad k=0,1, \\ldots, n\n\\]\nare the Stirling numbers of the second kind. They have many applications in the calculus of finite differences and in combinatorial analysis.\n\nSee Francis B. Hildebrand, Finite Difference Equations and Simulations, Prentice-Hall, 1968, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., page 117; and Marshall Hall Jr., Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967, pages 26-27.",
  "vars": [
    "x",
    "i",
    "k",
    "f",
    "g"
  ],
  "params": [
    "a_0",
    "a_1",
    "a_n",
    "a_k",
    "n",
    "\\\\Delta"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "x": "varinput",
        "i": "indexint",
        "k": "coeffindex",
        "f": "polyfunc",
        "g": "tempfunc",
        "a_0": "coefzero",
        "a_1": "coefone",
        "a_n": "coefenn",
        "a_k": "coefkterm",
        "n": "degreen",
        "\\Delta": "deltadiff"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( coefzero, coefone, \\ldots, coefenn \\) be real numbers and let \\( polyfunc(varinput)=coefzero+coefone varinput+\\ldots+ coefenn varinput^{degreen} \\). Suppose that, for every integer indexint, polyfunc(indexint) is an integer. Prove that \\( degreen!\\cdot coefkterm \\) is an integer for each coeffindex.",
      "solution": "Solution. For any function \\( tempfunc \\) defined on \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), let \\( deltadiff tempfunc \\) be the first difference defined by\n\\[\ndeltadiff tempfunc(varinput)=tempfunc(varinput+1)-tempfunc(varinput)\n\\]\nand let \\( deltadiff^{2} tempfunc=deltadiff(deltadiff tempfunc),\\; deltadiff^{3} tempfunc=deltadiff\\left(deltadiff^{2} tempfunc\\right) \\), etc. Then if \\( polyfunc \\) is a polynomial of degree \\( \\leq degreen \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\npolyfunc(varinput)= & polyfunc(0)+\\bigl(deltadiff\\, polyfunc(0)\\bigr) varinput+\\frac{1}{2!}\\bigl(deltadiff^{2} polyfunc(0)\\bigr) varinput(varinput-1) \\\\\n& +\\frac{1}{3!}\\bigl(deltadiff^{3} polyfunc(0)\\bigr) varinput(varinput-1)(varinput-2) \\\\\n& +\\cdots+\\frac{1}{degreen!}\\bigl(deltadiff^{\\prime \\prime} polyfunc(0)\\bigr) varinput(varinput-1) \\cdots(varinput-degreen+1)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n(This is Taylor's series for the calculus of finite differences. To prove the validity of (1), let \\( tempfunc(varinput) \\) represent the right-hand member of (1). Then evidently \\( tempfunc \\) is a polynomial of degree at most \\( degreen \\). Moreover, \\( deltadiff^{indexint} tempfunc(0)=deltadiff^{indexint} polyfunc(0) \\) for \\( indexint=0,1, \\ldots, degreen \\), and it follows by induction that \\( tempfunc(indexint)=polyfunc(indexint) \\) for \\( indexint=0,1, \\ldots, degreen \\). But two polynomials of degree at most \\( degreen \\) that agree at \\( degreen+1 \\) points are identical, so \\( polyfunc=tempfunc \\).)\n\nSince the given polynomial polyfunc takes integer values for integer arguments, it is obvious that deltadiff^{indexint} polyfunc(0) is an integer for indexint=0,1,2, \\ldots. Then from (1) it is obvious that degreen!\\, polyfunc(varinput) is a polynomial in varinput with integer coefficients. But the coefficients in the representation of a function by a polynomial are unique (if such a representation exists), so degreen!\\, coefkterm is an integer for coeffindex=0, 1,2, \\ldots, degreen.\n\nRemark. If \\( polyfunc(varinput)=varinput^{degreen} \\), the numbers\n\\[\n\\left[deltadiff^{coeffindex} varinput^{\\prime \\prime}\\right]_{varinput=0}, \\quad coeffindex=0,1, \\ldots, degreen\n\\]\nare called the differences of zero, and the numbers\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{coeffindex!}\\left[deltadiff^{coeffindex} varinput^{degreen}\\right]_{varinput=0}, \\quad coeffindex=0,1, \\ldots, degreen\n\\]\nare the Stirling numbers of the second kind. They have many applications in the calculus of finite differences and in combinatorial analysis.\n\nSee Francis B. Hildebrand, Finite Difference Equations and Simulations, Prentice-Hall, 1968, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., page 117; and Marshall Hall Jr., Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967, pages 26-27."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "x": "smartphone",
        "i": "lanternfish",
        "k": "snowflower",
        "f": "hillside",
        "g": "placidwater",
        "a_0": "lavender",
        "a_1": "parchment",
        "a_n": "staircase",
        "a_k": "swordmaker",
        "n": "quagmire",
        "\\\\Delta": "moonstone"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( lavender, parchment, \\ldots, staircase \\) be real numbers and let \\( hillside(smartphone)=lavender+parchment smartphone+\\ldots+ \\) \\( staircase smartphone^{quagmire} \\). Suppose that, for every integer \\( lanternfish, hillside(lanternfish) \\) is an integer. Prove that \\( quagmire!\\cdot swordmaker \\) is an integer for each \\( snowflower \\).",
      "solution": "Solution. For any function \\( placidwater \\) defined on \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), let \\( moonstone placidwater \\) be the first difference defined by\n\\[\nmoonstone placidwater(smartphone)=placidwater(smartphone+1)-placidwater(smartphone)\n\\]\nand let \\( moonstone^{2} placidwater=moonstone(moonstone placidwater), moonstone^{3} placidwater=moonstone\\left(moonstone^{2} placidwater\\right) \\), etc. Then if \\( hillside \\) is a polynomial of degree \\( \\leq quagmire \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nhillside(smartphone)= & hillside(0)+(moonstone hillside(0)) smartphone+\\frac{1}{2!}\\left(moonstone^{2} hillside(0)\\right) smartphone(smartphone-1) \\\\\n& +\\frac{1}{3!}\\left(moonstone^{3} hillside(0)\\right) smartphone(smartphone-1)(smartphone-2) \\\\\n& +\\cdots+\\frac{1}{quagmire!}\\left(moonstone^{\\prime \\prime} hillside(0)\\right) smartphone(smartphone-1) \\cdots(smartphone-quagmire+1)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n(This is Taylor's series for the calculus of finite differences. To prove the validity of (1), let \\( placidwater(smartphone) \\) represent the right-hand member of (1). Then evidently \\( placidwater \\) is a polynomial of degree at most \\( quagmire \\). Moreover, \\( moonstone^{lanternfish} placidwater(0)=moonstone^{lanternfish} hillside(0) \\) for \\( lanternfish=0,1, \\ldots, quagmire \\), and it follows by induction that \\( placidwater(lanternfish)=hillside(lanternfish) \\) for \\( lanternfish=0,1, \\ldots, quagmire \\). But two polynomials of degree at most \\( quagmire \\) that agree at \\( quagmire+1 \\) points are identical, so \\( hillside=placidwater \\).)\n\nSince the given polynomial \\( hillside \\) takes integer values for integer arguments, it is obvious that \\( moonstone^{lanternfish} hillside(0) \\) is an integer for \\( lanternfish=0,1,2, \\ldots \\). Then from (1) it is obvious that \\( quagmire!hillside(smartphone) \\) is a polynomial in \\( smartphone \\) with integer coefficients. But the coefficients in the representation of a function by a polynomial are unique (if such a representation exists), so \\( quagmire!swordmaker \\) is an integer for \\( snowflower=0 \\), \\( 1,2, \\ldots, quagmire \\).\n\nRemark. If \\( hillside(smartphone)=smartphone^{quagmire} \\), the numbers\n\\[\n\\left[moonstone^{snowflower} smartphone^{\\prime \\prime}\\right]_{smartphone=0}, \\quad snowflower=0,1, \\ldots, quagmire\n\\]\nare called the differences of zero, and the numbers\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{snowflower!}\\left[moonstone^{snowflower} smartphone^{quagmire}\\right]_{smartphone=0}, \\quad snowflower=0,1, \\ldots, quagmire\n\\]\nare the Stirling numbers of the second kind. They have many applications in the calculus of finite differences and in combinatorial analysis.\n\nSee Francis B. Hildebrand, Finite Difference Equations and Simulations, Prentice-Hall, 1968, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., page 117; and Marshall Hall Jr., Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967, pages 26-27."
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "x": "fixedpoint",
        "i": "irrational",
        "k": "unchanging",
        "f": "randommap",
        "g": "constantmap",
        "a_{0}": "massiveorigin",
        "a_{1}": "massiveunit",
        "a_{n}": "massivefinal",
        "a_{k}": "massiveindex",
        "n": "continuum",
        "\\Delta": "integralop"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( massiveorigin, massiveunit, \\ldots, massivefinal \\) be real numbers and let \\( randommap(fixedpoint)=massiveorigin+massiveunit fixedpoint+\\ldots+ massivefinal fixedpoint^{continuum} \\). Suppose that, for every integer \\( irrational, randommap(irrational) \\) is an integer. Prove that \\( continuum!\\cdot massiveindex \\) is an integer for each \\( unchanging \\).",
      "solution": "Solution. For any function \\( constantmap \\) defined on \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), let \\( integralop constantmap \\) be the first difference defined by\n\\[\nintegralop\\ constantmap(fixedpoint)=constantmap(fixedpoint+1)-constantmap(fixedpoint)\n\\]\nand let \\( integralop^{2} constantmap=integralop(integralop\\ constantmap),\\ integralop^{3} constantmap=integralop\\left(integralop^{2}\\ constantmap\\right) \\), etc. Then if \\( randommap \\) is a polynomial of degree \\( \\leq continuum \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nrandommap(fixedpoint)= & randommap(0)+(integralop\\ randommap(0))\\ fixedpoint+\\frac{1}{2!}\\left(integralop^{2}\\ randommap(0)\\right)\\ fixedpoint(fixedpoint-1) \\\\\n& +\\frac{1}{3!}\\left(integralop^{3}\\ randommap(0)\\right)\\ fixedpoint(fixedpoint-1)(fixedpoint-2) \\\\\n& +\\cdots+\\frac{1}{continuum!}\\left(integralop^{\\prime \\prime}\\ randommap(0)\\right)\\ fixedpoint(fixedpoint-1) \\cdots(fixedpoint-continuum+1)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n(This is Taylor's series for the calculus of finite differences. To prove the validity of (1), let \\( constantmap(fixedpoint) \\) represent the right-hand member of (1). Then evidently \\( constantmap \\) is a polynomial of degree at most \\( continuum \\). Moreover, \\( integralop^{irrational} constantmap(0)=integralop^{irrational} randommap(0) \\) for \\( irrational=0,1, \\ldots, continuum \\), and it follows by induction that \\( constantmap(irrational)=randommap(irrational) \\) for \\( irrational=0,1, \\ldots, continuum \\). But two polynomials of degree at most \\( continuum \\) that agree at \\( continuum+1 \\) points are identical, so \\( randommap=constantmap \\).)\n\nSince the given polynomial \\( randommap \\) takes integer values for integer arguments, it is obvious that \\( integralop^{irrational} randommap(0) \\) is an integer for \\( irrational=0,1,2, \\ldots \\). Then from (1) it is obvious that \\( continuum!randommap(fixedpoint) \\) is a polynomial in \\( fixedpoint \\) with integer coefficients. But the coefficients in the representation of a function by a polynomial are unique (if such a representation exists), so \\( continuum!massiveindex \\) is an integer for \\( unchanging=0, 1,2, \\ldots, continuum \\).\n\nRemark. If \\( randommap(fixedpoint)=fixedpoint^{continuum} \\), the numbers\n\\[\n\\left[integralop^{unchanging}\\ fixedpoint^{\\prime \\prime}\\right]_{fixedpoint=0}, \\quad unchanging=0,1, \\ldots, continuum\n\\]\nare called the differences of zero, and the numbers\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{unchanging!}\\left[integralop^{unchanging}\\ fixedpoint^{continuum}\\right]_{fixedpoint=0}, \\quad unchanging=0,1, \\ldots, continuum\n\\]\nare the Stirling numbers of the second kind. They have many applications in the calculus of finite differences and in combinatorial analysis.\n\nSee Francis B. Hildebrand, Finite Difference Equations and Simulations, Prentice-Hall, 1968, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., page 117; and Marshall Hall Jr., Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967, pages 26-27."
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "x": "qzxwvtnp",
        "i": "hjgrksla",
        "k": "mxldpeoq",
        "f": "rnbtcias",
        "g": "lqmwzeus",
        "a_0": "ofiueprk",
        "a_1": "weouidnc",
        "a_n": "nxbqslre",
        "a_k": "dtmhvzpw",
        "n": "vchgplma",
        "\\\\Delta": "pixusara"
      },
      "question": "2. Let \\( ofiueprk, weouidnc, \\ldots, nxbqslre \\) be real numbers and let \\( rnbtcias(qzxwvtnp)=ofiueprk+weouidnc\\, qzxwvtnp+\\ldots+ nxbqslre\\, qzxwvtnp^{vchgplma} \\). Suppose that, for every integer \\( hjgrksla \\), \\( rnbtcias(hjgrksla) \\) is an integer. Prove that \\( vchgplma!\\cdot dtmhvzpw \\) is an integer for each \\( mxldpeoq \\).",
      "solution": "Solution. For any function \\( lqmwzeus \\) defined on \\( \\mathbf{R} \\), let \\( pixusara lqmwzeus \\) be the first difference defined by\n\\[\npixusara lqmwzeus(qzxwvtnp)=lqmwzeus(qzxwvtnp+1)-lqmwzeus(qzxwvtnp)\n\\]\nand let \\( pixusara^{2} lqmwzeus=pixusara(pixusara lqmwzeus),\\; pixusara^{3} lqmwzeus=pixusara\\left(pixusara^{2} lqmwzeus\\right), \\) etc. Then if \\( rnbtcias \\) is a polynomial of degree \\( \\le vchgplma \\),\n\\[\n\\begin{aligned}\nrnbtcias(qzxwvtnp)= &\\; rnbtcias(0)+(pixusara rnbtcias(0))\\, qzxwvtnp+\\frac{1}{2!}\\left(pixusara^{2} rnbtcias(0)\\right) qzxwvtnp(qzxwvtnp-1) \\\\\n& +\\frac{1}{3!}\\left(pixusara^{3} rnbtcias(0)\\right) qzxwvtnp(qzxwvtnp-1)(qzxwvtnp-2) \\\\\n& +\\cdots+\\frac{1}{vchgplma!}\\left(pixusara^{\\prime \\prime} rnbtcias(0)\\right) qzxwvtnp(qzxwvtnp-1)\\cdots(qzxwvtnp-vchgplma+1)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\]\n(This is Taylor's series for the calculus of finite differences. To prove the validity of (1), let \\( lqmwzeus(qzxwvtnp) \\) represent the right-hand member of (1). Then evidently \\( lqmwzeus \\) is a polynomial of degree at most \\( vchgplma \\). Moreover, \\( pixusara^{hjgrksla} lqmwzeus(0)=pixusara^{hjgrksla} rnbtcias(0) \\) for \\( hjgrksla=0,1, \\ldots, vchgplma \\), and it follows by induction that \\( lqmwzeus(hjgrksla)=rnbtcias(hjgrksla) \\) for \\( hjgrksla=0,1, \\ldots, vchgplma \\). But two polynomials of degree at most \\( vchgplma \\) that agree at \\( vchgplma+1 \\) points are identical, so \\( rnbtcias=lqmwzeus \\).\n\nSince the given polynomial \\( rnbtcias \\) takes integer values for integer arguments, it is obvious that \\( pixusara^{hjgrksla} rnbtcias(0) \\) is an integer for \\( hjgrksla=0,1,2, \\ldots \\). Then from (1) it is obvious that \\( vchgplma!\\, rnbtcias(qzxwvtnp) \\) is a polynomial in \\( qzxwvtnp \\) with integer coefficients. But the coefficients in the representation of a function by a polynomial are unique (if such a representation exists), so \\( vchgplma!\\, dtmhvzpw \\) is an integer for \\( mxldpeoq=0,1,2, \\ldots, vchgplma \\).\n\nRemark. If \\( rnbtcias(qzxwvtnp)=qzxwvtnp^{vchgplma} \\), the numbers\n\\[\n\\left[pixusara^{mxldpeoq} qzxwvtnp^{\\prime \\prime}\\right]_{qzxwvtnp=0},\\quad mxldpeoq=0,1, \\ldots, vchgplma\n\\]\nare called the differences of zero, and the numbers\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{mxldpeoq!}\\left[pixusara^{mxldpeoq} qzxwvtnp^{vchgplma}\\right]_{qzxwvtnp=0},\\quad mxldpeoq=0,1, \\ldots, vchgplma\n\\]\nare the Stirling numbers of the second kind. They have many applications in the calculus of finite differences and in combinatorial analysis.\n\nSee Francis B. Hildebrand, Finite Difference Equations and Simulations, Prentice-Hall, 1968, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., page 117; and Marshall Hall Jr., Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967, pages 26-27."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let d,n∈ℕ with n≥1.  \nFor a multi–index α=(α₁,…,α_d)∈ℕᵈ set |α|:=α₁+···+α_d and X^α:=X₁^{α₁}···X_d^{α_d}.  \n\nLet K be an algebraic number field with ring of integers 𝒪_K and consider the polynomial  \n\n  f(X₁,…,X_d)=∑_{0≤α_k≤n} a_α X^α  (a_α∈K)  (†)\n\nwhose degree in every individual variable does not exceed n (no restriction on the total degree).\n\nAssume that there exists an integer vector t=(t₁,…,t_d) such that  \n\n  f(t₁+j₁,…,t_d+j_d) ∈ 𝒪_K  for every (j₁,…,j_d)∈{0,1,…,n}^d.  (★)\n\nProve that for every multi–index α with 0≤α_k≤n one has  \n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}\\;a_α ∈ 𝒪_K.  \n\nMoreover, show that the exponent d in the factor (n!)^{d} is best possible in general: for every d,n there exists a polynomial of the form (†) satisfying (★) for which the denominator of at least one coefficient is exactly (n!)^{d}.",
      "solution": "We adapt the one–variable “finite–difference–Taylor” argument to the multivariate setting and keep careful track of all denominators.\n\nStep 1.  Higher forward differences at the lattice point t are algebraic integers.  \nFor k=1,…,d define the forward–difference operator\n\n  (Δ_k g)(x₁,…,x_d)=g(x₁,…,x_{k-1},x_k+1,x_{k+1},…,x_d)−g(x₁,…,x_d).\n\nFor β=(β₁,…,β_d) put Δ^β:=Δ₁^{β₁}···Δ_d^{β_d}.  \nBecause 𝒪_K is closed under addition and subtraction, repeated application of Δ_k preserves algebraic integrality.  By hypothesis (★) we therefore obtain  \n\n  Δ^β f(t) ∈ 𝒪_K  for every β with 0≤β_k≤n.  (1)\n\n(The bound β_k≤n suffices because in one variable Δ_k^{n+1} annihilates any polynomial whose degree in X_k is ≤n.)\n\nStep 2.  The multivariate Newton expansion.  \nFor integers x_k and 0≤m≤n write the univariate binomial–coefficient polynomial\n\n  C(x_k,m):=binom{x_k−t_k}{m}=\n     (x_k−t_k)(x_k−t_k−1)…(x_k−t_k−m+1)/m!.\n\nFinite–difference calculus yields the Newton expansion  \n\n  f(x)= ∑_{0≤β_k≤n} Δ^β f(t) · ∏_{k=1}^{d} C(x_k,β_k).  (2)\n\nStep 3.  Denominators of the coefficients of C(X,m).  \nExpanding binom{X}{m}=∑_{r=0}^m c_{m,r}X^r one has c_{m,r}=b_{m,r}/m! with b_{m,r}∈ℤ.  \nBecause m! divides n! we get  \n\n  n!·c_{m,r} ∈ ℤ  (0≤m≤n, 0≤r≤m).  (3)\n\nStep 4.  Bounding multivariate denominators.  \nFor every fixed β write  \n\n  ∏_{k=1}^{d} C(x_k,β_k)=∑_{γ≤β} C_{β,γ} (x₁−t₁)^{γ₁}···(x_d−t_d)^{γ_d},  (4)\n\nwhere 0≤γ_k≤β_k.  Each C_{β,γ} is a product of d numbers of the form c_{m,r}; hence by (3)\n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}·C_{β,γ} ∈ ℤ.  (5)\n\nStep 5.  Extracting the coefficient a_α.  \nExpand (x_k−t_k)^{γ_k} with the binomial theorem and collect the coefficient of X^α in (2):\n\n  a_α = ∑_{β,γ,δ} Δ^β f(t) · C_{β,γ} · binom{γ}{δ} · (−t)^{γ−δ},  (6)\n\nthe sum extending over indices satisfying β≥γ≥δ, 0≤β_k≤n, and δ=α.  \nUsing (1), (5) and the integrality of the ordinary binomial coefficients we see that every summand in (6) becomes an algebraic integer when multiplied by (n!)^{d}.  Hence  \n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}\\,a_α ∈ 𝒪_K  for all α with 0≤α_k≤n.\n\nStep 6.  Optimality of the exponent d.  \nDefine  \n\n  g(X₁,…,X_d):=∏_{k=1}^{d} binom{X_k}{n}\n       = ∑_{0≤α_k≤n} b_α X^α.\n\nEach factor binom{X_k}{n} has degree n in X_k and denominator n!, so g is of the permitted form (†).  \nFor every integer vector j with 0≤j_k≤n one has binom{j_k}{n}∈{0,1}; hence g(t+j)∈ℤ, i.e. (★) with K=ℚ.  \nThe coefficient b_{(n,…,n)} of X₁^{n}···X_d^{n} equals 1/(n!)^{d}.  No smaller positive integer than (n!)^{d} can clear that denominator because it is already in lowest terms in each variable.  Consequently the factor (n!)^{d} is unavoidable in general, and the exponent d is best possible. ∎",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.457134",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension: The problem passes from one variable to d independent variables, forcing the use of mixed forward differences and the multivariate Newton expansion.  \n2. Number-field coefficients: Instead of real or complex coefficients we work in an arbitrary algebraic number field.  One must control integrality inside the ring 𝒪_K, not merely inside ℤ.  \n3. Larger lattice of data:  The hypothesis involves (n+1)^d integer points, not just n+1 consecutive integers, and we must show that all mixed differences at those points are algebraic integers.  \n4. Compounded denominators:  The proof requires tracking how the univariate denominators combine multiplicatively, finally bounding them by Lₙ^{d}.  Careful bookkeeping of these denominators is essential.  \n5. Multiple interacting techniques:  The solution blends algebraic-integer arguments, multivariate finite-difference calculus, combinatorial identities for binomial coefficients, and least-common-multiple estimates.  \n\nAll these additions force substantially deeper knowledge and longer reasoning than either the original problem or the earlier kernel variant, thereby fulfilling the requirement of increased technical complexity and difficulty."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let d,n∈ℕ with n≥1.  \nFor a multi–index α=(α₁,…,α_d)∈ℕᵈ set |α|:=α₁+···+α_d and X^α:=X₁^{α₁}···X_d^{α_d}.  \n\nLet K be an algebraic number field with ring of integers 𝒪_K and consider the polynomial  \n\n  f(X₁,…,X_d)=∑_{0≤α_k≤n} a_α X^α  (a_α∈K)  (†)\n\nwhose degree in every individual variable does not exceed n (no restriction on the total degree).\n\nAssume that there exists an integer vector t=(t₁,…,t_d) such that  \n\n  f(t₁+j₁,…,t_d+j_d) ∈ 𝒪_K  for every (j₁,…,j_d)∈{0,1,…,n}^d.  (★)\n\nProve that for every multi–index α with 0≤α_k≤n one has  \n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}\\;a_α ∈ 𝒪_K.  \n\nMoreover, show that the exponent d in the factor (n!)^{d} is best possible in general: for every d,n there exists a polynomial of the form (†) satisfying (★) for which the denominator of at least one coefficient is exactly (n!)^{d}.",
      "solution": "We adapt the one–variable “finite–difference–Taylor” argument to the multivariate setting and keep careful track of all denominators.\n\nStep 1.  Higher forward differences at the lattice point t are algebraic integers.  \nFor k=1,…,d define the forward–difference operator\n\n  (Δ_k g)(x₁,…,x_d)=g(x₁,…,x_{k-1},x_k+1,x_{k+1},…,x_d)−g(x₁,…,x_d).\n\nFor β=(β₁,…,β_d) put Δ^β:=Δ₁^{β₁}···Δ_d^{β_d}.  \nBecause 𝒪_K is closed under addition and subtraction, repeated application of Δ_k preserves algebraic integrality.  By hypothesis (★) we therefore obtain  \n\n  Δ^β f(t) ∈ 𝒪_K  for every β with 0≤β_k≤n.  (1)\n\n(The bound β_k≤n suffices because in one variable Δ_k^{n+1} annihilates any polynomial whose degree in X_k is ≤n.)\n\nStep 2.  The multivariate Newton expansion.  \nFor integers x_k and 0≤m≤n write the univariate binomial–coefficient polynomial\n\n  C(x_k,m):=binom{x_k−t_k}{m}=\n     (x_k−t_k)(x_k−t_k−1)…(x_k−t_k−m+1)/m!.\n\nFinite–difference calculus yields the Newton expansion  \n\n  f(x)= ∑_{0≤β_k≤n} Δ^β f(t) · ∏_{k=1}^{d} C(x_k,β_k).  (2)\n\nStep 3.  Denominators of the coefficients of C(X,m).  \nExpanding binom{X}{m}=∑_{r=0}^m c_{m,r}X^r one has c_{m,r}=b_{m,r}/m! with b_{m,r}∈ℤ.  \nBecause m! divides n! we get  \n\n  n!·c_{m,r} ∈ ℤ  (0≤m≤n, 0≤r≤m).  (3)\n\nStep 4.  Bounding multivariate denominators.  \nFor every fixed β write  \n\n  ∏_{k=1}^{d} C(x_k,β_k)=∑_{γ≤β} C_{β,γ} (x₁−t₁)^{γ₁}···(x_d−t_d)^{γ_d},  (4)\n\nwhere 0≤γ_k≤β_k.  Each C_{β,γ} is a product of d numbers of the form c_{m,r}; hence by (3)\n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}·C_{β,γ} ∈ ℤ.  (5)\n\nStep 5.  Extracting the coefficient a_α.  \nExpand (x_k−t_k)^{γ_k} with the binomial theorem and collect the coefficient of X^α in (2):\n\n  a_α = ∑_{β,γ,δ} Δ^β f(t) · C_{β,γ} · binom{γ}{δ} · (−t)^{γ−δ},  (6)\n\nthe sum extending over indices satisfying β≥γ≥δ, 0≤β_k≤n, and δ=α.  \nUsing (1), (5) and the integrality of the ordinary binomial coefficients we see that every summand in (6) becomes an algebraic integer when multiplied by (n!)^{d}.  Hence  \n\n  (n!)^{\\,d}\\,a_α ∈ 𝒪_K  for all α with 0≤α_k≤n.\n\nStep 6.  Optimality of the exponent d.  \nDefine  \n\n  g(X₁,…,X_d):=∏_{k=1}^{d} binom{X_k}{n}\n       = ∑_{0≤α_k≤n} b_α X^α.\n\nEach factor binom{X_k}{n} has degree n in X_k and denominator n!, so g is of the permitted form (†).  \nFor every integer vector j with 0≤j_k≤n one has binom{j_k}{n}∈{0,1}; hence g(t+j)∈ℤ, i.e. (★) with K=ℚ.  \nThe coefficient b_{(n,…,n)} of X₁^{n}···X_d^{n} equals 1/(n!)^{d}.  No smaller positive integer than (n!)^{d} can clear that denominator because it is already in lowest terms in each variable.  Consequently the factor (n!)^{d} is unavoidable in general, and the exponent d is best possible. ∎",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.390085",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension: The problem passes from one variable to d independent variables, forcing the use of mixed forward differences and the multivariate Newton expansion.  \n2. Number-field coefficients: Instead of real or complex coefficients we work in an arbitrary algebraic number field.  One must control integrality inside the ring 𝒪_K, not merely inside ℤ.  \n3. Larger lattice of data:  The hypothesis involves (n+1)^d integer points, not just n+1 consecutive integers, and we must show that all mixed differences at those points are algebraic integers.  \n4. Compounded denominators:  The proof requires tracking how the univariate denominators combine multiplicatively, finally bounding them by Lₙ^{d}.  Careful bookkeeping of these denominators is essential.  \n5. Multiple interacting techniques:  The solution blends algebraic-integer arguments, multivariate finite-difference calculus, combinatorial identities for binomial coefficients, and least-common-multiple estimates.  \n\nAll these additions force substantially deeper knowledge and longer reasoning than either the original problem or the earlier kernel variant, thereby fulfilling the requirement of increased technical complexity and difficulty."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}