{
  "index": "1971-A-6",
  "type": "ANA",
  "tag": [
    "ANA",
    "NT"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "A-6. Let \\( c \\) be a real number such that \\( n^{c} \\) is an integer for every positive integer \\( n \\). Show that \\( c \\) is a non-negative integer.",
  "solution": "A-6 The case \\( n=2 \\) shows that \\( c \\) is non-negative. If the ordinary mean value theorem is applied to \\( x^{c} \\) on the interval \\( [u, u+1] \\) there is \\( a \\xi \\) with \\( u<\\xi<u+1 \\) such that \\( c \\xi^{c-1}=(u+1)^{c}-u^{c} \\). For any psitive integer \\( u \\) the right hand side is a positive integer. Now, in the case \\( 0<c<1 \\), \\( u \\) could be taken large enough so \\( u^{c-1}<1 / c \\) and so \\( c \\xi^{c-1}<1 \\). Thus the mean value theorem for the first derivative eliminates all \\( c \\) with \\( 0<c<1 \\).\n\nThere is an extension of the mean value theorem which states that if \\( f(x) \\) is \\( k \\)-times differentiable in \\( [a, b] \\) then there is a \\( \\xi, a<\\xi<b \\), such that \\( h^{k} f^{(k)}(\\xi)=\\Delta^{k} f(a) \\), where \\( h=\\frac{b-a}{k} \\) and \\( \\Delta^{k} \\) is the \\( k \\)-th difference for intervals spaced \\( h \\) apart. Take \\( k \\) as the unique integer such that \\( k-1 \\leqq c<k \\) and apply this extension of the mean value theorem on the interval \\( [u, u+k] \\). There is a \\( \\xi \\) with \\( u<\\xi<u+k \\) such that\n\\[\nc(c-1)(c-2) \\cdots(c-k+1) \\xi^{c-k}=\\Delta^{k} f(u)\n\\]\n\nThe right hand side is an integer, and by taking \\( u \\) sufficiently large \\( \\xi^{c-1} \\) becomes sufficiently small so that the left hand side, though non-negative, is less than 1 . Hence \\( c(c-1)(c-2) \\cdots(c-k+1)=0 \\) and so \\( c=k-1 \\)",
  "vars": [
    "n",
    "x",
    "u",
    "\\\\xi",
    "f"
  ],
  "params": [
    "c",
    "k",
    "a",
    "b",
    "h",
    "\\\\Delta"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "n": "indexvar",
        "x": "inputvar",
        "u": "baseval",
        "\\xi": "xipoint",
        "f": "function",
        "c": "exponent",
        "k": "intstage",
        "a": "leftend",
        "b": "rightend",
        "h": "stepgap",
        "\\Delta": "difference"
      },
      "question": "A-6. Let \\( exponent \\) be a real number such that \\( indexvar^{exponent} \\) is an integer for every positive integer \\( indexvar \\). Show that \\( exponent \\) is a non-negative integer.",
      "solution": "A-6 The case \\( indexvar=2 \\) shows that \\( exponent \\) is non-negative. If the ordinary mean value theorem is applied to \\( inputvar^{exponent} \\) on the interval \\( [baseval, baseval+1] \\) there is a \\( xipoint \\) with \\( baseval<xipoint<baseval+1 \\) such that \\( exponent xipoint^{exponent-1}=(baseval+1)^{exponent}-baseval^{exponent} \\). For any psitive integer \\( baseval \\) the right hand side is a positive integer. Now, in the case \\( 0<exponent<1 \\), \\( baseval \\) could be taken large enough so \\( baseval^{exponent-1}<1 / exponent \\) and so \\( exponent xipoint^{exponent-1}<1 \\). Thus the mean value theorem for the first derivative eliminates all \\( exponent \\) with \\( 0<exponent<1 \\).\n\nThere is an extension of the mean value theorem which states that if \\( function(inputvar) \\) is \\( intstage \\)-times differentiable in \\( [leftend, rightend] \\) then there is a \\( xipoint, leftend<xipoint<rightend \\), such that \\( stepgap^{intstage} function^{(intstage)}(xipoint)=difference^{intstage} function(leftend) \\), where \\( stepgap=\\frac{rightend-leftend}{intstage} \\) and \\( difference^{intstage} \\) is the \\( intstage \\)-th difference for intervals spaced \\( stepgap \\) apart. Take \\( intstage \\) as the unique integer such that \\( intstage-1 \\leqq exponent< intstage \\) and apply this extension of the mean value theorem on the interval \\( [baseval, baseval+intstage] \\). There is a \\( xipoint \\) with \\( baseval< xipoint< baseval+intstage \\) such that\n\\[\nexponent(exponent-1)(exponent-2) \\cdots(exponent-intstage+1) xipoint^{exponent-intstage}=difference^{intstage} function(baseval)\n\\]\n\nThe right hand side is an integer, and by taking \\( baseval \\) sufficiently large \\( xipoint^{exponent-1} \\) becomes sufficiently small so that the left hand side, though non-negative, is less than 1 . Hence \\( exponent(exponent-1)(exponent-2) \\cdots(exponent-intstage+1)=0 \\) and so \\( exponent=intstage-1 \\)"
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "n": "marzipan",
        "x": "quagmire",
        "u": "buttercup",
        "\\xi": "tamarillo",
        "f": "mojitoes",
        "c": "watermelon",
        "k": "candelabra",
        "a": "porcupine",
        "b": "rattlesnake",
        "h": "whirlpool",
        "\\Delta": "gladiolus"
      },
      "question": "A-6. Let \\( watermelon \\) be a real number such that \\( marzipan^{watermelon} \\) is an integer for every positive integer \\( marzipan \\). Show that \\( watermelon \\) is a non-negative integer.",
      "solution": "A-6 The case \\( marzipan=2 \\) shows that \\( watermelon \\) is non-negative. If the ordinary mean value theorem is applied to \\( quagmire^{watermelon} \\) on the interval \\[buttercup, buttercup+1\\] there is \\( porcupine tamarillo \\) with \\( buttercup<tamarillo<buttercup+1 \\) such that \\( watermelon tamarillo^{watermelon-1}=(buttercup+1)^{watermelon}-buttercup^{watermelon} \\). For any psitive integer \\( buttercup \\) the right hand side is a positive integer. Now, in the case \\( 0<watermelon<1 \\), \\( buttercup \\) could be taken large enough so \\( buttercup^{watermelon-1}<1 / watermelon \\) and so \\( watermelon tamarillo^{watermelon-1}<1 \\). Thus the mean value theorem for the first derivative eliminates all \\( watermelon \\) with \\( 0<watermelon<1 \\).\n\nThere is an extension of the mean value theorem which states that if \\( mojitoes(quagmire) \\) is \\( candelabra \\)-times differentiable in \\[porcupine, rattlesnake\\] then there is a \\( tamarillo, porcupine<tamarillo<rattlesnake \\), such that \\( whirlpool^{candelabra} mojitoes^{(candelabra)}(tamarillo)=gladiolus^{candelabra} mojitoes(porcupine) \\), where \\( whirlpool=\\frac{rattlesnake-porcupine}{candelabra} \\) and \\( gladiolus^{candelabra} \\) is the \\( candelabra \\)-th difference for intervals spaced \\( whirlpool \\) apart. Take \\( candelabra \\) as the unique integer such that \\( candelabra-1 \\leqq watermelon< candelabra \\) and apply this extension of the mean value theorem on the interval \\[buttercup, buttercup+candelabra\\]. There is a \\( tamarillo \\) with \\( buttercup<tamarillo<buttercup+candelabra \\) such that\n\\[\nwatermelon(watermelon-1)(watermelon-2) \\cdots(watermelon-candelabra+1) tamarillo^{watermelon-candelabra}=gladiolus^{candelabra} mojitoes(buttercup)\n\\]\n\nThe right hand side is an integer, and by taking \\( buttercup \\) sufficiently large \\( tamarillo^{watermelon-1} \\) becomes sufficiently small so that the left hand side, though non-negative, is less than 1. Hence \\( watermelon(watermelon-1)(watermelon-2) \\cdots(watermelon-candelabra+1)=0 \\) and so \\( watermelon=candelabra-1 \\)"
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "n": "fractionalvalue",
        "x": "constantfixed",
        "u": "downwardfloat",
        "\\xi": "boundarypoint",
        "f": "staticentity",
        "c": "variablebase",
        "k": "continuouslevel",
        "a": "rightlimit",
        "b": "leftlimit",
        "h": "largeskip",
        "\\Delta": "integralmerge"
      },
      "question": "A-6. Let \\( variablebase \\) be a real number such that \\( fractionalvalue^{variablebase} \\) is an integer for every positive integer \\( fractionalvalue \\). Show that \\( variablebase \\) is a non-negative integer.",
      "solution": "A-6 The case \\( fractionalvalue=2 \\) shows that \\( variablebase \\) is non-negative. If the ordinary mean value theorem is applied to \\( constantfixed^{variablebase} \\) on the interval \\( [downwardfloat, downwardfloat+1] \\) there is \\( rightlimit\\, boundarypoint \\) with \\( downwardfloat<boundarypoint<downwardfloat+1 \\) such that \\( variablebase\\, boundarypoint^{variablebase-1}=(downwardfloat+1)^{variablebase}-downwardfloat^{variablebase} \\). For any positive integer \\( downwardfloat \\) the right hand side is a positive integer. Now, in the case \\( 0<variablebase<1 \\), \\( downwardfloat \\) could be taken large enough so \\( downwardfloat^{variablebase-1}<1 / variablebase \\) and so \\( variablebase\\, boundarypoint^{variablebase-1}<1 \\). Thus the mean value theorem for the first derivative eliminates all \\( variablebase \\) with \\( 0<variablebase<1 \\).\n\nThere is an extension of the mean value theorem which states that if \\( staticentity(constantfixed) \\) is \\( continuouslevel \\)-times differentiable in \\( [rightlimit, leftlimit] \\) then there is a \\( boundarypoint, rightlimit<boundarypoint<leftlimit \\), such that \\( largeskip^{continuouslevel} staticentity^{(continuouslevel)}(boundarypoint)=integralmerge^{continuouslevel} staticentity(rightlimit) \\), where \\( largeskip=\\frac{leftlimit-rightlimit}{continuouslevel} \\) and \\( integralmerge^{continuouslevel} \\) is the \\( continuouslevel \\)-th difference for intervals spaced \\( largeskip \\) apart. Take \\( continuouslevel \\) as the unique integer such that \\( continuouslevel-1 \\leqq variablebase<continuouslevel \\) and apply this extension of the mean value theorem on the interval \\( [downwardfloat, downwardfloat+continuouslevel] \\). There is a \\( boundarypoint \\) with \\( downwardfloat<boundarypoint<downwardfloat+continuouslevel \\) such that\n\\[\nvariablebase(variablebase-1)(variablebase-2) \\cdots(variablebase-continuouslevel+1) boundarypoint^{variablebase-continuouslevel}=integralmerge^{continuouslevel} staticentity(downwardfloat)\n\\]\nThe right hand side is an integer, and by taking \\( downwardfloat \\) sufficiently large \\( boundarypoint^{variablebase-1} \\) becomes sufficiently small so that the left hand side, though non-negative, is less than 1. Hence \\( variablebase(variablebase-1)(variablebase-2) \\cdots(variablebase-continuouslevel+1)=0 \\) and so \\( variablebase=continuouslevel-1 \\)"
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "n": "qzxwvtnp",
        "x": "hjgrksla",
        "u": "pkdvmnzo",
        "\\\\xi": "blfqrwse",
        "f": "vcntyshp",
        "c": "mzdqlwex",
        "k": "rtbxasju",
        "a": "lgnsrdhp",
        "b": "wqmfztia",
        "h": "yclvzopr",
        "\\\\Delta": "skdprufa"
      },
      "question": "A-6. Let \\( mzdqlwex \\) be a real number such that \\( qzxwvtnp^{mzdqlwex} \\) is an integer for every positive integer \\( qzxwvtnp \\). Show that \\( mzdqlwex \\) is a non-negative integer.",
      "solution": "A-6 The case \\( qzxwvtnp=2 \\) shows that \\( mzdqlwex \\) is non-negative. If the ordinary mean value theorem is applied to \\( hjgrksla^{mzdqlwex} \\) on the interval \\( [pkdvmnzo, pkdvmnzo+1] \\) there is \\( lgnsrdhp blfqrwse \\) with \\( pkdvmnzo<blfqrwse<pkdvmnzo+1 \\) such that \\( mzdqlwex blfqrwse^{mzdqlwex-1}=(pkdvmnzo+1)^{mzdqlwex}-pkdvmnzo^{mzdqlwex} \\). For any positive integer \\( pkdvmnzo \\) the right hand side is a positive integer. Now, in the case \\( 0<mzdqlwex<1 \\), \\( pkdvmnzo \\) could be taken large enough so \\( pkdvmnzo^{mzdqlwex-1}<1 / mzdqlwex \\) and so \\( mzdqlwex blfqrwse^{mzdqlwex-1}<1 \\). Thus the mean value theorem for the first derivative eliminates all \\( mzdqlwex \\) with \\( 0<mzdqlwex<1 \\).\n\nThere is an extension of the mean value theorem which states that if \\( vcntyshp(hjgrksla) \\) is \\( rtbxasju \\)-times differentiable in \\( [lgnsrdhp, wqmfztia] \\) then there is a \\( blfqrwse, lgnsrdhp<blfqrwse<wqmfztia \\), such that \\( yclvzopr^{rtbxasju} vcntyshp^{(rtbxasju)}(blfqrwse)=skdprufa^{rtbxasju} vcntyshp(lgnsrdhp) \\), where \\( yclvzopr=\\frac{wqmfztia-lgnsrdhp}{rtbxasju} \\) and \\( skdprufa^{rtbxasju} \\) is the \\( rtbxasju \\)-th difference for intervals spaced \\( yclvzopr \\) apart. Take \\( rtbxasju \\) as the unique integer such that \\( rtbxasju-1 \\leqq mzdqlwex<rtbxasju \\) and apply this extension of the mean value theorem on the interval \\( [pkdvmnzo, pkdvmnzo+rtbxasju] \\). There is a \\( blfqrwse \\) with \\( pkdvmnzo<blfqrwse<pkdvmnzo+rtbxasju \\) such that\n\\[\nmzdqlwex(mzdqlwex-1)(mzdqlwex-2) \\cdots(mzdqlwex-rtbxasju+1) blfqrwse^{mzdqlwex-rtbxasju}=skdprufa^{rtbxasju} vcntyshp(pkdvmnzo)\n\\]\n\nThe right hand side is an integer, and by taking \\( pkdvmnzo \\) sufficiently large \\( blfqrwse^{mzdqlwex-1} \\) becomes sufficiently small so that the left hand side, though non-negative, is less than 1 . Hence \\( mzdqlwex(mzdqlwex-1)(mzdqlwex-2) \\cdots(mzdqlwex-rtbxasju+1)=0 \\) and so \\( mzdqlwex=rtbxasju-1 \\)"
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let \\(c\\) be a real number with the property that \\(m^{c}\\in\\mathbb Z\\) for every \nodd positive integer \\(m\\).  Prove that \\(c\\) is a non–negative integer.",
      "solution": "Proof.  We will show in three steps that c must be a nonnegative integer.  Throughout we use only odd positive integers m, so that m^n is assumed integer whenever n=c or other real exponent.\n\n1.  c≥0.  If c<0 then, in particular, 3^c=1/3^{|c|} is positive but strictly less than 1, yet by hypothesis 3^c must be an integer.  This is impossible.  Hence c≥0.\n\n2.  The case 0<c<1 is impossible.  Suppose 0<c<1.  Take any large odd u.  Then both u^c and (u+2)^c are integers, so their difference\n    Δ₁ = (u+2)^c − u^c\nis a positive integer.  By the ordinary mean‐value theorem there is ξ∈(u,u+2) with\n    Δ₁ = 2·f′(ξ) = 2c·ξ^{c−1}.\nSince c−1<0, as u→∞ we have ξ^{c−1}→0, so for all sufficiently large odd u,\n    0 < Δ₁ = 2c·ξ^{c−1} < 1.\nBut Δ₁ is a positive integer, so this is impossible.  Therefore c cannot lie strictly between 0 and 1, and so c=0 or c≥1.\n\n3.  If c≥1, then c must actually be an integer.  Suppose, to the contrary, that c is nonintegral and c≥1.  Pick the unique integer k such that\n    k−1 < c < k.\nDefine f(x)=x^c, which is k‐times differentiable on (0,∞).  Fix a large odd integer u and consider the k-th forward difference with step 2:\n    Δ₂^k f(u) = ∑_{j=0}^k (−1)^{k−j} (k choose j) f(u+2j).\nEach term f(u+2j)=(u+2j)^c is an integer, so Δ₂^k f(u) itself is an integer.  On the other hand, the generalized mean‐value theorem for finite differences furnishes a point ξ∈(u,u+2k) such that\n    Δ₂^k f(u) = 2^k·f^{(k)}(ξ).\nBut one computes\n    f^{(k)}(x) = c(c−1)(c−2)⋯(c−k+1)·x^{c−k}.\nSince k−1<c<k, each factor (c−j) for j=0,…,k−1 is positive, while the exponent c−k is negative.  Hence f^{(k)}(ξ)>0, but as u→∞ (and thus ξ→∞) we have ξ^{c−k}→0.  Consequently, for all sufficiently large odd u,\n    0 < Δ₂^k f(u) = 2^k·c(c−1)⋯(c−k+1)·ξ^{c−k} < 1.\nThis contradicts the fact that Δ₂^k f(u) is a positive integer.  Therefore the assumption that c∈(k−1,k) cannot hold.  The only possibility left is that c≥1 is itself an integer.\n\nCombining the cases, we conclude that c must be a nonnegative integer, as claimed.",
      "_meta": {
        "core_steps": [
          "Use n^c ∈ ℤ with some n>1 (e.g., n=2) to force c ≥ 0",
          "Apply the ordinary Mean Value Theorem to f(x)=x^c on [u,u+δ] and, with large u, rule out 0<c<1 because the integral difference must be a positive integer <1",
          "Let k=⌈c⌉ and invoke the k-th-order mean–value/finite-difference formula on [u,u+k] to obtain c(c−1)…(c−k+1)·ξ^{c−k}=Δ^k f(u) ∈ ℤ",
          "Make u large so that ξ^{c−k}<1, forcing the non-negative product c(c−1)…(c−k+1) to be 0",
          "Conclude c is a non-negative integer"
        ],
        "mutable_slots": {
          "slot1": {
            "description": "the particular integer used to detect non-negativity in step 1",
            "original": "2"
          },
          "slot2": {
            "description": "the fixed length of the interval for the first-order MVT",
            "original": "1   (interval [u,u+1])"
          },
          "slot3": {
            "description": "step size h used in the k-th difference / higher-order MVT application",
            "original": "1"
          }
        }
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}