{
  "index": "2003-B-5",
  "type": "GEO",
  "tag": [
    "GEO",
    "ALG"
  ],
  "difficulty": "",
  "question": "Let  $A,B$, and $C$  be equidistant points on the circumference of a circle\nof unit radius centered at  $O$,  and let  $P$  be any point in the circle's\ninterior.  Let  $a, b, c$  be the distance from  $P$  to $A, B, C$,\nrespectively.\nShow that there is a triangle with side lengths  $a, b, c$,  and that the\narea of this triangle depends only on the distance from  $P$  to  $O$.",
  "solution": "\\textbf{First solution:}\nPlace the unit circle on the complex plane so that $A,B,C$ correspond\nto the complex numbers $1,\\omega,\\omega^2$, where\n$\\omega=e^{2\\pi i/3}$, and let $P$ correspond to the complex number\n$x$. The distances $a,b,c$ are then $|x-1|,|x-\\omega|,|x-\\omega^2|$.\nNow the identity\n\\[\n(x-1) + \\omega(x-\\omega) + \\omega^2(x-\\omega^2) = 0\n\\]\nimplies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vectors, correspond\nto the complex numbers $x-1, \\omega(x-\\omega), \\omega^2(x-\\omega^2)$;\nthis triangle has sides of length $a,b,c$.\n\nTo calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more general\nformula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices at $0$,\n$v_1=s_1+it_1$, $v_2=s_2+it_2$, then it is well known that the area\nof the triangle is $|s_1t_2-s_2t_1|/2 = |v_1\\overline{v_2}-\nv_2\\overline{v_1}|/4$. In our case, we have $v_1 = x-1$\nand $v_2 = \\omega(x-\\omega)$; then\n\\[\nv_1\\overline{v_2} - v_2\\overline{v_1}\n= (\\omega^2-\\omega)(x\\overline{x}-1)\n= i\\sqrt{3}(|x|^2-1).\n\\]\nHence the area of the triangle is $\\sqrt{3}(1-|x|^2)/4$, which depends\nonly on the distance $|x|$ from $P$ to $O$.\n\n\\textbf{Second solution:} (by Florian Herzig)\nLet $A'$, $B'$, $C'$ be the points obtained by intersecting the lines\n$AP$, $BP$, $CP$ with the unit circle. Let $d$ denote $OP$. Then $A'P =\n(1-d^2)/a$, etc., by using the power of the point $P$. As triangles $A'B'P$\nand $BAP$ are similar, we get that $A'B' = AB \\cdot A'P/b = \\sqrt 3\n(1-d^2)/(ab)$. It follows that triangle $A'B'C'$ has sides proportional\nto $a$, $b$, $c$, by a factor of $\\sqrt 3 (1-d^2)/(abc)$. In particular,\nthere is a triangle with sides $a$, $b$, $c$, and it has circumradius $R =\n(abc)/(\\sqrt 3 (1-d^2))$. Its area is $abc/(4R) = \\sqrt 3 (1-d^2)/4$.\n\n\\textbf{Third solution:} (by Samuel Li)\nConsider the rotation by the angle $\\pi/3$ around $A$ carrying $B$ to $C$, and let $P_A$ be the image of $P$;\ndefine $P_B, P_C$ similarly.\nLet $A'$ be the intersection of the tangents to the circle at $B, C$; define $B', C'$, similarly.\nPut $\\ell = AB = BC = CA$; we then have\n\\begin{gather*}\nAB' = AC' = BC' = BA' = CA' = CB' = \\ell \\\\\nPA = PP_A = P_A A = P_B C' = P_C A' = a \\\\\nPB = PP_B = P_B B = P_C A' = P_A C' = b \\\\\nPC = PP_C = P_C C = P_A B' = P_B A' = c.\n\\end{gather*}\n\nThe triangle $\\triangle A'B'C'$ has area four times that of $\\triangle ABC$.\nWe may dissect it into twelve triangles by first splitting it into three quadrilaterals $PAC'B$, $PBC'A, PCA'B$, then splitting each of these in four around the respective interior points $P_B, P_C, P_A$. \nOf the resulting twelve triangles, three have side lengths $a,b,c$, while three are equilateral triangles\nof respective sides lengths $a,b,c$. The other six are isomorphic to two copies each of\n$\\triangle PAB, \\triangle PBC, \\triangle PCA$, so their total area is twice that of $\\triangle ABC$.\n\nIt thus suffices to compute $a^2 + b^2 + c^2$ in terms of the radius of the circle and the distance $OP$.\nThis can be done readily in terms of\n$OP$ using vectors, Cartesian coordinates, or complex numbers as in the first solution.",
  "vars": [
    "a",
    "b",
    "c",
    "d",
    "x",
    "P",
    "P_A",
    "P_B",
    "P_C",
    "R",
    "v_1",
    "v_2",
    "s_1",
    "s_2",
    "t_1",
    "t_2"
  ],
  "params": [
    "A",
    "B",
    "C",
    "O",
    "\\\\omega",
    "\\\\ell"
  ],
  "sci_consts": [
    "e",
    "i"
  ],
  "variants": {
    "descriptive_long": {
      "map": {
        "a": "sidelenone",
        "b": "sidelentwo",
        "c": "sidelenthree",
        "d": "distcenter",
        "x": "complexpnt",
        "P": "pointinner",
        "P_A": "imageapoint",
        "P_B": "imagebpoint",
        "P_C": "imagecpoint",
        "R": "circumrad",
        "v_1": "vectorone",
        "v_2": "vectortwo",
        "s_1": "firstreal",
        "s_2": "secondreal",
        "t_1": "firstimag",
        "t_2": "secondimag",
        "A": "vertexa",
        "B": "vertexb",
        "C": "vertexc",
        "O": "centercirc",
        "\\omega": "rootunity",
        "\\ell": "edgelength"
      },
      "question": "Let  $vertexa,vertexb$, and $vertexc$  be equidistant points on the circumference of a circle\nof unit radius centered at  $centercirc$,  and let  $pointinner$  be any point in the circle's\ninterior.  Let  $sidelenone, sidelentwo, sidelenthree$  be the distance from  $pointinner$  to $vertexa, vertexb, vertexc$,\nrespectively.\nShow that there is a triangle with side lengths  $sidelenone, sidelentwo, sidelenthree$,  and that the\narea of this triangle depends only on the distance from  $pointinner$  to  $centercirc$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution:}\nPlace the unit circle on the complex plane so that $vertexa,vertexb,vertexc$ correspond\nto the complex numbers $1,rootunity,rootunity^2$, where\n$rootunity=e^{2\\pi i/3}$, and let $pointinner$ correspond to the complex number\n$complexpnt$. The distances $sidelenone,sidelentwo,sidelenthree$ are then $|complexpnt-1|,|complexpnt-rootunity|,|complexpnt-rootunity^2|$.\nNow the identity\n\\[\n(complexpnt-1) + rootunity(complexpnt-rootunity) + rootunity^2(complexpnt-rootunity^2) = 0\n\\]\nimplies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vectors, correspond\nto the complex numbers $complexpnt-1, rootunity(complexpnt-rootunity), rootunity^2(complexpnt-rootunity^2)$;\nthis triangle has sides of length $sidelenone,sidelentwo,sidelenthree$.\n\nTo calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more general\nformula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices at $0$,\n$vectorone=firstreal+i firstimag$, $vectortwo=secondreal+i secondimag$, then it is well known that the area\nof the triangle is $|firstreal secondimag-secondreal firstimag|/2 = |vectorone\\overline{vectortwo}-\nvectortwo\\overline{vectorone}|/4$. In our case, we have $vectorone = complexpnt-1$\nand $vectortwo = rootunity(complexpnt-rootunity)$; then\n\\[\nvectorone\\overline{vectortwo} - vectortwo\\overline{vectorone}\n= (rootunity^2-rootunity)(complexpnt\\overline{complexpnt}-1)\n= i\\sqrt{3}(|complexpnt|^2-1).\n\\]\nHence the area of the triangle is $\\sqrt{3}(1-|complexpnt|^2)/4$, which depends\nonly on the distance $|complexpnt|$ from $pointinner$ to $centercirc$.\n\n\\textbf{Second solution:} (by Florian Herzig)\nLet $vertexa'$, $vertexb'$, $vertexc'$ be the points obtained by intersecting the lines\n$vertexapointinner$, $vertexbpointinner$, $vertexcpointinner$ with the unit circle. Let $distcenter$ denote $centercircpointinner$. Then $vertexa'pointinner =\n(1-distcenter^2)/sidelenone$, etc., by using the power of the point $pointinner$. As triangles $vertexa'vertexb'pointinner$\nand $vertexbvertexapointinner$ are similar, we get that $vertexa'vertexb' = vertexavertexb \\cdot vertexa'pointinner/sidelentwo = \\sqrt 3\n(1-distcenter^2)/(sidelenonesidelentwo)$. It follows that triangle $vertexa'vertexb'vertexc'$ has sides proportional\nto $sidelenone$, $sidelentwo$, $sidelenthree$, by a factor of $\\sqrt 3 (1-distcenter^2)/(sidelenonesidelentwosidelenthree)$. In particular,\nthere is a triangle with sides $sidelenone$, $sidelentwo$, $sidelenthree$, and it has circumradius $circumrad =\n(sidelenonesidelentwosidelenthree)/(\\sqrt 3 (1-distcenter^2))$. Its area is $(sidelenonesidelentwosidelenthree)/(4circumrad) = \\sqrt 3 (1-distcenter^2)/4$.\n\n\\textbf{Third solution:} (by Samuel Li)\nConsider the rotation by the angle $\\pi/3$ around $vertexa$ carrying $vertexb$ to $vertexc$, and let $imageapoint$ be the image of $pointinner$;\ndefine $imagebpoint, imagecpoint$ similarly.\nLet $vertexa'$ be the intersection of the tangents to the circle at $vertexb, vertexc$; define $vertexb', vertexc'$, similarly.\nPut $edgelength = vertexavertexb = vertexbvertexc = vertexcvertexa$; we then have\n\\begin{gather*}\nvertexavertexb' = vertexavertexc' = vertexbvertexc' = vertexbvertexa' = vertexcvertexa' = vertexcvertexb' = edgelength \\\\\npointinnervertexa = pointinnerimageapoint = imageapoint vertexa = imagebpoint vertexc' = imagecpoint vertexa' = sidelenone \\\\\npointinnervertexb = pointinnerimagebpoint = imagebpoint vertexb = imagecpoint vertexa' = imageapoint vertexc' = sidelentwo \\\\\npointinnervertexc = pointinnerimagecpoint = imagecpoint vertexc = imageapoint vertexb' = imagebpoint vertexa' = sidelenthree.\n\\end{gather*}\n\nThe triangle $\\triangle vertexa'vertexb'vertexc'$ has area four times that of $\\triangle vertexavertexbvertexc$.\nWe may dissect it into twelve triangles by first splitting it into three quadrilaterals $pointinnervertexa vertexc' vertexb$, $pointinnervertexb vertexc' vertexa$, $pointinnervertexc vertexa' vertexb$, then splitting each of these in four around the respective interior points $imagebpoint, imagecpoint, imageapoint$. \nOf the resulting twelve triangles, three have side lengths $sidelenone,sidelentwo,sidelenthree$, while three are equilateral triangles\nof respective sides lengths $sidelenone,sidelentwo,sidelenthree$. The other six are isomorphic to two copies each of\n$\\triangle pointinnervertexa vertexb, \\triangle pointinnervertexb vertexc, \\triangle pointinnervertexc vertexa$, so their total area is twice that of $\\triangle vertexavertexbvertexc$.\n\nIt thus suffices to compute $sidelenone^2 + sidelentwo^2 + sidelenthree^2$ in terms of the radius of the circle and the distance $centercircpointinner$.\nThis can be done readily in terms of\n$centercircpointinner$ using vectors, Cartesian coordinates, or complex numbers as in the first solution."
    },
    "descriptive_long_confusing": {
      "map": {
        "a": "sunflower",
        "b": "lemonade",
        "c": "kangaroo",
        "d": "sailboat",
        "x": "snowboard",
        "P": "galaxyone",
        "P_A": "starlight",
        "P_B": "moonlight",
        "P_C": "skylarkk",
        "R": "blueberry",
        "v_1": "waterfall",
        "v_2": "rainstorm",
        "s_1": "toothbrush",
        "s_2": "paintbrush",
        "t_1": "skateboard",
        "t_2": "horseshoe",
        "A": "astronaut",
        "B": "buttercup",
        "C": "chocolate",
        "O": "dandelion",
        "\\omega": "pumpkin",
        "\\ell": "carousel"
      },
      "question": "Let  $\\astronaut$, $\\buttercup$, and $\\chocolate$  be equidistant points on the circumference of a circle of unit radius centered at  $\\dandelion$,  and let  $\\galaxyone$  be any point in the circle's interior.  Let  $\\sunflower$, $\\lemonade$, $\\kangaroo$  be the distance from  $\\galaxyone$  to $\\astronaut$, $\\buttercup$, $\\chocolate$, respectively.  Show that there is a triangle with side lengths  $\\sunflower$, $\\lemonade$, $\\kangaroo$,  and that the area of this triangle depends only on the distance from  $\\galaxyone$  to  $\\dandelion$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution:}\nPlace the unit circle on the complex plane so that $\\astronaut,\\buttercup,\\chocolate$ correspond to the complex numbers $1,\\pumpkin,\\pumpkin^2$, where $\\pumpkin=e^{2\\pi i/3}$, and let $\\galaxyone$ correspond to the complex number $\\snowboard$. The distances $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$ are then $|\\snowboard-1|,|\\snowboard-\\pumpkin|,|\\snowboard-\\pumpkin^2|$. Now the identity\n\\[\n(\\snowboard-1)+\\pumpkin(\\snowboard-\\pumpkin)+\\pumpkin^2(\\snowboard-\\pumpkin^2)=0\n\\]\nimplies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vectors, correspond to the complex numbers $\\snowboard-1,\\pumpkin(\\snowboard-\\pumpkin),\\pumpkin^2(\\snowboard-\\pumpkin^2)$; this triangle has sides of length $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$.\n\nTo calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more general formula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices at $0$, $\\waterfall=\\toothbrush+i\\skateboard$, $\\rainstorm=\\paintbrush+i\\horseshoe$, then it is well known that the area of the triangle is $|\\toothbrush\\horseshoe-\\paintbrush\\skateboard|/2=|\\waterfall\\overline{\\rainstorm}-\\rainstorm\\overline{\\waterfall}|/4$. In our case, we have $\\waterfall=\\snowboard-1$ and $\\rainstorm=\\pumpkin(\\snowboard-\\pumpkin)$; then\n\\[\n\\waterfall\\overline{\\rainstorm}-\\rainstorm\\overline{\\waterfall}=(\\pumpkin^2-\\pumpkin)(\\snowboard\\overline{\\snowboard}-1)=i\\sqrt{3}(|\\snowboard|^2-1).\n\\]\nHence the area of the triangle is $\\sqrt{3}(1-|\\snowboard|^2)/4$, which depends only on the distance $|\\snowboard|$ from $\\galaxyone$ to $\\dandelion$.\n\n\\textbf{Second solution:} (by Florian Herzig)\nLet $\\astronaut'$, $\\buttercup'$, $\\chocolate'$ be the points obtained by intersecting the lines $\\astronaut\\galaxyone$, $\\buttercup\\galaxyone$, $\\chocolate\\galaxyone$ with the unit circle. Let $\\sailboat$ denote $\\dandelion\\galaxyone$. Then $\\astronaut'\\galaxyone=(1-\\sailboat^2)/\\sunflower$, etc., by using the power of the point $\\galaxyone$. As triangles $\\astronaut'\\buttercup'\\galaxyone$ and $\\buttercup\\astronaut\\galaxyone$ are similar, we get that $\\astronaut'\\buttercup'=\\astronaut\\buttercup\\cdot\\astronaut'\\galaxyone/\\lemonade=\\sqrt 3(1-\\sailboat^2)/(\\sunflower\\lemonade)$. It follows that triangle $\\astronaut'\\buttercup'\\chocolate'$ has sides proportional to $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$, by a factor of $\\sqrt 3(1-\\sailboat^2)/(\\sunflower\\lemonade\\kangaroo)$. In particular, there is a triangle with sides $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$, and it has circumradius $\\blueberry=(\\sunflower\\lemonade\\kangaroo)/(\\sqrt 3(1-\\sailboat^2))$. Its area is $\\sunflower\\lemonade\\kangaroo/(4\\blueberry)=\\sqrt 3(1-\\sailboat^2)/4$.\n\n\\textbf{Third solution:} (by Samuel Li)\nConsider the rotation by the angle $\\pi/3$ around $\\astronaut$ carrying $\\buttercup$ to $\\chocolate$, and let $\\starlight$ be the image of $\\galaxyone$; define $\\moonlight,\\skylarkk$ similarly. Let $\\astronaut'$ be the intersection of the tangents to the circle at $\\buttercup,\\chocolate$; define $\\buttercup',\\chocolate'$ similarly. Put $\\carousel=\\astronaut\\buttercup=\\buttercup\\chocolate=\\chocolate\\astronaut$; we then have\n\\begin{gather*}\n\\astronaut\\buttercup'=\\astronaut\\chocolate'=\\buttercup\\chocolate'=\\buttercup\\astronaut'=\\chocolate\\astronaut'=\\chocolate\\buttercup'=\\carousel\\\\\n\\galaxyone\\astronaut=\\galaxyone\\starlight=\\starlight\\astronaut=\\moonlight\\chocolate'=\\skylarkk\\astronaut'=\\sunflower\\\\\n\\galaxyone\\buttercup=\\galaxyone\\moonlight=\\moonlight\\buttercup=\\skylarkk\\astronaut'=\\starlight\\chocolate'=\\lemonade\\\\\n\\galaxyone\\chocolate=\\galaxyone\\skylarkk=\\skylarkk\\chocolate=\\starlight\\buttercup'=\\moonlight\\astronaut'=\\kangaroo.\n\\end{gather*}\n\nThe triangle $\\triangle \\astronaut'\\buttercup'\\chocolate'$ has area four times that of $\\triangle \\astronaut\\buttercup\\chocolate$. We may dissect it into twelve triangles by first splitting it into three quadrilaterals $\\galaxyone\\astronaut\\chocolate'\\buttercup$, $\\galaxyone\\buttercup\\chocolate'\\astronaut$, $\\galaxyone\\chocolate\\astronaut'\\buttercup$, then splitting each of these in four around the respective interior points $\\moonlight,\\skylarkk,\\starlight$. Of the resulting twelve triangles, three have side lengths $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$, while three are equilateral triangles of respective sides lengths $\\sunflower,\\lemonade,\\kangaroo$. The other six are isomorphic to two copies each of $\\triangle \\galaxyone\\astronaut\\buttercup$, $\\triangle \\galaxyone\\buttercup\\chocolate$, $\\triangle \\galaxyone\\chocolate\\astronaut$, so their total area is twice that of $\\triangle \\astronaut\\buttercup\\chocolate$.\n\nIt thus suffices to compute $\\sunflower^2+\\lemonade^2+\\kangaroo^2$ in terms of the radius of the circle and the distance $\\dandelion\\galaxyone$. This can be done readily in terms of $\\dandelion\\galaxyone$ using vectors, Cartesian coordinates, or complex numbers as in the first solution."
    },
    "descriptive_long_misleading": {
      "map": {
        "a": "closeness",
        "b": "nearness",
        "c": "immediacy",
        "d": "vicinity",
        "x": "constant",
        "P": "lineform",
        "P_A": "fixedline",
        "P_B": "stableline",
        "P_C": "steadyline",
        "R": "diameter",
        "v_1": "scalarone",
        "v_2": "scalartwo",
        "s_1": "verticalone",
        "s_2": "verticaltwo",
        "t_1": "horizontalone",
        "t_2": "horizontaltwo",
        "A": "nonpoint",
        "B": "voidpoint",
        "C": "emptypoint",
        "O": "periphery",
        "\\omega": "disunity",
        "\\ell": "shortness"
      },
      "question": "Let  $nonpoint,voidpoint$, and $emptypoint$  be equidistant points on the circumference of a circle\nof unit radius centered at  $periphery$,  and let  $lineform$  be any point in the circle's\ninterior.  Let  $closeness, nearness, immediacy$  be the distance from  $lineform$  to $nonpoint, voidpoint, emptypoint$,\nrespectively.\nShow that there is a triangle with side lengths  $closeness, nearness, immediacy$,  and that the\narea of this triangle depends only on the distance from  $lineform$  to  $periphery$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution:}\nPlace the unit circle on the complex plane so that $nonpoint,voidpoint,emptypoint$ correspond\nto the complex numbers $1,disunity,disunity^2$, where\n$disunity=e^{2\\pi i/3}$, and let $lineform$ correspond to the complex number\n$constant$. The distances $closeness,nearness,immediacy$ are then $|constant-1|,|constant-disunity|,|constant-disunity^2|$.\nNow the identity\n\\[\n(constant-1) + disunity(constant-disunity) + disunity^2(constant-disunity^2) = 0\n\\]\nimplies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vectors, correspond\nto the complex numbers $constant-1, disunity(constant-disunity), disunity^2(constant-disunity^2)$;\nthis triangle has sides of length $closeness,nearness,immediacy$.\n\nTo calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more general\nformula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices at $0$,\n$scalarone=verticalone+i horizontalone$, $scalartwo=verticaltwo+i horizontaltwo$, then it is well known that the area\nof the triangle is $|verticalone horizontaltwo-verticaltwo horizontalone|/2 = |scalarone\\overline{scalartwo}-\nscalartwo\\overline{scalarone}|/4$. In our case, we have $scalarone = constant-1$\nand $scalartwo = disunity(constant-disunity)$; then\n\\[\nscalarone\\overline{scalartwo} - scalartwo\\overline{scalarone}\n= (disunity^2-disunity)(constant\\overline{constant}-1)\n= i\\sqrt{3}(|constant|^2-1).\n\\]\nHence the area of the triangle is $\\sqrt{3}(1-|constant|^2)/4$, which depends\nonly on the distance $|constant|$ from $lineform$ to $periphery$.\n\n\\textbf{Second solution:} (by Florian Herzig)\nLet $nonpoint'$, $voidpoint'$, $emptypoint'$ be the points obtained by intersecting the lines\n$nonpoint lineform$, $voidpoint lineform$, $emptypoint lineform$ with the unit circle. Let $vicinity$ denote $periphery lineform$. Then $nonpoint' lineform =\n(1-vicinity^2)/closeness$, etc., by using the power of the point $lineform$. As triangles $nonpoint' voidpoint' lineform$\nand $voidpoint nonpoint lineform$ are similar, we get that $nonpoint' voidpoint' = nonpoint voidpoint \\cdot nonpoint' lineform/nearness = \\sqrt 3\n(1-vicinity^2)/(closeness nearness)$. It follows that triangle $nonpoint' voidpoint' emptypoint'$ has sides proportional\nto $closeness$, $nearness$, $immediacy$, by a factor of $\\sqrt 3 (1-vicinity^2)/(closeness nearness immediacy)$. In particular,\nthere is a triangle with sides $closeness$, $nearness$, $immediacy$, and it has circumradius $diameter =\n(closeness nearness immediacy)/(\\sqrt 3 (1-vicinity^2))$. Its area is $closeness nearness immediacy/(4 diameter) = \\sqrt 3 (1-vicinity^2)/4$.\n\n\\textbf{Third solution:} (by Samuel Li)\nConsider the rotation by the angle $\\pi/3$ around $nonpoint$ carrying $voidpoint$ to $emptypoint$, and let $fixedline$ be the image of $lineform$;\ndefine $stableline, steadyline$ similarly.\nLet $nonpoint'$ be the intersection of the tangents to the circle at $voidpoint, emptypoint$; define $voidpoint', emptypoint'$, similarly.\nPut $shortness = nonpoint voidpoint = voidpoint emptypoint = emptypoint nonpoint$; we then have\n\\begin{gather*}\nnonpoint voidpoint' = nonpoint emptypoint' = voidpoint emptypoint' = voidpoint nonpoint' = emptypoint nonpoint' = emptypoint voidpoint' = shortness \\\\\nlineform nonpoint = lineform fixedline = fixedline nonpoint = stableline emptypoint' = steadyline nonpoint' = closeness \\\\\nlineform voidpoint = lineform stableline = stableline voidpoint = steadyline nonpoint' = fixedline emptypoint' = nearness \\\\\nlineform emptypoint = lineform steadyline = steadyline emptypoint = fixedline voidpoint' = stableline nonpoint' = immediacy.\n\\end{gather*}\n\nThe triangle $\\triangle nonpoint' voidpoint' emptypoint'$ has area four times that of $\\triangle nonpoint voidpoint emptypoint$.\nWe may dissect it into twelve triangles by first splitting it into three quadrilaterals $lineform nonpoint emptypoint' voidpoint$, $lineform voidpoint emptypoint' nonpoint$, $lineform emptypoint nonpoint' voidpoint$, then splitting each of these in four around the respective interior points $stableline, steadyline, fixedline$. \nOf the resulting twelve triangles, three have side lengths $closeness,nearness,immediacy$, while three are equilateral triangles\nof respective sides lengths $closeness,nearness,immediacy$. The other six are isomorphic to two copies each of\n$\\triangle lineform nonpoint voidpoint, \\triangle lineform voidpoint emptypoint, \\triangle lineform emptypoint nonpoint$, so their total area is twice that of $\\triangle nonpoint voidpoint emptypoint$.\n\nIt thus suffices to compute $closeness^2 + nearness^2 + immediacy^2$ in terms of the radius of the circle and the distance $periphery lineform$.\nThis can be done readily in terms of\n$periphery lineform$ using vectors, Cartesian coordinates, or complex numbers as in the first solution."
    },
    "garbled_string": {
      "map": {
        "a": "qzxwvtnp",
        "b": "hjgrksla",
        "c": "mnbvcxle",
        "d": "asdfghjk",
        "x": "poiulkjh",
        "P": "lkjhgfas",
        "P_A": "zxcvbnml",
        "P_B": "qwertyui",
        "P_C": "pasdfghj",
        "R": "znbmasdf",
        "v_1": "qlwmnopa",
        "v_2": "asdlkqwe",
        "s_1": "kshdmoqp",
        "s_2": "rewqlajs",
        "t_1": "weoiqkdn",
        "t_2": "lqkdmsoa",
        "A": "lmasydke",
        "B": "pxnvqtor",
        "C": "gjdkerpo",
        "O": "wmcxzbhy",
        "\\\\omega": "jkasdhfg",
        "\\\\ell": "pqowieur"
      },
      "question": "Let  $lmasydke,pxnvqtor$, and $gjdkerpo$  be equidistant points on the circumference of a circle\nof unit radius centered at  $wmcxzbhy$,  and let  $lkjhgfas$  be any point in the circle's\ninterior.  Let  $qzxwvtnp, hjgrksla, mnbvcxle$  be the distance from  $lkjhgfas$  to $lmasydke, pxnvqtor, gjdkerpo$,\nrespectively.\nShow that there is a triangle with side lengths  $qzxwvtnp, hjgrksla, mnbvcxle$,  and that the\narea of this triangle depends only on the distance from  $lkjhgfas$  to  $wmcxzbhy$.",
      "solution": "\\textbf{First solution:}\nPlace the unit circle on the complex plane so that $lmasydke,pxnvqtor,gjdkerpo$ correspond\nto the complex numbers $1,jkasdhfg,jkasdhfg^2$, where\n$jkasdhfg=e^{2\\pi i/3}$, and let $lkjhgfas$ correspond to the complex number\n$poiulkjh$. The distances $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mnbvcxle$ are then $|poiulkjh-1|,|poiulkjh-jkasdhfg|,|poiulkjh-jkasdhfg^2|$.\nNow the identity\n\\[\n(poiulkjh-1) + jkasdhfg(poiulkjh-jkasdhfg) + jkasdhfg^2(poiulkjh-jkasdhfg^2) = 0\n\\]\nimplies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vectors, correspond\nto the complex numbers $poiulkjh-1, \\ jkasdhfg(poiulkjh-jkasdhfg), \\ jkasdhfg^2(poiulkjh-jkasdhfg^2)$;\nthis triangle has sides of length $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mnbvcxle$.\n\nTo calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more general\nformula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices at $0$,\n$qlwmnopa=kshdmoqp+iweoiqkdn$, $asdlkqwe=rewqlajs+ilqkdmsoa$, then it is well known that the area\nof the triangle is $|kshdmoqp lqkdmsoa-rewqlajs weoiqkdn|/2 = |qlwmnopa\\overline{asdlkqwe}-\nasdlkqwe\\overline{qlwmnopa}|/4$. In our case, we have $qlwmnopa = poiulkjh-1$\nand $asdlkqwe = jkasdhfg(poiulkjh-jkasdhfg)$; then\n\\[\nqlwmnopa\\overline{asdlkqwe} - asdlkqwe\\overline{qlwmnopa}\n= (jkasdhfg^2-jkasdhfg)(poiulkjh\\overline{poiulkjh}-1)\n= i\\sqrt{3}(|poiulkjh|^2-1).\n\\]\nHence the area of the triangle is $\\sqrt{3}(1-|poiulkjh|^2)/4$, which depends\nonly on the distance $|poiulkjh|$ from $lkjhgfas$ to $wmcxzbhy$.\n\n\\textbf{Second solution:} (by Florian Herzig)\nLet $lmasydke'$, $pxnvqtor'$, $gjdkerpo'$ be the points obtained by intersecting the lines\n$lmasydke\\,lkjhgfas$, $pxnvqtor\\,lkjhgfas$, $gjdkerpo\\,lkjhgfas$ with the unit circle. Let $asdfghjk$ denote $OP$. Then $lmasydke'lkjhgfas =\n(1-asdfghjk^2)/qzxwvtnp$, etc., by using the power of the point $lkjhgfas$. As triangles $lmasydke'pxnvqtor'lkjhgfas$\nand $pxnvqtor lmasydke lkjhgfas$ are similar, we get that $lmasydke'pxnvqtor' = lmasydke pxnvqtor \\cdot lmasydke'lkjhgfas/hjgrksla = \\sqrt 3\n(1-asdfghjk^2)/(qzxwvtnp hjgrksla)$. It follows that triangle $lmasydke'pxnvqtor'gjdkerpo'$ has sides proportional\nto $qzxwvtnp$, $hjgrksla$, $mnbvcxle$, by a factor of $\\sqrt 3 (1-asdfghjk^2)/(qzxwvtnp hjgrksla mnbvcxle)$. In particular,\nthere is a triangle with sides $qzxwvtnp$, $hjgrksla$, $mnbvcxle$, and it has circumradius $znbmasdf =\n(qzxwvtnp hjgrksla mnbvcxle)/(\\sqrt 3 (1-asdfghjk^2))$. Its area is $qzxwvtnp hjgrksla mnbvcxle/(4znbmasdf) = \\sqrt 3 (1-asdfghjk^2)/4$.\n\n\\textbf{Third solution:} (by Samuel Li)\nConsider the rotation by the angle $\\pi/3$ around $lmasydke$ carrying $pxnvqtor$ to $gjdkerpo$, and let $zxcvbnml$ be the image of $lkjhgfas$;\ndefine $qwertyui, pasdfghj$ similarly.\nLet $lmasydke'$ be the intersection of the tangents to the circle at $pxnvqtor, gjdkerpo$; define $pxnvqtor', gjdkerpo'$ similarly.\nPut $pqowieur = lmasydke pxnvqtor = pxnvqtor gjdkerpo = gjdkerpo lmasydke$; we then have\n\\begin{gather*}\nlmasydke pxnvqtor' = lmasydke gjdkerpo' = pxnvqtor gjdkerpo' = pxnvqtor lmasydke' = gjdkerpo lmasydke' = gjdkerpo pxnvqtor' = pqowieur \\\\\nlkjhgfas lmasydke = lkjhgfas zxcvbnml = zxcvbnml lmasydke = qwertyui gjdkerpo' = pasdfghj lmasydke' = qzxwvtnp \\\\\nlkjhgfas pxnvqtor = lkjhgfas qwertyui = qwertyui pxnvqtor = pasdfghj lmasydke' = zxcvbnml gjdkerpo' = hjgrksla \\\\\nlkjhgfas gjdkerpo = lkjhgfas pasdfghj = pasdfghj gjdkerpo = zxcvbnml pxnvqtor' = qwertyui lmasydke' = mnbvcxle.\n\\end{gather*}\n\nThe triangle $\\triangle lmasydke'pxnvqtor'gjdkerpo'$ has area four times that of $\\triangle lmasydke pxnvqtor gjdkerpo$.\nWe may dissect it into twelve triangles by first splitting it into three quadrilaterals $lkjhgfas lmasydke gjdkerpo' pxnvqtor$, $lkjhgfas pxnvqtor gjdkerpo' lmasydke$, $lkjhgfas gjdkerpo lmasydke' pxnvqtor$, then splitting each of these in four around the respective interior points $qwertyui, pasdfghj, zxcvbnml$.\nOf the resulting twelve triangles, three have side lengths $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mnbvcxle$, while three are equilateral triangles\nof respective sides lengths $qzxwvtnp,hjgrksla,mnbvcxle$. The other six are isomorphic to two copies each of\n$\\triangle lkjhgfas lmasydke pxnvqtor$, $\\triangle lkjhgfas pxnvqtor gjdkerpo$, $\\triangle lkjhgfas gjdkerpo lmasydke$, so their total area is twice that of $\\triangle lmasydke pxnvqtor gjdkerpo$.\n\nIt thus suffices to compute $qzxwvtnp^2 + hjgrksla^2 + mnbvcxle^2$ in terms of the radius of the circle and the distance $OP$.\nThis can be done readily in terms of\n$OP$ using vectors, Cartesian coordinates, or complex numbers as in the first solution."
    },
    "kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $n\\ge 3$ be an integer, $R>0$ a real number and put \n\\[\n\\omega =e^{2\\pi i/n},\\qquad   \n\\Gamma_R:\\ |z|=R .\n\\]\n\nFix an angle $\\theta\\in\\mathbb R$ and define the vertices of a regular\n$n$-gon on $\\Gamma_R$ by \n\\[\nA_k \\;=\\;R\\,e^{\\,i\\bigl(\\theta+\\tfrac{2\\pi k}{n}\\bigr)},\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\nChoose an arbitrary point $P$ in the open disk $\\{z\\in\\mathbb C:\\,|z|< R\\}$,\nwrite \n\\[\nz=\\overline{OP}\\in\\mathbb C,\\qquad d=|z|,\\qquad   \na_k=\\lvert PA_k\\rvert\\quad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1),\n\\]\nand set  \n\\[\nv_k =\\omega^{k}\\bigl(z-A_k\\bigr),\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\n\nStarting at the origin place the vectors\n$v_0,v_1,\\dots ,v_{n-1}$ successively; denote by $\\Pi(P)$ the resulting\nclosed broken line.\n\n(a)  Show that $v_0+\\dots +v_{n-1}=0$ and that the side–lengths of\n$\\Pi(P)$ are precisely $a_0,a_1,\\dots ,a_{n-1}$.\n\n(b)  Prove that the oriented area $\\Delta_n\\!\\bigl(\\Pi(P)\\bigr)$ depends\nonly on $d$ (and on $n,R$), and establish the formula\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\displaystyle\n\\Delta_n(d)=\n\\frac{n}{4}\\Bigl[\n\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)\\,d^{2}\\;+\\;\n\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)\\,R^{2}\n\\Bigr].\n\\;}\n\\tag{$*$}\n\\]\n\n(c)  Treat the special case $P=O$ ($d=0$).  Describe geometrically the\npolygon $\\Pi(O)$ for  \n\n\\quad(i) odd $n$, \\qquad(ii) even $n$,\n\nand verify directly that its area is the value supplied by formula $(*)$.\n\n(When the unsigned area is required one may take \n$\\lvert\\Delta_n(d)\\rvert$; the sign in $(*)$ is the natural oriented sign\nproduced by the above construction.)\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "solution": "Without loss of generality we may rotate the whole configuration\nthrough $-\\theta$ and work with  \n\\[\nA_k = R\\omega^{k},\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 ,\n\\]\nsince neither lengths nor oriented areas change under such a rotation.\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(a)  Closure of the chain and its side–lengths\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n\\[\nv_k=\\omega^{k}(z-R\\omega^{k})=\\omega^{k}z-R\\omega^{2k},\n\\qquad k=0,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}v_k\n      =z\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{k}\n      -R\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{2k}=0-0=0\n\\]\nbecause $\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{mk}=0$ for every integer\n$m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n$.  \nThe $v_k$ therefore form the consecutive sides of a closed $n$-gon\n$\\Pi(P)$ and  \n\\[\n|v_k|=\\lvert z-A_k\\rvert=a_k\\qquad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1).\n\\]\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(b)  The oriented area depends only on $|z|$\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\nLet  \n\\[\nS_0=0,\\qquad S_{k+1}=S_k+v_k\\quad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1),\\qquad S_n=0,\n\\]\nbe the vertices of $\\Pi(P)$.  The complex–number\nversion of the shoelace formula gives\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(P)=\\frac12\\,\\Im\\!\\Bigl(\n\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}S_k\\,\\overline{v_k}\\Bigr)\n           =\\frac12\\,\\Im\\!\\Bigl(\n\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}v_j\\overline{v_k}\\Bigr).\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 1 – expansion of the double sum\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nIntroduce\n\\[\n\\Sigma_{p,q}:=\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}\\omega^{\\,p j-q k}.\n\\]\nBecause\n\\[\nv_j\\overline{v_k}=d^{2}\\,\\omega^{\\,j-k}\n      -R\\,z\\,\\omega^{\\,j-2k}\n      -R\\,\\overline{z}\\,\\omega^{\\,2j-k}\n      +R^{2}\\,\\omega^{\\,2(j-k)},\n\\]\nwe obtain\n\\[\n\\sum_{j<k}v_j\\overline{v_k}=d^{2}\\Sigma_{1,1}\n   -R\\,z\\,\\Sigma_{1,2}\n   -R\\,\\overline{z}\\,\\Sigma_{2,1}\n   +R^{2}\\Sigma_{2,2}.\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 2 – the mixed sums $\\Sigma_{1,2}$ and $\\Sigma_{2,1}$ vanish  \n------------------------------------------------------------------\nFix distinct residues $p,q$ modulo $n$.  Writing $k=j+s$ ($s\\ge 1$) gives\n\\[\n\\Sigma_{p,q}\n   =\\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}\\omega^{-q s}\n     \\sum_{j=0}^{n-1-s}\\omega^{(p-q)j}\n   =\\frac{1}{1-\\omega^{\\,p-q}}\n     \\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}\n     \\bigl(\\omega^{-q s}-\\omega^{(p-q)s}\\bigr)=0.\n\\]\nHence \n\\[\n\\Sigma_{1,2}=\\Sigma_{2,1}=0.\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 3 – diagonal sums $\\Sigma_{m,m}$\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nFor $m\\in\\mathbb Z$ put\n\\[\n\\Sigma_m:=\\Sigma_{m,m}\n        =\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}\\omega^{\\,m(j-k)}\n        =\\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}(n-s)\\,\\omega^{\\,m s}.\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nWith $\\omega^{\\,m}=e^{2\\pi i m/n}$ ($m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n$) and the\nidentity\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1-e^{i\\theta}}\n        =\\frac12+\\frac{i}{2}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\theta}{2}\\Bigr)\n\\]\none obtains the classical evaluation\n\\[\n\\Im(\\Sigma_m)=\n\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi m}{n}\\Bigr),\n\\qquad m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n.\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\nIn particular,\n\\[\n\\Im(\\Sigma_1)=\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr),\n\\qquad\n\\Im(\\Sigma_2)=\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr).\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 4 – assembling the pieces\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nCombining (1), (2), (3) and (6) we get\n\\[\n2\\Delta_n(P)=\nd^{2}\\,\\Im(\\Sigma_1)+R^{2}\\,\\Im(\\Sigma_2)\n           =\\frac n2\\Bigl[\n             \\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)d^{2}\n             +\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2}\n             \\Bigr],\n\\]\nand division by $2$ yields the claimed formula $(*)$.  Consequently\n$\\Delta_n(P)$ depends on $P$ only through the distance $d=|z|$.\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(c)  Geometry of $\\Pi(O)$\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\nFor $P=O$ one has $d=0$ and \n\\[\nv_k=-R\\,\\omega^{2k},\\qquad k=0,\\dots ,n-1.\n\\]\nSuccessive edges are therefore obtained from one another by the fixed\nrotation $\\omega^{2}=e^{4\\pi i/n}$.\n\n(i)  $n$ \\textbf{odd}.  \nBecause $\\gcd(2,n)=1$, the directions $\\omega^{2k}$,\n$k=0,\\dots ,n-1$, are pairwise distinct, so the $n$ edges form a single\nregular \\emph{star} $n$-gon of type $\\{n/2\\}$ (pentagram for $n=5$,\nheptagram for $n=7$, etc.).  Its oriented area equals\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(0)=\\frac{n}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2},\n\\]\nexactly as provided by $(*)$ with $d=0$.\n\n(ii)  $n$ \\textbf{even}.  \nNow $\\gcd(2,n)=2$ and $\\omega^{2}$ has order $n/2$; the directions\nrepeat after $n/2$ steps.  Hence the chain $v_0,\\dots ,v_{n/2-1}$ closes\nalready, producing a regular star $(n/2)$-gon, and the second half of\nthe chain traces the \\emph{same} polygon once more.  Consequently  \n\n\\[\n\\Pi(O)=\\text{two superposed copies of } \\bigl\\{\\tfrac{n}{2}\\!/2\\bigr\\},\n\\]\nand its oriented area equals twice the area of a single copy.  Since the\nformula $(*)$ gives\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(0)=\\frac{n}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2}\n          =2\\cdot\\frac{(n/2)}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2},\n\\]\nagreement is complete.\n\nSpecific examples illustrate the description:\n\n•  $n=4$: the polygon degenerates into the segment\n$[-R,R]$ traversed twice, and $(*)$ gives $\\Delta_4(0)=0$.\n\n•  $n=6$: the chain traces the same equilateral triangle twice with\npositive orientation, yielding\n$\\Delta_6(0)=\\dfrac{3}{2}\\cot\\!\\bigl(\\tfrac{\\pi}{3}\\bigr)R^{2}\n           =\\dfrac{\\sqrt{3}}{2}\\,R^{2}$, again matching $(*)$.\n\nThus every part of the problem is now rigorously established. $\\square$\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T19:09:31.783516",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension of data:  the problem now deals with *\\(n\\) arbitrary* (not just three) distances, greatly enlarging the combinatorial structure of the vectors involved.\n\n2. Additional constraints:  the closure of a \\(2\\pi/n\\)-rotated vector family requires a delicate use of roots-of-unity sums; for \\(n>3\\) neither simple geometry nor an equilateral trick suffices.\n\n3. More sophisticated structures:  the solution employs complex-number manipulations,\ndouble sums over triangular index sets, and the evaluation of non–trivial exponential sums (formula (3)).\n\n4. Deeper theoretical steps:  the computation of the area hinges on a non-obvious re-organisation of a quadratic double sum and on extracting its imaginary part—considerably subtler than the single identity \\(1+\\omega+\\omega^{2}=0\\) used in the original problem.\n\n5. Increased length and abstraction:  every stage (closure, area reduction, evaluation of sums) generalises a fact that was *scalar* for \\(n=3\\) to an *operator* statement for arbitrary \\(n\\), making the overall argument substantially longer and conceptually harder."
      }
    },
    "original_kernel_variant": {
      "question": "Let $n\\ge 3$ be an integer, $R>0$ a real number and put \n\\[\n\\omega =e^{2\\pi i/n},\\qquad   \n\\Gamma_R:\\ |z|=R .\n\\]\n\nFix an angle $\\theta\\in\\mathbb R$ and define the vertices of a regular\n$n$-gon on $\\Gamma_R$ by \n\\[\nA_k \\;=\\;R\\,e^{\\,i\\bigl(\\theta+\\tfrac{2\\pi k}{n}\\bigr)},\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\nChoose an arbitrary point $P$ in the open disk $\\{z\\in\\mathbb C:\\,|z|< R\\}$,\nwrite \n\\[\nz=\\overline{OP}\\in\\mathbb C,\\qquad d=|z|,\\qquad   \na_k=\\lvert PA_k\\rvert\\quad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1),\n\\]\nand set  \n\\[\nv_k =\\omega^{k}\\bigl(z-A_k\\bigr),\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\n\nStarting at the origin place the vectors\n$v_0,v_1,\\dots ,v_{n-1}$ successively; denote by $\\Pi(P)$ the resulting\nclosed broken line.\n\n(a)  Show that $v_0+\\dots +v_{n-1}=0$ and that the side–lengths of\n$\\Pi(P)$ are precisely $a_0,a_1,\\dots ,a_{n-1}$.\n\n(b)  Prove that the oriented area $\\Delta_n\\!\\bigl(\\Pi(P)\\bigr)$ depends\nonly on $d$ (and on $n,R$), and establish the formula\n\\[\n\\boxed{\\;\n\\displaystyle\n\\Delta_n(d)=\n\\frac{n}{4}\\Bigl[\n\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)\\,d^{2}\\;+\\;\n\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)\\,R^{2}\n\\Bigr].\n\\;}\n\\tag{$*$}\n\\]\n\n(c)  Treat the special case $P=O$ ($d=0$).  Describe geometrically the\npolygon $\\Pi(O)$ for  \n\n\\quad(i) odd $n$, \\qquad(ii) even $n$,\n\nand verify directly that its area is the value supplied by formula $(*)$.\n\n(When the unsigned area is required one may take \n$\\lvert\\Delta_n(d)\\rvert$; the sign in $(*)$ is the natural oriented sign\nproduced by the above construction.)\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "solution": "Without loss of generality we may rotate the whole configuration\nthrough $-\\theta$ and work with  \n\\[\nA_k = R\\omega^{k},\\qquad k=0,1,\\dots ,n-1 ,\n\\]\nsince neither lengths nor oriented areas change under such a rotation.\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(a)  Closure of the chain and its side–lengths\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n\\[\nv_k=\\omega^{k}(z-R\\omega^{k})=\\omega^{k}z-R\\omega^{2k},\n\\qquad k=0,\\dots ,n-1 .\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}v_k\n      =z\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{k}\n      -R\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{2k}=0-0=0\n\\]\nbecause $\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\\omega^{mk}=0$ for every integer\n$m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n$.  \nThe $v_k$ therefore form the consecutive sides of a closed $n$-gon\n$\\Pi(P)$ and  \n\\[\n|v_k|=\\lvert z-A_k\\rvert=a_k\\qquad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1).\n\\]\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(b)  The oriented area depends only on $|z|$\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\nLet  \n\\[\nS_0=0,\\qquad S_{k+1}=S_k+v_k\\quad(k=0,\\dots ,n-1),\\qquad S_n=0,\n\\]\nbe the vertices of $\\Pi(P)$.  The complex–number\nversion of the shoelace formula gives\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(P)=\\frac12\\,\\Im\\!\\Bigl(\n\\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}S_k\\,\\overline{v_k}\\Bigr)\n           =\\frac12\\,\\Im\\!\\Bigl(\n\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}v_j\\overline{v_k}\\Bigr).\n\\tag{1}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 1 – expansion of the double sum\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nIntroduce\n\\[\n\\Sigma_{p,q}:=\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}\\omega^{\\,p j-q k}.\n\\]\nBecause\n\\[\nv_j\\overline{v_k}=d^{2}\\,\\omega^{\\,j-k}\n      -R\\,z\\,\\omega^{\\,j-2k}\n      -R\\,\\overline{z}\\,\\omega^{\\,2j-k}\n      +R^{2}\\,\\omega^{\\,2(j-k)},\n\\]\nwe obtain\n\\[\n\\sum_{j<k}v_j\\overline{v_k}=d^{2}\\Sigma_{1,1}\n   -R\\,z\\,\\Sigma_{1,2}\n   -R\\,\\overline{z}\\,\\Sigma_{2,1}\n   +R^{2}\\Sigma_{2,2}.\n\\tag{2}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 2 – the mixed sums $\\Sigma_{1,2}$ and $\\Sigma_{2,1}$ vanish  \n------------------------------------------------------------------\nFix distinct residues $p,q$ modulo $n$.  Writing $k=j+s$ ($s\\ge 1$) gives\n\\[\n\\Sigma_{p,q}\n   =\\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}\\omega^{-q s}\n     \\sum_{j=0}^{n-1-s}\\omega^{(p-q)j}\n   =\\frac{1}{1-\\omega^{\\,p-q}}\n     \\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}\n     \\bigl(\\omega^{-q s}-\\omega^{(p-q)s}\\bigr)=0.\n\\]\nHence \n\\[\n\\Sigma_{1,2}=\\Sigma_{2,1}=0.\n\\tag{3}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 3 – diagonal sums $\\Sigma_{m,m}$\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nFor $m\\in\\mathbb Z$ put\n\\[\n\\Sigma_m:=\\Sigma_{m,m}\n        =\\sum_{0\\le j<k\\le n-1}\\omega^{\\,m(j-k)}\n        =\\sum_{s=1}^{n-1}(n-s)\\,\\omega^{\\,m s}.\n\\tag{4}\n\\]\nWith $\\omega^{\\,m}=e^{2\\pi i m/n}$ ($m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n$) and the\nidentity\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{1-e^{i\\theta}}\n        =\\frac12+\\frac{i}{2}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\theta}{2}\\Bigr)\n\\]\none obtains the classical evaluation\n\\[\n\\Im(\\Sigma_m)=\n\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi m}{n}\\Bigr),\n\\qquad m\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod n.\n\\tag{5}\n\\]\nIn particular,\n\\[\n\\Im(\\Sigma_1)=\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr),\n\\qquad\n\\Im(\\Sigma_2)=\\frac n2\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr).\n\\tag{6}\n\\]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nStep 4 – assembling the pieces\n------------------------------------------------------------------\nCombining (1), (2), (3) and (6) we get\n\\[\n2\\Delta_n(P)=\nd^{2}\\,\\Im(\\Sigma_1)+R^{2}\\,\\Im(\\Sigma_2)\n           =\\frac n2\\Bigl[\n             \\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)d^{2}\n             +\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2}\n             \\Bigr],\n\\]\nand division by $2$ yields the claimed formula $(*)$.  Consequently\n$\\Delta_n(P)$ depends on $P$ only through the distance $d=|z|$.\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n(c)  Geometry of $\\Pi(O)$\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\nFor $P=O$ one has $d=0$ and \n\\[\nv_k=-R\\,\\omega^{2k},\\qquad k=0,\\dots ,n-1.\n\\]\nSuccessive edges are therefore obtained from one another by the fixed\nrotation $\\omega^{2}=e^{4\\pi i/n}$.\n\n(i)  $n$ \\textbf{odd}.  \nBecause $\\gcd(2,n)=1$, the directions $\\omega^{2k}$,\n$k=0,\\dots ,n-1$, are pairwise distinct, so the $n$ edges form a single\nregular \\emph{star} $n$-gon of type $\\{n/2\\}$ (pentagram for $n=5$,\nheptagram for $n=7$, etc.).  Its oriented area equals\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(0)=\\frac{n}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2},\n\\]\nexactly as provided by $(*)$ with $d=0$.\n\n(ii)  $n$ \\textbf{even}.  \nNow $\\gcd(2,n)=2$ and $\\omega^{2}$ has order $n/2$; the directions\nrepeat after $n/2$ steps.  Hence the chain $v_0,\\dots ,v_{n/2-1}$ closes\nalready, producing a regular star $(n/2)$-gon, and the second half of\nthe chain traces the \\emph{same} polygon once more.  Consequently  \n\n\\[\n\\Pi(O)=\\text{two superposed copies of } \\bigl\\{\\tfrac{n}{2}\\!/2\\bigr\\},\n\\]\nand its oriented area equals twice the area of a single copy.  Since the\nformula $(*)$ gives\n\\[\n\\Delta_n(0)=\\frac{n}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2}\n          =2\\cdot\\frac{(n/2)}{4}\\cot\\!\\Bigl(\\frac{2\\pi}{n}\\Bigr)R^{2},\n\\]\nagreement is complete.\n\nSpecific examples illustrate the description:\n\n•  $n=4$: the polygon degenerates into the segment\n$[-R,R]$ traversed twice, and $(*)$ gives $\\Delta_4(0)=0$.\n\n•  $n=6$: the chain traces the same equilateral triangle twice with\npositive orientation, yielding\n$\\Delta_6(0)=\\dfrac{3}{2}\\cot\\!\\bigl(\\tfrac{\\pi}{3}\\bigr)R^{2}\n           =\\dfrac{\\sqrt{3}}{2}\\,R^{2}$, again matching $(*)$.\n\nThus every part of the problem is now rigorously established. $\\square$\n\n--------------------------------------------------------------------",
      "metadata": {
        "replaced_from": "harder_variant",
        "replacement_date": "2025-07-14T01:37:45.599953",
        "was_fixed": false,
        "difficulty_analysis": "1. Higher dimension of data:  the problem now deals with *\\(n\\) arbitrary* (not just three) distances, greatly enlarging the combinatorial structure of the vectors involved.\n\n2. Additional constraints:  the closure of a \\(2\\pi/n\\)-rotated vector family requires a delicate use of roots-of-unity sums; for \\(n>3\\) neither simple geometry nor an equilateral trick suffices.\n\n3. More sophisticated structures:  the solution employs complex-number manipulations,\ndouble sums over triangular index sets, and the evaluation of non–trivial exponential sums (formula (3)).\n\n4. Deeper theoretical steps:  the computation of the area hinges on a non-obvious re-organisation of a quadratic double sum and on extracting its imaginary part—considerably subtler than the single identity \\(1+\\omega+\\omega^{2}=0\\) used in the original problem.\n\n5. Increased length and abstraction:  every stage (closure, area reduction, evaluation of sums) generalises a fact that was *scalar* for \\(n=3\\) to an *operator* statement for arbitrary \\(n\\), making the overall argument substantially longer and conceptually harder."
      }
    }
  },
  "checked": true,
  "problem_type": "proof"
}