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Input Text: Process:
- Magma rises through cracks in the Earth&#x27;s crust
- The pressure causes plates to move
- Magma explodes to the surface
- The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust
- After several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
- 

Question:
suppose more magma rises to the earths crust happens, how will it affect more lava cools to form new crust.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: Before talking about predicting eruptions, we need to look at why they occur.
Deep inside Earth, between the molten iron core and the thin crust at the surface, there is the mantle, a large layer of rock that is largely solid, but flows like plastic. When, for various reasons, rock from the mantle melts, it sometimes moves to the Earth?s surface through weak spots in the crust, releasing heat, gasses, and rock--a volcanic eruption. But why does this solid rock melt and come to the surface?
Extremely high temperature and pressure can cause the lower mantle to melt and become liquid rock, or magma. When a body of magma rises through the denser rock layers toward Earth's surface, some of it remains liquid. Magma that has reached the surface is called lava.
Magma comes in different "flavors," or compositions. Each of these will produce a different lava, from fluid, fast-moving basalt to slower, more viscous andesite. Because rocks are made up of collections of minerals that melt at different temperatures, the makeup of the rock being melted affects the magma that results.
Take a look at two lava types: pahoehoe and slow, viscous aa.
"Volcanoes" is inspired by programs from Earth Revealed.

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: This map shows the boundaries of the Earth's tectonic plates. Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate boundaries.
Molten material beneath the crust of the earth is called magma. When magma leaves the Earth's crust through volcanic activity, it's called lava. Most volcanoes are on plate boundaries, the edges of the tectonic plates, which are like puzzle pieces that that make up the earth's crust. A few volcanoes, like ones found on Hawaii, are instead located over magma hotspots.
A common misconception is that magma comes from the Earth's molten core. It really comes from the mantle, the layer between the core and the crust. The mantle is solid, but it shifts and becomes fluid due to changes in temperature and pressure. The tectonic plates, which carry continents and ocean floors, rest on top of this mantle. As the plates move, the Earth's continents slowly reorganize themselves.
These plates move at about the same rate that your fingernails grow. Volcanic activity mostly takes place at convergent boundaries, where two plates are pressing together. At divergent boundaries, the plates are moving apart, creating a rift valley. Areas where two plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries. Magma rises up through volcanoes because of the pressure of the colliding plates. It rises up through rift valleys to fill the space that the rift creates. See this graphic for more information on these boundaries.
As lava explodes from volcanoes or seeps up to fill rifts, it can seem inexhaustible. In a way, it is. At convergent plate boundaries, one plate can

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes come in many shapes and sizes, ranging from common cinder cone volcanoes that build up from repeated eruptions and lava domes that pile up over volcanic vents to broad shield volcanoes and composite volcanoes. Though they differ in terms of structure and appearance, they all share two things. On the one hand, they are all awesome forces of nature that both terrify and inspire.
On the other, all volcanic activity comes down to the same basic principle. In essence, all eruptions are the result of magma from beneath the Earth being pushed up to the surface where it erupts as lava, ash and rock. But what mechanisms drive this process? What is it exactly that makes molten rock rise from the Earth’s interior and explode onto the landscape?
To understand how volcanoes erupt, one first needs to consider the structure of the Earth. At the very top is the lithosphere, the outermost layers of the Earth that consists of the upper mantle and crust. The crust makes up a tiny volume of the Earth, ranging from 10 km in thickness on the ocean floor to a maximum of 100 km in mountainous regions. It is cold and rigid, and composed primarily of silicate rock.
Beneath the crust, the Earth’s mantle is divided into sections of varying thickness based on their seismology. These consist of the upper mantle, which extends from a depth of 7 – 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi)) to 410 km (250 mi); the transition zone, which ranges from 410–660 km (250–410 mi); the lower

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Retrieved Text: Ride down the highway with a geologist, and you will never look at roadcuts in the same way. These dynamited cliffs along roadsides expose rocks that had previously been inaccessible. Geologists studying these road cuts can decipher the processes that shaped these rocks and the surrounding landscape. Marine geologist Kathy Gillis studies the seafloor equivalent of road cuts. Faults along the seafloor at the mid-ocean ridges have ripped open the ocean crust, creating rifts in the seafloor that are as deep as six kilometers. For Kathy, the exposed ocean crust provides a window into the processes that take place under the seafloor.
Kathy in Oman - writing notes as she is mapping the geology. Oman has an ophiolite, a sequence of rocks that is thought to be similar to the oceanic crust.
The ocean crust is born at the mid-ocean ridges. There the earth’s tectonic plates spread apart and volcanic eruptions bring magma to the surface. Like a giant conveyor belt, the plates then carry the newly formed ocean crust away from the ridges until it is subducted beneath another plate. During this 100 million-year journey, the crust undergoes many changes. One of the chief culprits is seawater that circulates beneath the seafloor. This water triggers chemical reactions and deposits and removes chemicals and minerals from the crust.
The greatest changes to the crust take place in the beginning of the journey at the mid-ocean ridges. Magma heats up the water that has seeped down into the crust to as high as 750°C. The extreme heat triggers many chemical

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: BASICSA HUMAN PERSPECTIVE Sally Ride, America’s first female astronaut, wrote the following after one of her trips into space: I also became an instant believer in plate tectonics; India really is crashing into Asia, and Saudi Arabia and Egypt really are pulling apart, making the Red Sea even wider. Even though their respective motion is really no more than mere inches a year, the view from overhead makes the theory come alive.
From space, Ride was seeing evidence of the internal forces that have shaped the earth’s surface.
The internal forces that shape the earth’s surface begin beneath the lithosphere. Rock in the asthenosphere is hot enough to flow slowly.
Heated rock rises, moves up toward the lithosphere, cools, and circulates downward. Riding above this circulation system are the tectonic plates, enormous moving pieces of the earth’s lithosphere. You can see the position of the tectonic plates in the map below.
Geographers study the movement of the plates and the changes they cause in order to understand how the earth is continually being reshaped—and how earthquakes and volcanoes occur.
sliding past each other in a shearing motion.
The diagrams below show details about plate movement.
Divergent boundary—Plates move apart, spreading horizontally.
Convergent boundary—Plates collide, causing either one plate to dive under the other or the edges of both plates to crumple.
Transform boundary—Plates slide past one another.
An example of a divergent boundary is the one between Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The two plates on which those countries sit are spreading apart, making the Red Sea even wider. The Red Sea is actually a part of

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is probably derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma (molten rock below the Earth's surface) was apparently in a short account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4, 1737. Serao described "a flow of fiery lava" as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain.
The composition of almost all lava of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas and quartz.
Igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types; felsic, intermediate, and mafic (four if one includes the super-heated ultramafic). These classes are primarily chemical; however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the magma temperature, its viscosity and its mode of eruption.
Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, lava domes or "coulees" (which are thick, short lava flows) and are associated with pyroclastic (fragmental) deposits. Most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. The high viscosity and strength are the result of their chemistry, which is high in silica, aluminium, potassium, sodium, and calcium, forming a polymerized liquid rich in feldspar and quartz, and thus has a higher viscosity than other magma

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: Download "5thscience earth science (5thscience_earth)"
4 Erosion. Critical Thinking 1. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between weathering and erosion?
Earth s Rocky Surface Earth s surface is not permanent and is constantly changing. Some changes take place very slowly over millions of years, such as crustal plates moving and creating mountains or valleys.
to change. Let s look at what happens to rocks that spend some time on the surface.
Chapter 2: Earth s Structure. The BIG Idea: Heat escaping from Earth s internal layers constantly changes the planet s surface.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition shape Earth s surface.
Think about the landforms where you live. How do you think they have changed over time? How do you think they will change in the future?
WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
Chapter 6. Table of Contents. Section 1 Volcanic Eruptions. Section 2 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions. Section 3 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.
Earth and Space Science. Semester 2 Review. Part 2. - Minerals that split easily or break apart in one direction along a flat surface.
Ride the Rock Cycle. Suggested Goals: Students will gain an understanding of how a rock can move through the different stages of the rock cycle.
The Earth System. The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth s interior.
Igneous rocks formed when hot molten material (magma) cools and hardens (crystallizes).
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Geology reports don't have to lull readers to dreamland when you explain how a natural force can explode with more power than an atomic bomb, obliterate most of an island, change the weather and hurl shock waves around the globe. These are some of the incredible effects your report can describe when you discuss volcanoes -- one of Earth's most powerful forces.
Pressure causes a multitude of physical actions to occur. Combine heat and pressure and you may create a volcano. Begin your report by explaining how magma -- hot, liquid rock below the earth -- rises because its density is less than the density of the surrounding rocks. The distance the magma moves vertically depends on factors such as the mass of the rocks it must go through and its density. Under intense pressure, dissolved gas in the magma helps propel it upward where it can make it to the surface and into the air depending on the volcano's type. Geologists call magma "lava" when it leaves a volcano via an eruption or vent.
According to the Global Volcanism Program, an extinct volcano is one people don't expect to erupt again, while an active volcano is one that has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Place these important facts into your report along with the definition of dormant: a volcano expected to erupt one day, but which hasn't in the last 10,000 years.
Not All Volcanoes Go "BOOM!"Talk about various types of volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens, a powerful stratovolcano that explodes with fury, hurling gas, rocks

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Retrieved Text: The thickness of the Earth's crust varies from one region to another; with the thickness of continental crust ranging between 20-30 miles, and oceanic crust ranging between 3-6 miles on an average, and that explains the 70:30 ratio between the two. At the same time, the movement of crust is also known to play a crucial role in determining the topography of the planet. The seismic velocity defines the boundary. The Earth's crust is it's outer layer. At convergent boundaries between two plates carrying oceanic lithosphere, the denser usually the larger and deeper subducts. Volcanoes and convergent boundaries tend to form mountains.
They can also move slowly. A sophisticated air conditioning system lowers the temperature to allow miners to work. Like the oceanic crust, the continental crust is destroyed by the subduction process but goes through more partial melting processes than the oceanic crust, allowing it to maintain its lower density and remain above the ocean. Sometimes one plate will move under the other. Sial is made up primarily of silicon and aluminum. In rocky regions, however this thickness may extend to more than 70 kilometers. Ten silicate minerals Ten minerals that make up 90% of the crust are all silicates because all contain silicon and oxygen.
Density Differences The difference between oceanic and continental crust rock material is the density and explains why the oceanic crust is beneath the ocean's surface while continental crust can rise into the Earth's atmosphere in the form of mountain peaks. Cratons are divided into two categories. A surface soil layer, sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Don’t just go with the flow. Settle down on the crust.
Imagine a world without any crust. There would be no pies, just goopy filling, no bread, no hamburger buns, and no you or me. That’s right. You, and every living thing we know of, live on or in the Earth’s crust. And, living things need the Earth’s crust to survive. Let’s look at the science of the surface.
By carefully studying the Earth’s surface, scientists have discovered that the Earth is made up of gigantic layers. At the center of the Earth, there is a core – a big ball of solid metal mostly iron.
The core is surrounded by a layer of liquid iron and other minerals. We usually just call it the outer core. The next layer, around the outer core is called the mantle. You may have seen a mantle above a fireplace. Well, the mantle is above the Earth’s hot core places. The mantle is gooey hot nearly melted rock that flows the way asphalt does on a hot summer day. Scientists often say that the mantle is plastic. It bends. We call the mantle’s nearly liquid rock magma. When magma flows onto the surface, on top of the crust, we call it lava.
The Earth’s crust is thin, only about 100 kilometers thick. If the Earth were the size of a peach, the crust would only be as thick as the peach’s skin (and not as fuzzy). If the Earth hadn’t cooled enough for the crust to form on its surface, we wouldn’t be

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Retrieved Text: Nanmuweng village, Chaozhou city in misty and humid climate. —————————————————————————— Photo: Wen-qiang Lin —————————————————————————— #guangdong_in_lens #china #guangdong #chaozhou #photography #aerial #aerialphotography #village #city #town #shot #instachina #chinadestinations #green #fresh #cloud #mountain ————————————————————————————The photo is not allowed to forward. Please respect the copyright.
Turn off your mind. 💭⁣ ⁣Just fly. ✨⁣ ⁣Experience your #paragliding flight with us.
A supervolcano is a volcano capable of producing a volcanic eruption with an ejecta mass greater than 1015 kg (1012t). Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through the crust, and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure. This can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or at subduction zones (for example, Toba). Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in large igneous provinces, which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash, causing long-lasting climate change (such as the triggering of a small ice age or global warming), which can threaten species with extinction. The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupo Volcano, the world's most recent supereruption, had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8. . . . #thunderstorm #supervolcano #volcanic #volcano #volcan #vulcano #mountains #mountaineering #mount #mountain #mountainbike #mountaintop #mountainman #eruption #lakegeneva #lake #lakers #laketoba #mommy #mamma #fresh #storm #stormy #stormtrooper #storms #hawaii #hawaiian #hawaiilife #prayforhawaii #alpen . . . . . . .. . . . .

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Retrieved Text: The earth materials are composed of the soil, rocks, water and the gases found in the atmosphere. The materials also possess different chemical properties. These properties make them very useful in a variety of ways. These are the resources that humans use for consumption. Minerals refer to the combination of elements that possesses a unique structure that forms an inorganic compound. A greater part of the crust of the Earth is composed of several minerals. Minerals help form rocks such as granite. Rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks also have different colors when one will be able to look closely at them. The rocks are composed of not only one kind of mineral but also different kinds of minerals. Minerals are not formed from inorganic compounds. They must occur naturally and contains the same chemical composition with the organic compound that it originates. Minerals have with them a crystalline structure. Because of this type of structure, specific atoms have the same repeated pattern.
Weathering and erosion affect the formation of rocks on earth. Weathering and erosion break down larger rocks into smaller rocks. The composition of rocks can also be changed. There are three basic forms of weathering. One type is mechanical or physical weathering wherein clasts of rocks and mineral are produced. The resulting rocks are smaller than the original ones but have the same type of composition. Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of rocks and several factors can bring about chemical weathering. These are the development of salt crystals, frost and root action.

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Retrieved Text: Magma rises to the Earth's surface due to a combination of differences in density with other rocks in the crust and pressure. The differences in density cause it to move upward until its density is the same as the other rocks in the crust. It then builds pressure, causing it to rise to the surface.
Magma is made of molten rocks and minerals. It forms in the lower crust and upper mantle layers of the Earth due to movements in the mantle, changes in temperature or contact with water or carbon dioxide under the surface. These changes cause rocks in the crust to melt, forming magma.
Sometimes, magma collects in magma chambers, and sometimes, it simply rises until its density is the same as the other rocks around it. However, once it has risen, it comes into contact with gases, forming bubbles. In some cases, the magma decompresses too quickly and the bubbles build up and create pressure. This pressure causes the surrounding rock to fracture, letting the magma rise to the surface.
Magma that is created through exposure to water can rise under different conditions. Water causes rock to melt at lower temperatures, so less pressure is involved. However, water usually enters the lower crust through subduction zones in the ocean floor, which also allow the magma to escape.

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Retrieved Text: The story of plate tectonics starts deep within the Earth. Although the Earth appears to be made up of solid rock, it’s actually made up of three distinct layers: the crust, mantle, and core. Each layer has its own unique properties and chemical composition.
The crust is the thin, solid, outermost layer of the Earth. The crust is thinnest beneath the oceans, averaging only 5 kilometers thick, and thickest beneath large mountain ranges. Continental crust is much more variable in thickness but averages about 30-35 km. Beneath large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas or the Sierra Nevada, the crust reaches a thickness of up to 100 km.
The layer below the crust is the mantle. The mantle has more iron and magnesium than the crust, making it more dense. The uppermost part of the mantle is solid and, along with the crust, forms the lithosphere. The rocky lithosphere is brittle and can fracture. This is the zone where earthquakes occur. It’s the lithosphere that breaks into the thick, moving slabs of rock—the Tectonic plates.
Deeper into the Earth, the temperature rises to the point where part of the mantle is partially molten, the asthenosphere. As rock heats up, it becomes pliable or ‘plastic’. Rock here is hot enough to fold, stretch, compress, and flow very slowly without fracturing. The plates, made up of the relatively light, rigid rock of the lithosphere ‘float’ on the more dense, flowing asthenosphere.
At the center of the Earth lies the super-dense core. With a diameter of 3486 kilometers, the core is larger than

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Retrieved Text: How Was Mount Kilimanjaro Formed?
Mount Kilimanjaro is a stratovolcano that formed as the plates below it dropped and porous basalt rock magma erupted through the surface of the ocean. The magma and other debris formed layers with each eruption, eventually rising high enough to bring Mount Kilimanjaro to its height of 19,341 feet.
Mount Kilimanjaro emerged from fault movement along part of the Great Rift Valley. The movement occurs in a subduction zone, an area where the oceanic crust descends below the continental crust. As the oceanic slab sinks, magma rises through the porous rock, aiding in the descent of the crust. As magma rises past the crust, it enters an area of the rock known as the mantle, where it pools and adds some of the mantle rock and gases to its composition. Eventually, the built-up magma reaches a high enough pressure that it explodes violently, in what geologists refer to as an explosive eruption. For Mount Kilimanjaro, this process likely began around a million years ago. Repetition of this process eventually formed the three peaks of Kilimanjaro, known as Mawenzi, Shira and Kibo. The last major eruption from this process occurred between 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. Kibo is classified as a dormant volcano, while Mawenzi and Shira are classified as extinct.
Search for Kilimanjaro Information. Find Answers at Teoma.
Where Is Mount Kilimanjaro Located?
What Is a Magma Chamber?

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Retrieved Text: Two other volcanic features commonly seen by visitors are lava tunnels and pit craters. As lava flows downslope, the top often cools and forms an insulating crust that keeps the interior lava hot and running. As the eruption subsides, the molten lava drains out of the end, living a hollow chamber that can be many kilometers in length. These tubes have smooth sides with grooves that show different levels of lava. Such lava tubes can be seen in the highlands of Santa Cruz, and there is one just outside of Puerto Ayora. Pit craters are giant sink-holes that were never eruptive. These formed when subterranean magma chambers were emptied and the roofs collapsed. Classic pit craters are found at Los Gemelos in the Santa Cruz highlands.
The Galapagos Islands are considered to be one of the most volcanic regions in the world, and in recent years there have been small eruptions at Fernandina and Marchena. In 1979 there was a major, eruption of Volcan Cerro Azul. Benjamin Morrell, captain of theTartar, described a spectacular eruption of Fernandina in 1825.

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Input Text: Process:
- Take out an ice cube tray
- Fill the tray with water from the faucet
- Put the ice cube tray in the freezer
- Wait for several hours
- The water will freeze and become ice
- Remove the ice cube tray from the freezer
- Remove the ice cubes from the tray.

Question:
suppose less ice cube trays used happens, how will it affect more ice cube trays put into freezer.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Patti Moreno shows us how to freeze herbs you've cut fresh from your garden.
Start by harvesting the parsley and basil by cutting off the tops of the plants, leaving most of the plant in tact so that they can continue to grow. Fresh parsley and basil have to be frozen in a specific way. Take the leaves off and put them in ice cube trays. Fill each ice cube slot about three quarters of the way full with the leaves. Take hot water and pour it into the ice trays. The water will preserve the green color and the flavor in the leaves. Then put the trays in the freezer and allow the water to freeze. Once the trays are frozen, take the cubes out and put them into freezer bags. When you want to cook with parsley or basil, just take an ice cube and put it in the dish you are cooking.

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Retrieved Text: easy release ice cube tray .
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easy release ice cube tray rubbermaid easy release ice cube tray joseph joseph easy release ice cube tray cdu of ice cube trays joseph joseph easy release ice cube tray

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Rank: 2
Score: 81.91137
Retrieved Text: Buy Ice Cube Trays (Set of 2) from $3.49 at Bed Bath & Beyond. Stackable ice cube trays save room in your freezer. Top rack dishwasher safe.Stackable ice cube trays save room in your freezer. Top rack dishwasher safe.
Bring your favorite parts of the beach to the kitchen with the Lekue Shell Ice Cube Tray. These sturdy silicone ice cube trays are incredibly easy to use and release and are hand washable, making your ice cubes more fun without any extra hassle.
Chill your favorite beverages quicker with the Mini Ice Cube Trays from Casabella. Constructed from flexible food-grade silicone with no-spill reservoir for mess-free use, these trays make miniature cubes that are ideal for small glasses and containers.
Release as many ice cubes as you want with staggered cover design. Cover allows you to stack more trays on top and keeps from absorbing freezer odors.

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Retrieved Text: - Our silicone ice cube trays are made of premium food-grade silicone, BPA free and FDA approved, you can rest assured that your ice cube trays will not crack or leak in the future.
- There are 21 cube compartments each ice tray, which is separated, single cube dimensions 1.3 inches, perfectly sized for all beverage. Melt slowly and cool your drink fast with minimal dilution.
- Korlon ice cube trays covered with PP lids, keep your ice clean and free from freezer odors, easy to stack and save room in freezer, prevent leaking, help you make perfect shaped cubes.
- These ice cube molds are perfect for baking or freezing anything. Use as an ice or chocolate mold. Great for baking brownie bites, cake, muffins, dog treats and more. Freeze baby food, cocktails, whiskey, juices, herbs and more.
We have a no hassle 100% guarantee refund policy. If you use this and do not love it, simply return it for a full refund.You have nothing to lose. Consider picking up an extra one for more yummy treats or as a gift.
GREAT MATERIAL- Our silicone ice trays are made of premium food-grade silicone, you can assured that your silicone ice cube tray with lid will not crack or leak in the future.
EASY TO RELEASE- There are 21 cube compartments each ice cube tray with lid, which is separated, single cube dimensions 1.3 inches, perfectly sized for all beverage.
EASILY STACKING - Korlon ice cube trays covered with PP lids, keep your ice clean and free from freezer odors, easy to stack

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Retrieved Text: Set of 4 - True Craftware White Plastic Ice Cube Bins 13.5" x 5" x 12.5"
Set of 4 - True Craftware White Plastic Ice Cube Bins 13.5" x 5" x 12.5" - is currently on backorder. You may still purchase now though and we'll ship as soon as more become available.
The bins are narrow shaped to take up less freezer space, and large enough to fit and store standard sized stacking ice cubes trays.
These sturdy white plastic bins are dishwasher safe, bpa and phthalate free.
Each ice box can easily fit four trays worth of ice cubes. This makes storing ice in the freezer easy and convenient.
Easily organize your freezer and take up less space with all your ice cube trays by using just one of these simple and awesome containers.
Try using the bins as an ice bath to keep your drinks cold when out and about or hosting.
The compact design of these bins take up minimal space and will simplify your life!
Stock up before the summer!

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Retrieved Text: Yesterday I pulled a tomato paste ice cube from the freezer and chucked it into the sauce I was making for our lasagne. It was perfectly portioned, there’s no waste out of the big jar I bought and I thought I had to share this with you guys. I started to think about the other things that I freeze in ice cubes trays and have come up with this list for you.
I buy my ice cube trays from the opshop (check out an opshop haul video over on my YouTube channel), so I take what I can get BUT I do get very excited if I come across silicone trays, it makes for taking things out of them a bit easier.
Once your items are frozen I recommend removing from the ice cube trays and placing in a zip lock bag (that you of course wash and reuse) or a container, label and then Bob’s your uncle. Handing serving sized, useful food items.
Tomato paste. Buy the biggest jar of tomato paste, these jars are better for reusing, and then by using the ice cubes trays you get the perfect quantity for adding to sauces, while not having any waste.
Pesto. When our herbs are in full season and going nuts I love to make a mixed herb pesto and freeze in ice cube trays. Then if I want to add to a pasta, lasagne or any sauce, I can just grab out the quantities I need.
Coconut milk. Then you can use in so many different ways.
Healthy Peanut Butter

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Retrieved Text: Preserving herbs in ice cube trays is a great way to keep that fresh taste of summer long into the winter. Fresh basil, mint, tarragon, oregano, dill and many other herbs will freeze well. You can use regular water, which is what I did with these mint cubes. These are great added to summertime drinks like a Mojito on the Rocks, or of course a Mint Julep. I generally just like them added to a glass of cold water.
You can also use olive oil, butter, or ghee in the ice cube trays in place of the water. I would try olive oil with some fresh oregano, and then use those the next time you are making a quick pasta dish or finishing off a marinara sauce.
Recently I’ve been enjoying some slushie ice cubes. I made a frozen basil lemonade with my Vitamix, and when there was some left over, I poured it into my ice cube trays. Those cubes are absolutely delightful in a glass of cold water, or as a compliment to a bubbly glass of tonic water. (Try it out with a Gin and Tonic and see what happens!) I’ve even got some cubes of peach puree that I froze last summer that make great additions to a quick smoothie.
Once the cubes have frozen, pop them out of the trays and store them in a ziploc bag or other container. That way they won’t sublimate (shrink) from the dry air in the freezer, and you can use your trays to make more cubes.
The next

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Retrieved Text: Using fresh watermelon and water kefir ice cubes, this slushie is a quick treat filled with probiotics that any kid or adult will love.
Feel good about the next frozen treat you make for yourself and your family with this super simple slushie!
Start by pouring your finished water kefir into ice cube trays.
Place the trays in the freezer and leave until the water kefir is frozen.
Place 1 cup of chopped watermelon and 1 cup of the water kefir ice cubes in a blender.
Store any extra water kefir ice cubes in the freezer for later use.
You can use them to make more slushies or just put them into your drinks to use as a probiotic ice cube.

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Retrieved Text: A Novelty Ice Tray is a household essential. It brightens up days, livens up drinks and always guarantees a smile - especially at parties. These Bullet Ice Cube Trays are no different! A real crowd pleaser, these awesome ice trays make bullet shaped ice cubes to make your drink cool in more ways than one.
Will keep your drink ice cold!
No one likes a lukewarm drink - can we get an amen up in here? Being served a warm drink at a party is devastating. Make sure you're not that guy by keeping your freezer stocked full of ice cubes - making you the coolest party host in more ways than one. Get it?
These bullet ice trays mean your ice cubes will be a cut above the rest, as they form the perfect shape of bullets. Plopping a couple of these in your drink will give you approximately 1000 cool points, as well as keeping your beverage arctic and fresh.
Spice up your life with these bullet ice cubes and become the coolest kid on the block. When it comes to novelty ice cube trays, you won't get much better than these funky bullet ice cube trays.
Grab a bullet ice cube tray today to ensure you never have to endure a disappointing beverage ever again! Plus - bullet shaped ice cubes are totally cool.

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Retrieved Text: You make ice cube tray chocolates from the top down. Start by pouring melted chocolate into your ice cube tray. Then with a clean pastry brush, paint the sides of the tray with chocolate and let sit for a couple of minutes before placing in freezer for 2 minutes.
Fill your try with your favorite fillings. We filled ours with peanut butter, marshmallow, and a mixture of caramel and chopped peanuts. We also tested maraschino cherries, which makes another great filling.
Remove from freezer and now you’re ready to pour some chocolate on top as the finishing touch. Then, it’s back in the freezer for an hour.
It’s cool to see what a beautiful mold the ice cube tray makes.
Finally, the moment you’ve been waiting for! Gently twist the ice cube tray to release the chocolates from the tray. You’re friends and family won’t believe how simple and fun this is.
Place the chocolate chips and coconut oil in a microwave safe measuring cup or bowl.
Microwave the chocolate in 30 second intervals until melted (stir between each interval) should take about 90 seconds depending on your microwave.
Spray the ice cube tray lightly with cooking spray, and use the pastry brush to coat all sides up to the top of the tray. Also, use the brush to remove any excess cooking spray so there is not a pool in the bottom of the trays.
Fill the ice cube tray about ⅓ full with your choice of chocolate.
Allow the chocolate to sit in the ice cube tray for 2-3 minutes.
Tilt the trays and

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Retrieved Text: How Long Does It Take to Make Ice Cubes?
While many may absentmindedly fill their ice cube trays and forget about them until the ice has frozen, it can be interesting to consider just how long it takes for those ice cubes to freeze completely.
What are the variables involved? Are some methods of making ice faster than others? We’re going to answer those questions here so that you can learn which ice-making methods are most efficient, as well as how long you can expect it to take for your regular tray to make ice.
Oh, and if you're looking for the best kind of portable ice machine, that you can even take camping, you should check out this article.
Are There Any Faster Methods To Make Ice?
There are a couple of things to consider here. The first is the overall size of the cubes you’re making. If they’re smaller cubes, then there is less water to freeze. Therefore, they will freeze more quickly.
The second aspect to consider is the surface area involved. For example, if you’re making wider cubes that are thinner, they’ll freeze more quickly than thick cubes. If you have a tray that allows for some air space in between each cube, that will also help them to freeze more quickly.
You’ll also need to pay attention to the temperature in your freezer as you work to freeze the water. Typically, if your freezer has nothing else in it or everything else inside has already been thoroughly frozen, your freezer will be able to work at its most

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Retrieved Text: Made from heavy duty 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze icecube tray is easy to use, easy to clean and will last a lifetime. Classic design from the 1950's.
Made from heavy duty 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze icecube tray is easy to use, easy to clean and will last a lifetime.
Fast freeze, two-part icecube tray (18 icecubes). This two-part system goes back to the trays of the 1950's.
A kitchen essential, an elegantly clean and unbreakable design - no more bent, cracked & split ice cube trays leaking in the freezer!
To use, simply operate the integrated lever, which quickly and easily releases the ice cubes perfectly.
The trays also stack neatly on top of one another in the freezer.
Have used this over and over and over again, showing no signs of wear. Excellent quality and definitely an investment to last for many years and maybe even generations like the old stainless steel ice trays did.
I love this ice cube tray. It is little hard to break the ice with the lever but once you get the hang of it it is worth it. It looks great, is lasting well and doesn't impart any flavour. I have also used it for freezing cubes of yogurt and it was great for that too.

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Retrieved Text: Dimensions: 8.7" x 4.3" x 1"
Lékué offers a wide range of rubber ice-cube trays in a variety of shapes and colors guaranteeing perfect results. Lékué ice cube trays are manufactured in rubber and are completely flexible, making extraction of ice easy and quick. Ice molds can also be used for homemade ice cream and ice molds. Suitable for freezer but not oven or microwave safe. 8.8 x 4.5 x 1.2 inches hand wash only.

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Retrieved Text: Talkback: How do I make baby food?
Weaning is a brilliant stage for mum and little one. I loved experimenting with ingredients and favours. I used to think about what foods would go well combined together- sweet potato, red lentils and carrots worked well.
Also I found that some foods are better baked then steamed or boiled, especially root vegetables.
I would try make food that contains protein ( for growth and fullness), carbohydrates (energy), fats (energy and building eg. dairy, red meats and fish), fibre and minerals ( from veg).
Having the right equipment is important for making baby food easy and not a chore. I found a hand blender very useful. A sieve to purée or smooth stringy or berried foods (eg, berries and mangos) Ice cube trays, freezer bags, cool bag ( when feeding on the go).
Also, freezing food is brilliant for when time is tight to cook from fresh. Freezing the food in ice cube trays worked a treat. I would freeze a batch of food, once frozen transfer them into a freezer bag and then the ice cube tray is free for the next batch of food.
in the early days, when I first started weaning my little one would only eat a tiny amount from pouches. Hence, I froze pre-prepared meals that I brought from the shops. If there was some left in the pouch or jar, just pop it into the ice cube trays and freeze to use for next time. Best to freeze on the day of opening the meal.
It is also so

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Retrieved Text: Pamela posted a question in the Member forum about using frozen eggs, the whole eggs in her fridge had frozen solid.
Eggs freeze quite well, especially if you can get them to freeze in their shells, although it's not the tried and true method (the shells usually burst).
Freezing eggs is a great way of storing them for future use, especially if you find them marked down and stock up. They keep well in the fridge for a very long time, but for safety and organization freezing them is the way to go.
Before I explain how to freeze eggs, do you know how to tell if an egg is fresh? Other than cracking it and getting a whiff of "off" egg that is?
To test the freshness of an egg simply place it in a deep bowl of cold water. If the egg stays at the bottom of the bowl, it is fresh. If it stands on end or floats, it is an older egg and care must be taken when using it (crack it into a separate dish to check for freshness before adding it to a cake mix etc, there's no point in ruining a whole recipe for the sake of a simple 20 second test).
Fresh eggs stay at the bottom of the bowl because they don't have a lot of air in them. Egg shells are porous and so as the egg ages it absorbs more air. As air is absorbed into the shell the air at the bigger end of the egg expands, allowing the

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Rank: 15
Score: 74.983604
Retrieved Text: Are your traditional ice cube trays overcrowding your freezer? Tired of twisting and turning those trays just to extract ice cubes? Check this Magic Ice Cube Maker!
It is a revolutionary breakthrough with ultimate space-saving design particularly created to streamline the ice cube making process. It can hold 120 ice cubes in total, thereby replacing up to 10 traditional ice cube trays.You can also use it to keep bottled drinks cold, and you may even want to fill it with ice cream or other food.
SPACE-SAVING - Holds up to 120 ice cubes with unique double chamber design. Outer chambers freeze the ice cubes. Inner cylinder stores them.
ODOR-FREE ICE - Air tight lid keeps your cubes fresh and odor free.
VERSATILE - Quickly chills bottled drinks and can be filled with ice cream or other food.
Lift up the inner cylinder, squeeze out the cubes into the bucket. Done!

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Rank: 16
Score: 74.86019
Retrieved Text: I love silicone kitchen products. The KUUK Silicone Large Ice Cube Mold Trays seemed really great to try out because of their size and shape. They don't need to take up much space in the freezer.
I know that is advertised as a large ice cube mold tray and yes, they definitely work well for that purpose. However, I actually use them more often for making healthy frozen treats.
I like to put greek or plain yogurt mixed with fresh fruit and nuts into the molds and to stick them in the freezer for a few hours. After they're frozen, you can just pop the treats out and eat.
They come out perfect and are soo good. We actually have to make them several times a week.
These are also good if you have a toddler or young child. You can serve them tiny portions of food and snacks on their high chair or table. You don't have to worry about them breaking or cracking since they are made out of silicone.
These trays are so convenient and easier to clean than traditional ice trays. You can hand wash or toss into the dishwasher.

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Rank: 17
Score: 74.55165
Retrieved Text: with one easy to use solution.
Regular ice is pitifully outdated—it melts quickly, diluting that masterfully made cocktail before your guest even takes their first sip. It also has whatever-is-in-your freezer stink to it. Clear ice is crystal clear (and gorgeous), melts slower and doesn't dump freezer stink into a drink. OnTheRocks is a smaller-than-a-gallon-of-ice-cream clear ice maker that can make 6 cubes, 5 spheres or 1 block at a time.
OnTheRocks is the simple, utterly affordable way to wow your friends, neighbors and relatives with beautiful, clear ice in their drinks. We've launched our crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo. Get your hands on OnTheRocks by backing our campaign, and get once-in-a-lifetime price deals while doing so.
You might've seen clear ice cube trays before, but you haven't seen any like this. Up until now, the highest-capcity, at-home clear ice cube trays only yield 4 cubes. Our's, however, yields 6 and does so at a much better price. More spectacular clear ice cubes to make more eyebrow-raising drinks at a lower price—how can you beat that?

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Rank: 18
Score: 73.69647
Retrieved Text: Fills just like a conventional ice cube tray. Unlike a conventional ice cube tray, with QuickSnap™ Plus you only release the amount of ice cubes you really need.
Perfect for serving ice straight into drinks, without having to touch the cubes.
The flexible lid helps prevent water spills and the ice cubes from being tainted by freezer odours as well as enabling you to stack the trays on top of one another in the freezer drawer.
1 x QuickSnap™ Plus Easy Release Ice Cube Tray.
Conveniently releases just one ice cube at a time.
Stackable lid helps prevent spill and tainting from freezer odours.

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Rank: 19
Score: 72.451935
Retrieved Text: Combine sugar, lime juice and water in bowl. Stir to mix, and then let stand until sugar is almost completely dissolved, about 15 minutes (mixture will be thick).
In blender jar or food processor, combine the sugar mixture with the berries. Blend until smooth. Pack into half-pint, pint-, or quart-size freezer containers; freeze. Or, pour the mixture into ice cube trays and freeze until firm, unmold and pack into resealable freezer bags.
The mixture will become solid with the consistency of a very firm sherbet, so you'll be able to scoop portions from the main batch, then reseal the mixture.
For each Strawberry Daiquiri: In blender jar, combine 3 tablespoons light or dark rum, 1/4 cup frozen strawberry daiquiri mix (2 average-sized cubes that have been frozen in ice-cube trays) and about 3/4 cup of ice cubes (7 or 8 average-size cubes). Blend until smooth. Most blender jars can handle up to 4 servings.
For a nonalcoholic frozen drink, replace the rum with unsweetened pineapple juice.
Mango Strawberry Daiquiri: Add up to 1 ripe cut-up mango to the blender when making a batch of strawberry daiquiris (up to 4 servings) as described previously.
Strawberry Pina Colada: In blender jar, combine 3 tablespoons light or dark rum, 1/4 cup frozen strawberry daiquiri mix (2 to 3 average-size cubes that have been frozen in ice cube trays), 3 tablespoons unsweetened pineapple juice, 1 tablespoon coconut cream and about 3/4 cup of ice cubes (7 or 8 average sized cubes). Blend until smooth.

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Rank: 20
Score: 71.88974
Retrieved Text: Cold weather has hit ND hard…we have days of heat and days of cold, however that didn’t stop the frost/freezing from hitting during the evenings.
About a week ago Steve and I both decided that it was time to bring my herbs in and save them before they freeze.
I pulled chives (which got used up immediately—not a large quantity this year) and I pulled my basil plant (huge). However, I always struggle with what to do with the herbs…I could dry them, but I recently heard about a method of chopping and then freezing them in ice cube trays.
I took the basil leaves and loaded them into my bullet (my dream machine). From there I added a little water and chopped away. Once fine…I filled ice cube trays with the basil/water mixture (similar to making baby food).
I popped them out and moved them into a freezer bag. Perfect for cooking. Steve and I have already used one basil cube for making fish on the grill—PERFECTION!

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Rank: 21
Score: 71.68298
Retrieved Text: After a 6 year search we have at last found the stainless steel popsicle mold! No more toxins from plastics leaching into your frozen treats.
Made from 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze mold is easy to use, easy to clean, and will last you a life time. Designed so that one ice pop can be removed (or re-filled) at a time. Simply hold the mold in your hand for a moment, or run under warm water briefly. (Not too long, it will release very quickly.) Each set comes with one stand, 6 molds, 6 lids and 12 removable silicone rings. The rings ensure proper stick placement. No more tilted stick, or sunken sticks or poped out sticks. Comes with bamboo ice pop sticks.
We have been waiting for these for years!!!!
Welcome back to the fifties (but with stainless steel instead of aluminum)! This ice cube tray will remind you of the one your grandmother used to have and is perfect for freezing small portions of food -- chopped herbs, crushed garlic, pesto, baby food, and of course ice cubes! This durable high quality stainless steel ice cube tray has been thoroughly tested and will keep your freezer foods healthy and safe. Plastic-free, BPA-free, lead-free. Don't settle for anything less when it comes to well-being and piece of mind.
This ice cube tray is made of high quality food grade stainless steel 18-8. It is dishwasher safe. Please be aware that this ice cube tray has been re-constructed in stainless steel out of an old aluminum model. We suggest

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Rank: 22
Score: 71.53951
Retrieved Text: Jin Sheu Enterprise, founded in 1984, is a leading manufacturer and exporter of Silicone Baking Molds/ Ice Cube Trays, lapel pins, key chains, medals, military coins, belt buckles, embroidered patches and promotional lanyards. With a manufacturing site of over 64,000 square meters and 2,000 sophisticated workers, plus the latest automatic electroplating plant and soft enamel color dispensing machines, we surpass our competitors in delivery time, quality and service, especially for large quantity required on short notice, or complicated designs needing experienced workers, Jin Sheu is the number one choice as we are equipped to offer integral services.
Our silicone ice cube trays and baking molds are made of 100% silicone, which is non-toxic and flexible that ice cubes or muffins can be easily removed with just a twist; food grade silicone is also safe for food use. We provide some silicone ice cube molds and muffin molds in open design with free mold charge for your options, and we are able to produce your customized design as well. Silicone molds are not only great for making ice cubes, but also commonly used for making shapes out of chocolates, butter, gelatin, cheese and candies, because silicone can go from the freezer to oven and last a lifetime for even the most advanced cooks.
Material: 100% silicone, flexible and washable.
We are welcome your own design of silicone molds for ice cube trays or dessert baking molds for chocolates, cookies, muffins etc.

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Rank: 23
Score: 71.42891
Retrieved Text: Tetris and Lego Bricks... In Ice!
There are a lot of different kinds of ice cube trays out there. There is the standard cube-like shape from a tray, the kind that comes out of automatic ice makers, long thin bits of ice to fit in your water bottle and many other interesting shapes. IKEA, for example, has had fun ice cube trays for years.
Toxel.com has accumulated a list of 20 unusual ice cube trays from all over the world, most of which are incredibly fun and/or interesting. There are Lego bricks, Tetris pieces, strawberries, letters, even ice-shaped Space Invaders. The article also includes links to sources for the trays. My favorite is definitely the Gin & Titonic (shown) from WorldWideFred, who also makes a lot of the other ice cube trays.
Check out Toxel.com's list! Maybe your next gathering will be more interesting for it.

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Rank: 24
Score: 71.407585
Retrieved Text: It’s easy to make the perfect ice cube when you’re using this one of a kind silicone ice cube tray!
The patented Grid-Lid offers you a simple, mess-free experience. From filling the tray to retrieving the ice cubes, everything is easier with a Buzbox! It’s shape and size take up less space too!
With these things on the market, there’s no reason to continue using your boring, water-spilling, freezer-hogging trays.

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Rank: 25
Score: 70.9204
Retrieved Text: Buy Joseph Joseph® QuickSnap™ Plus Easy-Release Ice Tray in Green from $11.99 at Bed Bath & Beyond. Joseph Joseph's QuickSnap Plus Ice Tray makes it a breeze to release ice cubes. Simply twist the tray to loosen the cubes, then push each switch to release one at a time. Remove only the cubes you need. Trays stack in the freezer to maximize space.Joseph Joseph's QuickSnap Plus Ice Tray makes it a breeze to release ice cubes. Simply twist the tray to loosen the cubes, then push each switch to release one at a time. Remove only the cubes you need. Trays stack in the freezer to maximize space.
Compact and sleek, the RSVP Garlic Cube can mince and slice garlic with ease. A clear bin collects droppings so your kitchen counter stays neat as you work. The Garlic Cube is dishwasher safe and easy to store- prepare fresh garlic in no time.
The innovative silicone lid of the OXO No-Spill Ice Stick Tray ensures that water won't drip out as you carry it from the sink to the freezer. It also keeps the ice from absorbing freezer odors and allows you to stack other items on top.
Clean, peel and chop veggies with the KitchenIQ Mini Prep 3-in-1 Multi Tool. All parts are contained in a compact ball that's comfortable to hold and easy to store.
Add some pop to your kitchen with the American Weigh Scales ONYX Slim Kitchen Scale. Features a modern colored glass and plastic construction. Plus, touch activated keys, easy-to-read back-lit reverse LCD display.
Made of food-grade

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Rank: 26
Score: 70.83083
Retrieved Text: I had heard of freezing herbs in ice cubes and it sure seemed like an easy enough task. It is. And it is so handy to be able to grab a tablespoon (cube) or two and get the benefit of fresh herbs once again!
Chop up your left over fresh herbs. Put 1 tablespoon of herbs in each ice cube spot. Add water, filling to top and freeze.
When frozen empty the trays into a bowl and fill a marked bag. Now how easy is that? I love that next time I need this herb I have an already purchased stock in the freezer! You can either thaw and drain your herbs or add the cubes directly to a stock or other liquid.

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Rank: 27
Score: 70.77123
Retrieved Text: Ice sticks that you can paint with on a hot day!
Have you heard the rumors that we are having a heat wave? Here in Austin, summer temperatures are rarely below 105 degrees. It’s hard explaining to your toddler that they can’t go outside to play due to the heat. As of late I have been trying to think of some fun and cool outdoor activities for my daughter to do in the mornings before the heat really kicks in. I’m not the first person to think of ice crayons, but I’d like to think I added a few new spins to it.
Note: There are three techniques outlined here – carefully read the tutorial to figure out what tools and materials are required for the method you choose.
Paint-with-water books should be a staple in any toddler's home. If you don't feel like cleaning up paint, just hand your kid a cup of water, a brush, and a page from one of these boredom-busting books.
Our first ice crayon adventure involved using a paint-with-water book and an ice cube. Skip the brush and glass of water! Once the cube starts to melt, the paint magically appears on the paper. This was an exciting new spin on our beloved paint-with-water pictures that kept us busy quite awhile.
My daughter had so much fun painting with ice that it got me thinking. I decided to try my hand at making my own ice crayons. Most recipes on the internet call for little more than an ice cube tray, food coloring, water, and

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Rank: 28
Score: 70.6364
Retrieved Text: Triple-digit temperatures have hit Southern California later than expected. I suppose I should be grateful that the thermometer reads only 103° today, as opposed to the day’s record high of 116° that blistered us in 1985.
Staying hydrated is critical when the sun decides to show off. I make sure my ice cube trays are well stocked and drink more fluids to make up for water loss.
I also take a cue from Jenny Harper, senior culinary specialist for the Nestlé Test Kitchens. Jenny freshens up summer drinks with lemon-flavored ice cubes.
Freeze the cubes, and then transfer them to a freezer-ready storage container. You can add a burst of flavor to water, iced tea, fruit juice and other beverages.
I like the BPA-free, though pricey, Stainless Steel Ice Cube Tray (right) from Onyx. And if I’m out of lemons, I’ll substitute other citrus fruit juices for flavorful ice cubes.

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Rank: 29
Score: 69.92815
Retrieved Text: What Do You Do About Sea Ice?
No, this is not a treatise on climate change, this is a solution to the problem of how to keep ice aboard your boat. Because regardless of boat size, sailors always seem to be thirsty. And, except in winter, that means they want cold drinks.
Cutting to the chase – you want to find the best silicone ice trays for your boat.
With the small space allowed for refrigeration on a modest sized sailboat, many things we’re used to buying in bulk and tossing in the freezer go by the wayside when we spend time at sea. Ice cream, family size packs of ground beef or chicken breasts, ice packs for boo-boos, we learn to live without those. But one thing that absolutely doesn’t go by the wayside for 90% of sailors, is the cold drink.
Whether racing or cruising, a tall glass of iced tea, a cold beer, the frosty margarita rocks, the dark and stormy, the gin and tonic, and the Cuba Libre’ will always be sought after at the end of a long day under sail.
Sometimes that longed for chill can be hard to come by, especially for those bent on crossing oceans or exploring remote islands in small craft. There’s just so little space. Cruisers have been known to tow the beer in a net bag, getting whatever cool they can out of the ocean water. And some give up refrigeration entirely, either out of necessity, or because maintaining the system just becomes more trouble than its worth.
When you’re

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======= Instance Index 27405 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Carbon dioxide from the air passes through small pores (holes) in the leaves
- These pores are called stomata
- Water is absorbed by the roots and passes through vessels in the stem on its way to the leaves
- Chlorophyll absorbs the sun&#x27;s energy
- It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
- Oxygen is released from the leaves into the atmosphere
- Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are used to form glucose or food for plants.

Question:
suppose less carbon dioxide enters the stomata happens, how will it affect less carbon dioxide is availabe to form glucose.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 83.33491
Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Rank: 1
Score: 76.97824
Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Rank: 2
Score: 74.48994
Retrieved Text: PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS THE PROCESS IN WHICH A PLANT MAKES FOOD. Water travels up the stEm fRom the roots to the leaves wich have CHLOROPLAST and chlorophYll. with carbon dioxide (co2) that enters through the Stomata in the leaVes and it gets sunlight and that causes it to unbond and rearrange into glucose (c6h12o6) and what is released is oxygen and water.
Cellular respiration is the process where humans and animals use oxygen (o2) to breakdown glucose (c6h12o6) to form energy (atp)and water (h2o) for our bodies. We release carBon DIOXIDE (co2).
Plants make oxygen for animals and humans, while humans & animals make co2 for plants.
Created with images by 51863 - "rose pink red" • fill - "larch branch nature" • makamuki0 - "forest fog ray of sunshine" • Couleur - "rise morning fog" • sandrapetersen - "rose droplets water" • Mariamichelle - "pomeranian dog pet" • Schmid-Reportagen - "loro park orca fish" • Claudia14 - "dolphin marine mammals water" • Peter23394 - "Animals (212)" • paulbr75 - "starfish sea life animal"

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Rank: 3
Score: 73.54083
Retrieved Text: The dark reactions of photosynthesis being enzymatic are temperature controlled. At higher temperatures, the rate of photosynthesis decreases largely as a result of enzyme denaturation.
Also when the temperature is very high, the guard cells (stomata) close. When the stomata close, gaseous exchange will no longer be occurring so therefore CO2 levels drop rapidly within the leaf, inhibiting the light-independent reactions. This then causes photosynthesis to reduce or stop.
Enzymes are the catalyst used for the photosynthesis reaction. Enzymes work by colliding with the hydrogen and carbon dioxide. It is shaped to only accept hydrogen and carbon dioxide molecules. A rise in temperature provides more heat energy, which the enzymes absorb to work faster. They work faster by colliding more frequently. Because of that, it produces more glucose quickly. A lower temperature therefore will mean lowered rate of photosynthesis, due to less heat energy.

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Rank: 4
Score: 72.98235
Retrieved Text: 3 What Enzymes Does Mercury Inhibit?
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that plants and algae use to convert light energy, water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In the light reactions, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy and harnesses it to create the high-energy molecules ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon in the Calvin cycle.
In the chloroplasts of plant cells there are a series of enzymes and other proteins called photosystems I and II. Some of these proteins hold chlorophyll molecules and, when chlorophyll is struck by a photo of light, an electron becomes energized and water molecules bind. An enzyme in photosystem II splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The energized electron is then passed along through another enzyme called the cytochrome b6-f complex, which in turn pumps positively charged hydrogen molecules across a membrane to create a store of potential energy. An enzyme called ATP synthase uses that potential energy to synthesize a molecule called ATP, which is the most common energy currency for cells, and which is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain a second light-capturing mechanism called photosystem I, which acts similarly to photosystem II, except that the end result is a molecule called NADPH instead of ATP. Photosystem I is connected to photosystem II by a small protein called plastocyanin, which donates electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to

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Rank: 5
Score: 69.74753
Retrieved Text: Spurred by increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, forests over the last two decades have become dramatically more efficient in how they use water, a Harvard study has found.
Studies have long predicted that plants would begin to use water more efficiently as atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rose. A research team led by Research Associate Trevor Keenan and Assistant Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Andrew Richardson, however, has found that forests across the globe are becoming more efficient than expected.
Using data collected from forests in the northeastern US and elsewhere around the world, Keenan and Richardson, found increases in efficiency larger than those predicted by even the most state-of-the-art computer models. The research, which was done in collaboration with researchers from the Harvard's Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, the USDA Forest Service, Ohio State University, Indiana University, and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany, is described in a July 10 paper in Nature.
"This could be considered a beneficial effect of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide," said Keenan, the first author of the paper. "What's surprising is we didn't expect the effect to be this big. A large proportion of the ecosystems in the world are limited by water – they don't have enough water during the year to reach their maximum potential growth. If they become more efficient at using water, they should be able to take more carbon out of the atmosphere due to higher growth rates."
While increased atmospheric carbon dioxide may benefit forests in the short term, Richardson emphasized that the overall climate

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Rank: 6
Score: 67.147644
Retrieved Text: What is the Function of Plant Stomata?
Illustration by J.R. Bee. ThoughtCo.
Stomata are tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow for gas exchange. Stomata are typically found in plant leaves but can also be found in some stems. Specialized cells known as guard cells surround stomata and function to open and close stomatal pores. Stomata allow a plant to take in carbon dioxide, which is needed for photosynthesis. They also help to reduce water loss by closing when conditions are hot or dry. Stomata look like tiny mouths which open and close as they assist in transpiration.
Plants that reside on land typically have thousands of stomata on the surfaces of their leaves. The majority of stomata are located on the underside of plant leaves reducing their exposure to heat and air current. In aquatic plants, stomata are located on the upper surface of the leaves. A stoma (singular for stomata) is surrounded by two types of specialized plant cells that differ from other plant epidermal cells. These cells are called guard cells and subsidiary cells.
Guard cells are large crescent-shaped cells, two of which surround a stoma and are connected to at both ends. These cells enlarge and contract to open and close stomatal pores. Guard cells also contain chloroplasts, the light capturing organelles in plants.
Subsidiary cells, also called accessory cells, surround and support guard cells. They act as a buffer between guard cells and epidermal cells, protecting epidermal cells against guard cell expansion. Subsidiary cells of different plant types exist in various shapes and sizes.

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Rank: 7
Score: 65.41453
Retrieved Text: Plants respire through microscopic pores in the underside of their leaves; these pores are called stomata. Plants can open or close their stomata to regulate the amount of gas exchange that takes place.
Plants produce the oxygen that animals need to breathe.
There are three kinds of gases that plants release through their stomata: carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapor. Each of these gases is a byproduct of a process essential to the plant's survival.
Plants produce carbon dioxide through cellular respiration. The amount of CO2 they release, however, is much less than the amount of CO2 they consume through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis releases oxygen gas as a byproduct and the oxygen diffuses out through the stomata of the leaves. Plants also lose water vapor through their stomata; this process of water loss is called transpiration.
Transpiration is essential to plants; in combination with the high surface tension of water, it creates negative pressure that draws water up the plant's stem and from the roots. Although it decreases their rate of growth, many plants will nonetheless close their stomata in response to stress caused by drought to avoid drying out.

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Rank: 8
Score: 64.59595
Retrieved Text: We are beginning a new project in the herbarium that uses our collection to study the effects of elevated carbon dioxide on plants in the Guadalupe Mountains National Park (GMNP). The Reed Herbarium at TTU has over 2000 specimens from more than 500 species collected when the park first opened in 1974. This collection will provide us with a window into the physiological stress experienced by plants almost 50 years ago.
Stomata are pores on the underside of leaves and function to let the plant “breathe” carbon dioxide. It has been shown that the density of stomata on leaves is correlated with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere– with more carbon dioxide the plants do not need to breathe as much, so they develop fewer stomata.
In the dry environment of the GMNP, stomata also function to limit water loss. As a result, there may be more physiological pressure to keep the number of stomata low. Using the herbarium collection, students will be able to test whether the expected reduction in stomata over the last 50 years occurred in the GMNP.
This week, undergraduates Zach and Lauren began testing a protocol to efficiently measure stomata on herbarium specimens, which many may remember from high school biology: nail polish! When the polish is painted on the leaves and let to dry, it can be removed using double-sided tape and the impression of stomata can be viewed under a microscope. Zach and Lauren will need to adapt their techniques to a variety of leaf types.

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Rank: 9
Score: 64.51067
Retrieved Text: All plants carry on photosynthesis by adding carbon dioxide (CO2) to a phosphorylated 5-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RUBISCO). The resulting 6-carbon compound breaks down into two molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). These 3-carbon molecules serve as the starting material for the synthesis of glucose and other food molecules. The process is called the Calvin cycle and the pathway is called the C3 pathway.
The light reactions of photosynthesis liberate oxygen and more oxygen dissolves in the cytosol of the cell at higher temperatures. Therefore, high light intensities and high temperatures (above ~ 30°C) favor the second reaction.
The uptake of O2 by RUBISCO forms the 3-carbon molecule 3-phosphoglyceric acid, just as in the Calvin cycle, and the 2-carbon molecule glycolate. The glycolate enters peroxisomes where it uses O2 to form intermediates that enter mitochondria where they are broken down to CO2. So this process uses O2 and liberates CO2 as cellular respiration does which is why it is called photorespiration. It undoes the good anabolic work of photosynthesis, reducing the net productivity of the plant. For this reason, much effort so far largely unsuccessful has gone into attempts to alter crop plants so that they carry on less photorespiration. The problem may solve itself. If atmospheric CO2 concentrations continue to rise, perhaps this will enhance the net productivity of the world's crops by reducing losses to photorespiration.
Over 8,000 species of angiosperms have developed adaptations which minimize the losses to photorespiration. They all use a supplementary method

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Rank: 10
Score: 63.439007
Retrieved Text: Photorespiration is the light dependent process of oxygenation of RUBP (Ribulose bi-phosphate) and release of carbon dioxide by photosynthetic organs of the plant. Otherwise, as we know, photosynthetic organs release oxygen and not CO2 under normal situation.
(i) Decrease in the rate of net photosynthesis when oxygen concentration is increased from 2-3 to 21%.
(ii) Sudden increased evolution of CO2 when an illuminated green plant is transferred to dark.
Photorespiration is initiated under high O2 and low CO2 and intense light around the photosynthesizing plant. Photorespiration was discovered by Dicker and Tio (1959), while the term “Photorespiration” was coined by Krotkov (1963). Photorespiration should not be confused with photo- oxidation. While the former is a normal process in some green plants, the latter is an abnormal and injurious process occurring in extremely intense light resulting in destruction of cellular components, cells and tissues.
(i) Plants with photorespiration (temperate plants) and plants without photorespiration (tropical plants).
Photorespiration involves three cell organelles, viz., chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria for its completion. Peroxisome, the actual site of photorespiration, contains enzymes like glycolate oxydase, glutamate glyoxalate aminotransferase, peroxidase and catalase enzymes.
We know that the enzyme RUBISCO (Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase) catalyzes the carboxylation reaction, where CO2 combines with RuBP for calvin cycle (dark reaction of photosynthesis) to initiate. But this enzyme RUBISCO, under intense light conditions, has the ability to catalyse the combination of O2 with RuPB, a process called oxygenation.
In other words the enzyme RUBISCO can catalyse both carboxylation as well as oxygenation reactions in green plants under different conditions of light and O2/CO2 ratio.

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Rank: 11
Score: 63.200054
Retrieved Text: What is Photosynthesis? How does it work? Get an insight into nature's most magnificent art with the help of flowchart!
This article will introduce the process of photosynthesis, how it works, and how to draw a flowchart to represent the workflow inside the plant when photosynthesis happens.
In other words, photosynthesis is the process when plants make their own food.
Photosynthesis has two phases, they are commonly known as "Photosynthesis Light Reaction" and "Photosynthesis Dark Reaction". We will analyze these two phases one by one.
This reaction of photosynthesis only happens when light is available. In this reaction the light hits the reaction centers of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts. The chlorophyll will vibrate, makes water molecule (H2O) and oxygen (O) released into air and the remaining molecules of hydrogen (H) from the water (H2O) remains in chloroplast and gets attached to NADP. In this phase of photosynthesis energy loses along the electron transport chain to recharge ATP from ADP. During this process, light energy gets converted into chemical energy and finally ATP molecules are produced. This reaction is also known as light-dependent reaction.
This phase of photosynthesis does not require light and it takes place in stroma. In this reaction the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere combines with hydrogen (H) from water molecules and forms glucose. During this process, ATP molecules will be converted to simple sugars. This reaction is also known as light-independent reaction.
A flowchart is a way to show the steps in a process. Below is the flowchart of photosynthesis process that shows the steps involved in the

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: Water is lost from a plant more rapidly on a hot, dry day.
This GCSE Biology quiz is all about transpiration. Transpiration is the process by which plants transport water upwards against the pull of gravity and it is made possible by water loss due to evaporation.
The minerals that a plant needs are carried through it dissolved in water that has come from the ground. Plants have no pump like the heart that could move the water through them and so they have evolved a different method of transporting fluids - transpiration.
Leaves contain spongy and palisade cells. Water on the surface of these evaporates and leaves the leaves by diffusion. Water is then drawn out of the xylem cells within the leaves to replace water lost by this evaporation. The xylem cells form continuous tubes down to the roots and, as water is lost from the leaves, more is drawn up from the roots - rather like when you drink through a drinking straw. Transpiration is continuous and so there is a slow but continuous flow of water through the xylem tubes.
You are expected to know the factors that affect transpiration rate for the exams. Most of it is just common sense - anything that changes the speed of water loss to evaporation will affect transpiration - changes in temperature, humidity and the speed of the wind blowing over the leaves. One factor that is less obvious is light. When the light is bright, the stomata open more so that more carbon dioxide can enter the leaves

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: Fossil leaves from Africa have resolved a prehistoric climate puzzle -- and also confirm the link between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and global warming.
Research until now has produced a variety of results and conflicting data that have cast doubt on the link between high carbon dioxide levels and climate change for a time interval about 22 million years ago.
But a new study has found the link does indeed exist for that prehistoric time period, say researchers at Southern Methodist University, Dallas.
The finding will help scientists understand how recent and future increases in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide may impact the future of our planet, say the SMU researchers.
The discovery comes from new biochemical analyses of fossil leaves from plants that grew on Earth 27 million years ago and 22 million years ago.
The new analyses confirm research about modern climate -- that global temperatures rise and fall with increases and decreases in carbon dioxide in our atmosphere -- but in this case even in prehistoric times, according to the SMU-led international research team.
Carbon dioxide, is a gas that is normally present in the Earth's atmosphere, even millions of years ago. It's dubbed a greenhouse gas because greater concentrations cause the overall temperature of Earth's atmosphere to rise, as happens in a greenhouse with lots of sunlight.
Recently, greenhouse gas increases have caused global warming, which is melting glaciers, sparking extreme weather variability and causing sea levels to rise.
The new SMU discovery that carbon dioxide behaved in the same manner millions of years ago that it does

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Retrieved Text: Many scientists fear that global warming will hit staple food crops hard, with heat stress, extreme weather events and water shortages. On the other hand, higher levels of carbon dioxide‚Äîthe main cause of ongoing warming‚Äîis known to boost many plants' productivity, and reduce their use of water. So, if we keep pouring more CO2 into the air, will crops fail, or benefit? A new study tries to disentangle this complex question. It suggests that while greater warmth will reduce yields of some crops, higher CO2 could help mitigate the effects in some regions, unless other complications of global warming interfere.
The study, by 16 researchers from a half-dozen countries, uses newly available crop models and data from ongoing large-scale field experiments. It appears this week in the journal Nature Climate Change.
"Most of the discussion around climate impacts focuses only on changes in temperature and precipitation," said lead author Delphine Deryng, an environmental scientist at Columbia University's Center for Climate Systems Research, the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and the University of Chicago's Computation Institute. "To adapt adequately, we need to understand all the factors involved." Deryng cautions that the study should not be interpreted to mean that increasing carbon dioxide is a friend to humanity‚Äîonly that its direct effects must be included in any calculation of what the future holds.
Many studies say that as temperatures rise, crops across the world will suffer as average temperatures become unsuitable for traditionally grown crops, and droughts, heat waves or extreme bouts of precipitation become more common. Agricultural scientists say

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Retrieved Text: Some people will vomit after eating bananas and drinking sprite carbonated drinks. Why?
Sprite: A kind of carbonated beverage. Its ingredients mainly include: water, fruit Must, white granulated sugar, food additives (carbon dioxide, citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium benzoate) and edible essence.
Banana: starchy and beneficial fruit. Its chemical composition includes starch, protein, fat, sugar, ash, vitamin A, vitamin B, Vitamin C, vitamin E, etc. It also contains a small amount of 5- hydroxytryptamine, norepinephrine and dihydroxyphenylethylamine.
First of all, bananas, bananas, after chewing, are mixed with saliva to form a gel. After entering the stomach, they are mixed with gastric juice again to further form a thick gel banana mixture.
Then, under normal circumstances, the carbon dioxide contained in Sprite will precipitate rapidly after it enters the stomach. At this time, the carbon dioxide gas is obviously separated from the liquid in the stomach. After the carbon dioxide gas is continuously increased, the pressure on the stomach is strengthened, the diaphragm is stimulated to contract, and the stomach chalasia of cardia smoothly discharges the carbon dioxide gas.
In the case of thick and creamy gelatinous banana mixture in the stomach, after Sprite enters the stomach, the two are mixed, and the carbon dioxide contained in the mixture will be precipitated rapidly. However, due to the existence of banana mixture, the carbon dioxide gas cannot be separated in time after being precipitated, thus forming an aerated gelatinous mixture.
Due to the increase of carbon dioxide, the volume of this mixture expands rapidly, the gastric pressure is increased, the diaphragm is stimulated to

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Retrieved Text: Recall that respiration is a process used by all living organisms that releases the energy in organic molecule.
Define diffusion as the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Demonstrate an understanding of how aerobic respiration uses oxygen to release energy from glucose and how this process can be modelled using the word equation for aerobic respiration.
Calculate heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output, using the equation, cardiac output 5 stroke volume 3 heart rate.
muscle cells may not receive sufficient oxygen for their energy requirements and so start to respire anaerobically.
Recall that the process of anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration.
Describe how a build-up of lactic acid requires extra oxygen to break it down. This is called excess post-exercise oxygen consumption or EPOC (formerly known as oxygen debt).
Explain why heart rate and breathing rate remain high after exercise.
c) stomata for gas exchange (carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour).
Demonstrate an understanding of how photosynthesis uses light energy to produce glucose and how this process can be modelled using the word equation for photosynthesis.
Explain how the loss of water vapour from leaves drives transpiration.
Describe how root hair cells are adapted to take up water by osmosis.
Define osmosis as the movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration of water to an area of lower concentration of water through a partially permeable membrane.

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Retrieved Text: Scientists engineered a plant called thale cress (above) to be nearly always on alert to leaf-eating predators. In the lab, these plants grew smaller and made fewer viable seeds than normal.
Plants make sacrifices to protect themselves from pests. Now a tiny weed that squeezes through sidewalk cracks is helping scientists understand those costs of always being on guard.
Nature's greenery often fights insects and other plant-eaters by releasing bitter chemicals into their leaves. If a plant tastes bad, hungry bugs will avoid it. Arabidopsis (Ah-rab-ih-DOP-sis) is a commonly found member of the mustard family. Scientists often turn to it as the “lab rat” of the plant world. In the new study, researchers studied thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) to learn what this bitter defense costs the plant.
Putting extra energy into pumping protective chemicals through a plant’s veins leaves a plant less able to grow and reproduce, they now report.
All plants have a bundle of what are called JAZ genes in their DNA. Those genes provide the instructions to make JAZ proteins. These proteins help plants control how they use defensive chemicals. Over a 10-year span, the team bred together Arabidopsis plants that had been engineered to possess mutated JAZ genes. (Mutations are altered forms of some gene.) These plants ended up with 10 of its 13 JAZ genes disrupted, so they made less of those JAZ proteins.
Such plants were in defensive mode nearly all of the time. And they paid a price. They grew shorter than normal and were weaker. These plants also made fewer seeds that were

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Retrieved Text: P, phloem; S, stoma; X, xylem.
Canopy - a discussion of the woodland canopy with pictures of leaves, leaf venation and stomata.
Leaf-litter - the importance of shed leaves in the woodland ecosystem.
Transport in Plants - movement of water and nutrients in the plant body.
nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
They are less crowded and so avoid competition for light and carbon dioxide.
Smaller boundary layers allow leaves to cool more easily through transpiration.
Small leaves can be easily moved about to position them for maximum light absorption.
Small leaves can be easily vibrated by gentle winds, further reducing boundary layers.
will not receive adequate amounts of light for photosynthesis in the centre of the leaf.
a certain distance from the surface the fluid will be moving with its free-flowing velocity.
it into chemical energy to make food, fuel and chemical building blocks for the plant.
can photosynthesise at higher light intensities.
The Leaf - Solar Power!
converted into chemical bond energy.
from the ambient heat energy, since all processes really require energy in one form or another).
upon the wavelength of the photon (the wavelength of the photons is what gives light its colour).
cell and converted into a more stable and useful form of energy.
called a photosystem and is diagrammed below.
two different photosystems, photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII).
absorption spectrum (they absorb photons with different ranges of wavelengths).
The chl-a in PSII has an absorption peak at 680 nm and so its reaction centre is called P680.
The chl-a in PSI has an absorption peak at 700 nm and so its reaction centre is called P700.
Q.

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: The air quality in a cockpit directly affects how well an airplane pilot performs, according to research.
Commercial airline pilots who took part in the study by a team at Harvard T.H. School of Public Health were better able to perform complex maneuvers in a flight simulator when the carbon dioxide concentration in the air was 700 parts per million (ppm), compared with 2,500ppm.
The average carbon dioxide level on a commercial flight is less than 1000ppm but can reach as high as 1400ppm depending on the aircraft, say the authors of a study published in the Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.
The same team previously researched whether carbon dioxide levels in office buildings affect concentration levels among workers, showing the relatively slight difference between 1000pm and 2,500ppm of carbon dioxide appeared to hinder cognitive function. This new paper builds on that research to investigate pilots specifically.
To conduct the study, the researchers asked 30 male commercial air pilots to perform three flight simulation tests lasting three hours. Each task involved 21 maneuvers of varying levels of difficulty. During the experiment, each participant was randomly dosed with either 700ppm, 1,500ppm or 2,500ppm levels of carbon dioxide at some point.
Pilots were almost 70 percent more likely to pass a maneuver when carbon dioxide levels were at 700ppm compared with 2,500ppm, the results revealed. There was no statistically significant difference in the cognitive abilities of pilots exposed to 700ppm and 1,500ppm—although they were more likely to pass the hardest maneuvers.
The longer the pilots were in the simulator, the worse the

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Retrieved Text: Three elements, carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), are supplied by air (in the form of carbon dioxide) and water. When the chlorophyll (green pigments) of plants are exposed to light, these three elements are combined in a process called photosynthesis to make carbohydrates, with a subsequent release of oxygen. The water is brought into the plant by root absorption from the soil system. Carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the plant through small leaf openings called stomata. The rate at which photosynthesis occurs is directly influenced by the water and nutritional status of the plant. Maximum rates are determined ultimately by the genetics of the plant.
Fifteen of the essential nutrients are supplied by the soil system. Of these, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are referred to as primary or macronutrients. This is because (1) they are required by the plant in large amounts relative to other nutrients (see Table 2) and (2) they are the nutrients most likely to be found limiting plant growth and development in soil systems.
Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) are termed secondary nutrients because they are less likely to be growth-limiting factors in soil systems. Calcium and magnesium are added in liming materials when soil pH is adjusted and sulfur is added continually by rainfall and release from the soil organic matter. It is estimated that some 10 to 20 pounds of sulfur per acre may be deposited annually in precipitation.
Zinc (Zn), chlorine (Cl), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co) and nickel

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Retrieved Text: An increasingly acidic ocean is weakening the protective shell of mermaid’s wineglass, a tiny, single-celled alga that lives on shallow seafloors.
Reaching a height of just a few inches, Acetabularia acetabulum sports a supportive skeleton made of calcium carbonate and likes it where sunlight can still filter down for photosynthesis. Its skeleton is thought to deter grazing by predators and keeps its thin stem rigid enough to support the round reproductive structure on top.
Increasing acidity of ocean water disrupts calcium carbonate levels. The more acidic the water is, the less calcium carbonate is available to living organisms. No previous studies have shown if even a slight increase in ocean acidity could weaken the shell of the mermaid’s wineglass.
But three years ago researchers learned that the mermaid’s wineglass grows differently in certain parts of the Mediterranean Sea.
Carrington and biology doctoral student Laura Newcomb, wanted to understand how marine organisms adapt to changing environmental conditions and were intrigued by the differences Hall-Spencer reported.
Underwater volcanic activity creates CO2 seeps, which spew gas and minerals into the water column. This includes dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes ocean waters near the vents more acidic. Newcomb wondered if mermaid’s wineglass algae growing closer to the seeps had weaker calcium carbonate skeletons. She measured the composition, morphology and stiffness of preserved algae and found that algae near the vents were thinner and droopier.
The CO2 seeps were located near Vulcano, an island off the northern coast of Sicily. Newcomb collected fresh samples of the mermaid’s wineglass—both near and far from the seeps—and measured the carbon

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Retrieved Text: an odorless, colorless gas, CO2, resulting from oxidation of carbon, formed in the tissues and eliminated by the lungs; used in some pump oxygenators to maintain the carbon dioxide tension in the blood. It is also used in solid form; see carbon dioxide snow and carbon dioxide slush.
carbon dioxide combining power the ability of blood plasma to combine with carbon dioxide; indicative of the alkali reserve and a measure of the acid-base balance of the blood.
carbon dioxide content the amount of carbonic acid and bicarbonate in the blood; reported in millimoles per liter.
carbon dioxide–oxygen therapy administration of a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen (commonly 5 per cent CO2 and 95 per cent O2 or 10 per cent CO2 and 90 per cent O2); used for improvement of cerebral blood flow, stimulation of deep breathing, or treatment of singultation (hiccupping). Carbon dioxide acts by stimulating the respiratory center; it also increases heart rate and blood pressure. Therapy is given for 6 minutes or less with a 5 per cent mixture and 2 minutes or less with a 10 per cent mixture. Potential adverse effects include headache, dizziness, dyspnea, nausea, tachycardia and high blood pressure, blurred vision, mental depression, coma, and convulsions.
carbon dioxide slush solid carbon dioxide combined with a solvent such as acetone, and sometimes also alcohol; used as an escharotic to treat skin lesions such as warts and moles and as a peeling agent in chemabrasion.
carbon dioxide snow the solid formed by rapid evaporation of liquid carbon dioxide, giving a temperature of about −79°C (−110°F).

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Retrieved Text: People who live at very high altitudes live significantly longer; they have a lower incidence of cancer (Weinberg, et al., 1987) and heart disease (Mortimer, et al., 1977), and other degenerative conditions, than people who live near sea level. As I have written earlier, I think the lower energy transfer from cosmic radiation is likely to be a factor in their longevity, but several kinds of evidence indicate that it is the lower oxygen pressure itself that makes the biggest contribution to their longevity.
The end product of respiration is carbon dioxide, and it is an essential component of the life process. The ability to produce and retain enough carbon dioxide is as important for longevity as the ability to conserve enough heat to allow chemical reactions to occur as needed.
Carbon dioxide protects cells in many ways. By bonding to amino groups, it can inhibit the glycation of proteins during oxidative stress, and it can limit the formation of free radicals in the blood; inhibition of xanthine oxidase is one mechanism (Shibata, et al., 1998). It can reduce inflammation caused by endotoxin/LPS, by lowering the formation of tumor necrosis factor, IL-8 and other promoters of inflammation (Shimotakahara, et al., 2008). It protects mitochondria (Lavani, et al., 2007), maintaining (or even increasing) their ability to respire during stress.
In other types of tissue, a high level of carbon dioxide has a similar stabilizing effect on cells, preserving stem cells, limiting stress and preventing loss of function. In the lining of the mouth, where the oxygen tension is lower, and

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Retrieved Text: List and discuss the lesson’s Goals.
Provide Focus Questions (and/or where relevant Essential Questions).
NGSS Note: This is about making students think, not just memorize, so ask as many questions as you can to get their minds stirring. Motivate them wherever possible to ask questions as well. Inquiry is not just about experiments and analyzing data. It is also about research, reading on topic, asking questions and finding the answer, watching compelling movies, developing models that help with understanding. Think, question, entertain ideas.
Understanding by Design (UbD) works backwards from some traditional teaching methods, starting with the goals and objectives – the “outcomes” of lessons and planning curriculum to reach that goal. UbD is an especially effective tool for science education because it dovetails effectively with the Next Generation Science Standards and Common Core.
Start with an introductory activity, word merge, or brainstorming session to Assess Prior Knowledge.
NGSS Note: Comparing pre and post assessment is telling and can provide valuable information about how your students are progressing. Ask questions and motivate them to ask questions.
Provide a reading assignment (or lecture and while they take notes) introducing your New Content.
Assign a Vocabulary Assessment and Reading Comprehension Assessment of the new content in the form of a labeling page, short answer quiz or authentic performance activity (*provide a scenario that uses the content and ask related questions – this can be used as a “model” as well).
Introduce a Model that depicts the concept expressed in the reading (students should begin to think about their own model building).
Assign a Vocabulary Assessment and Reading

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Retrieved Text: You Are Here : Home » Learn » New World » Gifographic » What is Photosynthesis?
All organisms need energy to survive, sustain, and grow. That much we already know. We get this energy by consuming food. Thus, food is the primary source of energy for us. When we (humans) are hungry, we make food, using vegetables, meat, dairy products and so on. When animals are hungry, they eat plants (if they’re herbivores) or other animals (if they’re carnivores). So what’s food for plants? They must need some form of energy to survive, sustain and grow, right?
How Plants make Food and Energy?
Well, the answer is photosynthesis. The word can be split into two terms “photos”, meaning “light”, and “synthesis”, meaning “putting together”. So light is used to create something (energy for plants). Think of it as the procedure plants follow to make their food. In a nutshell, photosynthesis is a process in which the energy from the sun is used to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose is then used up as energy by the plant, and in doing so, oxygen is released as a byproduct.
Plants absorb energy from the sun, with the help of a pigment called “chlorophyll”, which is present in their leaves. This is also the pigment that gives leaves its green color.
Plants absorb water and other minerals from the soil with the help of their roots.
Plants also absorb CO2 from the air, with the help of “stomata”, which are pores in the leaves.
All these ingredients are taken to the leaves,

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======= Instance Index 16393 =========
Input Text: Process:
- The diaphragm contracts
- The lungs expand
- Air is pulled from outside the body, into the lungs
- The membranes in the lungs collect oxygen molecules
- Oxygen is transferred to red blood cells
- Red blood cells distribute oxygen throughout the body
- 

Question:
suppose "the oxygen doesnt convert to red blood cells" happens, how will it affect oxygen converts to red blood cells.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: Selenium. Selenium can also build up your white blood cells and can be found in cod, beef, tuna, salmon and chicken. Also at the top of the list are Brazil nuts, along with Pinto beans.... I have had the same problem and it seems just a matter of waiting. I moved from 3 to 4 between the 3rd week and the 4th week so the body is capable of repairing itself in a week.
The immune system also maintains a variety of white blood cells: Natural killer cells eradicate cancer cells and large white blood cells called macrophages gobble up diseased or damaged cells. In addition, specialized immune compounds, such as interferon, stimulate white blood cells to destroy cancerous cells.... Red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells in the body and pick up carbon dioxide. A low red blood cell count can be the result of blood loss, the destruction of the red blood cells, or an inadequate production of new red blood cells.
In fact, it can produce significant increases in hemoglobin, red blood cell, total white blood cell and differential white blood cell counts. This happens because wheatgrass is high in chlorophyll with a molecular structure almost identical to the hemoglobin molecule in human blood. how to build a baby changing table Eating certain foods can benefit the increase of white blood cells, but it is also important to consider other recommendations: Eating a healthy diet will be important to ensure an efficient immune system.
A healthy diet, is essential to increase the count of white

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: Although cats and dogs are very different animals, the fact is that cats need veterinary care, just like dogs do. They also need adequate food, companionship, time and all the commitment you can possibly give them.
As an owner, you are responsible for making sure your cat enjoys a full state of health and well-being, both physically, mentally and socially. This all depends on you being informed about various diseases that can affect your feline.
In this AnimalWised article you will find out some of the symptoms and treatments of anemia in cats, so that you know what is this disease, how it manifests itself and how to take action against it.
How is anemia in cats diagnosed?
Can you prevent anemia in cats?
Medically, the term anemia means a lack of red blood cells in the blood. Humans can also suffer from this disease. Red blood cells carry oxygen to nurture tissues and transport carbon dioxide until it is eliminated through respiration. When there are not enough red blood cells, not enough oxygen reaches its destiny and the organism becomes weak.
As outlined below, anemia can be caused by many factors, but they all lead to a decrease in red blood cell count and hemoglobin, which is the pigment responsible for the uptake and transport of oxygen.
As previously mentioned, red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen. Therefore, in case of anemia, the tissues in your cat's body will not get enough oxygen.
Hematocrit: This will indicate the volume of red blood cells in the cat's blood. It will determine whether this

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Retrieved Text: Hemoglobin a1c test is used as a standard tool to determine blood sugar control for patients with diabetes. the hemoglobin a1c (a1c) test can be unreliable for diagnosing or monitoring diabetes and prediabetes in people with inherited hemoglobin variants, also called.. The a1c value is affected by how long red blood cells have been in the body. some conditions can result in either a lot of older red blood cells or too many young red blood cells in the body. this can affect the accuracy of the test. scenario 1: if red blood cells are old, they’ll be exposed to serum glucose for a longer period of time.. Impact of hemoglobin variants on hb a1c on hb a1c interpretation: do we assume too 1 some hb variants can lead to decreased red blood cell.
Hemoglobin in red blood cells gives blood its red color and carries oxygen from your lungs to all parts of your body. some forms of hemoglobin can cause false results for a diabetes blood test called the a1c test.. … as the standard laboratory assessment of glycemic control and efficacy of using the a1c test may any one red blood cell. 13 because a1c is. Factors that interfere with hba1c test results. increased red cell turnover, arkray adams a1c ha-8180v variant mode.
Red blood cell variants and the a1c test describes hemoglobin variants how they can cause false results for the a1c test. discusses how false results can affect diabetes diagnosis and care in. if you need any more motivation to pursue normal blood

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen saturation refers to the level of oxygen carried by red blood cells through the arteries and delivered to internal organs. As red blood cells travel through the lungs, they are saturated with oxygen. A low saturation level could indicate a respiratory illness or other medical condition.
Oxygen saturation is measured to determine the severity of an illness and is often the determining factor for treatment. If red blood cells are not adequately transporting oxygen throughout the body, the saturation level falls. Oxygen saturation is measured by pulse oximetry, which uses a sensor of two light sources that haemoglobin absorbs then transmits through the body's tissues. A photodetector picks up the amount of light and converts it to a digital number, which is known as the oxygen saturation level or value.
Oxygen saturation level in healthy patients is considered normal between 97 per cent and 99 per cent. Patients who have normal haemoglobin levels can have a saturation level of 95. When the amount of oxygen in the blood is reduced, a condition known as hypoxaemia results, and treatment is then required. In severe cases of hypoxaemia, the patient exhibit a blue tint on his lips, gums, nail beds and around the mouth and eyes. This condition is called cyanosis.
Monitoring oxygen saturation requires a noninvasive monitor that is placed on a finger or toe. Known as pulse oximetry, the probe picks up a measurement of oxygen saturation through the infrared light that passes through tissue.
Oxygen saturation can also be measured through arterial blood gas. Unlike other blood tests,

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Retrieved Text: On average a human will spend up to two weeks kissing in his/her lifetime.
Tibet contains some of the world's tallest mountains including the tallest of all, Mount Everest. At 29,029ft it is over five miles high. It is very difficult to grasp how tall this is. Ben Nevis, the tallest mountain in the UK is 4,409ft tall. That's not even a pimple by Tibetan standards. Helicopters can't fly at this altitude; the air is so thin their blades can't get a grip. So how do the Tibetan people living that high up survive?
Living the high life – literally!
On average Tibet lies at an altitude of 16,500ft. The tallest mountain in the Alps, Mont Blanc, is only 15,781ft tall. Living at altitude presents the body with challenges.
The amount of oxygen in the air is much lower than at sea level. To compensate for this the human body pulls a really neat trick, it tells the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. More red blood cells mean it is easier for the blood to transport oxygen to different parts of the body. This is why athletes that compete in endurance events often train at altitude. If your body makes more red blood cells, when you come back down to sea level to compete, it can keep supplying the muscles with oxygen for longer.
The banned substance called EPO does the same thing. A quick injection under the skin and the bone marrow goes into overdrive. It can be very hard to detect with a dope test because

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Retrieved Text: Do I need a Pulse Oximeter?
Since you're here at ClinicalGuard.com, you probably browsing for medical equipment at affordable prices. Our best-selling category of products is Pulse Oximeters . How does it work? Do you need one? Let's take a look.
The blood consists of many different cells. The one carrying oxygen is the red blood cell. However, it's not always red. "Red" blood cells turn red when they encounter oxygen. When they do not contain oxygen, they are blue in color. Your arteries are red from carrying blood from your lungs and your veins are blue from carrying blood cells to your lungs. A patient who is not getting enough blood in his or her arteries will appear to have a dark or purplish color.
The circulatory system helps facilitate the transportation of oxygen thorough its oxygenation in the lungs its dispersion through the rest of the body. The heart, also oxygenated by the red blood cells, pumps the blood through the bloodstream. Healthy individuals have arteries that are a bright reddish color.
The part of the red blood cell that transports the oxygen molecules is called the hemoglobin. The hemoglobin absorbs and delivers the oxygen to the other cells in the body. That is where pulse oximeters come in.
The oximeter provides a non-invasive method of determining the amount of oxygen gets pumped from your heart through your circulatory system. By placing a pulse oximeter such as the Clinicalguard 50DL over your fingertip, it measures your blood oxygen saturation. By using a light and a sensor, the Clinicalguard 50DL

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Retrieved Text: Anaemia is a deficiency of haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells. Symptoms include tiredness, weakness, pallor, breathlessness on exertion and low resistance to infection.
The most common cause is iron deficiency due to blood loss, poor diet or failure to absorb iron from food. A doctor needs to determine the exact cause of anaemia before treatment, which aims to increase iron intake and improve its absorption.
Vitamin B1 is needed to form red blood cells.
Vitamin B6 increases energy levels.
Vitamin B2 is needed to form red blood cells.
Vitamin C aids iron absorption.
Copper helps to convert iron into haemoglobin.
Iron forms part of the red pigment haemoglobin which gives blood its colour and helps to transport oxygen to all cells.
Molybdenum is needed for iron metabolism.
Co-enzyme Q10 increases oxygen uptake by the cells.
Phytate fibre (found in bran and spinach) binds with iron and reduces its absorption.
Excessive amounts of dairy products, because calcium can interfere with iron absorption.
Where to Get Your Best Vitamin for Amnaemia Related Problem Online?
To purchase different types of vitamins mentioned on this page, you can get them at Wonderlabs, our recommended discount vitamin store. Read our review about Wonderlabs vitamin.
Go to top of Vitamin for Anaemia page.

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Retrieved Text: The cells in your body need oxygen to carry out metabolism and produce enough energy to live and support your activities. Red blood cells are responsible for picking up oxygen from your lungs, transporting it in your bloodstream and delivering it to cells that need it. You need iron and a variety of vitamins for maintaining high numbers of healthy red blood cells to keep oxygen levels in your blood as high as necessary. Nutrition may prevent anemia, or unhealthy red blood cells, but hypoxemia, or low blood oxygen, can be a serious medical condition that requires a doctor's attention, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Iron is the mineral in red blood cells that binds to oxygen, and vitamin C increases your body's ability to absorb iron in its nonheme form, according to the Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center. Nonheme iron is the form that you get from plant-based sources of iron, such as potatoes, prunes, beans, lentils and nuts. Some of the best sources of vitamin C are citrus fruits, such as oranges, grapefruits and their juices, tomatoes, onions, strawberries, bell peppers and potatoes. Vitamin C does not affect the absorption of heme iron from animal-based sources.
Your blood oxygen levels could be low if you are not getting enough pantothenic acid, or vitamin B-5, and vitamin B-6. These vitamins are essential for synthesizing heme, which is the protein part of the hemoglobin molecule that carries iron and oxygen in your blood, according to the Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center. Both of these vitamins are

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cell indices are measurements that describe the size and oxygen-carrying protein (hemoglobin) content of red blood cells.
Red blood cell indices are additional measurements of red blood cells based on the relationship of these three test results.
The measurement of the average concentration of hemoglobin in a red blood cell.
Cells with a normal concentration of hemoglobin are called normochromic; cells with a lower than normal concentration are called hypochromic.
Red blood cells are red only because they contain a protein chemical called hemoglobin which is bright red in color.
As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells.
The blood itself, however, is re-circulated throughout your body, not being remade all of the time.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are the most common type of blood cell and are the vertebrate body's principal means of delivering oxygen to body tissues via the blood.
Some athletes have tried doping their blood in the same way with their own packed cells, but this practice endangers the human cardiovascular system because it is not equipped to deal with blood of the higher resulting viscosity.
The aging cells swell up to a sphere-like shape and are engulfed by phagocytes[?], destroyed and their materials are released into the blood.
Red blood cells are also known as RBCs or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red" and kytos for "hollow", with cyte nowadays translated as "cell").
The blood plasma is straw-colored alone, but the red blood cells change colors due to the state of the hemoglobin: when combined with oxygen the resulting oxyhemoglobin is scarlet

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen saturation is a measure of the amount of oxygen in a person's red blood cells. When blood passes through the lungs, 95 to 100 per cent of the body's red blood cells bind to or become saturated with oxygen. Normal oxygen saturation levels are between 95 and 100 per cent.
The body needs oxygen to function properly. Oxygen saturation levels are an indication of whether a person's circulatory system or blood is carrying enough oxygen to all the organs in the body. Normal oxygen saturation levels signify the presence of adequate amounts of oxygen in the body.
Hypoxaemia is a condition where the oxygen content of the blood is low. This condition occurs when a person has low oxygen saturation levels. In this situation, the tissues and organs of the body do not get enough oxygen.
The red blood cells are needed to carry oxygen and maintain a normal oxygen saturation level. Low red blood cell levels, also known as anaemia, lead to low oxygen saturation levels because there is not enough red blood cells for oxygen to bind to.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that is found in car exhaust fumes. This gas has the ability to knock oxygen off a red blood cell and bind to that cell. Inhalation of this gas decreases the amount of oxygen available in the blood and causes low oxygen saturation levels.
Oxygen saturation level is measured using a pulse oximeter. This device is made of a clip and a detector. The clip is attached to a person's finger and shines a

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Retrieved Text: Cocker spaniels are one of many breeds predisposed to autoimmune hemolytic anemia.
Typically, anemia -- a reduction in red blood cells and hemoglobin -- is a symptom of an underlying medical condition. But autoimmune hemolytic anemia, or immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, is a disease separate from any underlying condition. In such a case, the normal immune system responsible for fighting off infection turns on the body and attacks the red blood cells.
Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia can affect any dog breed, though it is more common in some. Common breeds include Irish setters, English springer spaniels, cocker spaniels, Doberman pinschers, collies, Scottish terriers, miniature schnauzers, English sheepdogs and vizslas. Female dogs show a greater risk than male dogs. The disease is often triggered by internal and external factors such as stress, estrus, whelping or infection.
Because autoimmune hemolytic anemia attacks and reduces the number of red blood cells, the most visible symptom is pale coloring of the mucous membranes. You will notice the normal red or pink coloring of the gums changes to almost white. As bilirubin builds up in the body, this white color changes to a yellowish appearance, indicating jaundice. Usually, platelets responsible for clotting are also reduced. If this is the case, you may notice bruising under the skin in light-colored dogs. Some cases cause circulation problems in the ears, the feet and the tips of the tail, causing a dark bluish-black coloring.
Because red blood cells and hemoglobin carry oxygen to the cells, their reduction in numbers decreases your dog’s oxygen levels. Breathing may become rapid as the

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Retrieved Text: Anemia is the most common blood disorder. It affects more than 3 million Americans.
It is a condition that affects the red blood cells. It is either there is not much of it or they do not have enough haemoglobin, which brings oxygen to other cells and tissues in the body.
Oxygen is one of the most essential components in order for cells to function. When they do not receive enough, the organs also suffer. Thus, anemic patients tend to feel weak or easily get tired. In severe cases, they can hardly function.
Blood Loss: Blood loss or bleeding can occur for a variety of reasons, and it does not have to be sudden. Sometimes it is undetected such as when you suffer from internal bleeding, perhaps due to an injury or an illness like late stages of different types of cancer. Women are prone to anemia due to blood loss because of menstruation. Certain medications such as aspirin may also increase the risk of anemia because they make the blood thinner and cause ulcers in the stomach or gut. If you regularly donate blood, you are at risk of developing anemia. That is why you are advised to rest and donate again only three months after your previous contribution.
Insufficient Production: The body produces red and white blood cells via the bone marrow. Sometimes, however, it does not produce enough red blood cells perhaps due to a disease or a defect in the production process. One of the typical types of anemia under this category is sickle-cell anemia. It

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Retrieved Text: Hemoglobin is responsible for distributing oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide, throughout the circulatory systems of humans, vertebrates, and many invertebrates. The blood is more than the proteins, though. Blood is actually a term used to describe the liquid that moves through the vessels and includes plasma (the liquid portion, which contains water, proteins, salts, lipids, and glucose) and the cells (red and white cells) and cell fragments called platelets. Blood plasma is actually the dominant component of blood and contains the water, proteins, electrolytes, lipids, and glucose. The cells are responsible for carrying the gases (red cells) and immune the response (white). The platelets are responsible for blood clotting. Interstitial fluid that surrounds cells is separate from the blood, but in hemolymph, they are combined. In humans, cellular components make up approximately 45 percent of the blood and the liquid plasma 55 percent. Blood is 20 percent of a person’s extracellular fluid and eight percent of weight.
Figure 21.5 is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of infection.
Figure 21.5. The cells and cellular components of human blood are shown. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide. White blood cells—including neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils,

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Retrieved Text: The primary function of the red blood cells, or erythrocytes, is to carry oxygen from the lungs to body tissues and to transfer carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Oxygen transfer is accomplished via the hemoglobin contained in red blood cells. Hemoglobin combines readily with oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxyhemoglobin in arterial blood reflects a bright red color while carboxyhemoglobin of venous blood appears dark red. To enable the maximum O2 saturation of hemoglobin, red cells are shaped like biconcave disks. The shape provides more surface area for exposure of hemoglobin to dissolved oxygen. Red blood cells are also able to change shape to permit passage through small capillaries that connect arteries with veins.
The RBC is a count of the number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood. In response to hypoxia, the hormone erthyropoietin, secreted by the kidneys, stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells. The formation of red blood cells is known as erthyropoiesis.
Erythropoetin produced in the kidney stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.
An increase in red blood cell mass is known as polycythemia. Normal physiological increases in the RBC count occurs at high altitudes or after strenuous physical training. At high altitudes, less atmospheric weight pushes air into the lungs, causing a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen and hypoxia. With strenuous physical training, increased muscle mass demands more oxygen. The drugs gentamicin and methyldopa have been associated with increasing the number of red blood cells. Smokers also have a higher number

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Retrieved Text: What is artificial blood and why is the UK going to trial it?
Artificial blood will soon be tested in the UK for the first time. New Scientist takes a look at how – and why – this blood is made.
Blood substitutes aim to replicate one particular job of real blood: supplying oxygen to tissues. In other words, the goal is to find an alternative to oxygen-carrying red blood cells that could be used for transfusions. Today, the UK National Health Service announced it plans to start transfusing people with artificial blood by 2017 – the first clinical trials of this kind anywhere in the world.
Are there many different types?
More than you might think. Some researchers are working on blood substitutes based on the haemoglobin molecule that binds oxygen in red blood cells. One such product – Hemopure – is based on bovine haemoglobin, and was approved for human use in South Africa back in 2001. It is currently undergoing clinical trials in the US to help treat life-threatening anaemia.
Others are investigating whether it’s possible to make entirely synthetic substitutes based on oxygen-carrying molecules like perfluorocarbons. But the version the NHS will trial is based around real red blood cells that were generated in the lab.
How are these cells made?
From stem cells. Researchers have previously managed to take hematopoietic stem cells from volunteers’ bone marrow and encourage them to grow into red blood cells using chemical growth factors. The NHS will probably use a similar approach, although it also plans to explore using blood from umbilical cords

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Retrieved Text: Nadir is a term that refers to the lowest point of anything. When used in reference to chemotherapy, it describes the point when blood cell counts are at their lowest after a chemotherapy treatment. It is commonly referred to as the "nadir period" or simply "nadir" among healthcare workers and patients.
While chemotherapy directly targets cancer cells, it also affects our blood cells in the process -- red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These cells are manufactured in the bone marrow. During chemotherapy, bone marrow activity may be decreased, resulting in lowered blood cell counts within the body.
White blood cells (WBC) generally drop to their lowest count about 7 to 14 days after a chemotherapy treatment. When WBC are at their lowest count, people are at a heightened risk of developing infections. White blood cells are a vital component of the immune system, as they keep invading bacteria at bay. When the white blood cell count is too low, the immune system is compromised and cannot effectively fight infections.
Red blood cells (RBC) generally live longer than white blood cells and reach a nadir period weeks after treatment. Their job in the body is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues. RBC contain hemoglobin, an iron-rich protein that transports oxygen and also gives blood its red color. When red blood cell counts are too low, the result is called anemia.
Platelets generally reach their nadir period at about the same time as white blood cells. Platelets serve an important function by helping blood to

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Retrieved Text: To learn the pathway that the blood takes, and what happens as it travels throughout the entire circulatory system.
The description below assumes a class of exactly 24 students. For larger or smaller classes, you don't necessarily need to increase or decrease the amount of equipment needed since your students can share space in the Hula-Hoops and tug-of-war rope. But you will need to vary the red and blue playground ball counts to ensure that there are enough balls so that every student of each group can have one.
Activity Area Set-Up: Place (8) Hula-Hoops (body cells) on line on one side of your area, and (8) Hula-Hoops (lungs) on line on the other side. Form the tug-of-war rope (heart) into a large circle, centered between each line of hoops. Divide the tug-of-war rope circle in half by placing the (6) cones in the middle, to separate the heart chambers. Place all of the (16) foam noodles between the body cell hoops and the tug-of-war rope, alternating blue noodles (veins) with red noodles (arteries). Finally, place the (8) blue playground balls (blue blood deprived of oxygen) inside each of the body cell hoops, and the (8) red playground balls (red, oxygen-rich blood) inside each of the lungs hoops.
Evenly divide your class into (3) groups: the body cells, the heart, and the lungs. Direct each group to go stand in each designated area, so that your students will be occupying space in the Hula-Hoops on either side and within one side of the tug-of-war circle.
Instruct the body cell group

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Retrieved Text: Over the past five years, many studies have demonstrated that patients who receive blood transfusions have higher incidences of heart attack, heart failure, stroke, and even death. While it is known that the banked blood is not the same as blood in the body, the reasons behind banked blood's association with worse outcomes have not been well-understood.
But Duke Medical Center researchers have now discovered a property of banked blood that they believe may account for its questionable utility, and at the same time, uncovered a possible solution.
Almost immediately after it is donated, the researchers found, human blood begins to lose nitric oxide, a key gas that opens up blood vessels to facilitate the transfer of oxygen from red blood cells to oxygen-starved tissues.
"It doesn't matter how much oxygen is being carried by red blood cells, it cannot get to the tissues that need it without nitric oxide," says Jonathan Stamler, a professor of cardiovascular and pulmonary medicine and senior author of one of two papers published by the researchers in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. "If the blood vessels cannot open, the red blood cells back up in the vessel, and tissues go without oxygen. The result can be a heart attack or even death."
They also found that as nitric oxide levels decrease, the red blood cells become stiffer, making it more difficult for them to deform their shape in order to squeeze through tiny blood vessels. "The issue of transfused blood being potentially harmful to patients is one of the biggest problems

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Retrieved Text: What happens if hemoglobin is low – what happens when hemoglobin level drops too low? you die. miserably. forgive my frankness. think about being so short of breath that walking across a room feels like a fat person trying to run a marathon.. Yes, both chemotherapy and radiation treatment can cause anemia, which in turn can lower the amount of hemoglobin in your father’s blood. low hemoglobin causes fatigue and shortness of breath because there are too few red blood cells to circulate oxygen to the tissues, making your father’s body feel like it’s hard to move.. What will happen if the body has a low hemoglobin count? what happens if hemoglobin decreases? if someone has a very low hemoglobin level then it could be.
Your doctor not knowing why your hemoglobin is so low isn’t good enough. reminds me of a long time ago when i got a blood test, result was low hemoglobin,. What happens if your glucose levels are low but your hemoglobin a1c levels are high? a: what does it mean when your hemoglobin some causes of falsely low. Low hgb and hct . people with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) and hematocrit (hct) in their blood will often suffer from a condition called anemia..
Hemoglobin is very essential component of your body . hemoglobin transfer oxygen from lungs to your body. when hemoglobin is low in body it did not properly transport oxygen to other body parts which causes significant damage depending upon the extent how much oxygen is not given. hemoglobin must

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Retrieved Text: What is the function of blood?
What are the components of blood?
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) - carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Platelets (thrombocytes) - help in blood clotting.
Where are blood cells made?
Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The bone marrow is the spongy material in the center of the bones that produces about 95 percent of the body's blood cells.
There are other organs and systems in our bodies that help regulate blood cells. The lymph nodes, spleen, and liver help regulate the production, destruction, and differentiation (developing a specific function) of cells. The production and development of new cells is a process called hematopoiesis.
Blood cells formed in the bone marrow start out as a stem cell. A "stem cell" (or hematopoietic cell) is the initial phase of all blood cells. As the stem cell matures, several distinct cells evolve such as the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Immature blood cells are also called blasts. Some blasts stay in the marrow to mature and others travel to other parts of the body to develop into mature, functioning blood cells.
What are the functions of blood cells?
The primary function of red blood cells, or erythrocytes, is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin (Hgb) is an important protein in the red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of our body.
Help heal wounds not only by fighting infection but also by ingesting matter such as dead cells, tissue debris and old red blood cells.
Are our protection

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Retrieved Text: A 23-year-old woman presented with hematuria. Her blood pressure was normal, and she had no rash, joint pain, or other symptoms. Urinalysis was positive for proteinuria and hematuria, and urinary sediment analysis showed dysmorphic red blood cells (RBCs) and red cell casts, leading to a diagnosis of glomerulonephritis.... A cell in the blood of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues. In mammals, the red blood cell is disk-shaped and biconcave, contains hemoglobin, and lacks a nucleus.
a preparation of red blood cells separated from a donor unit of whole blood. It is administered to restore adequate levels of hemoglobin and oxygen-carrying capability without overloading the vascular system with excess fluid.... Erythropoiesis (from Greek 'erythro' meaning "red" and 'poiesis' meaning "to make") is the process which produces red blood cells (erythrocytes).
A type of blood cell that is made in the bone marrow and found in the blood. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
The biconcave shape and corresponding deformability of the human red blood cell (RBC) is an essential feature of its biological function. This feature of RBCs can be critically affected by genetic or acquired pathological conditions.

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Retrieved Text: Structure of human hemoglobin. The protein's ? and ? subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From PDB 1GZX Proteopedia .
Red blood cells are red only because they contain a protein chemical called hemoglobin which is bright red in color. Hemoglobin contains the element Iron, .
Aug 3, 2010 . This is another video that I did for extra credit, sorry did not have much time to do it, so I apologize for the quality of it. I also apologize for any .
Apr 27, 2011 . Hemoglobin: The oxygen-carrying pigment and predominant protein in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin forms an unstable, reversible bond with .
Hemoglobin (Hb or Hgb) is the main component of red blood cells. A low hemoglobin count is generally defined as less than 13.5 grams of hemoglobin per .
Hemoglobin (Hg or Hgb) is the main component of red blood cells. Hemoglobin count  also referred to as hemoglobin level  indicates your blood's .
Does a red blood cell have Hemoglobin? yes. Does hemoglobin turn your veins red? no! Why Hemoglobin is red in color? Basically, for the same reason that .
Hemoglobin (or haemoglobin, frequently abbreviated as Hb), which is contained in red blood cells, serves as the oxygen carrier in blood. The name hemoglobin .
Polycythemia is an increased number of red blood cells in the blood. In polycythemia, the levels of hemoglobin (Hgb), hematocrit (Hct), or the red blood cell .
In sickle cell anemia, the abnormal hemoglobin (Hemoglobin-S) sticks together when it gives up its oxygen to

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Retrieved Text: October 2018 – Life and The Stuff That Happens!
Monday 😊 Make It Matter!
Chia seeds are extremely healthy, and are known as a superfood.
Once sprouted, chia seeds are also high in chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a powerful blood cleanser, it replenishes and increases our red blood cell count and increases the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen and deliver us increased levels of oxygen.

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Rank: 27
Score: 68.25613
Retrieved Text: Hemoglobin S/C disease (Hb S/C) is a rare genetic condition. Hb S/C affects the number or shape of the red blood cells in the body. Normally, the red blood cells are round and donut-shaped. They bring the oxygen we breathe from our lungs to different parts of our body. Those with Hb S/C make some red blood cells that are crescent or sickle shaped rather than a round, donut shape. These unusually shaped cells do not last as long as normal red blood cells and die off. This can lead to anemia (a low number of red blood cells). The sickle or crescent shaped cells also tend to get stuck in blood vessels. When this happens, some parts of the body may not get enough blood. If red blood cells are not able to move through the blood vessels, parts of the body cannot get enough oxygen. Therefore, it is very important for our bodies to have an adequate number of red blood cells.
Those affected by Hb S/C may develop signs and symptoms a couple of months after birth. The characteristic features of this condition may include pale skin, sleeping longer or more often, tiredness, difficulty breathing, pain or swelling in the hands or feet, and cold hands or feet. If untreated, this disorder can lead to organ failure and death. Many of these complications can be prevented with early detection and lifelong management with appropriate medications, fluids, and blood transfusions. Many babies are screened for Hb S/C at birth so that treatment can begin early,

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Rank: 28
Score: 68.04077
Retrieved Text: A few drops of blood.
Millions of erythrocytes – red blood cells.
were speeding through my body.
because there simply isn’t room.
Not when you have a single job: pack yourself with oxygen.
One small red blood cell has 250 million molecules of hemoglobin clasping 1 billion molecules of oxygen.
They hold tight through arteries and blood vessels, until the capillaries, where oxygen – the unsocial, dissociative molecule it is – checks out, goes its own way, to where it’s actually needed.
Red blood cells are designed to not even use the oxygen they carry on their journey.
The body does not like to waste.
These millions of escapee cells, loosed by the slip of my knife will be quickly replaced.
Perhaps death to open air is preferred to being eaten by a phagocytic cell, which would’ve happened anyway after three or four months of constant service – clock in when you’re born and out at your death.
and salts and proteins and hormones and wastes.
those white blood cells always on patrol for enemies, ready to destroy.
otherwise, they might just take my whole ship down.

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Rank: 29
Score: 68.0088
Retrieved Text: If you are a teenage girl in the UK you have an increased risk for developing iron-deficiency anaemia. Current statistics in the UK show 44% of girls aged between 11-14 and 48% of girls aged between 15-18 have low intakes of iron in their diet. Vegetarians and Vegans are at further risk for iron deficiency because iron from plant foods is not as well absorbed as iron from animal sources.
The symptoms of anaemia are primarily related to oxygen transport. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, a protein that transports oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body. Iron is an integral component of haemoglobin. Iron deficiency anaemia causes a drop in red blood cells and haemoglobin. As the haemoglobin levels drop below normal, symptoms begin to appear.
The most common symptom of iron deficiency in teenagers is fatigue. The decrease in available oxygen because of inadequate haemoglobin means the body’s cells cannot carry out their metabolic functions. Red blood cells provide the normal pink colour to the skin, so a person with anaemia may be pale. Your heart will beat faster because it’s trying to get the required amount of oxygen to the body by speeding up the circulation.
Even before anaemia develops, iron deficiency can affect your mental functions. You may have difficulty concentrating, remembering things or learning something new. As iron deficiency anaemia progresses, you may feel tired all the time and short of breath. Climbing stairs or exercising can become a major effort, because your body cannot respond to the extra demand for oxygen.

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Input Text: Process:
- Blood sugar levels increase after a meal
- Cells in the pancreas release insulin
- Insulin causes the body to absorb glucose from the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal
- Blood sugar is too low
- The amount of insulin goes down
- Cells in the pancreas release glucagon
- The liver turns stored glycogen into glucose
- The liver releases the glucose into the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal.

Question:
suppose liver breaks down glycogen in response to lowered blood glucose level happens, how will it affect blood glucose level returning to more normal state.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 80.20356
Retrieved Text: Muscle glycogen accumulation after endurance exercise in trained and untrained individuals is a paper written about a study that measured the glycogen accumulation in the tissues of muscles of trained and untrained people after they performed strenuous exercise. The purpose of this study was to determine if a group of trained individuals was more capable at excelling at strenuous exercises in comparison to a group of untrained individuals. The scientists conducting the test hypothesized that trained individuals would be able to exercise longer and recuperate faster. The test also attempts to show that the reason for this ability would be a higher amount of glycogen present in the bodies of trained individuals, and the ability to resynthesize it faster.
In order for your body to work, especially during physical activities, it needs an energy source. What your body uses as one of its energy source is a molecule called glucose. The cells of your body break down glucose through a process called glycolysis. In glycolysis energy is transferred from bonds in the glucose molecule to phosphate bonds in ATP and GTP, and hydrogen bonds in NADH and FADH. Your body then uses the ATP produced to power cellular processes. It’s all a matter of energy transfer.
How does this relate to Glycogen?
Glucose is a monosaccharide, in other words a sugar. The formula for glucose is C6H12O6. Glycogen is simply a branched polymer of glucose.
Glycogen is found mostly in the liver and muscles. However, it is broken down differently in each. In the liver a hormone called glucagon breaks

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Rank: 1
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Retrieved Text: The skinny and fat on sugar.
Not all sugar is bad! In a nut shell, high sugar consumption impacts blood sugar and makes you store fat easier and feel hungrier quicker!
The carbohydrate family includes both simple and complex carbohydrates. Glucose is used as the 100% glycemic index standard for impacting the body’s response to blood sugar. Sucrose rates at 65, milk or galactose sugar is 43 and fructose fruit sugar is 22. As you can see fruit will have minimal negative impact on fat storage in your body! This hormone (insulin) is manufactured and secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas. Glucagon is also taken from the pancreas to prevent blood sugar from fallen too low. The main role of glucagon is preventing too low blood sugar by breaking down the glycogen in the liver to glucose.
Once carbohydrates are consumed, when insulin levels are spiked it pulls glucose, amino acids and free fatty acids into cells where energy is stored as fat and glycogen to be used latter. After one eats carbohydrates the digestive enzymes breakdown the food.
The blood in the intestines now has an elevated glucose level. What happens when you have high insulin levels?
Glucose is the major signal for insulin secretion, insulin then promotes the storage of sugar as glycogen in the liver and muscle.
Insulin promotes the storage of fat in fat cells as triglycerides. Insulin also prevents the breakdown of glycogen and fat.
Insulin will then prevent lipase which is another enzyme that breaks down stored fats.
As you can see elevated insulin levels helps

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Rank: 2
Score: 79.603485
Retrieved Text: Some diabetics carry a chocolate bar.
This Biology quiz is called 'Glucagon' and it has been written by teachers to help you if you are studying the subject at middle school. Playing educational quizzes is a fabulous way to learn if you are in the 6th, 7th or 8th grade - aged 11 to 14.
The amount of glucose, or sugar, in the blood must be kept within certain levels. This middle school Biology quiz looks at how the body regulates blood sugar levels with hormones, and it concentrates on how glucagon is used to increase the amount of glucose in the blood.
If you measure the blood glucose level of two people who haven't eaten for several hours, it would normally be between 4 to 6 mmol/l. If the test subjects then swallow a glucose drink, measuring the level again would give a reading of higher than the top value, perhaps around 8 - 10 mmol/l. But if the level is measured again, about 30 minutes later, it would be lower, with exercise, it could even be back down into the normal range. Somehow, the body regulates its blood sugar level. It does this by using two hormones, insulin and glucagon. Glucose is required for the process of respiration so it is important to always have the right concentration in the bloodstream. The regulation of glucose involves the liver and also the pancreas.
When the level of glucose in the blood is high, it stimulates the pancreas to release the hormone insulin. Hormones are chemical messengers and insulin makes

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Rank: 3
Score: 79.29545
Retrieved Text: Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose drops below normal levels. Glucose, an important source of energy for the body, comes from food. Carbohydrates are the main dietary source of glucose. Rice, potatoes, bread, tortillas, cereal, milk, fruit, and sweets are all carbohydrate-rich foods.
After a meal, glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the body’s cells. Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps the cells use glucose for energy. If a person takes in more glucose than the body needs at the time, the body stores the extra glucose in the liver and muscles in a form called glycogen. The body can use glycogen for energy between meals. Extra glucose can also be changed to fat and stored in fat cells. Fat can also be used for energy.
When blood glucose begins to fall, glucagon—another hormone made by the pancreas—signals the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream. Blood glucose will then rise toward a normal level. In some people with diabetes, this glucagon response to hypoglycemia is impaired and other hormones such as epinephrine, also called adrenaline, may raise the blood glucose level. But with diabetes treated with insulin or pills that increase insulin production, glucose levels can’t easily return to the normal range.
Hypoglycemia can happen suddenly. It is usually mild and can be treated quickly and easily by eating or drinking a small amount of glucose-rich food. If left untreated, hypoglycemia can get worse and cause confusion, clumsiness, or fainting. Severe

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Rank: 4
Score: 78.451004
Retrieved Text: Will Not Eating Raise or Lower Blood Sugar?
Your body uses the simple sugar glucose as fuel for energy. You obtain glucose from the carbohydrates you eat. If you do not eat regularly, your body does not have access to glucose, and as a result, your blood sugar will lower, a medical condition called hypoglycemia. Severe hypoglycemia can cause dangerous complications, such as seizures, loss of consciousness and death.
When you consume carbohydrates, your body breaks them down into glucose, which enters your bloodstream through your small intestine. The presence of glucose in your bloodstream signals your pancreas to release insulin, which attaches to the glucose and carries it to your cells. Your cells use the glucose they need and then the rest of the glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in your liver.
When you go for a period of time without eating, your blood sugar lowers and your pancreas releases a hormone called glucagon, which triggers your liver to release glycogen. If you go too long without eating, the glycogen stores in your liver become depleted, leaving you without a source of energy.
Glucose is the preferred source of energy for your brain.To function properly, your brain needs a steady supply of glucose, which is provided only by eating regularly. If you do not eat regularly, your brain becomes starved of glucose and several physical symptoms may develop. Possible symptoms of lowered blood sugar include confusion, double vision, blurred vision, tremor, anxiety, hunger, increased perspiration and heart palpitations.
The quickest way to treat low blood sugar is to

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Rank: 5
Score: 76.34328
Retrieved Text: Insulin is a hormone that is produced by the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans of the pancreas in response to high levels of sugar in the blood.
Insulin is made of amino acids and consists of two chains named an A chain and a B chain, that are joined together by sulfur bonds. Insulin is produced from a proinsulin hormone that actually has three amino acid chains. An enzyme modifies the hormone in such a way that only the A and B chain remains to form insulin.
The secretion of insulin is mainly triggered by high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia) in the arterial blood. Some types of fatty acids, keto acids, and amino acids can also trigger insulin secretion. As blood sugar levels decrease so the levels of insulin decrease, ensuring that no more insulin is secreted than is necessary.
Insulin has the effect of causing the uptake of glucose into fatty tissue (adipose) and stimulating the uptake of fatty acids. Insulin also stimulates the uptake of glucose into the liver and into the muscle. In muscle tissue and in liver tissue the glucose is converted into glycogen in the process of glycogenesis. Glycogen is how glucose is stored in the human body. Insulin stops the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and stops the formation and release of glucose into the bloodstream. Insulin really triggers the uptake of glucose into the tissues and thus results in a lowering of blood sugar levels.
Diabetes is an illness in which there are problems related to insulin. In type 1

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Rank: 6
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Retrieved Text: Home Self care What is Insulin Insensitivity?
There is a lot written and heard about diabetes type 2“the modern life style disease”. Controlling of blood sugar level in body is done by a small gland named “Pancreas”; it secretes two hormones that play the role of regulator of blood sugar. Functioning of human body is dependent on optimum blood glucose level which runs all organs and regulates their secretions.
Pancreas gland is located in the lower abdomen right hand side below liver and is a leaf life structure. It secretes two hormones “Insulin & glucagon” Insulin is from beta cells and glucagon is from alpha cells. Both are responsible for the blood glucose regulation.
How blood sugar is regulated?
The body tightly regulates blood glucose level as a part of metabolic homeostasis . After digestion of the food there is a rise in the blood sugar level in this event pancreas secretes insulin hormone, which stimulates the cells in our body to use glucose, resulting a fall in glucose level. It also instructs liver to converts the excess glucose to glycogen which is stored in liver as a reserve to be used when required.
When glucose level falls below an optimal point glucagon hormone is secreted that instruct liver to convert the stored glycogen to glucose.
Consumption of high GI (Glycemic Index) foods leads to a sharp rise to blood glucose level followed by low dip in its level in a short period of time. Refined floor, bakery items, canned juices; aerated drinks are few food items with high GI. This over

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Rank: 7
Score: 76.2456
Retrieved Text: This is an excerpt from Athlete’s Guide to Diabetes, The by Sheri Colberg-Ochs.
The ­human body only has insulin to lower blood glucose but has five hormones that raise it (with some overlap). This hormone redundancy tells you that, at least from a survival standpoint, your body is desperate to make sure you do not run out of blood glucose; it is not as concerned about you having too much. Insulin is an impor­tant hormone for regulating your body's storage of fuels (carbohydrate, fat, and protein) ­after you eat. It tells your insulin-­sensitive cells (mainly your muscle and fat cells but also your liver) to take up glucose and fat to store them for ­later as muscle and liver glycogen (the storage form of glucose) as well as stored fat. During exercise, any insulin in your bloodstream can make your muscles take up extra blood glucose. In ­people who have a pancreas that functions normally, insulin levels typically decrease during exercise, and levels of a hormone called glucagon (released from the alpha cells of the pancreas) rise to stimulate glucose release.
Your blood glucose levels are managed by your liver, which would normally respond to the relative amounts of insulin and glucagon (­table 2.1). Insulin and glucagon released from the pancreas go directly to the liver via the portal circulation. ­After a meal, high insulin and glucose levels tell the liver to store glucose for ­later use; fasting overnight or ­doing extended exercise leads to glucagon signaling the liver to release glucose. How ­people with type 1 diabetes

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Rank: 8
Score: 75.683464
Retrieved Text: Live For Food » Blog Archive » We need glucose for energy – so why not eat sugar?
We need glucose for energy – so why not eat sugar?
I have already talked about how the body breaks down the carbohydrates we eat into glucose molecules, and as we know, glucose is a type of sugar.
The body then transports the glucose to its many cells where it is used as energy in carrying out bodily functions and movements.
So the question that comes to mind is that if the body needs glucose to function, what is so bad about eating sugar and sugary products? Surely we are doing the body a favor by giving it much needed energy?
When we eat carbohydrates of any kind the body breaks these down into glucose molecules in the intestine.
The glucose is taken into the bloodstream and transported to the cells.
Blood sugar levels refer to the amount of glucose currently in the bloodstream.
The pancreas notices what the blood sugar levels are.
If the levels are high, i.e. lots of glucose in the blood, the pancreas release a hormone called insulin.
Insulin allows the cells to absorb the glucose from the blood, thus reducing blood sugar levels.
Then the pancreas detects the blood sugar levels are back to normal and stop producing insulin.
What happens when the cells are full of glucose?
Insulin helps to store any excess glucose.
First it is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Glycogen can be easily used as energy when the glucose in the cells runs out.
Any further excess glucose is stored as fat.
Fat

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Rank: 9
Score: 75.382744
Retrieved Text: Simple carbs, being sugars (glucose), are absorbed into the bloodstream very quickly. The exception is fruit sugar (fructose) which needs to be converted into glucose first.
Complex carbs (especially low glycemic index complex carbs) many of which are starchy carbohydrates, need more time to be digested.
The process begins in the mouth when an enzyme in saliva (amylase) begins to break down starchy carbohydrates.
After swallowing, the starchy carbs reach the stomach where hydrochloric acid combines with them and acts on the protein in the food. The stomach also acts as a reservoir for food, squirting out small amounts into the intestines at intervals.
In the small intestine (where most carb-digestion occurs) the starch is processed by the enzyme amylase and converted into maltose and sucrose.
The maltose and sucrose are then absorbed into the lining cells of the intestine and are further simplified, being converted into glucose.
Once the starchy or sugary carbs are digested and converted to glucose, the glucose then enters the bloodstream and the level of blood-glucose rises. This induces the pancreas to secrete insulin into the blood which "mops up" the glucose and helps convert it into the storage-type of carbohydrate, called glycogen, which is deposited in the liver and in the muscles.
When the liver and muscle glycogen stores are full, any extra glucose is converted into fat. This adds to fat stores, but to a lesser extent than fat released from fatty foods.
The liver glycogen helps to keep blood-sugar levels in the normal range. If blood sugar falls, glycogen is converted into glucose which enters the

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Rank: 10
Score: 74.9779
Retrieved Text: As the name suggests, fasting means not eating or drinking any fluids (other than water) for several hours. Fasting blood sugar level is measured as a test for diabetes. After fasting of 8 hours, a carbohydrate metabolism test is done to measure blood glucose levels. In the early morning hours, hormonal changes in your body cause blood glucose to rise naturally. For people free from diabetes, the increase in blood glucose is reduced to no by increased insulin production. For the diabetics, glucose metabolism is a problem. The improper functioning of insulin is troublesome.
Insulin and glucagon work together, rather antagonistically, to maintain the blood glucose level. When you eat something the carbohydrates are metabolized and glucose is carried to the various organs through the bloodstream. The excess of glucose obtained from carbohydrate metabolism is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver to be used when required. When the blood glucose level falls glucagon converts the glycogen stored in the liver into glucose, which is carried to the body organs via the bloodstream. Thus, the carbohydrates consumed by us are properly utilized by the body and the normal blood glucose level is maintained. Insulin insufficiency or failure of the body to respond to insulin causes the diabetic condition.
During fasting, the hormone glucagon is stimulated which increases plasma glucose levels in the body. Glucagon allows the body to regulate the utilization of glucose and fats. Glucagon is released in response to low blood glucose levels and when the body needs additional glucose, such as during vigorous exercise

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Rank: 11
Score: 73.024765
Retrieved Text: Glucose is an important fuel for the body to produce energy. The glucose used by the body as a fuel is released from the metabolism of carbohydrates. After a meal, glucose is produced and circulated to different body cells through the circulating blood. The cells require insulin to take up glucose inside the membrane and generate energy. When there is inadequate production of insulin, glucose metabolism is slowed down and less glucose is circulated in the blood. This condition is termed as Hypoglycemia. It happens to every diabetic patient from time to time and the severity differs in each case. Although you are taking good care of diabetes, hypoglycemia may result as it is mostly an insulin reaction which in turn depends on number of factors at a time.
As blood sugar begins to fall, the counter regulatory hormone like glucagon, another hormone stimulates break down of glycogen and releases glucose, causing blood glucose level to rise. For diabetes, glucagon response to hypoglycemia is impaired, which makes it tough for the body to revert back the normal blood glucose level.
Hypoglycemia can be diagonised in people with diabetes who take certain medications to keep their blood glucose levels in control. Hypoglycemia is mild and it can be easily treated by drinking or eating something with carbohydrate. But left untreated, hypoglycemia can lead to loss of consciousness. Although it can happen suddenly, hypoglycemia can usually be treated quickly, bringing your blood glucose level back to the normal.
Hypoglycemia is a problem for every diabetic so it is important to learn

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Rank: 12
Score: 72.71314
Retrieved Text: This set of Life Sciences Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs) focuses on “Carbohydrate Metabolism”.
1. Name the pathway for glucose synthesis by non-carbohydrate precursors?
Explanation: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources is carried out by gluconeogenesis. It is the universal pathway, found in all plants, animals, and microorganisms.
2. What is the site for gluconeogenesis?
Explanation: Gluconeogenesis in animals takes place in the liver as well as some extent in the kidney cortex. The kidney is capable of making glucose during the condition of starvation and can make up to 50% of glucose.
3. Which of the following is not the precursor of gluconeogenesis?
Explanation: Only leucine or lysine is the substrate which is not used for gluconeogenesis as these amino acids produce only acetyl-CoA upon degradation. Animals cannot carry out gluconeogenesis by two acetyl carbon of acetyl-CoA.
4. Name the enzyme which is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)?
Explanation: The conversion of pyruvate to PEP takes place in two stages, the first reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase which converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate and in second reaction oxaloacetate is converted by pyruvate carboxykinase to PEP.
5. Gluconeogenesis is also carried out in muscle and brain.
Explanation: Gluconeogenesis cannot be carried out in muscle and brain as they do not have glucose 6-phosphatase enzyme which is required to convert glucose 6-phosphate to glucose. Glucose 6-phosphatase can only be established in the endoplasmic reticulum of kidney and liver cells.
6. Which of the following are major sites for glycogen storage?
Explanation: Glycogen is stored in muscle and liver only. The amount of glycogen is

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Rank: 13
Score: 72.71246
Retrieved Text: I’ve decided to write a little bit on nutrition and how our bodies take in the garbage we feed it. I’ll devote one section to each macronutrient and then bring it all together at the end. First I want to explain that all of the information below is based on different books, articles, podcasts etc that I have consumed.
So many choices – if you google diet you will quickly become overwhelmed. There are some many ideas out there, any most of them all contradict each other. I decided to take a different approach to overall wellness. I read a book that totally changed my perspective, and it did it in a way that for me was completely unexpected. That book is called Good Calories, Bad Calories by Gary Taubes.
Remember sitting in a health or nutrition class in college? Do you remember reading or listening to the instructor talk about how nutrients are absorbed into the body? I remember hearing about insulin and blood glucose, about leptin and ghrelin, carbohydrates, protein and fat. The different pathways that exist to digest and absorb the nutrients that we ingest.
And then all of that went out the window when it comes to the foods we should actually put into our body.
According to the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services, today, the average American eats 152 POUNDS of sugar a year. Full stop. That is basically 6 ounces of sugar daily, ON AVERAGE. Holy crap. Compare that to pre modern era where the average American ate 3 pounds of

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Rank: 14
Score: 72.677345
Retrieved Text: Insulin, hormone that regulates the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood and that is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Insulin is secreted when the level of blood glucose rises—as after a meal. When the level of blood glucose falls, secretion of insulin stops, and the liver releases glucose into the blood. Insulin was first reported in pancreatic extracts in 1921, having been identified by Canadian scientists Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best and by Romanian physiologist Nicolas C. Paulescu, who was working independently and called the substance “pancrein.” After Banting and Best isolated insulin, they began work to obtain a purified extract, which they accomplished with the help of Scottish physiologist J.J.R. Macleod and Canadian chemist James B. Collip. Banting and Macleod shared the 1923 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their work.
Insulin is a protein composed of two chains, an A chain (with 21 amino acids) and a B chain (with 30 amino acids), which are linked together by sulfur atoms. Insulin is derived from a 74-amino-acid prohormone molecule called proinsulin. Proinsulin is relatively inactive, and under normal conditions only a small amount of it is secreted. In the endoplasmic reticulum of beta cells the proinsulin molecule is cleaved in two places, yielding the A and B chains of insulin and an intervening, biologically inactive C peptide. The A and B chains become linked together by two sulfur-sulfur (disulfide) bonds. Proinsulin, insulin, and C peptide are stored in granules in the beta cells, from

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Rank: 15
Score: 72.62163
Retrieved Text: Insulin Sensitizers are usually the mix of the best herbal ingredients that may enhance blood sugar control and insulin sensitivity. Benefits attributed to increasing insulin control include increased lean muscle mass, strength, and stamina. In addition it decreases body fat, by stimulating lipolysis and blocking fat accumulation.
Insulin is a natural hormone that is secreted from the pancreas in response to high sugar levels. Its main function is to regular sugar levels in the body. When you eat carbohydrates your body releases insulin to regulate your blood sugar levels, and the glucose will be transported into muscle tissue and fat cells, lowering blood sugar levels. Insulin helps to replenish glycogen storage, increase amino acid uptake, muscle protein synthesis and stop protein breakdown. However insulin also has a downside. Insulin also plays a role in storing fat. When insulin is released, it causes the liver and the muscles to store glucose as glycogen. This is fine when your liver needs its glycogen level replenished, such as after a workout. If the stores are already full of glycogen, however, any extra glucose will be transported to fat cells. Thus insulin\'s anabolic properties make it important when thinking about packing on muscle. However, too much insulin could increase those un-wanted fat stores around your waist. Insulin sensitizer supplements help to take under control this highly anabolic hormone, we can stabilize blood sugar levels, decrease body fat and increase lean body mass.
Insulin Sensitizers are usually the mix of the best herbal ingredients that may enhance blood sugar control and insulin sensitivity.
First

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Rank: 16
Score: 72.60539
Retrieved Text: The primary source of muscle energy production is Adenosine Triphosphate ->ATP). To produce ATP, living cells draw glucose from glycogen, a long-chain complex carbohydrate stored nearby in the muscles or liver. Each muscle store of glycogen has a chemical structure nearly identical to common starch and similar to long-chain maltodextrin. Glycogen is an endogenous Glucans Polysaccharide, very complex carbohydrate consisting of long-chains of glucose linked together. During exercise, the body's first choice is reducing glycogen to individual glucose molecules, which are shuttled into tiny mitochondria cells, which convert glucose to ATP for energy metabolism. Complimentary fat and amino acids ->from lean muscle tissue) are mobilized to postpone rapid depletion of glycogen and makeup any glycogen glucose shortfalls. ATP synthesis from muscle glycogen is the most efficient energy source, regenerating over double the rate energy from fat and lean muscle protein combined.
Glycogen, ->or "animal starch"), has a structure identical to plant starch Amylopectin. Starchy foods with the highest % of Amylopectin are structurally most like human muscle glycogen. Spirulina is the only known food source that contains pure glycogen ->24% of its calories from complex carbohydrates are "pure"glycogen.) Potato starch is the 2nd food-like glycogen and a close 3rd is grain maltodextrins.
Starch is a white, granular or powdery, odorless, tasteless, complex carbohydrate, ->C6H10O5)x, abundant in the seeds of cereal plants and in bulbs and tubers. Molecules of starch are made of hundreds or thousands of atoms, corresponding to values of x, as given in the formula above, that range from about 50 to many thousands. Native starch

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Rank: 17
Score: 72.19065
Retrieved Text: The liver, located behind the lower right part of your ribs, is the largest organ in your body (weighing about 3 pounds). Your liver performs more than 500 functions, including storing nutrients, filtering and processing chemicals in food, and producing bile, a substance that helps digest fats and eliminate waste products.
All the blood leaving your stomach and intestines passes through the liver. The liver processes this blood and breaks down the nutrients and other substances (such as drugs) into forms for use by the rest of your body.
Processes most of the nutrients absorbed by your intestines during digestion and converts those nutrients into forms that can be used by your body, including the amounts of glucose (sugar), protein, and fat that enter your bloodstream.
Removes or neutralizes poisons from your blood that are the normal by-products of your body’s metabolism. This includes, for example, bilirubin, which is a by-product of the breakdown of red blood cells) and ammonia, which accumulates in your blood when your body metabolizes (breaks down) proteins.
Metabolizes (breaks down) alcohol and many medications.
Produces bile, which helps digest fats and absorb fat-soluble vitamins.
Produces cholesterol and special proteins (known as lipoproteins) to help carry fats through the body.
Produces substances that help blood clot, and certain important proteins, such as albumin.
Stores some nutrients, such as sugar, vitamin A, iron, and other minerals. For example, your liver converts excess glucose (sugar) in your blood into glycogen for storage—glycogen can later be converted back to glucose for energy, as needed by your body.
Produces immune agents to help control infections,

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Rank: 18
Score: 71.789505
Retrieved Text: The effect of hypoxia on the level of carbohydrate metabolites glycogen and glucose were studied in brain, muscles and liver of snakehead fish, Channa striatus. Hypoxia exposure decreased the glycogen level in brain and muscles of female fishes but increased in male fishes. Hypoxia exposure increased glucose level in brain and muscles of female fishes but decreased in male fishes. The level of glycogen and glucose in liver decreased in both male and female fishes during hypoxia. In the present study, the haematological data of Channa striatus revealed that significant increase (P<0.05 and Â0.01) was observed in red blood cell count (RBC) and hemoglobin (Hb) content respectively. White blood cell (WBC) count showed significant (P<0.01) increase when compared to the control. Increase in haematological indices means that fish was exposed to hypoxia and was under stress.
Key words : Carbohydrate metabolites, Haematologyical indices, Hypoxia, Stress.

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Rank: 19
Score: 71.73848
Retrieved Text: In between the few exams I have and the mountain of revision that I left to the last minute, I will try and publish a good quality article. Regardless, today I will reveal what really makes up that protein shake, lump of chicken or tuna that you consume daily to try and reap the benefits of that glorious workout you just did. What makes up protein? Where is the best pace to find it? And how does your body use it?
you will notice that on the packet it says “Whey Protein” and normally accompanied by the words “fast absorbing”. Does this make a difference? Will it drastically affect your results? Well whey protein is fast absorbing… but so are lean meats like chicken, tuna and lean beef. Be careful with plant based proteins as they take more fibre to digest but nut butters and tofu will be fine. Eggs are also great if you do not have a heart problem. But what about our good friend whey protein? Well it is fast absorbing but because it is often consumed as a liquid and therefore leaves the stomach very quickly. After it has left the stomach it must react with enzymes, proteases, in the small intestine. But the passage through the small intestine is slow for solids and faster for liquids- meaning that the time allowed for absorption is less. Once the protein has been absorbed it needs to enter the blood stream, but whey proteins easily saturate the blood allowing no other protein to enter the

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Retrieved Text: by admin - January 10th, 2011.
In a normal Person : The body’s fuel is glucose, which comes from the food we eat. All types of food can convert into glucose but carbohydrate (Cereals rice, flour, bread, table sugar etc.) are most easily converted and form rapidly available source of energy.
Food we eat, is rapidly converted into glucose or simple sugar at the end of digestion. Subsequently glucose leaves the intestine and enter into blood circulation through which it travels to the liver and all the tissues and cells.
Insulin facilitates entry of glucose inside cells particularly in muscles where it is partly broken down and gives energy and partly stored in the form of glycogen for future use.
During the period of prolonged starvation and in between the meals, the body needs energy. Brain had to have 6 grams of glucose every hour. Insulin is a coordinator which ensures a constant fuel supply to the brain and other parts of our body.
During starvation : As the body’s sugar level falls, the level of insulin also falls which stimulates liver to produce and liberate some of its store of sugar and thus keeps the blood glucose concentration in normal range.
So, when insulin levels are low or non-existent, the liver becomes a factory, producing sugar. This process is precisely controlled. As soon as the blood sugar level rises again, the pancreas automatically produces insulin and switches off the liver.
‘When insulin levels are low for any reason the body makes sugar’.
In a diabetic person diabetes develops when there is an absolute

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Retrieved Text: This site has been created by the PLHS Biology Department. The notes and diagrams are licensed under a Creative Commons License.
Nervous control in animals, including structure and function of central nervous system (CNS).
Brain structure: cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.
Rapid reflex action and reflex arc: sensory, relay and motor neurons.
Electrical impulses move along neurons.
A synapse occurs between neurons, allowing chemicals to transfer from one neuron to another.
Endocrine glands release hormones into the blood stream.
Target tissues have cells with receptors for hormones, so only some tissues are affected by specific hormones.
Blood glucose regulation to include insulin, glucagon, glycogen, pancreas and liver.
Now that you have a better understanding of the roles different types of cells play in multicellular organisms, the majority of the remainder of this unit is spent learning about the systems multicellular organisms have evolved to overcome the problems which come with being a multicellular organism.
The first multicellular problem which we'll deal with is communication. Multicellular organisms obviously will have groups of specialised cells as tissues and organs which are physically distant from each other but need to communicate with each other. In this topic we'll learn about two ways that animals overcome this: nervous control and hormonal control.
Animals such as ourselves have a system of neurons (nerve cells) which allows for rapid communication and control of the organism. Our nervous system is divided into two inter-connected systems. The Central Nervous System (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System which consists of all other neurons in the body.
The Central Nervous System

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Retrieved Text: One of the liverâ€™s primary jobs is to store energy in the form of glycogen, which is made from a type of sugar called glucose. The liver removes glucose from the blood when blood glucose levels are high. Through a process called glycogenesis, the liver combines the glucose molecules in long chains to create glycogen, a carbohydrate that provides a stored form of energy. When the amount of glucose in the blood falls below the level required to meet the bodyâ€™s needs, the liver reverses this reaction, transforming glycogen into glucose.
Another crucial function of the liver is the production of bile, a yellowish-brown liquid containing salts necessary for the digestion of lipids, or fats. These salts are produced within the lobules. Bile leaves the liver through a network of ducts and is transported to the gallbladder, which concentrates the bile and releases it into the small intestine.
Vitamins are also stored in the liver. Drawing on the nutrient-rich blood in the hepatic portal vein, the liver collects and stores supplies of vitamins A, D, E, and K. The B vitamins are also stored here, including a two- to four-year supply of Vitamin B12.
The liver also functions as the bodyâ€™s chemical factory. Several important proteins found in the blood are produced in the liver. One of these proteins, albumin, helps retain calcium and other important substances in the bloodstream. Albumin also helps regulate the movement of water from the bloodstream into the bodyâ€™s tissues. The liver also produces globin, one of the two components that form hemoglobinâ€”the oxygen-carrying

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Retrieved Text: Gina Kolata, a journalist at the New York Times wrote a recent interesting article called ‘Skinny and 119 Pounds but with the health Hallmarks of Obesity‘. She describes Claire Johnson, a patient with a rare case of lipodystrophy, a genetic disorder characterized by the lack of fat.
She was skinny but always ravenously hungry. She could never get fat, because she lacked fat cells.
In college, Claire discovered she had a huge, fatty liver, polycystic ovaries and severely elevated triglycerides – all hallmarks of obesity. Yet she was super skinny.
Dr Simeon Taylor, chief of diabetes at the National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, finally diagnosed her in 1996 with lipodystrophy. He had several other patients with the same rare genetic syndrome.
These patients had the most severe insulin resistance he had ever seen, but no fat he could see (subcutaneous variety). Patients eventually also developed high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes, diseases typically associated with obesity.
In rodent models of lipodystrophy, researchers transplanted a little fat back into the fat-free mice. The metabolic syndrome disappeared! The fat was protective against insulin resistance, not causative!
We need to understand the new paradigm of insulin resistance to understand how insulin resistance, obesity, fatty liver, and fatty pancreas are actually all different forms of protection our body uses. But what is the underlying disease?
Dr Roger Unger elucidated the basics of the syndrome a few years ago in this article. We’ll take it one step at a time.
As I’ve outlined in my book, The Obesity Code, the basic problem is hyper-insulinemia. There

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Retrieved Text: Glucose is a type of sugar which the brain depends on for fuel. Studies show that dips in glucose availability can have a negative impact on attention, memory and learning, and that administering glucose can enhance these aspects of cognitive function. The brain also uses up more glucose during challenging mental tasks. Therefore, it may be especially important to keep blood glucose levels at an optimum level for good cognitive function. Consuming regular meals may help to achieve this.
Glucose is a type of sugar which comes predominantly from starchy foods (bread, rice, pasta and potatoes) as well as fruits, juices, honey, jams and table sugar. The body can break down the digestible carbohydrates in these foods into glucose, which is transported in the bloodstream to the brain and other organs for energy. The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels; this is known as glucose homeostasis. A process called gluconeogenesis allows the body to make its own glucose from the building blocks of protein and fat. Glucose can be stored in form of glycogen in the liver and to a somewhat lesser extent in the muscle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilised to meet a sudden need for glucose (physical exercise), but also when glucose intake from food is insufficient (during fasting, for example), the body can get glucose by breaking down its glycogen stores. Liver glycogen is nearly depleted 12 to 18 hours after eating, overnight fasting, for example, after which the body relies more on energy from breaking down fats.
The human

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Retrieved Text: If you were to take down notes from a Tom Hanks Lecture jot down everything, especially if he gives you survival tips on how to survive the worst plane crash ever, but ditch the part if he gives you tips on dodging diabetes– because when it comes to that department, this award-winning actor admits that he’s a “total idiot” after ignoring all the vital symptoms of the said condition.Well, if you are here to know more about diabetes you are already a step ahead on winning over it. Being curious and knowledgeable about different kinds of diseases is a powerful way to get to an ideal health.
Many people do not actually take diabetes seriously because they do not know how it affects a person’s body. Diabetes is actually a chronic metabolic condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood which remains high because the cells are not capable of absorbing glucose due to the absence or insufficient production of insulin, or an inability of the body to properly use insulin causes diabetes. Diabetes is mainly categorized into Type 1 and Type 2. The type primarily relies on the factors that lead to the raised level of blood glucose.
Here’s a brief step-by-step rundown on the ways glucose becomes metabolized in the body and how that is damaged when you have diabetes.
The sugars, carbohydrates, some milk and dairy products you consume will be broken down and turn into glucose in the stomach. Glucose will then be released into your bloodstream. Your blood glucose level

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Retrieved Text: Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose which serves as a reservoir of glucose units. The two largest deposits in mammals are in the liver and skeletal muscle but many cells are capable synthesizing glycogen. Its accumulation and utilization are under elaborate controls involving primarily covalent phosphorylation and allosteric ligand binding. Both muscle and liver glycogen reserves are important for whole body glucose metabolism and their replenishment is linked hormonally to nutritional status. Control differs between muscle and liver in part due to the existence of different tissue-specific isoforms at key steps. Control of synthesis is shared between transport into the muscle and the step catalyzed by glycogen synthase. Breakdown of liver glycogen, as part of blood glucose homeostasis, is also in response to nutritional cues. Muscle glycogen serves only to fuel muscular activity and its utilization is controlled by muscle contraction and by catecholamines. Though the number of enzymes directly involved in the metabolism of glycogen is quite small, many more proteins act indirectly in a regulatory capacity. Defects in the basic metabolizing enzymes lead to severe consequences whereas, with some exceptions, mutations in the regulatory proteins appear to cause a more subtle phenotypic change.
Abstract: Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose which serves as a reservoir of glucose units. The two largest deposits in mammals are in the liver and skeletal muscle but many cells are capable synthesizing glycogen. Its accumulation and utilization are under elaborate controls involving primarily covalent phosphorylation and allosteric ligand binding. Both muscle and liver glycogen reserves are important for

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Retrieved Text: Have you ever gotten ready for work and found the only thing in your cupboard was a box of Fruit Loops or Cocoa Puffs? So, you ate a bowl full and a few hours later got that early morning sugar crash. It’s a bigger deal than you think because for anyone trying to lose fat/weight, sugar is the enemy of weight loss.
The primary source of weight gain, other than lack of exercise, is sugar intake at the wrong time, and in too large a quantity. Yes, that cola, ice cream, or large plate of pasta you may be eating right now. Not all sugar is bad, but it should be eaten in moderation. Let’s explain it in lay terms. Because of the effects of sugar and other forms of carbohydrates on blood-sugar levels, we shall refer to insulin for illustration of this concept, which is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreas, as the insulin level. This is because of the general appearance of the blood sugar level as it rises and falls in response to sugar intake and insulin release has a cyclic appearance.
The key is to be able to manipulate both insulin and glucagon to help you lose fat. I know many of you lean, mean, workout machine junkies may care less about body-fat reduction. While fitness junkies are already there, for a great many this is a big problem.
The segment of the population that have a fat or weight loss problem far outnumber the fitness junkies among us. This group

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Retrieved Text: Becoming fat-adapted is the goal of keto. You want your body to become incredibly good at burning fat. Once you are a fat burner, you will begin to see the excess weight melt away! Fat burning is possible once your body has become fat-adapted. In other words, your body prefers fat over sugar as its primary fuel source. This is also considered the state of ketosis. So, how do you get to this place of burning fat and the weight loss that you so desire? Well, in the previous article I explained the basics of keto including the proper macros and some of the benefits of keto. Today I am going to show you exactly how to become fat adapted.
Whether you think you eat a lot of sugar or not, your body is fueled by sugar. This is simply the result of a carb-loaded diet. When you feast on carbohydrates continually, you are feeding your body sugar. While there is likely more nutritional value, depending on the carb, than a Snickers bar, these carbs are still sugar in the body. Let me explain what I mean.
Carbohydrates fall into one of two categories: simple or complex carbs. A simple carbohydrate is made up of one or two unit structures. For instance sucrose is a two-sugar molecule made up of glucose and fructose. A complex carbohydrate is composed of polymers (I.e. repeating chains) of glucose. Nearly all carbohydrates are converted into glucose as they are moved into the bloodstream. The exception is fructose. The body is not able

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Retrieved Text: Active Low-Carber Forums > Main Low-Carb Diets Forums & Support > Low Carb Health & Technical Forums > Dr.Bernstein & Diabetes > Why am I too sweet?
View Full Version : Why am I too sweet?
So, can anyone tell me what gives? Where in the hell does my body find that sugar from? I am at a loss here. I am confident that my Cholesterol numbers will improve in time as long as I don't stray but the glucose thing puzzles me. What to do?
Soem people have naturally high or low blood pressure, could you just have naturally high blood sugar?
Or maybe you are eating too much meat? Isn't it said that 58% of protein is turned to glucose, so maybe it's more in your body than someone else's?
Karen you crack me up!
maybe you are eating too much meat? Isn't it said that 58% of protein is turned to glucose, so maybe it's more in your body than someone else's?But wouldn’t that negate the whole high protein principle? If protein turned into glucose, then we’d have to cut it too! And then what’s left to eat? Isn’t it one the Protein Power Plan critics that that plan’s protein requirement calculation scheme actually yields a minimal protein requirement that’s way too low?
How does the liver convert the food you eat into fuels?
The liver converts the carbohydrates into a simple sugar, glucose, which can fuel most body functions.
It converts any excess protein you eat, over and above what you need to replace the proteins in your body, into glucose

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Input Text: Process:
- A mold spore floats through the air
- The spore lands on a piece of bread
- The spore grows hyphae into the bread
- The mold forms a colony
- Sporangiophores grow upward
- The mold sends out spores.

Question:
suppose the mold sends out less mold spores happens, how will it affect more mold spores floating in the air.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The Pros and Cons of HEPA Filters for Air Purification | SERVPRO of W. Vancouver / Clark Co.
By now, you’ve likely heard of the benefits of using air filtration in your home located in Felida, WA, to rid of mold that has made its way into the air you breathe. Many people choose to use air purifiers that are equipped with HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filters to rid of mold spores floating around. While these filters are often very efficient at completing this purpose, they can become problematic if not cared for correctly.
An air purifier with a HEPA filter cleans the air of mold by catching particles that are in your home. These filters are effective 99.97 percent of the time since they can only catch particles that are 0.3 microbes are larger. However, a large majority of spores are between 1 to 30 microbes in size, so only unusually small particles are able to get by undetected.
Unlike some other types of filters that are able to kill mold, HEPA filters only trap them.
A HEPA filter cannot trap very small mold spores.
It is important to remember that an air purifier only removes mold spores from the air inside your home and does not tackle mold growth problems within your home. To address a serious mold issue, you will need to contact a mold restoration specialist.
No one wants to have mold spores floating around in their home, which is why air filtration is so beneficial. HEPA filters are especially effective at purifying your air. Just make

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Retrieved Text: Mold's number-one need is moisture. Indoor mold growth can be prevented if you learn how to control the moisture indoors. If you find traces of mold growth in your home, one of the most important things you can do is to clean it up while looking out for any water problems or air leaks that could be causing this problem. If you just clean up all traces of mold without doing anything about the water, this could prove to be a fruitless task as the mold problem will just return. What's vital is cleanup and prevention for a happier, healthier home.
Mold grows because it's a part of the natural environment. Mold works by breaing down any dead organic matter like leaves and dead trees. But indoors, mold growth is something that has to be prevented as much as you possibly can. The way mold multiplies is by using spores that float through indoor and outdoor air.
While it's perfectly fine and part of the ecosystem, these spores have no place in your home, especially because they can cause respiratory problems if left alone to propagate, and are breathed in by humans or pets. Mold begins when mold spores land on wet surfaces, and there they grow and multiply.
Mold requires darkness, moisture and warmth to grow. Lose any or all of these and mold won't appear any more. It gets worse in already completed basements because there are areas behind the drywall that will never see the light of day again, and any mold growth present there can

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Retrieved Text: Mold is a common issue in building interiors with poor humidity control, and the US Environmental Protection Agency recommends professional remediation when a mold patch exceeds 10 square feet. Mold is detrimental for indoor air quality, producing an unpleasant musty odor and causing allergic reactions. Mold can also damage porous objects such as carpets and furniture, forcing building owners to replace them.
When a client has a mold infestation, it is important to point out that humidity control is the only permanent solution, and ASHRAE recommends keeping relative humidity below 60 percent. Mold spores are extremely resilient and nearly impossible to eliminate completely, which means that mold will simply grow back if the humidity problem is not addressed.
Mold infestations that affect HVAC installations require urgent attention, since their spores can spread more easily through indoor spaces. Mold can spread very quickly if left unattended in a moist environment.
Mold remediation can be a challenging task when it affects HVAC components such as ductwork and air handlers. Before proceeding, it is important to ensure that the client actually has mold issues, since dirt accumulation can sometimes seem like mold. The first step should be an adequate inspection and mold testing.
Porous components such as insulation and fiberglass ducts must normally be replaced when they are affected by mold.
Metallic ducts and other non-porous components are less susceptible to mold, and can be reused with proper cleaning.
When professional mold remediation services are required, the scope of work must be clearly discussed with the client. For instance, the remediation contractor should explain the

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Retrieved Text: Is Your Summer Cooling Unit Clean Before Turning It On?
Air conditioning systems in the home and commercial rooftop units are breeding grounds for mold spores and mildew that can adversely affect the health of its occupants. AT RDS Environmental, we have first hand experience in responding to building occupants that were experiencing upper respiratory symptoms, only to find the building’s air quality had been severely compromised with elevated levels of mold spores.
This summer, before you turn on your cooling unit, prevent the distribution of mold by having your AC unit inspected and cleaned. This also applies to new home buyers or those that have completed new home or building construction. Home inspectors are discovering an increased numbers of mold growth in new construction – mold that may be covered by paint or drywall. Once hidden mold starts growing, it will circulate through the air conditioning unit and pass through vents, right into living and work areas.
In Air Ducts – caused by excess moisture in an oversized AC unit, water leaking through roof and penetrating air duct joints, and inadequate ventilation of areas that are moisture prone, such as bathrooms and basements.
On AC Evaporator Coils – the combination of dust and moisture will create a prime breeding location for mold. Mold accumulates as moisture is continually forming on the unit coils as the warm air is cooled prior to circulation. That same moisture also drips onto the AC unit’s drip pan to create the perfect environment for mold spores to thrive.
Within Swamp Coolers – mold build-up can

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Retrieved Text: Mold allergies are similar to other allergies caused by airborne allergens; in this case, airborne mold spores. The allergy occurs when the hapless victim breathes in mold spores. The symptoms are nasal congestion, itchy, watery eyes, runny nose, cough, and sometimes asthma. Treatment is the same as for all other allergies that affect the upper respiratory system.
While it probably won't be possible to eliminate all mold spores from your environment, it is possible to reduce the amount of contact you have with mold spores by taking some precautions. The less you breathe of the stuff, the better you'll feel.
* Keep the windows closed at night while you're sleeping, to prevent breathing in mold. Nighttime is when the greatest number of airborne mold spores populate the air, and this is never truer than when the weather is moist and cool.
* If you can't get anyone to do your autumn scut work for you, wear a dust mask to cover your nose and mouth while raking leaves or working with compost piles. A mask can help shield you from the mold spores that are released into the air while doing these gardening chores.
* Don't go out just after it's rained, during fog, or when the weather is damp. If the published mold count is high, stay inside.
* Seek out and fix leaky pipes or groundwater seepage to get rid of dampness in your basement.
* Buy a dehumidifier and place it in any area of your home that seems damp or smells moldy. Make sure to give regular cleaning

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Retrieved Text: What's cleaning today at Able Carpet Care: Why is vacuuming important in your home or work with a HEPA filtration vacuum.
Why is vacuuming important in your home or work with a HEPA filtration vacuum.
The HEPA vacuum will trap the particulate matter you extract from the fibres and trap it in a filter.
High-efficiency particulate arrestance (HEPA), also sometimes called high-efficiency particulate arresting or high-efficiency particulate air, is a type of air filter. Filters meeting the HEPA standard have many applications, including use in medical facilities, automobiles, aircraft and homes. The filter must satisfy certain standards of efficiency such as those set by the United States Department of Energy (DOE). To qualify as HEPA by US government standards, an air filter must remove (from the air that passes through) 99.97% of particles that have a size of 0.3 µm.
Regularly vacuuming your home with a HEPA vacuum cleaner helps to prevent mold. The HEPA filters in HEPA vacuums trap very small particles like mold spores and other allergens. This also means the air in your home will be cleaner and you will suffer less from allergies or mold symptoms. It's best to vacuum your home at least once a week with a HEPA vacuum cleaner.
HEPA vacuuming also helps if you are removing mold growth in your home. Once you've removed the mold you should vacuum your house with a HEPA vacuum to remove any mold spores that were stirred up.
Non-HEPA vacuum cleaners don't help with mold problems. Mold spores are too small to be trapped by the filters in

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Retrieved Text: Molds have the potential to cause health problems. Molds produce allergens, irritants, and in some cases, potentially toxic substance. Inhaling or touching mold or mold spores may cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Allergic responses include hay fever-type symptoms, such as sneezing, runny nose, red eyes, and skin rash (dermatitis). Mold exposure can irritate the eyes, skin, nose, throat, and lungs of both mold-allergic and non-allergic people.
It is impossible to get rid of all mold and mold spores indoors; some mold spores will be found floating through the air and in house dust. The mold spores will not grow if moisture is not present. Indoor mold growth can and should be prevented or controlled by controlling moisture indoors. If there is mold growth in your home, you must clean up the mold and fix the water problem.
Visit Affordable Inspection's profile on Pinterest.
Our Home Inspectors and Mold Inspectors are available 7 days a week 365 days a year. West Valley call us at 623-337-7926 or East Valley 480-544-5856. License #AZ43778.
Home Inspection, Mold Inspection and Mold Sampling serving the Valley including Phoenix Scottsdale Mesa Tempe Anthem Glendale Peoria Avondale Tolleson Cave Creek Carefree Rio Verde Litchfield Park Surprise Sun City at a reasonable expense.

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Retrieved Text: Mold spores are extremely opportunistic creatures, meaning they’re always waiting for the right conditions to sprout. So, does mold die in freezing temperatures? While extreme weathers like heat and cold can deactivate their spores, extreme temperatures alone won’t kill them. This article will go into detail about what it takes for mold to grow and how you can take the necessary cautionary steps to prevent mold from growing in your home.
Does Mold Die in Freezing Temperatures?
Drying out a mold infested colony also won’t kill them, just deactivate the many spores floating about. Once it’s even a bit cold and moisture condenses in the previously dried area, these spores will reactivated and start building their own colonies.
The proper conditions necessary for mold to grow vary based on the species. The amount of spores also vary based on other factors like your location, season and your typical local weather conditions.
Note that the conditions necessary for growth defer, based on whether you’re indoors or outdoors – while still bearing in mind that these spores will just remain dormant until they have the right conditions available.
Mold produces a lot of spores — thousands, and probably millions. If the conditions are right, these spores will start growing themselves, otherwise, they’ll remain dormant.
Basically, mold spores are everywhere; whether or not you can spot a colony. It’s therefore not feasible to try controlling mold growth by killing these spores – because they’ll just deactivate and reactivate when it’s convenient for them. Plus, the population of these invisible spores means you won’t be able

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Retrieved Text: Inside: During fall and winter, when it is colder, people tend to seal up their house and stay indoors, which traps moisture and humidity (humidity can be caused be more persons residing indoors and not allowing a property to “air-out”). This with the warmer temperatures brought on by furnaces, creates a more ideal environment for mold growth. Leaks from roofs, windows, walls, ceilings, or plumbing can dramatically increase the likelihood of mold growth if the moisture is allowed to sit for longer periods of time.
Outside: During different time of the year there can be more or less mold in the air. In fall and winter when leaves fall to the ground, some plants die, and extra rainfall produces moisture, the decaying plant matter often releases a greater amount of mold into the air.
Household Plants – Certain plants attract the growth of mold, as the mold will feed off the plant matter or wetted soil. Dead or dying plants are more ideal for mold growth as mold plays a key role in the decomposition of organic matter. In addition, the presence of plants requiring wetted soil and water for their survival will increase the relative humidity indoors as much of this water evaporates into the air.
Plants around Property and Neighborhood – For similar reasons as stated above, a greater number of trees and plants will increase the likelihood of mold spores being present in the air. Some molds grow and feed off of living plants while many survive off of dead organic matter. These mold growths can

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Retrieved Text: Most of us have heard of mold, however don’t truly know much about it. It grows in our homes, typically unseen, and we need to actually have a good mold disinfectant on hand.
Mold spreads easily because it sends tiny spores that the air brings everywhere. The spores are invisible and their goal in life is to be warm, wet, and discover food. The trouble is many common materials in our houses are what provide life. Things we consider approved as part of our lives such as clothes, carpet, wallpaper, ceiling tiles, dust, and books, when existing in the best temperature level and humidity trigger mold to spread out and grow unless dealt with by a mold disinfectant.
Not everybody experiences signs when exposed to mold, simply as not everyone responds to pollen in the air during the spring and summer season, or feline dander all of the time. Go online or contact your regional health department to discover get rid of mold in my home complimentary information.
Find out more about finding mold from checking out up on it in get rid of mold in my home free info literature or website. Even something like an overruning toilet or leaking washing machine can bring in mold spores. Considering that mold grows quick and can attack at anytime, you need to have a mold disinfectant offered (# 761 Industrial Germicidal Cleaner).
There are definite actions you should take when you find mold, as you do not’ desire it to be a long-term houseguest. Of all checked out over your get

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Retrieved Text: Mold Testing: A Closer Look | 1-800-GOT-MOLD?
So you think you need to get mold testing done. Why?
Do you think you have a mold problem somewhere? Can you see it?
If it is visible, the EPA says that mold testing isn’t necessary. They feel that the type of mold you have doesn’t matter. Since mold growth is caused by excess moisture, what matters is getting rid of the mold growth and fixing the water problem. And, since all molds can cause allergic reactions and trigger asthma attacks, it does not matter whether your mold is “toxic” or not. Asthma attacks kill people every day. No one knows how many asthma attacks are caused by mold exposure. Mold’s adverse health effects are not restricted to “toxic molds” alone. The bottom line is that there is no such thing as good mold growth indoors – unless it’s on the brie in your fridge.
What if you think you may have a mold problem that isn’t visible? In this case, the EPA suggests finding a competent professional with experience in finding and diagnosing such problems.
So you flip open the phone book and place a call to the local “mold guys.” For a few hundred bucks they’ll look around and for a little more money, they’ll do some sophisticated air testing (otherwise known as air sampling). Sounds good, right? After all, they’re a certified mold inspector! They must be good.
We’ll assume you’ve got a good mold inspector. He really knows what he’s doing. After the visual inspection, whether he finds something or not,

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Retrieved Text: MOLD TESTING - SCAM OR SCIENCE?
Let’s start with a quiz. Which house has a higher mold spore count?
The room on the left is a bathroom with significant mold growth on the walls and ceilings. This was due to the lack of a bathroom fan. The photo on the right is a basement with no visible mold growth, but a damp rug and a strong musty odor. Mold testing was performed in both areas.
The results from mold testing?
Despite the heavy staining from the mold growth in the bathroom (left), the flat growth profile did not lead to substantial spreading of spores. The high spore count in the basement (right) was due to moisture trapped in the rug. Despite the fact the area rug was only 6′ across, the constant exposure to vapor emissions from the concrete slab led to a tremendous amount of mold growth. Amazingly, very little mold growth was visible. This is common with carpeting, as the mold grows within the pad and carpet fibers without much visual evidence. These are both good examples of when mold testing is helpful.
When should you test your house for mold?
Before any sampling is conducted, you must first identify the potential results. This may sound obvious, but many inspection companies charge thousands of dollars for sampling without ever identifying a real benefit. They may provide their clients with pages and pages of data, but no actionable information. Before any sampling is collected, you must first identify potential actions you’ll take based on the results.
If your home suffers from condensation

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Retrieved Text: How Do I Clean Mold in My Basement?
Mold spores are opportunists, always looking for a nice damp place to cling to. In basements and crawl spaces, excess moisture creates welcoming habitats for mold, which can spread quickly and become difficult to remove. So as soon as you spot mold in the basement or crawl space, set aside a time to remove it.
While bleach is the go-to cleaner for disinfecting surfaces, it releases fumes that can cause all kinds of unpleasant symptoms, such as headaches, sinus irritation and a burning sensation in the lungs. It’s best to start off using a gentler cleaner and use bleach only if other options dont work.
A mixture of borax detergent, water and vinegar should take care of light basement mold. Mix these items together, using approximately one-fourth cup vinegar for every two cups of borax and water, and allow the borax to dissolve. Wearing rubber gloves and a respirator or dust mask, spray the solution on mold and allow it to sit. You may need to apply it several times, scrubbing it to break down the mold.
The EPA is home to informative mold removal tips that can help make the job less of a headache.
Sometimes, mold may be growing where you can’t see it – like behind wood paneling or above a drop ceiling – and, once discovered, it can be nearly impossible to remove. If you have widespread mold growth in your basement or crawl space, call a mold remediation specialist. If you try to remove it yourself, you could

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Retrieved Text: Home » Mold Remediation Blog Giving You Tips, How To & News » What Is A Mold Rash? Can Mold Exposure Cause An Allergic Reaction?
More and more people are becoming aware of the potential threat posed by the presence of mold in their home. Most of the cases talked about in the media related to molds ability to cause respiratory problems as well as sparking respiratory allergies. Individuals with asthma also seem more likely to experience an attack if they are in an indoor environment with a high mold spore density.
While most of these stories are related to black or otherwise known as “Toxic Mold,” it is possible for other, seemingly less dangerous forms of mold to affect the human body. There are even some individuals with a genetic predisposition to mold reactions and chronic inflammatory conditions like Chronic Inflammatory Response Syndrome.
Yet this isn’t the limit of the threat mold can present to the human body, and mold may be more prevalent in your home than you think! Indeed, mold and other fungi are present just about everywhere in the natural world and its spores can come into your home in the air. If those spores land in a warm, damp place they have the very real chance of germinating into a small colony.
If this colony develops in a place that’s out of view, like a storage closet, unused downstairs basement, crawl space of your attic, it will likely continue to grow unfettered. As time goes on, the growing colony will continue to release more and

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Retrieved Text: The term black mold is one homeowners never want to hear. It’s one of the scariest possibilities for a house in a place like Florida, where the damp and often warm weather makes it easy for mold to start developing in parts of the house. Mold of any kind is unpleasant to look at and creates bad odors. Black mold, however, presents a health threat to the people in a household.
One of the most harmful places where black mold can develop is inside the ventilation system of a house. Not only is it hard to recognize because it is out of easy sight, but the harmful spores from the mold will spread all around the house when the air conditioning and heating system comes on and the blower fan pushes air to the different rooms.
Indoor air quality is largely affected by airborne contaminants. There are millions upon millions of microscopic airborne contaminants floating around in the average home’s indoor air, including things like viruses, bacteria and mold spores. These biological contaminants are among the most dangerous you’re liable to encounter in your home. Some of the biological contaminants can make you sick, or even put you in the hospital in rare cases. For this reason, a UV air purifier is highly recommended in areas with suspect indoor air quality. Let’s take a look at how a UV air purifier works, and the benefits of using it.

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Retrieved Text: No matter what kind, mold (and mildew) is never a welcome guest in anyone’s home. It starts to grow within dark damp places and can quickly become a surprise if you are not prepared for it. Removing mold and repairing damage can become a very costly endeavor if you do not catch this rapidly growing fungus in time. Being ready to clean the mold problem as well as being aware of potential mold removal costs will help you be prepared — just in case.
More often than not, many people can clean mold problems on their own. Removing small areas of mold can be done with store bought solutions or home made remedies. Unfortunately, in other cases, the area is too large or the mold is too dangerous and a mold removal specialist may need to come in and clean.
In order to safely clean your mold problem, you should have some information on the types of mold that can grow within your home.
Mold spores and allergenic mold are generally not harmful, but can be dangerous to people with asthma and immune problems. Usually these types of mold can be easily removed without future problems.
Mycotoxic mold spores are those containing toxins in the cell wall. This type of mold can be harmful to you and your family’s health. It can cause immune diseases, cancer or even death in some cases. This type of mold should never be handled alone. Cleaning such toxic mold should be handled by a professional cleaning service.
Pathogenic mold is the type that can cause

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Retrieved Text: The mold that you can't see.
You may have written off your itchy eyes, coughing and sneezing as seasonal allergies, but the truth is you may be dealing with an even bigger problem: mold.
Mold is not a new problem. Every house, every environment has mold spores, but mold becomes an issue when the mold spores in the home are greater than what is found outside.
Mold is one of the more threatening of organisms and SERVPRO of Chesapeake North takes it very seriously. The danger lies in the fact the mold is often not easy to find. It likes to hide and can be harbored in any cool, damp place inside your home or place of business. Most people only think of showers and bathrooms as harboring mold, but truthfully, it can hide in attics, crawlspaces, closets, even inside the walls or under the floor.
If you see signs of mold, call us today- (757) 465-9700.
When you have water damage in your home or property, typically the floors, walls and ceilings are affected. SERVPRO of Chesapeake North will take care of the water damaged structure and we will also clean the affected contents.
SERVPRO carefully inventories and packs your contents to deliver to our facility. Upon arrival, our Textile Restoration Experts will begin the water damage cleaning and restoration process to those items.
SERVPRO of Chesapeake North has state-of-the-art cleaning system on-site that can make water damaged, mold damaged, and even smoke and soot damaged items look like new again.
Our Esporta Wash System specializes in the cleaning of soft contents items,

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Retrieved Text: Black Mold - Does Black Mold Cause These Symptoms?
Could Black Mold Be Causing These Symptoms?
Black mold could be causing a lot of unique symptoms that you never had before. In fact, depending on the individual each symptom may be different.
"Some individuals may feel dizzy and light headed while others will have itchy skin."
Below is some symptoms that are common to people that have black mold problems in the past. In any case we always recommend a doctor whose specialty is in allergies. They would be able to do a blood test to figure out your spore count and how allergic you are to black mold and it’s toxins.
Itchy skin a common symptom. Actually I have had this happen to myself. There was a bad mold problem in a previous office. There was a water leak and the carpeting was soaked as well as the dry wall. After about 24 hours later, I began feeling the itchy on my skin.
Cause For Itchy Skin - The cause is usually associated with inhalation of the toxic spores and this will cause a reaction which can begin to make your skin itch. Also, the spores can attach themselves onto the skin as they are at times airborne and be circulated through the A/C system.
Solution To Itchy Skin Caused By Black Mold - Itchy skin is a common symptom from black mold and mildew and can be alleviated and lessened by simply going outside and getting fresh air. It is always recommended to contact a doctor. They would be able to

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Retrieved Text: In a toxic black mold colony the spores are kept within a slimy, gelatinous mass. Toxic black mold spores are a brownish color although they can’t be seen with the naked eye of course. Under the microscope toxic black mold spores that are still attached to the mold colony look similar to a dandelion with clusters of spores growing at the end of a “stem” called hyphae. The wet coating of a toxic black mold colony usually prevents its spores from becoming airborne. If its moisture source runs out though, a toxic black mold colony can dry out and release many of its spores into the air. When toxic black mold is dry it looks gray and powdery. Other things like changes in humidity can also trigger the release of toxic black mold spores.
Disturbing toxic black mold can also cause a lot of toxic spores to enter the air. This is why you should never disturb or try to remove toxic black mold if you find it in your home. Removing toxic black mold can bemore dangerous than removing ordinary mold and one should consider hiring a professional.

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Retrieved Text: Mold exists everywhere you go. Whilst more prevalent in warm and humid air, mold is found in all types of environments, all around the world. Even the ‘fresh’ air that we breathe contains millions of mold spores.
But what are mold spores? Mold spores are the reproductive part of mold or fungus that cause allergic reactions. Molds feed off decomposing plant and animal matter and grow by producing filament-like clusters. Mold and fungi reproduce by giving off huge numbers of mold spores into the air, similar to plants releasing pollen. When airborne mold spores settle on organic matter, new mold clusters are grown. When mold spores are inhaled, they may trigger an allergic reaction.

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Retrieved Text: Looking for the best air purifier for mold, mildew and spores? Mold and mildew are types of microscopic fungi that can be found in many households, typically in damp and humid areas. Once formed, mold spores are difficult to get rid of and can survive under harsh environments. The best way to get rid of mold is to control indoor moisture levels. What is less well known is that air purifiers also have mold removal capabilities and can help prevent mold by improving indoor air circulation. However, not all air purifiers have this ability.
Both mold and mildew form as a result of damp and humid conditions. Mold is formed naturally and part of the organic decomposition process. Outdoors, mold help break down dead organic matter. However, molds reproduce by spores and mold spores can spread indoors with the assistance of wind and a damp surface. All mold and mildew requires moisture in order to grow.
You can detect the presence of mold by the musty odor from these fungi. Mold is typically dark green, black or white. Over time, if left unattended, mold may eat into fabric and household furniture.
Improving air circulation is an excellent way to get rid of mold. As a first step, air purifiers improve ventilation and get rid of any dampness or mustiness that may be causing mold and mildew. Air purifiers circulate the air within the coverage area several times an hour, improving air circulation and thereby preventing mold growth.
Next, most air purifiers use HEPA filters to remove air contaminants from the

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Retrieved Text: Molds and fungi are found everywhere inside and outside, and can grow on almost any substance when moisture is present. Molds when they reproduce make spores, which can be carried by air currents. When these spores land on a moist surface that is suitable for life, they begin to grow. Molds are essential to the natural breakdown of organic materials in the environment. Mold is normally found indoors at levels that do not affect most healthy individuals.
Because common building materials are capable of sustaining mold growth, and mold spores are ever-present, mold growth in an indoor environment is typically related to water or moisture indoors. Mold growth may also be caused by incomplete drying of flooring and building materials. Flooding, leaky roofs, building maintenance problems, or indoor plumbing problems can lead to mold growth inside homes, schools, or office buildings.
For significant mold growth to occur, there must be a source of water (which could be invisible humidity), a source of food, and a medium capable of sustaining growth. Common building materials, such as plywood, drywall, carpets, and carpet padding are food for molds. In carpet, invisible dust and cellulose are the food sources. After a single incident of water damage occurs in a building without being dried completely, molds grow inside walls and then become dormant until a subsequent incident of high humidity; this illustrates how mold can appear to be a sudden problem, long after a previous flood or water incident that did not produce such a problem. The right conditions reactivate mold.
Both our indoor

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Retrieved Text: Did you know that 2 out of 3 homes in America have highly elevated levels of mold spores inside of the crawl space or basement?
The mold from the crawl space in your Raleigh home can infect your interior through small drafts and HVAC systems which blow spores throughout your living areas. When left untreated, the health effects can be disastrous to you and your family.
What’s That Smell in My Raleigh Crawl Space?
The Environmental Protection Agency reports that 65% of the air we breathe on the first floor of our home travels through the crawl space or basement. Mold spores, dust mites or other toxic pollutants are picked up in the crawl space or basement. As your HVAC system runs, they are drawn into the interior of the home through the wall and floor penetrations. The commonly called “Stack Effect” or “Chimney Effect” is to blame.
In more simple terms…. All of the bad, unhealthy air inside of your home originated in the crawl space or basement. As you heat and cool the air inside of your home, you are also pulling in the pollutants growing inside the crawl space or basement. Sometimes odor is the best indicator, but other times, these pollutants are odorless.
Mold spores, the seeds of mold, are in the air everywhere. At acceptable levels, they do not pose a threat to MOST of us. When the heat and humidity start to rise in late spring, mold spores start to wake up from its dormant winter state and then start to breed and feed. We

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Retrieved Text: I HAVE SCHEDULED AN APPOINTMENT. WHAT DO I NEED TO DO TO PREPARE FOR MY SERVICE?
Your family and your pets will need to vacate the property during our service. The size of your home and the type of service will determine how long you need to be out. You can leave all your contents and furnishings as they are, our process will not damage a thing.
WHAT ABOUT FOOD OR ITEMS LEFT OUT IN THE KITCHEN?
The products used by ZeroMold have been FDA approved for food contact. To retain the fresh taste of your produce, you may want to place it in a zip lock bag or refrigerator.
The time-frame depends on the service preformed and the size of your home. On average we recommend having pets and people out of the home for at least 5 hours. A ZeroMold technician will let you know how long the process will take when the bid is submitted. You may notice a different smell when you return home- rest assured, this will dissipate quickly.
IS THE MOLD IN MY HOUSE DANGEROUS?
Yes. When you have mold growing in a home there are toxic spores released into the air. These spores will flow through the vents and air ducts to every room. The spores are then breathed in by the occupants and can cause serious medical problems.
IS MOLD HARMFUL TO BREATHE?
Yes, mold is very harmful to breathe. The severity of the mold, as well as the type of mold and the individuals tolerance will factor into the actual effects the mold has on

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Retrieved Text: It’s been a soggy few months here on the east coast. With all the rain and humidity in the air, it’s nearly impossible to keep mold from growing in our tack rooms and all over our expensive saddles, bridles, and halters. Mold can be a nightmare to clean, but it must be done! Within a short time, mold can cause permanent damage to leather goods.
Mold and mildew are enemies of leather. They can easily invade not only your equipment, but also your tack rooms and other storage areas, causing expensive damage or ruining your tack entirely. Diligent maintenance and preventative care is much easier than replacing your equipment. If your area has a warm, humid climate you must take special care and clean your leather more frequently to prevent mold and mildew from growing on your tack.
Mold and mildew are members of the fungi family. Other, more friendly, members of the fungi family are mushrooms and yeast. Fungi spores lay dormant in soil or other surfaces until conditions are right for “fruiting”. Fruiting is when the fungi becomes noticeable to the human eye through blooming, which spread millions of spores. Fungi function to decompose organic matter in many different climates and environments—which is why they’re so dangerous for your leather tack.
What Happens to Leather When Mold Begins to Grow?
If left alone, mold spores can become embedded in the matrix of your leather, making it brittle and weak. Mold, once it appears, may also get into the interior of your saddle where it cannot be cleaned or

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Retrieved Text: Medical Supplies & Medical Equipment Information: Do all buildings have mold but not all people are actually sensitive enough to have respiratory and health problems due to mold in the enviroment?
Do all buildings have mold but not all people are actually sensitive enough to have respiratory and health problems due to mold in the enviroment?
In general all buildings and facilities, including private homes, schools, hospitals, long term care facilities, prisons, offices and stores all have some level of mold and mold spores in the air. UV air purifiers, if used either as stand alone units are as part of the HVAC air system in the building can significantly reduce the number of mold spores and mold colonies in any given building or room.
UV air purifiers are really essential in HVAC systems as they work to eliminate mold, yeast and bacteria from developing in the air conditioning coils. The drain pans and coils are an ideal location for these contaminants to grow as the area is dark, moist and typically very warm. Without the use of air purifiers with UV lights, these coils and the drains around them produce huge amounts of airborne spores and contaminants that are then blown throughout the building with the warm or cool air.
Not all molds in the air are harmful but it definitely is problematic for individuals. UV air purifiers reduce the viable spores, ensuring that the mold cannot grow and form new colonies, dramatically reducing the respiratory problems within a few weeks of use.
Can UV air purifiers reduce or eliminate

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Retrieved Text: Mold is one of those household issues that occur anywhere and in any climate. However, humid climates are the worst for encouraging mold growth. Humidity creates the perfect conditions for mold to thrive, grow, and spread. Mold loves moisture, and humidity and rain can provide a lot of moisture. When the climate is humid, it also means that the temperatures are usually high. High temperatures help encourage mold spore reproduction.
This combination of moisture and high temperatures can lead to major mold troubles as time goes on. Your property can be damaged, and you or your family could suffer from serious health issues related to exposure to mold. Removing mold is very difficult, not to mention dangerou. Your best option is to try and prevent growth altogether. This can be hard in humid climates, but certainly not impossible.
You cannot simply prevent the spores that lead to mold from getting into your home. They are present in any outdoor environment, and will come in any time you open a door or a window. There is also always something for them to feed on, such as wood and carpet. The best option is to create conditions in your home that are hostile to the mold spores and that will prevent them from growing. Here are some tips to help.
Mold spores are delicate, but once they take hold they can be stubborn. Stale air is a perfect condition for mold spores to breed and develop. Thus, you should try to get as much fresh air circulating throughout the home as

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Retrieved Text: A mold problem is a concern for every building. Mold is found in damp building materials where it often appears like stains. It is accompanied by a musty smell, which is an indication of microbial growth even when there is no visible growth. If mold grows considerably in homes or offices it can contribute to poor indoor air quality.
And not just the problem of air quality or stains, mold can also have devastating effects on the health of the persons coming in contact with the mold spores. That’s why an immediate inspection and its removal are so important.
Before moving on to the actual points, it is worthwhile to let you know – Please don’t panic. Mold problems are common and occur frequently in most parts of the provinces. There’s nothing to be scared of. If you saw no symptoms with your body before the inspection, then you’ll be fine even after it.
Let the inspection team handle everything. The more you panic the more chances that you will screw up something.
It is preferable that you do NOT conduct a “Do it yourself” test ahead of time. Cleaning up does not preclude an expert’s ability to find areas of suspicion or even to find mold, but it can severely affect the test results. The steps you take will disturb the composition of the mold spread. So if possible, do not do anything special.
Before the inspection, you should try to isolate the area completely. Sealing the area will prevent the spores from spreading around. If the buildup is in

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Retrieved Text: There are 3 main branches of life: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. In the domain Eukarya there are 7 kingdoms. In the kingdom Fungi, there are organisms that are characterized by their cell walls made of chitin, by being non-motile, by having no chlorophyll, by partaking in extracellular digestion, by being absorptive heterotrophs as well as by being decomposers. This means that they are more related to animals than plants. Fungi are then categorized into two different groups: macroscopic and microscopic. Both yeast as well as molds are classified as microscopic fungi. Mold is a multicellular microorganism that has many branching filaments, unlike yeast. This is why it is so much more complex. Intricate microorganisms comparable to mold are increasingly more difficult to combat as well as prevent. For starters, it spreads through the air with the use of spores. The type of spore produced can, also, change depending on the surrounding environment. Not to mention that mold outbreaks are much more common than bacterial ones. This is because they have a broader range in habitat compared to bacteria. For these reasons, it is important to inform the masses about such a hazardous organism since once it establishes itself, it is very challenging to remove as well as prevent from re-occurrence.
Mold can reproduce both sexually as well as asexually. Sexual spores are created through meiosis whereas mitosis produces asexual ones. These processes are switched in animals; humans are an example of this. Sexual spores contain half the genetic information from each parent. This means that they have

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Retrieved Text: Is Your Home a Death Trap? How Mold Affects Your Health and Your Home’s Value in Victoria, Cowichan, Duncan, Nanaimo, Parksville, Qualicum, Comox, Courtenay, Campbell River, and Port Alberni.
If you think your home is mold-free, you’re probably wrong. Mold infestation is very common for home owners living in Victoria, Cowichan, Duncan, Nanaimo, Parksville, Qualicum, Courtenay, Comox, Campbell River, and Port Alberni.
How do you sell your home on Vancouver Island when there’s mold? Any kind of major defect discovered during a home inspection can break a deal or have a big impact on negotiations when buying a home, and mold is no exception. Mold will simply continue to devalue your property until the problem becomes so rampant that the home is uninhabitable. Nobody wants to purchase a seller’s mold issues.
As a fungus, the mold is in soil and spreads to new locations by releasing spores into the air. It can travel through an open window or follow you inside through the front door.
Generally speaking, mold only becomes dangerous when it can attach itself to organic material and grow and spread with the right humid conditions. Black mold is a good example. Moisture allows the mold that’s already there to grow and colonize, and reproduce and spread. And we all know, moisture on Vancouver Island is like “wetness to water”.
Airborne mold spores are not visible to the human eye. Mold spores are tiny structures produced by molds for reproduction purposes. They are so small that they can hardly be seen…even when magnified 400 times. One cubic meter of

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======= Instance Index 28799 =========
Input Text: Process:
- A sperm meets an egg in the uterus of a woman
- The sperm implants itself into the egg
- The sperm and egg form a zygote on the wall of the uterus
- The fetus grows and develops
- The woman gives birth to a baby
- The baby is raised by parents until it is able to take care of itself
- The person goes out into the world and finds a job
- The person meets other people and has a life
- The person gets a career, and gets married
- The person retires and eventually passes away
- 

Question:
suppose egg is fertilized by sperm happens, how will it affect fertilized egg grows into a fetus.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: A molar pregnancy ultrasound is done to help remove a hydatidiform mole which forms an abnormal placenta from a mass of tissue inside the uterus. It happens when there are two or three sets of the father's chromosomes and none from the mother. The mother observes many of the symptoms of pregnancy. This happens in about one out of a thousand cases. There are complete and there are partial molar pregnancies. The complete type is when the mole takes the place of a placenta and embryo and becomes a grape-like cluster. The partial type is when the placenta grows abnormally into molar tissue. When this occurs, the fetal tissue develops, but has severe defects. In rare cases, a normal healthy placenta and fetus grows with a complete mole.
We can't be sure why this happens, but the theories include an abnormal egg with no genetic information gets fertilized, or a normal egg is fertilized by two sperm. There are risk factors involved as well. Age, after 35 the occurrences increase. Family history is another factor if one has had miscarriages. A diet low in vitamin A ( Carotene ) can also increase risk. Common symptoms are vaginal discharge of grape-like tissue. Vaginal bleeding, an enlarged uterus, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, weight loss, increased heart rate, intolerance to heat, sweating, and pelvic discomfort. A hydatidiform mole is removed using ultrasound to guide the procedure. Afterward, one might consider a hysterectomy because there is an increased risk of cancer. In the case of a normal fetus and a mole,

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Retrieved Text: During pregnancy, there is no way you can mentally know the gender of your baby. But from the minute the egg is fertilized, the gender has been pre-determined by the sperm. How does your body truly work it's magic? Take it all the way back to high school health class. This is how your baby's gender was determined.
1: The egg travels through the Fallopian tubes, like during menstruation. The sperm, from the male's reproductive system will travel up the tubes, towards your ovary. Along the way, the sperm and egg will mix.
2: The egg will further on be known as X. The sperm will carry an X or Y, X for girl, and Y for boy.
3. The egg and sperm will travel to your period lining, and stick to it, where it will grow, in the uterus. You will carry the baby for 9 months. During the pregnancy months, the baby egg will be known as a fetus.
4. All there is to it is right behind you!!!!

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Retrieved Text: Couples also can have fertility problems because of health conditions in either the woman or the man. Common problems with a woman's reproductive organs, like uterine fibroids, endometriosis and pelvic inflammatory disease, can worsen with age and can also affect fertility. These conditions might cause the fallopian tubes to become blocked so the egg cannot travel into the uterus.
Some people have diseases or conditions that affect their hormone levels, which can cause infertility in women and impotence and infertility in men. Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal condition that affects many women, and it is the most common cause of anovulation, when a woman rarely or never ovulates.
Another hormonal condition that is a common cause of infertility is when a woman has a luteal phase defect (LPD). The luteal phase is the time in the menstrual cycle between ovulation and the start of the next menstrual period. LPD is a failure of the uterine lining to be fully prepared for a fertilized egg to implant. This happens either because a woman's body is not producing enough progesterone or because the uterine lining isn't responding to progesterone levels at some point in the menstrual cycle. Since pregnancy depends on a fertilized egg implanting in the uterine lining, LPD can interfere with getting pregnant or carrying a pregnancy successfully.
Certain lifestyle choices such as smoking, alcohol use, weighing much more or much less than an ideal body weight, too much strenuous exercise and having an eating disorder can also have a negative effect on a woman's fertility.
While some

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Retrieved Text: Identical — or monozygotic — twins pop up from a single fertilized egg that eventually splits in two and forms two identical boys or two girls. They share 100% of their DNA.
Fraternal — or dizygotic — twins form from two eggs that have been fertilized by two of the father’s sperm, producing two genetically unique siblings. They share 50% of their DNA.
But “semi-identical” twins are so rare, experts say they have only identified two cases — ever.
Right along that DNA-sharing spectrum, “semi-identical” twins share anywhere from 50% to 100% of their genomes, researchers say.
And they’re extremely, extremely rare. The only other reported case of sesquizygotic twins was reported in the United States in 2007. The recently identified twins from South East Queensland are now 4 years old and healthy.
Details of this second case were published this week in the New England Journal of Medicine. Researchers from the University of New South Wales and the Queensland University of Technology combed through nearly 1,000 cases of twins to confirm their findings.
Authors of the study were observing a 28-year-old woman’s pregnancy in 2014 when they noticed her set of twins shared a placenta, appearing to be identical twins.
But the 14-week ultrasound showed they were different genders — making it impossible for them to be monozygotic twins.
These twins were formed when a single egg was fertilized by two sperm — something that shouldn’t happen, Dr. Nicholas Fisk, who participated in the study and serves as the deputy vice chancellor of research at the University of New South Wales, told CNN.
That’s

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Retrieved Text: Definition of gestational trophoblastic disease: A rare condition in which abnormal cells grow inside the uterus from tissue that forms after conception (the joining of sperm and egg). This tissue is made of trophoblastic cells, which normally surround the fertilized egg in the uterus and help connect the fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus. These cells also form part of the placenta (the organ that passes nutrients from the mother to the fetus). Most gestational trophoblastic diseases are benign (not cancer) and do not spread, but some types are malignant (cancer) and spread to nearby tissues or other parts of the body. The two main types of gestational trophoblastic diseases are hydatidiform mole and choriocarcinoma. Also called gestational trophoblastic tumor, GTD, and GTT. Learn more.
CLICK HERE TO BUY doryx ONLINE RIGHT NOW!!!

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Retrieved Text: The team claims they are making medical history, but several researchers have expressed concern over the use of the technique for infertility, as this is not what it is originally developed for. Instead, it was meant as a way for mothers to avoid passing on mitochondrial disease to their children.
The technique is called spindle nuclear transfer, in which the nucleus from the mother is transferred into a donor egg that has had its nucleus removed. The donor egg is then fertilized with sperm from the father and returned to the mother.
Freinds if there is any suitable curative treatment of sleep apne, specially Central sleep apnea?
One egg is fertilized by one sperm.how its possible.. To fertilized one egg with more then one sperm.

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Retrieved Text: The life cycle of a fern is complex compared to that of a flowering plant, and the cycle involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. Some ferns are able to produce new plants entirely asexually, but usually a fern's reproductive process includes a sexual stage.
Ferns differ from flowering plants in that they don't reproduce via seeds. Instead, most ferns produce tiny seedlike structures called spores, and when the spores germinate, they grow into new plants that begin the next stage in the life cycle. In flowering plants, seeds are produced sexually, which means they contain a mixture of genetic material from distinct sperm and egg cells that may come from different plants. Fern spores, however, are produced asexually, which means their genetic material is identical to that of the parent fern.
This asexual stage, though, is only the first step in a fern's life cycle. The next step involves sexual reproduction.
Fern spores are dispersed by wind or water, and when they land in a place with the right growing conditions, which typically involves plenty of moisture and shelter from direct sunlight, the spores germinate and grow into tiny plants called gametophytes. Most ferns' gametophytes are very small compared to the size of the parent plants, and they may go entirely unnoticed as they develop.
Gametophytes develop sexual organs and produce sperm and egg cells. One gametophyte's egg cell may be fertilized by a sperm cell from a nearby gametophyte, or the little plant may fertilize itself. Even if the egg is self-fertilized, however, the new plant that grows from

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Retrieved Text: When a man's sperm fertilizes an egg inside a woman, the fertilized egg will grow and become a baby. That means the woman is pregnant. The baby grows inside the woman's uterus (say: YOO-tur-us). It takes about 9 months for a baby to be fully ready to be born.

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Retrieved Text: A molar pregnancy happens when a fertilized egg develops into a growth called a mole instead of into a normal embryo. You may still have typical pregnancy symptoms in the beginning. But eventually you'll have bleeding and other symptoms that indicate something is wrong.
It can be scary and sad to lose a pregnancy this way. But as long as you get proper treatment, you're unlikely to have any long-term physical consequences.
How common are molar pregnancies?
About 1 in 1,500 pregnancies in the United States is a molar pregnancy. If you're under age 20 or over age 35, or if you've had a previous molar pregnancy, or two or more miscarriages, your chances of having a molar pregnancy are higher. Women of Southeast Asian descent also seem to have a higher risk of molar pregnancy.
A molar pregnancy happens when there are certain problems with the genetic information (the chromosomes) in the fertilized egg at conception. The result is that the egg may develop into a growth with no embryo (this is called a complete mole) or an abnormal embryo (a partial mole).
In normal pregnancies, the fertilized egg contains 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 from the mother. This isn't the case with a molar pregnancy.
In most complete molar pregnancies, the fertilized egg contains two copies of the chromosomes from the father and none from the mother. In this case, there's no embryo, amniotic sac, or any normal placental tissue. Instead, the placenta forms a mass of cysts that looks like a cluster of grapes.
In a partial molar

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Retrieved Text: It is not often that one encounters a pair of “semi-identical twins.” In fact, the world has only seen two of cases of this phenomenon ever before in history. While we have all heard of fraternal and identical twins, the term “semi-identical” twins is puzzling. What exactly does that mean?
By definition, identical twins are created from a single fertilized egg that eventually splits in two and forms two identical males or two identical females. In this case, they share 100% of their DNA. On the other hand, fraternal twins are created from two fertilized eggs from two of the father’s sperm, producing two genetically unique siblings. They share 50% of their DNA. Interestingly, “semi-identical” twins will share the same identical DNA from one parent, but not from the other. The first pair was born in the United States in 2007. The second pair, although born in 2014, was recently discovered in Australia.
The discovery was actually made before the twins were born in 2014. In early pregnancy (at about 6 weeks), a single placenta had indicated that the expectant mother was going to have identical twins; however, an ultrasound at 14 weeks showed the twins were male and female, which would then make it impossible for the pair to in fact be identical. Consequently, doctors determined that a single egg must have been fertilized by two sperm before it divided thus resulting in “semi-identical” twins. The researchers who were responsible for the discovery of the twins screened approximately 1,000 pairs of fraternal twins to see if this

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Retrieved Text: The menstrual cycle is a woman's cycle that prepares the body each month for pregnancy. It is controlled by hormonal changes that affect the ovaries and uterus. Your cycle can be described by 3 phases of either the ovaries (follicular, ovulatory, luteal) or the uterus (menstrual, proliferative, secretory). Day 1 of your cycle is counted from the first day of your period. The average cycle length is 28 days but can vary between 21 and 35 days for adult women. The following description is based on a 28 day cycle.
The follicular phase begins with the first day of your period, this is considered day 1 of your cycle. The follicular phase consists of your period as well as the time from when your period ends until ovulation occurs, which is is known as the proliferative phase of the uterus.
The typical period lasts 4-7 days, and is counted from the first day that there is bright red flow. Spotting before your period is not counted. During your period, the lining of the uterus that was present to support a fertilized egg is shed, if pregnancy did not occur.
Hormones: During the first week of your cycle estrogen and testosterone start out at their lowest levels and begin to rise.
Cervical Mucus: During your period you will not notice any cervical mucus.
During this time the pituitary gland secretes a hormone called Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), which stimulates approximately 15-20 follicles to ripen in the ovary. Each one of these follicles contains an egg. As the eggs mature the follicles produce

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Retrieved Text: This NCLEX review will discuss the female reproductive cycle (menstrual cycle). In maternity nursing, you will learn the menstrual cycle.
As a nursing student, you must be familiar with each phase, what occurs during the phase, the role of the hormones, and what happens if pregnancy occurs. These type of questions may be found on NCLEX and definitely on nursing lecture exams in maternity.
After you review these notes on the menstrual cycle, don’t forget to take the menstrual cycle quiz.
Purpose of the Menstrual Cycle: is to release an egg for potential fertilization (from the ovary) so it can implant into the endometrium…hence help develop a baby. If this doesn’t happen, the 28 day cycle starts all over (note cycle days vary among women).
Woman has bleeding (consists of 1-6 days) where she is shedding the stratum functionalis (functional layer) of the endometrium. If pregnancy did not occur during the last cycle, the progesterone and estrogen levels drop which causes the layer to shed.
How does it do this? When hormone levels from the previous cycle drop (specifically progesterone and estrogen) the hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) and this causes the anterior pituitary gland to release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone).
The FSH released from the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the follicles in the ovary to grow. A woman has two ovaries (right and left) and each contains MANY follicles.
Follicles are fluid-filled sacs in the ovary that contain an immature egg known as an oocyte. NOTE: FSH will cause several follicles to develop but only ONE turns into

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Retrieved Text: Young Brisbane twins, a boy and a girl, have been identified as only the second set of semi-identical, or sesquizygotic, twins in the world—and the first to be identified by doctors during pregnancy.
"It is likely the mother's egg was fertilized simultaneously by two of the father's sperm before dividing," said professor Fisk, who led the fetal medicine team that cared for the mother and twins while based at Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital in 2014. Professor Fisk, a past president of the International Fetal Medicine and Surgery Society, worked alongside Dr. Gabbett.
"The mother's ultrasound at six weeks showed a single placenta and positioning of amniotic sacs that indicated she was expecting identical twins. However, an ultrasound at 14 weeks showed the twins were male and female, which is not possible for identical twins."
Identical twins result when cells from a single egg fertilized by a single sperm divide into two, so identical twins are the same gender and share identical DNA. Fraternal twins occur when each twin develops from a separate egg and the egg is fertilized by its own sperm.
Dr. Gabbett said if one egg is fertilized by two sperm it results in three sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and two from the father. "Three sets of chromosomes are typically incompatible with life and embryos do not usually survive," he said. "In the case of the Brisbane sesquizygotic twins, the fertilized egg appears to have equally divided up the three sets of chromosomes into groups of cells which then split into two, creating the

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Retrieved Text: There are several types of twin placentas in the human race. You will be surprised to know that not all twins share a placenta and sometimes two of them will merge to become one. To really understand how all this magic happens, you need to understand the different types of twins, how they are conceived and how they are positioned in their mother’s wombs. Let us take a look at the different types of twins.
Dizygotic twins are those that result from the fertilization of two eggs by two different sperms. They are known in layman’s terms as fraternal twins. These are like two siblings who share 50 % of genes unlike identical twins who have the same DNA. Each fetus will lie in their own membrane and will not share any vessels with the other. They lay in different amnion and each of them has their own sac.
The two fetus do not share the same placenta. Each has their own set of blood vessels and their own amnion. In this case there will be two different placentas released after birth. You will also notice that the two placentas in some cases will merge to form one placenta. Though it is not common enough to be the standard it is not very unusual as well. All the dizygotic twins are di-chorionic. This just means that they have different placentas and different sacs. The sacs can be fused, sharing amniotic fluid or completely separated.
These are the result of one egg being fertilized by one sperm. The fertilized egg

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Retrieved Text: (II) where fusion of egg and sperm takes place.
(III) where zygote is implanted. What happens to human egg when it is not fertilized ?

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Retrieved Text: Every time I see the phrase, “the fertilized egg then implants in the uterus,” I’m tempted to tear my hair out. I fully understand why pro-abortion people use this phraseology. But it is beyond my comprehension to understand why so many pro-life people repeat these words. I’m sure the pro-life people who do this mean well, but they must understand that they’re helping the pro-abortion movement when they continue to repeat this kind of biologic nonsense.
First, let’s review our physiology. Conception (fertilization) consists of the union of sperm and ovum. The penetration of the ovum by the sperm, the integration and finally the beginning of the first cell division encompasses approximately twenty-four hours. The medical name for this single cell stage is zygote. Then cell division occurs and, by the end of the first week, this tiny new human consists of several hundred cells. During that first week of life, this new human floats freely down the mother’s tube and, when one week old, give or take a day or two, this new living human implants within the nutrient lining of the womb.
Why does the pro-abortion industry continually speak of fertilized eggs implanting? They say it with something of a sneer. Whoever heard of a fertilized egg being a “full human”? The very words “fertilized egg” do not conjure up in anyone’s mind the full human being that this new biologic entity in fact is. Rest assured, semantically speaking, they know exactly what they are doing when they continue to speak of fertilized eggs. It’s much

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Retrieved Text: Use this FREE pharmacy coupon to get the lowest price on your Ortho-Cyclen prescription. Our discount coupons are pre-activated and can be used at over 68,000 pharmacies nationwide to save up to 75% off your prescription medication.
Ortho-Cyclen is a combination contains a combination of female hormones (ethinyl estradiol and norgestimate) that prevent ovulation (the release of an egg from an ovary). This medication also causes changes in your cervical mucus and uterine lining, making it harder for sperm to reach the uterus and harder for a fertilized egg to attach to the uterus.
What is Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?
Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate) contains a combination of female hormones that prevent ovulation (the release of an egg from an ovary). This medication also causes changes in your cervical mucus and uterine lining, making it harder for sperm to reach the uterus and harder for a fertilized egg to attach to the uterus.
Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate) is used as contraception to prevent pregnancy. It is also used to treat severe acne.
Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate) may also be used for purposes not listed in this medication guide.
What is the most important information I should know about Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?
What should I discuss with my healthcare provider before taking Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?
How should I take Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?
What should I avoid while taking Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?
What other drugs will affect Ortho-Cyclen (Ethinyl Estradiol/Norgestimate)?

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Retrieved Text: Human development begins at fertilization when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual... The zygote divides many times and becomes progressively transformed into a multi-cellular human being.
Last week I watched CNN reporter Chris Cuomo and Marco Rubio have this discussion over the matter of abortion and the meaning of "human life."
RUBIO: No, science has decided when it is human life.
CUOMO: Science has not decided it’s at conception.
RUBIO: No, let me correct you. Science has—absolutely it has.
At this point Cuomo made me want to jump through the flat screen of my TV and slap some scientific sense into him!
The conceptus (fertilized egg) is alive. It is a living thing.
It is not a daisy life or a fish life or a mosquito life or a rhinocerous life. It is a human conceptus, AKA human life.
Just as frog life begins in the frog egg, so does human life begin in the fertilized egg in a mother's womb.
Cuomo accused Rubio of "oversimplifying," and that he was answering the question based on his faith, not science."
Cuomo: "We'll have scientists on the show all morning who will say we cannot say it is definitely human life at conception. It's more faith than science."
Rubio: "They can't say it's human life? What would it become then? A cat? I can tell you that every single one of us started at that same stage, that it can't become anything other than a human

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Retrieved Text: A zygosity will determine if twins, triplets, etc. are identical or non-identical (fraternal).
The results issued for a zygosity test will be either identical whereby the tested individuals have identical DNA at the tested regions or fraternal whereby the tested individuals do not have identical DNA at the tested regions.
Identical twins (also called monozygotic twins) occur when a single egg is fertilized by a single sperm and the egg subsequently divides into two separate embryos. Identical twins will have identical DNA at the regions tested. Non-identical/fraternal twins (also called dizygotic twins) typically occur when two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm. Fraternal twins are as genetically similar to one another as any siblings that share both parents, but will not have identical DNA at the regions tested.

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Retrieved Text: There are documented cases of people being sued by their kids, by their pets, by the estates of deceased relatives and even by property that they own. An eye-catching headline this week tells of a newly filed case in which actress Sophia Vergara is being sued by frozen pre-embryos that were created by the fertilization of her eggs with the sperm of her former fiancée, businessman Nick Loeb.
Vergara and Loeb were dating and were engaged to be married in 2013 when they had two of Vergara’s eggs fertilized. The actress was then 41 years old and Loeb has told news outlets that they were preparing to have children later in their marriage. Their relationship ended before a wedding ever took place, but the fertilized eggs remain frozen. And that’s where the legal situation gets very complicated.
State laws relating to fertilized eggs vary greatly. Most states make it clear that if a woman has an egg removed and that egg remains frozen awaiting fertilization, then the decision on what to do with the frozen egg rests entirely with the woman from whom the egg was removed. However, if the egg is fertilized with sperm from a known donor, then decisions about the pre-embryo become much more legally complicated.
IVF clinics counsel patients about the potential legal consequences and complications involving situations in which couples freeze fertilized eggs but then either separate or one or both halves of the couple die. As many IVF patients do, Vergara and Loeb entered into an agreement on their rights relative to the

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Retrieved Text: Since eggs are such a well-loved kind of food, it is no wonder people express some concern about the kind of egg they are eating.
One of these concerns is whether the eggs they got from the supermarket are fertilized eggs or not.
But wait, aren’t all eggs supposed to be fertilized in the first place?
It is a known fact that hens lay eggs.
However, what is not very well known is that hens can lay eggs with or without the presence of a rooster.
Like human females, a hen is born with all the eggs she will ever have.
When she reaches maturity, somewhere around the 16th-20th week of life, the egg is released into the oviduct where it will begin it’s journey, along the way adding the egg white, shell membranes, and shell.
Immediately after the yolk is released, it goes into a “holding area” called the infundibulum for about 15 minutes. If the yolk is to be fertilized, it needs to happen here during this short 15-minute window.
A hen’s bodies can store a rooster’s sperm for up to a week after mating, to be used during this window. The entire process of forming an egg will take about 24 hours to complete.
If the hen has mated within the past week, as long as the rooster is healthy, it is a good bet the eggs she lays will be fertilized.
For a fertilized egg to begin developing, around 100 degrees with 60% humidity for several hours.
It takes about 3 days of incubating at proper conditions for any visible changes or veining

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Retrieved Text: Fertilized cervical mucus is called “Egg white cervical mucus” because it looks like raw egg white. EWCM provides a suitable environment for sperm. It helps the sperm jump through the vaginal canal and cervix into the uterus. Egg white emissions help the sperm survive the most acidic atmosphere of the sperm. If you do not have a fertile standard cervical mucus, the sperm can not swim or live. This can be a problem for pregnancy.

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Retrieved Text: ICSI is used to treat sperm-related infertility problems. The procedure is used to enhance the fertilization phase of in vitro fertilization (IVF) by injecting a single sperm into a mature egg. The fertilized egg is then placed in a woman's uterus or fallopian tube.

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Retrieved Text: What is zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)? One of the least often used forms of ART (assisted reproductive technology), zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) is a combination of IVF and GIFT.
ZIFT is an assisted reproductive procedure similar to in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer with the difference being that the fertilized embryo is transferred into the fallopian tube instead of the uterus. Because the fertilized egg is transferred directly into the tubes, the procedure is also referred to as tubal embryo transfer (TET). This procedure can be more successful than gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) because your physician has a greater chance of insuring that the egg is fertilized. The woman must have healthy tubes for ZIFT to work.
The fact that ZIFT transfers a fertilized egg directly into the fallopian tubes versus a mixture of sperm and eggs, is the main difference between ZIFT and GIFT.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer – How is ZIFT performed?
The eggs are fertilized in a laboratory just like in the IVF procedure.
The fertilized eggs are transferred through a laparoscopic procedure. The catheter is placed deep in the fallopian tube and the fertilized eggs are injected.
The last step is to watch for early pregnancy symptoms. The fertility specialist will probably use a blood test to determine if pregnancy has occurred.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer – Who should be treated with ZIFT?
ZIFT is commonly chosen by couples who have failed to conceive after at least one year of trying and who have failed five to six cycles of ovarian stimulation with intrauterine insemination.
What are the similarities and differences between ZIFT

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Retrieved Text: A blighted ovum is a type of miscarriage that occurs when a fertilized egg doesn’t grow into an embryo. Here are the basics on this condition and what to do if it happens to you.
A blighted ovum (also known as an anembryonic pregnancy) is a type of very early miscarriage, when a fertilized egg never develops into an embryo. Because it happens so early on in a pregnancy — within just a few weeks of ovulation and fertilization — many women don’t even know it’s occurred. But if you get a positive pregnancy test for a few days and later get a negative test, or are diagnosed with an early miscarriage after an ultrasound, it’s still natural to feel confused and upset. Learning why it happens and that it won’t affect your chances of conceiving in the future, however, can be reassuring.
In a normal pregnancy, a sperm fertilizes an egg shortly after ovulation. Within hours, this fertilized egg starts dividing, first forming two cells, then four, then eight, and so on. By about 10 days later, the growing clump of cells has formed an embryo and, inside a gestational sac, implanted itself in the uterus. Implantation spurs the placenta to start developing, and hormone levels (including those detected on a home pregnancy test) to start surging. Over the next few weeks, the embryo keeps growing and — by week 6 of pregnancy, or about a month after ovulation and fertilization — it can be seen as a few-millimeter speck on an ultrasound.
In some cases, however, something

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Retrieved Text: OI is also called ovarian stimulation and involves, most commonly, taking a drug called clomiphene citrate (the brand name is Clomid or Serophene) in tablet form. The drug stimulates the production of various hormones that are responsible for ovulation. Regular ultrasound scanning of the ovaries during the cycle is essential to ensure that not too many eggs are produced, which could lead to ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Because of the associated risks of long-term use, the clomiphene should not be given for more than three months at a time. It can be given for a total of six months, but there should be a one-month break after the first three months.
Clomiphene is taken from day 2 to day 5 of your cycle. The drug binds to oestrogen receptor sites in the brain, making the body think that oestrogen secretion is too low. This causes the hypothalamus to produce more GnRH (gonadotrophin-releasing hormone). GnRH tells the pituitary gland to release more LH and FSH. This results in an egg starting to mature in a follicle, ready for ovulation. HCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) injections may also be given to boost final maturation of follicles. HCG is usually given 36 to 40 hours before final maturation of follicles.
OI is suitable for women whose periods are irregular, as a result of a diagnosed hormonal imbalance, and those who are under the age of 35, are most likely to benefit. OI can help women with polycystic ovarian syndrome, those whose production of LH is faulty and prevents the ovarin follicles from maturing

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Retrieved Text: Posted on March 23, 2017 October 29, 2018 Author admin	Comments Off on How Do Fibroids Affect a Pregnancy?
This article is for those women who want to find out if and how fibroids affect you and your baby during and after pregnancy. What are the chances of a child being born healthy by a mother affected by fibroids during pregnancy?
Fibroids cannot be removed during pregnancy because it increases the risk of injury to the uterus and hemorrhage. Treatment options are limited to pain medication and medication to prevent premature labor, if necessary.
Most of the pregnant women suffering from fibroids may not experience any complications with their pregnancy. But during pregnancy, the size of the fibroids usually increases due to increased hormone flow. Other complications that may arise include: obstructed labor, stalled labor, postpartum hemorrhaging, and forcing the fetus into an unusual position. Your physician will keep close watch to monitor and prevent the occurrence of most of these complications. In 75% of the cases, there are no problems as a result of fibroids during pregnancy.
If you have fibroids and you are pregnant, then there is a huge relief knowing that battle is half over. Fibroids can lead to various complications prior to pregnancy. Not all but certain types of fibroids can lead you to infertility. This usually happens because of the two reasons. First these fibroids can block a fallopian tube, thereby stopping the sperm from reaching the egg. Second they may bulge into the uterine cavity, changing the natural shape of the uterus and preventing a

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Retrieved Text: Figure 8.7: In tobacco cutworm moths the male (right) is smaller than the female (left), but similarly colored.
At the most basic level, the life cycle of an insect is comprised of the egg, juvenile (typically called larva or nymph, we will use the term larva throughout this module) and adult stages. Some insect types include another stage that will be discussed below.
The eggs are typically laid externally (like chickens!) and are small and inconspicuous. The larvae are the “eating and growing machines” and the adults are the “reproductive machines.” Most, but not all, insects reproduce sexually and have male and female reproductive structures in different individual adults.
Figure 8.8: In this wood boring beetle pair, the male is smaller than the female but similar in color.
Depending on the species, male and female adults can look similar and be of similar size; however, sometimes males and females are colored differently with the males being more brightly colored than the females (like birds!) and sometimes the females can be larger than the males.
Female adults produce eggs in their reproductive structures and male adults produce sperm in their reproductive structures. Egg and sperm production are controlled by hormones and can be influenced by environmental features. Eggs are fertilized by sperm during mating and female adults typically deposit the fertilized eggs into the environment.
Figure 8.9: In this damselfly pair the male is bright blue, while the female is light green.
The word metamorphosis is an appropriate word to describe how an insect develops from an egg to an adult. First, the eggs

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Retrieved Text: (HealthDay News) -- An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg grows outside theuterus, most commonly in the fallopian tube.
The growing fetus eventually will cause the fallopian tube to burst, which can lead to life-threatening bleeding that could require immediate surgery.
Half of women who develop an ectopic pregnancy have no known risk factors, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists says.
Use ofassisted reproductive technology, such asin vitro fertilization.

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Retrieved Text: What is the Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)?
There are two IUD's that are approved for use in the United States, the Copper T (CuT 380A) and the Progesterone T (Progestasert).
The way an IUD prevents pregnancy is not completely understood. It was once thought that the IUD worked by changing the lining of the uterus and making it unable to support a fertilized egg. If an egg had been fertilized during the cycle, it would be sloughed away with the woman's menses. Today, a little more is known about how the IUD works. It is suspected that the IUD not only changes the environment of the uterus barring implantation of a fertilized egg, it also affects the sperm and the egg itself, before fertilization can take place. Researchers are unsure of how, but it is apparent that the IUD changes the sperm or the egg prior to fertilization making fertilization impossible. The IUD is thought to either make sperm immobile, preventing them from reaching an egg in order to fertilize it, or that it makes the egg's journey into the uterus faster than usual, creating a timing problem in the process of fertilization.
A woman must go through a complete gynecological examination before insertion of the IUD. The exam should include a Pap smear, tests for gonorrhea, chlamydia, and syphilis, as well as a thorough physical exam. Once the results of the tests have been received and read, the doctor or nurse practitioner will be able to insert the IUD when the woman has her next menses. This is done

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Input Text: Process:
- You place aluminum cans and other products into recycling bins
- Your town or a private company collect and transport the aluminum to a recycling facility
- The aluminum is sorted and cleaned at the central recycling facility
- The aluminum is melted down to remove coatings and inks
- The melted aluminum is formed into large formations called ingots
- The ingots are transported to another facility and rolled out to make them easier to manipulate
- The ingots can now be turned into new aluminum products.

Question:
suppose less aluminum cans placed into recycling happens, how will it affect LESS aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Rank: 5
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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Score: 69.61274
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of nature’s great recycling success stories. Aluminum is completely, endlessly recyclable. One pound of aluminum makes approximately 30 cans; using recycled aluminum uses 95% less energy than mining new bauxite ore for new aluminum. It’s one packaging product you can feel good about using, and reusing.
In this particular case, choosing aluminum cans may be a better option than plastic bottles when choosing a soft drink or juice, as recycling options are easier on the environment and longer lasting. Recycling aluminum does not involve downcycling—an old can is made into a new can, over and over, unlike plastic, which is usually remade into a lower quality plastic. Still, it’s best to use only what you need.
Wash and reuse aluminum foil and foil baking pans; use cans to store hardware or crafts or to make children’s art projects.
Clean aluminum cans, pie plates and foil can go in your curbside CRD Blue Box. Wash these when doing the dishes! You may also take these and other aluminum items to the metal recycling facilities listed below.
Aluminum cans, foil, foil containers and wrap, pie plates and specific aerosol containers are now accepted as part of the new Multi-Materials BC (MMBC) Packaging and Printed Paper product stewardship program. These materials can be taken, free of charge, to the facilities listed here. See above for the criteria for curbside collection.

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Rank: 8
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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Score: 66.984406
Retrieved Text: In the United States, aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item. An aluminum can that you toss out today could end up back on your grocery shelf in just less than two months. Recycling one aluminum can help save enough energy to run your television for three hours. Why is recycling aluminum so important? If left in a landfill, a single aluminum can could stay in its present form for up to 500 years.
There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each year around the world. Many years ago aluminum was actually more valuable than gold. It’s also one of those elements that can be recycled over and over again.
Reading your newspapers on line or on a tablet is a good way to save paper. Half 1 million trees are cut down just to produce the Sunday newspapers each week. You could save 75,000 trees by just recycling and days worth of New York Times newspapers. If we recycled all newspapers, then we could save over 250 million trees each year.
The average person uses at least seven trees each year through wood, paper and other products made from trees. That means over 2 trillion trees are cut down and used throughout the course of a year. Most people throw away paper but it adds up to around 680 pounds for each person. Every 2,000 pounds of paper that is recycled can save 17 trees, 350 gallons of oil and reduce landfill space.
Another important recycling fact to know is the diversion rate. That’s the percentage of

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Retrieved Text: In 2006, Americans drank about 167 bottles of water each, but only recycled an average of 38 bottles per person. That means about 50 billion plastic bottles were consumed, but only 23 percent were recycled, leaving 38 billion water bottles to be thrown away.
According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, the average American consumed 1.6 gallons of bottled water in 1976. In 2006, each person consumed 28.3 gallons of bottled water.
In 2006, Americans spent $15 billion on bottled water. That’s more than we spent on iPods or movie tickets.
Bottled water costs between $1 and $4 per gallon, and 90% of the cost is in the bottle, lid, and label.
Manufacturing bottled water uses over 1.5 million barrels of oil per year; that’s enough oil to fuel 100,000 cars.
So the next time you intend to throw away a plastic bottle, look for a recycling bin instead.
Over 50% of the aluminum cans produced are recycled.
A used aluminum can can be recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can in as fast as 60 days.
Aluminum is a durable and sustainable metal, so much so that two thirds of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than producing one can using virgin ore.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours, or enough to run your television for three hours.
Americans use 100 million steel cans every day.
Each year North America recycles more steel than aluminum, glass, paper, and

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Score: 65.77126
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is a wonderful material; I am banging this post out on a Mac with a case that was hydroformed out of a block of a particular virgin aluminum alloy specified by Apple. Other alloys are used in cars, planes, bullet trains and even rockets.
But it turns out that one major supplier of aluminum, Kobe Steel, has been shipping substandard aluminum and faking the data about the strength and durability of their aluminum. According to Bloomberg, “the fabrication of figures was found at all four of Kobe Steel’s local aluminum plants in conduct that was systematic, and for some items the practice dated back some 10 years.” Some of it may have gone into airplanes made by Subaru, wings made for Boeing, and yes, a rocket for Japan’s space industry.
The company is, of course, apologetic.
And why is this on TreeHugger? Because aluminum has a huge environmental impact. Sixty percent of it is recycled, but making that other forty percent takes a lot of electricity, 13,500 to 17,000 kWh per ton. More and more of it is going into cars like the Tesla and trucks like the Ford F-150 to make them lighter. No wonder Kobe was tempted to cheat; they can’t make enough of the stuff.
A lot of Aluminum is recycled, particularly beverage cans where 67 percent of it is recovered, but a lot of it is not; it is often bound to plastic in packaging (tetra packs, coffee pods and condiment packages); Heinz alone makes 11 billion little ketchup pouches every year. A lot more

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Score: 65.722786
Retrieved Text: All future events and fairs will be listed here.
Recyclers of Oklahoma had the privilege to be involoved in the first annual Getting Green Festival of Edmond. The event was held September 5,6,7 2008. We had an amazing turn out and were able to speak with many local companies in the Edmond area and pass along recycling information, drop off sites, and give a general overview of how much energy and resources are saved with your recycling efforts.
Fact # 1 Recycling One Alum soda can can power a T.V. or Radio for three hours.
Fact # 2 More than 40% of the entire worlds Copper needs are met by recycled material. This prevents the need for mining our earths core for new material.
Fact # 3 Copper has an infinite recycleable life the very same copper we use today the anicent pharohs were using more than 10,000 years ago.
Fact # 4 Recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy used to make the material from scratch. That means you can make 20 cans out of recycled material with the same amount of energy it takes to make one can out of new material. In one year at that amount of energy savings you can light a major city for more than five years.
Fact # 5 More than 35 billion aluminum cans are thrown into landfills each year, that amount of material has a scrap value of more than $500 million. Someday our children will be digging through Landfills just to recover the resources we've buried.
Fact # 6 Over 350,000 aluminum

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Score: 65.62464
Retrieved Text: The main reason we can’t accept frozen food containers in our program is they are have more types of plastic coatings than the shelf stable and refrigerated cartons. Cartons are coated with a layer of Polyethylene. Frozen food containers can have various types of coatings and because of the variation they can cause problems when trying to separate the fiber (paper) layer from the coating layers. Paper mills can’t separate out these embedded plastic layers from the paper fiber, resulting in problems when they try to pulp the fiber into new paper.
All Burlington County residents, including residents of apartments and condominiums, are required to recycle cardboard, paper, food and beverage cans, glass bottles and jars, and plastic bottles # 1 and # 2 type only.
Apartment Landlords and Condominium Complex Associations are required by municipal ordinance, to provide recycling containers in convenient areas for their residents. Recycling areas and containers must be clearly labeled and residents routinely advised of recycling requirements. The County Recycling Office does provide recycling literature to those Complexes that are serviced by the Occupational Training Center, via the Burlington County Regional Recycling Program. If a Complex contracts privately for recycling services, their recycling service company should provide them guidance on what materials are accepted and how they should be prepared for recycling.
All owners, lessees, or occupants of public and private businesses, commercial and/or industrial establishments are required by local municipal ordinance to recycle paper, corrugated cardboard, bottles and cans. Businesses are required to contract privately for recycling services.
Owners, lessees, and occupants of all

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Retrieved Text: Among the many things that you can do to help protect the Pennsylvania environment, recycling is one of the most popular things to do.
Recycling refers to the re-processing of used items or waste products into reusable or new products. Recycling offers a number of eco-friendly and financial benefits. Here’s a more in-depth and balanced look at how recycling helps to benefit both man and the environment.
According to environment advocates and government planners, recycling saves businesses, governments and households considerable sums of money. According to the Institute for Local Self Reliance, communities save money when they treat recycling as a replacement for traditional waste disposal and handling methods. Through implementing recycling initiatives in local communities, community managers and planners redesign their garbage collection schedules, as well as reduce the operating time of their trucks and equipment.
While some skeptics argue that recycling costs so much more than traditional garbage disposal methods, green advocates say that the prices paid for scrap materials are a direct measure of the immense value of recyclables. For example, scarp aluminum fetches a high price because recycling it eats up less energy as compared to producing a new aluminum can or container.
According to data from the US Energy Information Administration, a paper mill actually uses 40 percent less energy to make paper from recycled materials, than it does to make paper from freshly-cut lumber. Proponents of recycling also tress that the need to use a second timber or logging truck is defrayed when paper is collected and used for recycled.
The US Environmental Protection Agency

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Retrieved Text: If you are a recycler in that case there are bin options that help you to do this more easily. Inside the same space that you could have your single trash is it possible to can have 4 small bins, sometimes even in different shades to help you easily separate waste material. This can eradicate the problem of getting an overflowing main trash may as less is actually going to the dump and more is being directed elsewhere to be reused or perhaps transformed. However you decide to take care of your overflowing trash spare there is an easy option available to you. Cleaning up your trash location really opens up a home and gives it an all rounded cleaner and fresher come to feel. An added bonus of getting additional trash cans is that although you'll have done more to take out; your vacations to the outside trash may will be less frequent.
Mrspalmreader - Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen. How to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles including plastic milk cartons. Recycle crushing machines. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen youtube sep 12, 2010 how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles. Crushing machines opening 25x40. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra 12 09 2010� how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans

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Rank: 19
Score: 63.79941
Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Score: 63.371834
Retrieved Text: One of the major reasons we chose to package our kombucha with aluminum cans is because cans have the highest consumer recycling rate. In addition, aluminum can production is a closed loop system, meaning they are are infinitely recyclable so cans are recycled back into cans rather than down-cycled into a product that is of lesser value, which is the case when glass and plastic are recycled. In fact, aluminum cans are produced with three times the amount of recycled material than that of glass or plastic products. Due to aluminum’s light weight, more cans can be transported per freight load than plastic or glass, which allows for increased efficiency for our supply chain and the environment. Because aluminum cans are an American innovation, the revenue generated from the industry stays in the country, making cans the most economically viable packaging option.
Producing the highest quality kombucha is at the core of why we are in business. Our cans have a BPA-free lining, which means the kombucha never comes into contact with metal, therefore the healthy bacteria and acids do not diminish or erode. Cans cannot be infiltrated by light, which allows us to control the fermentation of our kombucha after it is packaged. Our kombucha contains high quantities of the active bacteria, Lactobacillus, and because cans cannot be infiltrated by light, we can control the fermentation and ABV of our kombucha better with the can packaging.
We believe kombucha is the perfect pairing for all adventures. Cans are the best option because they are easy to pack

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Retrieved Text: Fiberboard - Beverage, Cereal, Cake Mix, Pasta, Cracker, Gift Boxes etc.
​Recycling a stack of newspaper just three feet high can save one tree.
Recycling one ton of aluminum cans saves 37 barrels of oil.
Enough energy is saved by recycling one aluminum can to run TV set for three hours or to light ​one 100 watt bulb for 20 hours.
Everyday Americans use enough steel and tin cans to make a steel pipe from Los Angeles to New York and back.
Making cans from recycled aluminum saves 95% of the energy required to produce cans from virgin materials.
​It is a free service.

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Retrieved Text: Pesticides, brake fluid and chemicals of any kind. For disposal information, call SCDHEC Environmental Quality Control at (864) 242-1090.
Dead Animals - Small animals may be taken (in plastic bags) to the landfill at no charge.
Burnt Trash is not accepted at the stations or the landfill. Please ask for a brochure.
Large Tires - from tandem trucks, road tractors and farm tractors must go to the landfill at $80/ton.
Cross Ties and creosote treated lumber must go to the landfill at $47/ton. Asbestos is not accepted in ANY form. For disposal information, call Solid Waste at 859-3492.
Shingles - (Over one wheelbarrow load) must go to the landfill at $47/ton.
Asbestos is not accepted in any form. For Disposal information, call the Solid Waste office at 859-3492.
Pottery, china porcelain, dinnerware, window, door and picture frame glass are some types of glass that cannot be accepted for recycling. These items need to be deposited into the compactor at the Recycle Stations.
Aluminum foil and pie plates are not recyclable. These should be put with household garbage.
Concrete, blocks, and bricks - over one wheelbarrow load must go to landfill.
Trailers over 10 foot are required to dispose of waste at Landfill.
Aluminum, steel cans, aerosol cans are recyclable. Labels do not need to be removed, but please rinse and if possible, flatten cans before bringing to the recycle station.
Antifreeze - is accepted but must be placed in special container at each recycle station.
Batteries - Auto, marine and lawn mower batteries are accepted for recycling.
Clothing - is accepted at all recycling stations. A Miracle Hill donation box

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Retrieved Text: Around The World In 60 Days: Life Story Of An Aluminum Can | Recycle USA, Inc.
The average life cycle of a human being from a birth to a death is 60 years and the life cycle of an aluminum can from mining to recycling is 60 days.
The life of aluminum can starts in tropical and sub-tropical countries like Australia, Central and South America, Africa and Asia where are major bauxite ore deposits are located, but before bauxite can be converted to aluminum it has to go through the infancy stage where it is called alumina. After processing, alumina or aluminum oxide looks like a fine grained white powder, just like baby powder.
What happens when baby touches electric current? Most likely baby will get an electric shock. In the case of aluminum electrical energy is necessary part of its production. Usually, aluminum is extracted from alumina by electrolysis in smelting plants of China, North America, Europe, and Asia.
Just like any other teenager In North America and Western Europe aluminum likes rock-and-roll. It is rolled in a shape of sheet and foil and used for making beverage cans, foil containers and foil wrapping.
An adult person is responsible enough to make own choices and decisions, and for aluminum it is the time when it formed into products. Aluminium has a unique combination of properties that enables designers and manufacturers to develop different products that enhance the quality of life.
The retiring age is a time to think about past and future from a life-long perspective. For an aluminum can it

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Retrieved Text: Every time people throw away an item it takes energy to make it again. Many of these items could take centuries to break down, harming the earth.
We can decrease the amount of waste we produce.
Reduce means cutting back on the amount of trash we make by buying less of the items we don't really need.
Using silverware instead of plastic ones.
Buying used clothes and goods.
Saving energy by drying clothes outside, turning of the lights after leaving a room, etc.
Reuse means finding a new way to use old items so that we don't have to throw it away.
Old T-shirts can make the best cleaning rags for wood and leather furniture.
Using jars to store beverages, leftover food or used as a vase.
Trading or selling used DVDs.
You can earn money for recycling soda cans and plastic bottles.
Blue jeans can be recycled into home insulation.
Rubber tires can be recycled into flooring.
Recycle means using trash to remake new goods that can be sold again. Communities have a variety of recycling programs, such as curbside pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, and buy-back centers that pay you for valuable items.
New York City alone throws out enough garbage each day to fill the Empire State Building.
It takes 90% less energy to recycle an aluminum can than to make a new one.
In the United States we cut down 4 billion trees a year to make paper products, such as newspapers, packaging, junk mail, toilet paper, boxes, among other things. When the trees are cut down, they are turned into wood chips, which are then mixed with

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Retrieved Text: The cost to participate in this program is $5.15.
How often will recyclables be picked up?
Which day of the week will recyclables be picked up?
Recyclables will be picked up on Tuesday mornings by 7 a.m. If a national holiday occurs on Monday of the week of pick-up, recycling pick-up will occur on Wednesday.
What can I recycle? What is not allowed?
Plastic bottles, aluminum cans, newspaper, and plain cardboard are among the items that can be recycled. Glass, Styrofoam, and food-contaminated items cannot. For a complete list of which materials are acceptable and how to prepare them for recycling, please click here.
Do all recyclables go into the same cart? Do I need to separate the recyclables?
You do not need to separate acceptable recyclables. Everything can go into the recycling cart together.
Is the recycling program mandatory?
No, it is not. Current Santaquin homeowners have the option to Opt-Out of curbside recycling during an annual opt-out period beginning March 2016. New homeowners will have the option to participate at the time of utility set-up.
Why did Santaquin City begin a Recycling Program?
What has Republic Services Accomplished in Utah?
What is the Environmental Impact of Recycling?
For every ton of paper recycled, 60,000 gallons of water are saved. We use 70% less energy using recycled products in manufacturing than with raw materials. Recycling 1 aluminum can saves enough energy to power a TV for up to 3 hours.
What did our neighboring cities save in 2013 by recycling?
594.54 tons or 1,089,080 pounds of recyclables in 2013.
$18,728.01 in savings for the city.
So when is the next time I

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Retrieved Text: Earth Day is fast approaching.
Have you given any thought to upping your ‘earth friendly’ habits?
Does your city or town have a formal recycling program with little tubs for paper,glass and plastic? Do you utilize it?
Country folk ‘most of the time’ don’t have recycling available to them with their trash pickup. That is IF they even have a trash pickup! We have to save ours up and haul it to town to a recycling center. It takes effort but isn’t your home worth it?
When you recycle just one aluminum can saves enough money to run a television for a couple of hours. It also takes less energy to create NEW aluminum cans from recycled aluminum than it does to refine new aluminum.
When you recycle a glass jar you’re saving resources and keeping it out of a landfill where it may NEVER decompose.
Like glass, plastics also take forever and a day to decompose. With all the plastics filling the roadways and ditches it’s inevitable that rain will wash the plastics out to larger bodies of water (and eventually the ocean) where it affects marine life, and not in a good way.
So how can you do your part? Be consistent in your recycling efforts. Create spaces at work for workers to dispose of their aluminum and plastic ‘one use’ containers for recycling.
But items that have less packaging or reusable packaging. Consider a reusable washable water bottle for everyday use. Every single item that you keep out of the trash saves room in landfills (which are eyesores (and smelly as

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Retrieved Text: Did you know that most items we use on daily basis can be recycled?
In Hudson County, recycling has become an important method of waste management. Materials that were once thought to be unrecyclable are now being commonly recycled. However, there are still some materials that cannot be recycled and those that can need to be prepared correctly for recycling so that they can be reprocessed into new products.
Typically, the only kind of aluminum your town wants set out for curbside collection is aluminum beverage cans. You can test if a can is aluminum or steel by using a magnet: a magnet won’t stick to aluminum. Unless indicated differently, glass, aluminum, steel and tin cans can be commingled for collection.
Recycle only glass bottles and jars from food, beverages and medicine. Do not recycle light bulbs, glassware, ceramics and window glass, which are each made of different ingredients, and by different processes.
Plastics can be very mysterious because each type is made up of different chemical components. Therefore, it is essential that only similar types get recycled together.
All commingled bottles should be rinsed and free from contaminants prior to being placed in your recycling bin. In addition, always remember to remove caps and lids and dispose of them in your trash!
Although you would think many packages such as cereal boxes, egg cartons and the like are made from cardboard, these are actually made of chipboard or paperboard. When recyclers say cardboard, they mean the heavy cardboard usually found in boxes used for packing materials (two layers with a “waffle”

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Retrieved Text: Recycling rate at lowest point in 24 years.
Recently released data* reveal that over one trillion aluminum beer and soda cans have been thrown in the trash—not the recycling bin—since Americans began buying these cans more than thirty years ago. The trillion wasted beverage cans weigh in at 17.5 million tons—a quantity of scrap aluminum worth about $21 billion at today's market prices.
Over the last four decades, the damages from aluminum manufacturing and associated infrastructure include thousand of square miles of habitat loss on every major continent, the displacement of tens of thousands of indigenous people, and the release of tens of millions of tons of greenhouse gasses and other toxic air and water pollutants.
While we are steadily trashing millions of tons of cans that could be used to make new cans and other aluminum products, multi-national companies like Alcoa and Alcan are forging ahead to build new aluminum smelters in pristine environments all over the world, including Brazil, Australia, Mozambique, and Iceland.
If we recycled 85% of our cans instead, as we could with a national beverage container deposit law, or "bottle bill," we could save about 600 thousand tons of aluminum metal annually —eliminating the need to build one or two brand new aluminum smelters.
*The first disposable all-aluminum cans were marketed in 1964, but t he Aluminum Association, an industry trade group, only began collecting sales and recycling data in 1972. Since 1990, the Container Recycling Institute has used U.S. Department of Commerce data to adjust the Aluminum Association recycling rate to account for imported scrap

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Rank: 29
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Retrieved Text: Aluminium is infinitely recyclable making it the material of choice for balancing the . fluoride and lime) and eliminates the need for bauxite ore to be mined.
Policies to promote a modest amount of recycling of monitor parts, including lead, can be . Key Words: end-of-life electronics; waste stream; cost-benefit analysis ... environment: lead mining results in solid by-products released into the environment, ... to various EOL options and differences in costs for particular options.
TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2007. Life-cycle Cost . Keywords: Aluminum, life cycle, weight reduction, recycling. Abstract ... total costs for aluminum and the total costs for steel reduces, as the difference between the "Use".
due to lower production costs compared with the mining and the processing of hard .. mined cobalt of 115 to 125 kt of refined cobalt equivalent and a recycling.
Jul 24, 2017 . The costs associated with WBCs are typically less than .. When compared to the other reuse and recycling applications listed previously,.
Apr 15, 2012 . The average 'new' copper cable contains some 30% recycled material. The more we recycle, the less we need to mine. As mining costs.
'Urban Mining' of E-Waste 13x Cheaper Than Mining Metals .
Apr 10, 2018 . By comparison, they estimate mining to cost between . the total treatment costs for obtaining copper and gold from recycled CRT TVs.
Recycling is the primary energy efficiency technology for aluminum .
May 9, 2014 . Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Iron and Steel Minerals Yearbook . costs compared with those for the production of primary aluminum.
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Input Text: Process:
- Take out an ice cube tray
- Fill the tray with water from the faucet
- Put the ice cube tray in the freezer
- Wait for several hours
- The water will freeze and become ice
- Remove the ice cube tray from the freezer
- Remove the ice cubes from the tray.

Question:
suppose the freezer is able to freeze ice happens, how will it affect ice cubes are formed inside ice tray.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: How Long Does It Take to Make Ice Cubes?
While many may absentmindedly fill their ice cube trays and forget about them until the ice has frozen, it can be interesting to consider just how long it takes for those ice cubes to freeze completely.
What are the variables involved? Are some methods of making ice faster than others? We’re going to answer those questions here so that you can learn which ice-making methods are most efficient, as well as how long you can expect it to take for your regular tray to make ice.
Oh, and if you're looking for the best kind of portable ice machine, that you can even take camping, you should check out this article.
Are There Any Faster Methods To Make Ice?
There are a couple of things to consider here. The first is the overall size of the cubes you’re making. If they’re smaller cubes, then there is less water to freeze. Therefore, they will freeze more quickly.
The second aspect to consider is the surface area involved. For example, if you’re making wider cubes that are thinner, they’ll freeze more quickly than thick cubes. If you have a tray that allows for some air space in between each cube, that will also help them to freeze more quickly.
You’ll also need to pay attention to the temperature in your freezer as you work to freeze the water. Typically, if your freezer has nothing else in it or everything else inside has already been thoroughly frozen, your freezer will be able to work at its most

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Retrieved Text: My kids love to play outside but get so hot so quick they are spending more and more time inside. It has been over 100 degrees for weeks now and just way too hot to play outside, unless your in the pool or a sprinkler. Here is a fun project to do with your kids this summer to help keep them cooled down in this super hot weather.
Cut your string/yarn/ribbon long enough to easily fit over your child’s head.
Tie a knot in one end to stop the beads from coming off when you begin to string them.
Allow your child to string whatever beads they would like. If they are having trouble getting the beads on the end, wrap the end with tape make it a little easier to slide them on. Make sure there is room between each bead so you’ll be able to easily put them into the ice cube tray.
Fill the ice cube tray with water and place a bead or two in each opening. Personally, I found a tray that made ice cubes in the shape of flowers. This gave the appearance of a lei.
Carefully place the tray in the freezer until ice cubes are fully formed. This takes a couple of hours. I know the kids will be asking over and over if it’s done. I try to do these in the morning and let them freeze until it’s REALLY hot in the afternoon.
Take it out of the freezer, pop out the ice cubes and wear outside to play.
My son had so

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Retrieved Text: An ice cube tray is good for so much more than just plain ice cubes! It’s the perfect way to portion up and freeze a multitude of liquids for all kinds of crafty creations. Getting clever with ice cubes is oh-so-cool! And you will be the coolest this summer with this ice cube tray DIY recipe.
rom frozen cubes of aloe vera gel for cooling sunburn relief, to fun water color cubes, to a tasty frozen yogurt snack, we’re all about the ice cube tray!
1. Fill each cube of an ice tray with Aloe Vera gel.
2. Cover tray and place in freeze.
3. Pop a single Aloe cube out of tray and rub over sunburn.
1. Squeeze a small amount of watercolor paint into each cube of an ice cube tray.
2. Fill each cube of tray with water leaving enough room to mix the paint and prevent it from overflowing.
3. Use a small craft stick or tooth pick for mixing each color.
4. Carefully place a piece of aluminum foil over entire ice tray making sure it is pulled taut. Press the foil over tray to reveal the grid of the tray.
5. Carefully poke a small craft stick or tooth pick through the foil in the center of each cube to create a “handle” for the paint cube.
6. Gently place in freezer.
1. Place a berry in each cube of an ice tray.
2. Spoon in yogurt into each cube with enough room to place another berry on top.
3. Place lid on ice tray and gently tap filled tray against table to

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Retrieved Text: Clear ice is not just more beautiful than cloudy ice. It is also WAY more pure than the water from which it comes. Before refrigeration, ice was harvested from lakes in the winter, stored in ice houses and them brought out in the summer. In 1890, The Massachusetts Department of Public Health studied the quality of melt water from clear lake ice, and discovered that it was safe to drink even if the lake itself was polluted. This is because the directional freezing that occurs on the surface of a lake - the same principle that creates ClearlyFrozen ice - pushes not only the cloud of dissolved air, but also everything else in the lake water downward, even reducing the bacteria count by up to 99%!
We tested this by mixing up a batch of dark green food coloring in water, and freezing it in a regular ice cube tray and a ClearlyFrozen ice cube tray. In the regular tray, the food coloring had no place to go, so the cubes (on the sides) came out dark green. In the ClearlyFrozen tray, not only the cloud, but also the the food coloring was forced downward, and largely eliminated from the cubes (center).
An interesting thing about ice is that it can also be used for "cold" distillation.
Alcoholic beverages normally begin with fermentation. Yeast is added to a solution containing water and some form of sugar and/or starch - e.g., rye (rye, Canadian whiskey), molasses (rum), potatoes (vodka), barley (scotch, bourbon, beer), grapes (wine) - and it converts those

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Retrieved Text: Why is my ClearlyFrozen ice cloudy at the bottom of the cubes?
You let the ice freeze too long - you get the best results when you empty the tray before the assembly freezes solid and "the cloud" pushed down under the blue tray gets pushed back up.
Why is there so much ice stuck to the bottom of the blue ice tray?
Again - you let the ice freeze too long - you get the best results - and don't have a lot of ice frozen to the bottom of the blue tray - when you empty the tray before the assembly freezes.
In a regular ice cube tray, the ice freezes from all sides, trapping a cloud of dissolved air and impurities in the center.
Why is the ice in a bar or restaurant clear?
Commercial establishments have dedicated commercial ice makers, like what you see when you fill an ice bucket while staying in a hotel. Those machines employ pumps, motors and specialized refrigeration surfaces to produce clear ice. They are expensive, take up a lot of room, use a lot of electricity and require water pre-treatment and frequent maintenance. And they only make small pieces of ice, not large "rocks."
How do you make clear ice at home - what makes ClearlyFrozen ice clear?
By contrast, the ClearlyFrozen tray is designed to work passively in an ordinary freezer. Because it is insulated on the sides and bottom, the ClearlyFrozen tray freezes directionally, from the top down, pushing "the cloud" of dissolved air toward the bottom of the tray, and through

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Rank: 5
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Retrieved Text: Buy Joseph Joseph® QuickSnap™ Plus Easy-Release Ice Tray in Green from $11.99 at Bed Bath & Beyond. Joseph Joseph's QuickSnap Plus Ice Tray makes it a breeze to release ice cubes. Simply twist the tray to loosen the cubes, then push each switch to release one at a time. Remove only the cubes you need. Trays stack in the freezer to maximize space.Joseph Joseph's QuickSnap Plus Ice Tray makes it a breeze to release ice cubes. Simply twist the tray to loosen the cubes, then push each switch to release one at a time. Remove only the cubes you need. Trays stack in the freezer to maximize space.
Compact and sleek, the RSVP Garlic Cube can mince and slice garlic with ease. A clear bin collects droppings so your kitchen counter stays neat as you work. The Garlic Cube is dishwasher safe and easy to store- prepare fresh garlic in no time.
The innovative silicone lid of the OXO No-Spill Ice Stick Tray ensures that water won't drip out as you carry it from the sink to the freezer. It also keeps the ice from absorbing freezer odors and allows you to stack other items on top.
Clean, peel and chop veggies with the KitchenIQ Mini Prep 3-in-1 Multi Tool. All parts are contained in a compact ball that's comfortable to hold and easy to store.
Add some pop to your kitchen with the American Weigh Scales ONYX Slim Kitchen Scale. Features a modern colored glass and plastic construction. Plus, touch activated keys, easy-to-read back-lit reverse LCD display.
Made of food-grade

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Retrieved Text: Ice cubes are used both to cool drinks, but also to significantly impact the flavour of certain drinks. No matter your motivation, you should never use “old” ice cubes which have been sitting in your freezer for a while. Why? Melt some “old” ice cubes and taste the water. You’ll smell why! The reason is that volatile compounds in your freezer slowly find their way into the ice cubes which for some reason mostly are made in trays without a cover. But as I surfed around, researching this post I discovered that oxo and other producers now sell ice cube trays with lids. That’s a small step forward!
Another thing about ice cubes is that they look nice. I admit that air bubbles can sometimes be quite beautiful (and even artistic when pictured with a macro lens as above), but there are times when I whish I could make perfectly clear ice cubes. At room temperature a certain amount of air is dissolved in water. When you cool water, the solubility of air increases (!), but only until the water starts freezing. At this point the water can no longer keep the air dissolved and a bubble is formed. Vice versa – when you boil water the solubility of air decreases and the dissolved gases escape.
When making ice cubes, the bubbles that are formed can easily escape as long as there is no ice blocking their way. This is sort of a catch 22 situation since the air expulsion is directly related to the ice formation. When

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Rank: 7
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Retrieved Text: - Our silicone ice cube trays are made of premium food-grade silicone, BPA free and FDA approved, you can rest assured that your ice cube trays will not crack or leak in the future.
- There are 21 cube compartments each ice tray, which is separated, single cube dimensions 1.3 inches, perfectly sized for all beverage. Melt slowly and cool your drink fast with minimal dilution.
- Korlon ice cube trays covered with PP lids, keep your ice clean and free from freezer odors, easy to stack and save room in freezer, prevent leaking, help you make perfect shaped cubes.
- These ice cube molds are perfect for baking or freezing anything. Use as an ice or chocolate mold. Great for baking brownie bites, cake, muffins, dog treats and more. Freeze baby food, cocktails, whiskey, juices, herbs and more.
We have a no hassle 100% guarantee refund policy. If you use this and do not love it, simply return it for a full refund.You have nothing to lose. Consider picking up an extra one for more yummy treats or as a gift.
GREAT MATERIAL- Our silicone ice trays are made of premium food-grade silicone, you can assured that your silicone ice cube tray with lid will not crack or leak in the future.
EASY TO RELEASE- There are 21 cube compartments each ice cube tray with lid, which is separated, single cube dimensions 1.3 inches, perfectly sized for all beverage.
EASILY STACKING - Korlon ice cube trays covered with PP lids, keep your ice clean and free from freezer odors, easy to stack

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Rank: 8
Score: 66.835945
Retrieved Text: Made from heavy duty 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze icecube tray is easy to use, easy to clean and will last a lifetime. Classic design from the 1950's.
Made from heavy duty 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze icecube tray is easy to use, easy to clean and will last a lifetime.
Fast freeze, two-part icecube tray (18 icecubes). This two-part system goes back to the trays of the 1950's.
A kitchen essential, an elegantly clean and unbreakable design - no more bent, cracked & split ice cube trays leaking in the freezer!
To use, simply operate the integrated lever, which quickly and easily releases the ice cubes perfectly.
The trays also stack neatly on top of one another in the freezer.
Have used this over and over and over again, showing no signs of wear. Excellent quality and definitely an investment to last for many years and maybe even generations like the old stainless steel ice trays did.
I love this ice cube tray. It is little hard to break the ice with the lever but once you get the hang of it it is worth it. It looks great, is lasting well and doesn't impart any flavour. I have also used it for freezing cubes of yogurt and it was great for that too.

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Rank: 9
Score: 66.681526
Retrieved Text: Triple-digit temperatures have hit Southern California later than expected. I suppose I should be grateful that the thermometer reads only 103° today, as opposed to the day’s record high of 116° that blistered us in 1985.
Staying hydrated is critical when the sun decides to show off. I make sure my ice cube trays are well stocked and drink more fluids to make up for water loss.
I also take a cue from Jenny Harper, senior culinary specialist for the Nestlé Test Kitchens. Jenny freshens up summer drinks with lemon-flavored ice cubes.
Freeze the cubes, and then transfer them to a freezer-ready storage container. You can add a burst of flavor to water, iced tea, fruit juice and other beverages.
I like the BPA-free, though pricey, Stainless Steel Ice Cube Tray (right) from Onyx. And if I’m out of lemons, I’ll substitute other citrus fruit juices for flavorful ice cubes.

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Rank: 10
Score: 65.3639
Retrieved Text: I think it will be great to exchange some tips and knowledge and try it out! 🙂 Looking forward to your answers!
Kathie Vice Professor Asked on January 15, 2015 in Herbs.
Hi Kathie! My favorite is to make herbal ice cubes 🙂 These tips are good for freezing fresh herbs like basil, chives, cilantro, parsley, mint or tarragon. Freeze them in ice cube trays, and the flavor of your fresh garden herbs will keep several months. Wash the herbs and chop them up. Then, stuff each ice cube tray (really pack it down) and gently add water to top off each cube. Place in freezer until frozen solid. Once the ice cubes are frozen, remove from the tray and store in zip closure bags. Now you’re ready to pop the cubes into soups and recipes as needed. Cheers!

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Rank: 11
Score: 64.72016
Retrieved Text: Easily - the best way to make the perfect shaped super large whisky ice ball spheres. Every man and woman that loves a good scotch needs a decent whiskey ball maker. And this incredible 4 ice ball mould tray makes the perfect perfect spherical ice cubes for the stiffest of drinks. The large BPA Free silicone ice sphere mould tray will allow you to produce incredibly shaped large ice balls - for cooling world class whiskeys without dilution. And they last longer and melt way slower. The secret behind is the spherical shape which allows the ice to melt slower resulting in better cooling and less dilution of your beverage. . Trust me you'll never want to use regular old boring ice cubes ever again. Frozen balls will be the way of your future and there will be no turning back. Features: Make 4 super large jumbo ice ball spheres with ease Each mold makes an ice ball approximately 2 inches (4.5 cm) in diameter Easy to fill and easy to release flexible silicone Ice Spheres melt slower than regular ice resulting in keeping your drink colder and less water diluting your drink Get Creative - Ice balls can be flavored colored or even filled with fresh fruit or mint leaves! Easy to wash and re-use - dishwasher safe Made from 100% Food-grade silicone These large ice balls melt slower than ice cubes so your drink will not become diluted with water. And for an added treat freeze your favorite juice coffee or drink into ice

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Rank: 12
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Retrieved Text: A thick, frosty blueberry shake made with frozen kefir cubes and spicy fresh ginger. The kefir cubes, which make the smoothie cold and creamy without watering down the flavor like regular ice cubes, can be made in advance and stored in a ziploc freezer bag.
Note: Be sure to select plain, whole-milk kefir to make the kefir cubes. This recipe makes five kefir ice cubes, enough for one drink; if you're making more than one smoothie, be sure to make the number of kefir cubes you need.
For the Kefir Ice Cubes: Divide kefir between 5 slots of an ice cube tray, using about 2 tablespoons for each cube. Freeze overnight, remove from the tray, and store in a zipper-lock bag in the freezer.
For the Smoothie: Blend blueberries and kefir on low until a rough puree forms. Add ginger and kefir ice cubes and blend until completely smooth. Garnish with extra fresh blueberries, if desired, and serve immediately.

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Score: 64.55086
Retrieved Text: Note: You will need to freeze for 7 hours, 30 minutes.
Place blackcurrant cordial, pineapple juice and 4 cups water into a large serving bowl. Slowly pour in red creaming soda then add Vampire Hand and Worm Ice-Cubes. Serve.
Rinse 1 powder free latex free glove with water. Turn inside out then fill with water that has been coloured with food dye, tying the end like a balloon. Place into freezer until firm.
Place 1 sour worm into each compartment of an ice-cube tray. Add water to cover and freeze until firm.

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Rank: 14
Score: 64.28646
Retrieved Text: Prep ice cream maker according to the manufacturer's directions (i.e., freeze the ice cream bowl for 24 hours).
Using a blender, combine all ingredients.
Pour into ice cream machine and churn 5-10 minutes. Scrape sides of ice cream bowl with spatula or knife occasionally.
Serve immediately or store in freezer for firmer texture.
*Journal It!* 180 protein calories • 1 serving miscellaneous No ice cream maker? Using a blender, blend all ingredients. Pour blended mixture into an ice cube tray. Freeze until solid, at least 4 hours. Pop out frozen ice cubes and blend again. Serve immediately or store in freezer for firmer texture.

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Retrieved Text: Days become hot and evenings longer. Summer season invites to spend more time outside, enjoy delicious food and cold drinks. Getting cooling drinks instantly is easy with ice cubes, but even more exciting is to try different shapes like ice balls. Bar Brat company, famous on the market for their wine products, recently introduced a new and very useful product, also related to the drinks, the Ice Ball Maker .
For everyone who loves good cocktails or want to add a creative touch to the drinks, Bar Brat gives an opportunity to create own ice balls using special ice ball mold. The Ice Ball Maker is made of silicone for convenience and creates 4 ice balls, 4.5 cm in diameter each. The mold is very easy to use, you need to fill it with some liquid and put it into the freezer. In 4-6 hours ice balls are ready to use.
You can put almost any liquid into the mold like juices, tea or flavored water and we tried different ones. It is also possible to freeze jelly or chocolate. I think it is a great way to get cool drink you want to enjoy on hot summer days. We used ice balls for liqueurs and wine, juices and SlimQuick drinks. We were able to freeze fruits, herbs, edible shapes and got an idea to create characters like Olaf and place them inside the cube, kids will love it for sure.
Silicone tray is a high good quality product and is perfect to take with us when we travel

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Rank: 16
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Retrieved Text: Do you never have enough ice and need a ton of ice trays in your freezer?
The Genius ICE is perfect for you! It’s designed to make lots of ice in a small space.
The double chamber can hold up to 120 ice cubes—10 times the amount of a standard ice tray!
The outer chambers freeze the ice cubes and the inner portion stores them.
It also has an air-tight lid to keep your ice cubes fresh and free from any odors!
Plus, you can use it to quickly chill your beverages.
It’s made with safe, BPA-free materials, keeping you and your loved ones safe!
The best part? It’s dishwasher-safe and easy to clean!

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Rank: 17
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Retrieved Text: Yesterday I pulled a tomato paste ice cube from the freezer and chucked it into the sauce I was making for our lasagne. It was perfectly portioned, there’s no waste out of the big jar I bought and I thought I had to share this with you guys. I started to think about the other things that I freeze in ice cubes trays and have come up with this list for you.
I buy my ice cube trays from the opshop (check out an opshop haul video over on my YouTube channel), so I take what I can get BUT I do get very excited if I come across silicone trays, it makes for taking things out of them a bit easier.
Once your items are frozen I recommend removing from the ice cube trays and placing in a zip lock bag (that you of course wash and reuse) or a container, label and then Bob’s your uncle. Handing serving sized, useful food items.
Tomato paste. Buy the biggest jar of tomato paste, these jars are better for reusing, and then by using the ice cubes trays you get the perfect quantity for adding to sauces, while not having any waste.
Pesto. When our herbs are in full season and going nuts I love to make a mixed herb pesto and freeze in ice cube trays. Then if I want to add to a pasta, lasagne or any sauce, I can just grab out the quantities I need.
Coconut milk. Then you can use in so many different ways.
Healthy Peanut Butter

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Retrieved Text: Note: Plastic bags should be perforated. See general notes for information.
Fresh: Don’t store wet. Store in fridge in a plastic bag lined with a towel or wrapped in a towel or in an open container covered with a towel.
Freeze: Freezing not recommended, however, if you choose to, blanch for two minutes followed by a cold water bath. Dry, then squeeze out as much moisture as possible. Dry pack without headspace. You can also freeze a purée or arugula and oil, a pesto, though withhold nuts and cheese until thawed and ready to use. Freeze in a rigid container or in ice cube trays. After cubes are frozen put into freezer bags and put back in freezer.
Fresh: Don’t wash before storing. Store in fridge. Wrap base of stalks in a damp paper towel; place in a plastic bag. You can also put stalks in a glass jar of water with a plastic bag loosely covering the stalks.
Freeze: Sort by size. Cut to fit freezer container(s) or into 2″ lengths. Blanch small stalks for 2 minutes, medium size stalks for 3 minutes and large for 4 minutes. Dry pack or tray pack.
Fresh: Susceptible to cold and wet. Store in fridge in a plastic bag on the front of the middle shelf or on the bottom shelf. Or put stems in a jar of water and keep in fridge or on the counter. You can also rinse the leaves, place the leaves on a towel, wrap them up gently and store in fridge. Use as soon as possible.
Freeze: You

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Retrieved Text: I know...this isn't how you expected this post to begin. Stay with me, though. So-I don't like celery. And Michael can only eat so much before he's over it. BUT sometimes I like celery in things--such as soup. But then I always have leftover celery. And it's like...gahhh...what do I do with all of this?
Freeze it. Use it for future soups. DUH!
I came up with this idea while making this soup for Michael and I crossed my fingers that it would work...and it did! It's actually pretty simple-and is going to save you time in future recipes! You just chop up some celery (I could write poetry to my new chopper) and spoon into an ice cube tray. Freeze it. Pop little cubes of frozen celery out. Put them in a bag. Keep frozen until ready to use! And then--just pop them into whatever you're using. Generally the celery is just saute'd or cooked in a soup so really it will just add a smidgen bit of extra time to that step. Other than that it's pretty much normal. This is such a game changer.
3-4 celery make approx. 6 cubes of frozen, chopped, celery.
Thoroughly wash celery and dry. Chop the celery up.
Spoon chopped celery into a clean ice cube tray. Freeze (about 1-2 hours).
Pop the frozen celery cubes out of the tray and place in an airtight container/freezer bag. Label how many celery are within the container (3-4 celery make approx. 6 cubes for me).
Store in the freezer for up to 6 months. Use as usual

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Retrieved Text: How do you keep ice from forming on the back wall and top of the refrigerator portion of a refrigerator-freezer?
You didn't say how old the freezer is. However, what usually causes this is loading your freezer too tight with food (no air circulating) or accidently leaving the door ajar (this happens more often than one realizes.) Your temperature may be way too cold. Once these freezers are 10 - 12 years old then it's time to get a new one. To sustain a freezer for a long life period one needs to rotate their foods (food you bought a few weeks to a month before should be kept on top and the newer foods put underneath.) Also, anything that has been in your freezer for a year should be thrown out. If you hunt or fish or have bought roasts, etc., put plastic wrap around it, then wrap it in several sheets of newspaper. The newspaper is an insullation and will keep your meats from freezer burns and you may get more than a year out of those meats. Freezer burned meats are not bad for you, but they do lose their flavor.
How do you keep ice from forming in your refrigerator?
Answer . TRY TURNING DOWN THE TEMP GAUGE BY A 1/2 POINT AT A TIME TO FIND THE RIGHT EX. 5 TO 4 1/2...IF ITS UNDER WARRANTY GET A NEW ONE. IF NOT HAVE A TECH COME LOOK AT IT. THERE ARE SOME COMPANIES THAT OFFER A WHOLE HOUSE APPLIANE PACKAGE. LOOK IN THE YELLOW

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Rank: 21
Score: 62.846664
Retrieved Text: Make this Iced Almond Milk Latte with Coffee Ice Cubes on a hot day and for an afternoon pick-me-up!
I recently shared this Iced Almond Milk Latte with Coffee Ice Cubes as an exclusive recipe to my email list. However, after receiving numerous requests for the ‘recipe’, I thought I would just share it on here for everyone! (I put recipe in quotes because it’s seriously that easy).
I know, it looks all fancy and such, but it’s one-two-three steps to an ice cold latte afternoon pick-me-up! Let’s just dive right in to this tutorial, shall we?
Note: you will need an ice cube tray for this recipe!
Pour brewed coffee into each tray cube. Do not fill all the way – leave about 1/4-1/2 inch room at the top.
Try not to make a mess like I did, ha.
Pour simple syrup evenly into each cube. Place in the freezer and freeze for 3-4 hours, or overnight.
*To make syrup: combine 1 cup sugar + 1 cup water and either heat in the microwave or in a sauce pan. Heat until sugar dissolves.
Place in a cup and pour milk over ice cubes. Enjoy!
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These ice cubes are so big! Where do you get a tray that makes cubes that large? because that is the size of the coffee I want to drink, lol. Do you let the ice cubes melt in the almond milk to release the coffee? I guess I’m a bit confused!
I linked to one in the tutorial but I bought mine at

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Retrieved Text: Don't be fooled by the rocks that we got, there's a precise method that we follow to create perfect ice at home.
Tools: 1 small cooler (must fit in your freezer), 1 silicon ice tray, hole bunch, disposable cup, small weight.
Use a hole punch or safe tool to poke a small hole on the bottom of each tray space.
To create a standing base for the tray, cut a disposable cup down to one inch & secure it to the middle of a cooler with a small weight.
Fill the cooler with water just until the top of the icecube tray is covered.
Freeze for ~18 hours, long enough for the water in the tray to harden, but too soon for the water underneath.
Remove the cooler to defrost just enough to easily break away access ice and then pop out your crystal clear cubes.
Tip: Give ice cubes a few cracks with a cocktail spoon for a more natural geometric edge that will stand out in your cocktails.

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Retrieved Text: The invention of the defrost cycle has lead to the now very popular Frost Free Refrigerator. The new generation refrigerator is suppose to leave you free from defrosting your freezer every other month.
"That is how it is suppose to work in the perfect world"
All cold air is generated in Freezer compartment. The cold-air are then forced into the fridge compartment threw small ducting (tubes) with a Fan - called Evaporator Fan.
The most common reason for the unit to stop cooling is when the Freezer section is freezing-up. It happens threw the collection of moister that accumulates on frosting plates inside freezer. The more moist air allowed to entering freezer area, the more frost (ice) would accumulate.
With a manual chest or upright freezer you know you have to manually defrost the unit yourself, once there is too much ice build up inside the freezer. With the Airflow type Refrigerator you expect that it should function correctly and defrost it-self.
Unfortunate in a normal household things happen.
1. Somebody forgets to close the door properly and the unit collects too much moister in the airflow channels - Causing it to freeze up.
2. The door gaskets are not cleaned regularly then stop keeping cold inside compartment..
• The ice or goods on the top shelve in the Freezer cabinet starts to defrost.
• Milk is the first to go off.
When it comes to storing food for long periods your box-type freezer is still the best because when a upright Freezer gets open cold air falls out. When this happens a gush of hot

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Retrieved Text: Slowly, the ice melts, two penguins and a polar bear each adrift on a floating iceberg. These silicone moulds from monos, aside from producing adorable ice cubes, have a strong environmental message.
The hope is for people to enjoy these shapes on a purely aesthetic level while also taking time to reflect on how global warming is causing the Arctic and Antarctic icecaps to recede.
Each box contains a Polar bear and Penguin mould.
Fill water up to the inner line on the tray.
Remove the ice tray from the freezer, and peel the edge of the container downward.
Pinch or snap the knob on the bottom of the tray with a finger to remove any air bubbles.
Carefully remove the ice while pushing the knob on the bottom.
Attach the lid, and freeze in the freezer.
Float the ice in your favorite drink.
Always use clean water such as city water, mineral water or distilled water.
Always fill the specified amount of water into a room-temperature tray.
The tray may impart the smell of silicone. This will gradually disappear. If it is bothersome, boil the tray for several minutes.
In rare cases, the unique silicone properties or minerals in the city water may separate during freezing and appear as the ice melts. These are not harmful to the human body. If these are bothersome, use filtered water, or lightly rinse off the ice before using.
After using, wash and dry the tray carefully before storing.
Do not wash the tray with abrasive cleanser or brush. Doing so could damage the tray.
Do not pull the product, or use a knife

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Retrieved Text: Looking for a fun way to beat the heat? What about ice cube races and ice cube painting!
Ice Cube Races – Give each child an ice cube. On your signal instruct them to try to melt their ice cube as quickly as they can (rub it in their hands, sit on it, step on it, rub it on the floor, etc.). The first one to completely melt their ice cube is the winner. For younger students you may want to give them very small ice cubes to start.
Ice Cube Painting – Fill an ice cube tray with various colors of tempera paint (a different color in each cube). Cover the tray with plastic wrap and then poke popsicle sticks or toothpicks into each cube of paint (for handles). Freeze overnight. Pop out the cubes of paint. Give children a piece of construction paper and allow them to hold the popsicle stick or toothpick handle and paint with the ice cubes.
Prepare ice cubes with popsicle sticks as done in the Koolaid Painting art project. Cut the heavy art paper to fit inside the cookie sheets. Give the children each a piece of paper and washable markers to create a drawing. Once they’ve finished creating their works of art, give the children each an ice cube popsicle. As they draw over their artwork with the melting ice cube, the preschoolers will be fascinated with how their marker drawing turns into a beautiful watercolor painting.

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Retrieved Text: Freezing herbs instead of drying them is quicker and easier but the first thing to understand is that you’ll be freezing the water in the individual cells of the plant leaves and when these leaves are thawed out, they will be limp.
You can’t freeze them and expect to use them as garnishes. Only freeze herbs you’ll use in recipes.
1) Place the leaves in an airtight, freezer bag or container.
Freeze solid. The advantage to this is that it’s fast and easy. The disadvantage is that in order to use a few leaves you either have to break them off the chunk or thaw the mass of leaves for enough for one recipe.
2) Spread leaves on a cookie tray and freeze.
When frozen individually, place in an airtight container for storage.
3) Pack leaves into an ice-cube tray and fill the cubes with water.
Freeze. Drop the entire cube into the recipe.
The only downside here is you have to adjust other liquids in the recipe to account for the water in the ice-herb-cube.
Those are the three systems for freezing herbs you can use. I have used numbers 2 and 3 successfully but if you have the time and patience, option 2 is the best.
You can read other herb gardening tips on growing and using these great plants here.
with my herbs, using a small amount of olive oil. Then I pack them into ice cube trays. Once frozen I empty the cubes into freezer bags & label the bags. Works great for basil, oregano, cilantro & any other herbs you’d add to

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Retrieved Text: A potential source of contamination of the food and water in your home is the innocuous and little-noticed ice maker. Sanitation failures may occur if you don’t do regular cleaning of this often-used, but rarely noticed, machine. Harmful pathogens such as fungi, bacteria and mildew may colonize the ice maker, causing diseases such as gastroenteritis for you and your family. By cleaning your ice maker, you not only avoid this fate, but also get better-tasting ice – the ice tends to absorb the tastes and smells of the food stored in the refrigerator. Here are the simple and easy steps on how you can clean your ice maker.
Always start by turning off and unplugging the refrigerator. The nastiest surprise you can get is to be electrocuted while cleaning your ice maker. Turn off the power switch in your refrigerator, and take the time to unplug it as well. That way, there is no electricity to shock you while cleaning.
Allow the freezer to defrost. Before you begin cleaning, remove all the excess ice that has accumulated inside by defrosting. Leave the refrigerator and freezer open for a while to let all the ice blocks inside the ice maker to melt, allowing you to clean it better. Make sure to throw away all of the last batch frozen by the icemaker.
Replace or clean the water filter. Cleaning the water filter will make sure you get rid of impurities inside the ice maker. The exact process will depend on the manufacturer and model, so make sure you know the

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Retrieved Text: Makes ¼ cup. Takes 10 minutes.
Add all ingredients to mixing. Mix with whisk until well blended.
1) Durban is a city in South Africa. Durban rhymes with Durban. This is useful when constructing rhyming poems. In much the same way, gnome rhymes with Nome, a city in Alaska. Over 20,000 gnomes live in Nome, admired for their strong work ethic. They’ll guard your garden for amazing lengths of time and everyone knows much polar bears fear gnomes.
4) Gnomes first came to Massachusetts on the Mayflower, fleeing persecution from waffle eaters. Later, they worked their way south, guarding spice gardens along the way. The little guys eventually settled in Chancellorsville, Virginia–Why not?–to lead a safe, if not totally accepted existence.
5) Tragedy struck in 1863. General Stonewall Jackson was shot after the battle of Chancellorsville. Enraged townsfolk held a gnome fired the fatal shot and drove the wee ones out of town.
6) The gnomes drifted ever northwestward, until they reached Nome on the Bering Sea. They could drift no longer. They wore parkas to keep warm. The parkas covered their faces, just like the natives. You couldn’t tell the gnomes and the people apart. Sure, gnomes are much shorter than people, but you always keep your face to the ground during a blizzard. And 19th-century Nome always had blizzards. The townsfolk didn’t even notice the little folk until 1941, when World War II broke out. People. after kneeling, worked shoulder to shoulder with the gnomes to defeat the common foe. The gnomes gained acceptance into one career after another.

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Retrieved Text: After a 6 year search we have at last found the stainless steel popsicle mold! No more toxins from plastics leaching into your frozen treats.
Made from 18/8 stainless steel, this fast freeze mold is easy to use, easy to clean, and will last you a life time. Designed so that one ice pop can be removed (or re-filled) at a time. Simply hold the mold in your hand for a moment, or run under warm water briefly. (Not too long, it will release very quickly.) Each set comes with one stand, 6 molds, 6 lids and 12 removable silicone rings. The rings ensure proper stick placement. No more tilted stick, or sunken sticks or poped out sticks. Comes with bamboo ice pop sticks.
We have been waiting for these for years!!!!
Welcome back to the fifties (but with stainless steel instead of aluminum)! This ice cube tray will remind you of the one your grandmother used to have and is perfect for freezing small portions of food -- chopped herbs, crushed garlic, pesto, baby food, and of course ice cubes! This durable high quality stainless steel ice cube tray has been thoroughly tested and will keep your freezer foods healthy and safe. Plastic-free, BPA-free, lead-free. Don't settle for anything less when it comes to well-being and piece of mind.
This ice cube tray is made of high quality food grade stainless steel 18-8. It is dishwasher safe. Please be aware that this ice cube tray has been re-constructed in stainless steel out of an old aluminum model. We suggest

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Input Text: Process:
- You breathe in
- Diaphragm and other muscles expand to allow room for your lungs to fill
- The air flows into the narrow bronchioles in the lungs
- From the bronchioles to the alveoli
- The oxygen enters into the bloodstream
- Is switched with the carbon dioxide in the bloodstream
- The carbon dioxide enters through the alveoli
- Through the narrow bronchioles
- Into the lungs
- The carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body.

Question:
suppose more carbon dioxide enters alveoli happens, how will it affect less carbon dioxide is exhaled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: How Does Nitrogen Enter Our Body?
How Does the Skeletal System Work With the Respiratory System?
As a species, humans require air to survive; a need it shares with most other members of the Kingdom Animalia. After a human breathes in Earth's air (roughly 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), he or she exhales a mixture of compounds similar to the air inhaled: 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent argon, and four percent carbon dioxide. Some scientists suggest that exhaled air contains as many as 3,500 compounds, most of which are in microscopic amounts. There is some variability in this, however. Air quality can affect both the content of what humans both breathe in and breathe out, a concern some conservationists worry about when it comes to industries and automobiles releasing potentially harmful gases. Similarly, some doctors suggest that monitoring the chemical content of an air a human exhales can be a useful diagnostic tool in catching respiratory ailments.
Humans, and many other species, need air to live. They breathe in the combination of elements and compounds and exhale a similar set with different proportions. Exhaled air consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 4 percent carbon dioxide and potentially thousands of other compounds.
Humans, along with many other animals, breathe in air through their mouth, into their lungs. The chest cavity containing the lungs expands and contracts with the diaphragm as it moves down and up. Inside the lungs, small sacs called the alveoli fill with the air. From there the oxygen in the air

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Retrieved Text: Within the body, there are a total of four pulmonary veins, and all of them connect to the left atrium of the heart. The heart pumps oxygen-depleted blood into the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Once the blood has been oxygenated, it returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. Then, the heart circulates this newly oxygenated blood throughout the body. In this way, pulmonary veins are different from other veins in the body, which are used to carry deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body back to the heart. The left pulmonary veins connect with the left lung, and the lungs themselves are filled with hollow air sacs called alveoli. This is where oxygen is removed from inhaled air. This also works as a gas exchange. Oxygen enters the blood while carbon dioxide leaves the blood stream. This carbon dioxide is then exhaled out of the body.

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Retrieved Text: Aim: Test to compare the composition of exhaled and inhaled air.
Set up the apparatus as shown above with an equal amount of lime water in each test tube.
Breath in and out using the mouthpiece.
Air enters through the left and out to the right.
The limewater in the right test tube turns milky.
This shows that exhaled air has more carbon dioxide when compared with inhaled air.
Limewater turns cloudy/milky when air containing carbon dioxide is blown into the test tube.
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide compared to inhaled air.

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory system provides an exchange route for carbon dioxide and oxygen gas between the alveoli and in pulmonary capillary blood. The oxygen inhaled diffuses across alveoli walls into the blood where it mixes with hemoglobin in the blood and transported to the heart. After the blood circulation, the carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs for elimination inform of bicarbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the lungs through alveoli walls and is exhaled outside through the nose. Pressure of the two gases is monitored by peripheral chemoreceptors found in the carotid bodies and central chemoreceptors found in the medulla. Peripheral nervous system contains autonomic nervous system that affects the heart rate. Autonomic nervous system contains sympathetic nervous system that increases the heart rate while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases the heart rate. The purpose of this exercise is to see the effects of different type of breathing conditions on heart and blood pressure. I hypothesize that the heart rate and blood pressure tends to increase from the normal condition through hyperventilation to re-breathe condition.
At rest, the heart beats about 60 to 80 times a minute. The blood pressure rises with every rise of a heartbeat and relaxes when the heartbeat falls. For a normal and a healthy adult, the blood pressure is around 120/80 mm HG. Blood pressure that stays between 120-139/80-89 is considered pre-hypertension while that above 140/90 mm HG is usually considered as hypertension. In normal conditions during the experiment, the heart rate beats at 110/76 while the blood pressure

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are among the busiest organs in our body. It is their duty to supply oxygen to the rest of the body and drive out carbon dioxide. The lungs function by expanding when inhaling and contracting when exhaling at a rate of 20 times per minute.
Your lungs consist of two organs that look and work like a sponge. They are both filled with air and are located on opposite sides of the thorax or chest. The lungs are connected to the nose through the windpipe which is also known as the trachea. The air you inhale comes in through the trachea and enters the bronchi before entering the lungs. The bronchi are tubular branches that divide and further subdivide into a number of small and microscopic branches known as the bronchioles.
On the end of each of your bronchiole, there is a bunch of alveoli. The alveoli are small air sacs in which absorption of oxygen into blood takes place. Moreover, the expulsion of carbon dioxide also takes place in the alveoli. The carbon dioxide generated in your body as a result of metabolic reactions is expelled from the blood and absorbed by the alveoli, from where it is dispatched out of the body through exhalation. The alveoli are supported by a thin layer of cells, which is known as the interstitium that are present in between them.
The thin layer of tissue, called as Pleura, covers your lungs. It is also the same tissue layer that forms the lining of the inside portion of your chest

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Retrieved Text: Breathing is an involuntary event. How often a breath is taken and how much air is inhaled or exhaled are tightly regulated by the respiratory center in the brain. Humans, when they aren’t exerting themselves, breathe approximately 15 times per minute on average. Canines, like the dog in Figure 1, have a respiratory rate of about 15–30 breaths per minute. With every inhalation, air fills the lungs, and with every exhalation, air rushes back out. That air is doing more than just inflating and deflating the lungs in the chest cavity. The air contains oxygen that crosses the lung tissue, enters the bloodstream, and travels to organs and tissues. Oxygen (O2) enters the cells where it is used for metabolic reactions that produce ATP, a high-energy compound. At the same time, these reactions release carbon dioxide (CO2) as a by-product. CO2 is toxic and must be eliminated. Carbon dioxide exits the cells, enters the bloodstream, travels back to the lungs, and is expired out of the body during exhalation.

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Retrieved Text: and works closely with your heart and circulatory system.
When you breathe in, the air passes through your nose and mouth and down into your lungs through your windpipe.
Inside your lungs, the air eventually winds up inside 600 million tiny sacs called alveoli. It is in these air sacs that oxygen is transferred to the blood and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood.
The oxygen-rich blood goes back to your heart and the carbon dioxide is exhaled out of your body.
The most common respiratory system problem is the common cold. This infection can be caused by more than 200 different types of virus.
Pneumonia is a viral or bacterial respiratory infection that gets into your lung tissue.
Asthma is a narrowing of the lung passages that may be caused by allergic reactions to triggers such as dust, pollen, or pet dander.
Smoking is one of the worst things you can do to your respiratory system. Smoking can cause bronchitis, which means there’s too much mucus in your lungs, as well as asthma, COPD, and lung cancer.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest (thorax). The trachea (windpipe) conducts inhaled air into the lungs through its tubular branches, called bronchi. The bronchi then divide into smaller and smaller branches (bronchioles), finally becoming microscopic.
The bronchioles eventually end in clusters of microscopic air sacs called alveoli. In the alveoli, oxygen from the air is absorbed into the blood. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, travels from the blood to the alveoli, where it can be exhaled. Between the alveoli is a thin layer of cells called the interstitium, which contains blood vessels and cells that help support the alveoli.
The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleura. The same kind of thin tissue lines the inside of the chest cavity -- also called pleura. A thin layer of fluid acts as a lubricant allowing the lungs to slip smoothly as they expand and contract with each breath.

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Retrieved Text: In short, diffusion, involves molecules moving from higher concentration to lower concentration. This movement is known as the concentration gradient.
This happens with liquids and in gases. As gases are more difficult in an experiment to show children how diffusion works I will use this experiment which involves liquid, in this case water.
We will also experiment with temperatures in the experiment and talk about how temperature effects the rate of diffusion.
500ml of water to one large clear cup and 500ml of hot water to the other clear cup.
You will need a responsible adult present as you are dealing with hot water.
Now get your pipettes. Add 2ml of one colour to the centre of the top of your cold water.
The colder the water the better, so long as it is still in liquid state.
Now add 2ml of the second colour in the centre of the top of the hot water.
As I said, in this experiment we will look at how temperatures effect the rate of diffusion.
The diffusion of food colouring in hot and cold water showed us clearly how temperature effects the rate of diffusion, with the process being much faster in hot water than in cold water.
This is because heat provides energy and the energy from the heat makes the molecules up and makes the move faster so the diffusion process works quicker.
The cold can take a lot longer however it will eventually completely diffusion into the water, which is of lower concentration (as it has no food colouring in to start with) until the whole cup

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: COPD Emphysema is one of the two major forms of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, which comes about when the alveoli become damaged. Those are the tiny sacs in the lung that exchange oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out.
Think of the airways and lungs as an upside down tree, with a trunk being the trachea or windpipe, the branches are the bronchi, twigs are the bronchioles, and the leaves alveoli. Air flows into the trunk, passing progressively down until it reaches the alveoli.
Under normal circumstances, oxygen moves in and carbon dioxide moves out. However, cigarette smoke, industrial chemical exposure, and other irritants can damage the walls of the small sacs, reducing the efficiency of the gas exchange. COPD Emphysema makes the alveoli lose elasticity as inflammation sets in. The sacs become less effective at emptying air because they do not contract far enough. That leaves gas trapped inside them.
Since that gas now has less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, it does not supply the blood with needed fresh oxygen and clear out the old carbon dioxide as much. In addition, it takes up space that would be occupied by incoming oxygen-rich air. The net result is a feeling of shortness of breath, called dyspnea, especially under mild exertion.
Tragically, the disease is often progressive. More and more alveoli enlarge, making them less elastic. A healthy lung will have about three hundred million of these tiny sacs, but COPD emphysema will, over time, reduce that by up to fifty percent or sometimes more.
As that gas exchange capacity

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: With so many organisms on Earth, living things are bound to interact with one another. Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species. One type of interaction between two species is called mutualism. An example of mutualism exists between honey bees and flowers. Flowers provide nectar to the bees. The bees use the sugar rich liquid to make honey. As the bees fly from flower to flower tiny grains of pollen get stuck to the bee. The bee moves the pollen without even knowing it. The pollination is necessary for flowers to reproduce. In this relationship both species benefit. The bee gets nectar and the flower gets pollinated. Another relationship is called commensalism. This interaction takes place when sharks and remora live together. The remora use sucking disks on their heads to attach themselves to sharks. The sharks are powerful swimmers and do not even notice the remora and are neither helped nor harmed. However the remora benefit from this relationship. The fish get a free ride and protection. They also feed on scraps left over by the shark. In commensalism one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. The last type of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. An example of this relationship exists between humans and mosquitoes. The insects land on and take the blood from humans. The mosquito benefits as it uses the blood for energy. The human or host is harmed in this relationship as blood is needed and the human could become infected with disease. In parasitism one species

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen being the prime mover of all life, breathing is the single most important physiological process. Here, we present some intriguing facts about the respiratory system, that will leave you with renewed respect for the beautiful machine which your body is.
Modern mammalian lungs evolved from the air-breathing organs, that developed in fish, about 400 million years ago.
In this limitless world, our throat is like a swinging door. The air comes in and goes out like someone passing through a swinging door. If you think, 'I breathe', the 'I' is extra. There is no you to say 'I'. What we call 'I' is just a swinging door which moves when we inhale and when we exhale. It just moves; that is all. When your mind is pure and calm enough to follow this movement, there is nothing: no 'I', no world, no mind nor body; just a swinging door.
Life is a ceaseless rhythmic symphony, played with the lead instruments being the breathing lungs and the thudding heart. As Shunryu Suzuki, the great Zen master said, we are all swinging doors, through which air enters, enriching the body with oxygen and leaves, cleansing it of carbon dioxide. Almost all life owes its existence to some form of air exchange mechanism, that filters out oxygen from the atmosphere, to power cellular energy-generating processes.
Our respiratory system is one of the most sophisticated biological mechanisms in nature, designed to enable the most important life process of aerobic cellular respiration, which helps our body produce energy, from food. It achieves this through

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Retrieved Text: The cardiorespiratory system generally refers to the interaction of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs as they work to take in oxygen for cellular use and remove waste products from the body. Arteries carry fresh oxygen to the body, while veins carry depleted blood back to the lungs to replenish the body's oxygen supply.
The cardiorespiratory system works to keep the human body both oxygenated and free of waste products. As oxygen enters the lungs from the air, it flows into the alveolar sacs, small air chambers within the lungs. From there, individual oxygen molecules continue to the bloodstream through small arteries within the alveolar sacs. This newly oxygenated blood moves into the left atrium and ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary veins. The blood circulates throughout the body via the aorta, eventually traveling through every organ and cell in the body.
Cells receive oxygen from the arterial blood, and the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the venous system, carrying carbon dioxide and other waste products. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and ventricle of the heart via the vena cavae, where it returns to the alveoli in the lungs to exchange its carbon dioxide and waste products for fresh oxygen. This carbon dioxide then exits the body upon exhalation.
What Is the Main Function of the Circulatory System?
What Is the Relationship Between the Heart and the Lungs?

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Retrieved Text: WHAT IS A BREATH TEST, AND WHY DO WE DO IT?
The urea breath test (UBT) is a test for diagnosing the presence of a bacteria, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) in the stomach. H. pylori causes inflammation, ulcers, and atrophy of the stomach. The test also may be used to demonstrate that H. pylori has been eliminated by treatment with antibiotics.
For the test, patients swallow a mixture containing urea made from an isotope of carbon. (Isotopes of carbon occur in minuscule amounts in nature, and can be measured with special testing machines.) If H. pylori is present in the stomach, the urea is broken up and turned into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is absorbed across the lining of the stomach and into the blood. It then travels in the blood to the lungs where it is excreted in the breath. Samples of exhaled breath are collected, and the isotopic carbon in the exhaled carbon dioxide is measured.

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a simple, carbon-containing inorganic compound. It is produced as a waste product when energy is released during certain metabolic processes. As it moves from cells into surrounding body fluids and blood, most of the carbon dioxide reacts with water to form a weak acid (carbonic acid, H2CO3). This acid ionizes, releasing hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), which blood carries to the respiratory organs. There, the chemical reactions reverse, and carbon dioxide gas is produced, eventually to be exhaled.

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Retrieved Text: This lesson provides an overview of the respiratory system. In particular it focuses on the physical aspects of breathing, and the importance of gas exchange for respiration and life.
We need oxygen to live. When we breathe in, oxygen travels in the air through the trachea and bronchi, into the bronchioles and finally reaches numerous sac-like structures called alveoli. The thin surfaces of the alveoli are in contact with blood vessels calledcapillaries. At the alveoli, oxygen enters the blood to be carried to cells in the body. Waste carbon dioxide in the blood is excretedat the alveoli and expelled in the air we breathe out.
What is the Irish connection with breathing?
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691), the Irish chemist showed that a change in the volume of a fixed mass of gas causes a change in pressure. If the gas volume increases the pressure decreases and vice versa.
When the air in the lungs expands, its pressure decreases to less than atmospheric pressure. But its pressure rises above atmospheric pressure when it is compressed.
Air moves from higher to lower pressure until the air pressures are equal. Therefore by creating a pressure difference, air can be moved into and out of the lungs.

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Retrieved Text: Spurred by increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, forests over the last two decades have become dramatically more efficient in how they use water, a Harvard study has found.
Studies have long predicted that plants would begin to use water more efficiently as atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rose. A research team led by Research Associate Trevor Keenan and Assistant Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Andrew Richardson, however, has found that forests across the globe are becoming more efficient than expected.
Using data collected from forests in the northeastern US and elsewhere around the world, Keenan and Richardson, found increases in efficiency larger than those predicted by even the most state-of-the-art computer models. The research, which was done in collaboration with researchers from the Harvard's Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, the USDA Forest Service, Ohio State University, Indiana University, and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany, is described in a July 10 paper in Nature.
"This could be considered a beneficial effect of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide," said Keenan, the first author of the paper. "What's surprising is we didn't expect the effect to be this big. A large proportion of the ecosystems in the world are limited by water – they don't have enough water during the year to reach their maximum potential growth. If they become more efficient at using water, they should be able to take more carbon out of the atmosphere due to higher growth rates."
While increased atmospheric carbon dioxide may benefit forests in the short term, Richardson emphasized that the overall climate

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Retrieved Text: What is the difference between carbon and carbon dioxide?
Why is carbon dioxide called carbon dioxide?
What is the difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide?
What's the difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide?
Why is carbon dioxide a gas while silicon dioxide a solid?
How silicon dioxide differs from carbon dioxide?
How can carbon dioxide be split into carbon and oxygen?
How can carbon monoxide turn to carbon dioxide?
How much carbon dioxide is produced on heating 1 kg of carbon?
What happens when carbon dioxide reacts with carbon monoxide?
CO and CO2 – What’s the difference?
They absorb carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. What could be more desirable? And they look good in the bargain. Stop chopping down the rain forests and plant more saplings, and we're on our way.

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: The air quality in a cockpit directly affects how well an airplane pilot performs, according to research.
Commercial airline pilots who took part in the study by a team at Harvard T.H. School of Public Health were better able to perform complex maneuvers in a flight simulator when the carbon dioxide concentration in the air was 700 parts per million (ppm), compared with 2,500ppm.
The average carbon dioxide level on a commercial flight is less than 1000ppm but can reach as high as 1400ppm depending on the aircraft, say the authors of a study published in the Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.
The same team previously researched whether carbon dioxide levels in office buildings affect concentration levels among workers, showing the relatively slight difference between 1000pm and 2,500ppm of carbon dioxide appeared to hinder cognitive function. This new paper builds on that research to investigate pilots specifically.
To conduct the study, the researchers asked 30 male commercial air pilots to perform three flight simulation tests lasting three hours. Each task involved 21 maneuvers of varying levels of difficulty. During the experiment, each participant was randomly dosed with either 700ppm, 1,500ppm or 2,500ppm levels of carbon dioxide at some point.
Pilots were almost 70 percent more likely to pass a maneuver when carbon dioxide levels were at 700ppm compared with 2,500ppm, the results revealed. There was no statistically significant difference in the cognitive abilities of pilots exposed to 700ppm and 1,500ppm—although they were more likely to pass the hardest maneuvers.
The longer the pilots were in the simulator, the worse the

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Retrieved Text: Dr Kim Currie from NIWA studies carbon dioxide in the upper ocean around New Zealand. This helps her understand the role of the ocean in the carbon cycle and how the ocean and the atmosphere interact.
Every 2 months from 1998 to 2008, NIWA scientist Dr Kim Currie went to sea in the research vessels Munida or Polaris. Along the same 60 km line off the east coast of the South Island, she measured temperaturepH and carbon dioxide of water near the surface. Kim had to build her own instrument for measuring carbon dioxide as there was not one accurate enough available. These measurements have given Kim a picture of changes from season to season and from year to year.
The ocean takes up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as part of the natural carbon cycle. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is rising. This suggests that the ocean is not keeping up with extra gas added to the atmosphere, which comes mainly from human industrial activities.
Kim wants to know how the seas around New Zealand are involved in the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere – has carbon dioxide in the water increased too? Her research is helping her and others to understand the carbon cycle and how the ocean and atmosphere systems work together.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of New Zealand increased (measured in a separate study).
Cold water holds more carbon dioxide than warm water, which partly explains the higher carbon dioxide levels in winter. With carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increasing, it

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======= Instance Index 17562 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Aluminium cans are put into a recycling bin
- Aluminium cans are then collected and taken to a treatment plant
- At the treatment plant the aluminium is sorted and cleaned
- Readied for reprocessing
- The aluminum cans go through a re-melt process
- Turned into molten aluminium
- The molten aluminum is made into large blocks called ingots
- The ingots are sent to mills and are rolled out into thin sheets
- The rolls are ready to be made into new aluminum products.

Question:
suppose less aluminum cans being recycled happens, how will it affect LESS aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is a wonderful material; I am banging this post out on a Mac with a case that was hydroformed out of a block of a particular virgin aluminum alloy specified by Apple. Other alloys are used in cars, planes, bullet trains and even rockets.
But it turns out that one major supplier of aluminum, Kobe Steel, has been shipping substandard aluminum and faking the data about the strength and durability of their aluminum. According to Bloomberg, “the fabrication of figures was found at all four of Kobe Steel’s local aluminum plants in conduct that was systematic, and for some items the practice dated back some 10 years.” Some of it may have gone into airplanes made by Subaru, wings made for Boeing, and yes, a rocket for Japan’s space industry.
The company is, of course, apologetic.
And why is this on TreeHugger? Because aluminum has a huge environmental impact. Sixty percent of it is recycled, but making that other forty percent takes a lot of electricity, 13,500 to 17,000 kWh per ton. More and more of it is going into cars like the Tesla and trucks like the Ford F-150 to make them lighter. No wonder Kobe was tempted to cheat; they can’t make enough of the stuff.
A lot of Aluminum is recycled, particularly beverage cans where 67 percent of it is recovered, but a lot of it is not; it is often bound to plastic in packaging (tetra packs, coffee pods and condiment packages); Heinz alone makes 11 billion little ketchup pouches every year. A lot more

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Retrieved Text: In 2006, Americans drank about 167 bottles of water each, but only recycled an average of 38 bottles per person. That means about 50 billion plastic bottles were consumed, but only 23 percent were recycled, leaving 38 billion water bottles to be thrown away.
According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, the average American consumed 1.6 gallons of bottled water in 1976. In 2006, each person consumed 28.3 gallons of bottled water.
In 2006, Americans spent $15 billion on bottled water. That’s more than we spent on iPods or movie tickets.
Bottled water costs between $1 and $4 per gallon, and 90% of the cost is in the bottle, lid, and label.
Manufacturing bottled water uses over 1.5 million barrels of oil per year; that’s enough oil to fuel 100,000 cars.
So the next time you intend to throw away a plastic bottle, look for a recycling bin instead.
Over 50% of the aluminum cans produced are recycled.
A used aluminum can can be recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can in as fast as 60 days.
Aluminum is a durable and sustainable metal, so much so that two thirds of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than producing one can using virgin ore.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours, or enough to run your television for three hours.
Americans use 100 million steel cans every day.
Each year North America recycles more steel than aluminum, glass, paper, and

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Retrieved Text: In the United States, aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item. An aluminum can that you toss out today could end up back on your grocery shelf in just less than two months. Recycling one aluminum can help save enough energy to run your television for three hours. Why is recycling aluminum so important? If left in a landfill, a single aluminum can could stay in its present form for up to 500 years.
There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each year around the world. Many years ago aluminum was actually more valuable than gold. It’s also one of those elements that can be recycled over and over again.
Reading your newspapers on line or on a tablet is a good way to save paper. Half 1 million trees are cut down just to produce the Sunday newspapers each week. You could save 75,000 trees by just recycling and days worth of New York Times newspapers. If we recycled all newspapers, then we could save over 250 million trees each year.
The average person uses at least seven trees each year through wood, paper and other products made from trees. That means over 2 trillion trees are cut down and used throughout the course of a year. Most people throw away paper but it adds up to around 680 pounds for each person. Every 2,000 pounds of paper that is recycled can save 17 trees, 350 gallons of oil and reduce landfill space.
Another important recycling fact to know is the diversion rate. That’s the percentage of

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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: Today, about 8 out of 10 bottles and cans that are sold in Sweden go on to be recycled in stores. But even if the whole world recycled like the Swedes do, we would still need 4,2 planets to make up for the waste.
Good news is that even though the number of sales of bottles and cans has increased recycling stays at a steady 80%, a 10% difference from the country’s 90% goal.
Sara Barthelson Riismark, Communication Manager at Returpack (Sweden’s Recycle Agency), says that people have different reasons for wanting to recycle, but almost all Swedes are positive towards the recycling system.
In Sweden, all regular grocery stores have recycling machines, and almost all bottles and cans can be recycled for about 10-20 cents per item. More than 9 out of 10 large bottles are recycled, but seen to smaller bottles and cans, the results aren’t as great. It’s often the smaller bottles, that people buy “on the go” that are thrown away in general garbage cans or on the ground instead of being recycled.
Last year, 1,85 million bottles and aluminum cans were recycled, which is around 183 bottles or cans, per person.

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Retrieved Text: 15 Inventive Dresses Made from Recycled Materials Anjelika Temple · Apr 20, 2013 In prepping for Earth Day, we got to thinking about all the awesome ways you can repurpose materials that would normally be discarded.
Whether you re-cut and sew vintage clothing, or use unusual materials to create truly different fashions, recycled clothing is the greenest option. Make New Clothes From Old Clothes Formaterials, look through your attic and garage for old clothing that is still in reasonably good shape.
Amazon.com: gifts made from recycled materials. From The Community. ... 4.4 out of 5 stars 121. Product Features ... Green Toys Recycling Truck in Green Color - BPA Free, Phthalates Free Garbage Truck for Improving Gross Motor, Fine Motor Skills. Kids Play Vehicles. by Green Toys.
Products Made From Recycled Aluminum Cans: Aluminum can be recycled into a lot of different products such as tractor trailer and car bodies, however, aluminum cans usually become new aluminum cans. Recycling aluminum does not reduce the quality of the metal, so it can be recycled indefinitely.
Products from recycled plastic waste material in South Africa has been in the ... Enviro Furn Outdoor furniture, walkways and paths from 100 ... Enviro Furn South Africa offers an environmentally friendly range of outdoor furniture manufactured from 100% recycled plastic.
Evergreen Global Structures manufactures all out door furniture and products from 100% recycled plastic material. No maintenance. for more info : www.egstructures.com or contact Craig Paine Garden gates. Pedestrian gates. 100% recycled plastic picket fencing. 100% recycled plastic palisade fencing. Pool gates and fencing. Double swing

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Retrieved Text: Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder, Wholesale Various High Quality Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Products from Global Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Suppliers and Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Factory,Importer,Exporter at .
barrel crusher lightweight powerful - ETR Drills. ETR Drills' Hydraulic Barrel Crusher is powerful enough to easily flatten steel barrels to less than one third Heavy duty construction with spare hydraulic line.
Barrel easily mounts to the bottom of the can crusher and cans are automatically dropped into the collection barrel that holds 48 cans. The can crusher barrel is made from heavy duty nylon and is designed for 12 ounces aluminum cans.
The can crusher is made from heavy duty nylon, stainless steel and aluminum and is wall mounted to include mounting hardware. The crusher is designed for 12 ounces aluminum cans and includes a 3-sided recycled plastic sign with legend "Can Crushing Center".

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Retrieved Text: One of the major reasons we chose to package our kombucha with aluminum cans is because cans have the highest consumer recycling rate. In addition, aluminum can production is a closed loop system, meaning they are are infinitely recyclable so cans are recycled back into cans rather than down-cycled into a product that is of lesser value, which is the case when glass and plastic are recycled. In fact, aluminum cans are produced with three times the amount of recycled material than that of glass or plastic products. Due to aluminum’s light weight, more cans can be transported per freight load than plastic or glass, which allows for increased efficiency for our supply chain and the environment. Because aluminum cans are an American innovation, the revenue generated from the industry stays in the country, making cans the most economically viable packaging option.
Producing the highest quality kombucha is at the core of why we are in business. Our cans have a BPA-free lining, which means the kombucha never comes into contact with metal, therefore the healthy bacteria and acids do not diminish or erode. Cans cannot be infiltrated by light, which allows us to control the fermentation of our kombucha after it is packaged. Our kombucha contains high quantities of the active bacteria, Lactobacillus, and because cans cannot be infiltrated by light, we can control the fermentation and ABV of our kombucha better with the can packaging.
We believe kombucha is the perfect pairing for all adventures. Cans are the best option because they are easy to pack

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Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of nature’s great recycling success stories. Aluminum is completely, endlessly recyclable. One pound of aluminum makes approximately 30 cans; using recycled aluminum uses 95% less energy than mining new bauxite ore for new aluminum. It’s one packaging product you can feel good about using, and reusing.
In this particular case, choosing aluminum cans may be a better option than plastic bottles when choosing a soft drink or juice, as recycling options are easier on the environment and longer lasting. Recycling aluminum does not involve downcycling—an old can is made into a new can, over and over, unlike plastic, which is usually remade into a lower quality plastic. Still, it’s best to use only what you need.
Wash and reuse aluminum foil and foil baking pans; use cans to store hardware or crafts or to make children’s art projects.
Clean aluminum cans, pie plates and foil can go in your curbside CRD Blue Box. Wash these when doing the dishes! You may also take these and other aluminum items to the metal recycling facilities listed below.
Aluminum cans, foil, foil containers and wrap, pie plates and specific aerosol containers are now accepted as part of the new Multi-Materials BC (MMBC) Packaging and Printed Paper product stewardship program. These materials can be taken, free of charge, to the facilities listed here. See above for the criteria for curbside collection.

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Retrieved Text: Next message: Bill Sheehan: "[GRRN] ZERO WASTE VIDEO NOW AVAILABLE"
Previous message: RecycleWorlds: "[GRRN] Global Warming"
> be sent out in plain text.
> the pocket is a more reliable method.
> patented carpet backing composed of recycled carpet).
> reasons for this. Some are cultural and some are geographic.
> really want the problem to be solved that's how it could work.
> glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content).
> to make change from within empires that aren't all evil.
> >before going to work for them."
> >Dirty Jobs Boycott organizer.
> You make perfect sense, and I support the "public policy"
> done that,,, and its a facade for non-action.
> really the saviour of our times, so their message played very well.
> campaign is just the beginning of a "Producer Responsibility"
> won't ever get there.
> >patented carpet backing composed of recycled carpet).
> >reasons for this. Some are cultural and some are geographic.
> >really want the problem to be solved that's how it could work.
> >glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content).
> >Does any of this make sense?
> >to make change from within empires that aren't all evil.
> >>before going to work for them."
> >>Dirty Jobs Boycott organizer.
> glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content)."
> I want to respond . . . . .
> cans) would be far below 56%.
> We recycled 56 billion out of the approximately 100 billion cans sold.
> means 45 billion aluminum cans were trashed last year.
> TAKE A CLOSE LOOK AT MY FIGURES AND GET BACK TO ME IF YOU SEE

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Retrieved Text: Ball Corp. said Monday it intends to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 16 percent in the next four years.
The Broomfield, Colo.-based manufacturer of beverage cans and bottles (NYSE: BLL) said the goal for cutting emissions is based on a 2002 baseline and will occur through improved energy efficiencies. The firm operates metal beverage and metal food packaging plants in Milwaukee.
Ball disclosed the goal for 2012 in a report titled "Toward a Sustainable Future," which identifies areas where the company is trying to reduce its environmental impact.
Ball said its primary focus is to make lightweight, recyclable packaging when feasible. Using lighter cans means less material is needed, fewer greenhouse gases are produced and less energy is needed for shipping.
Ball said the weight of its products has been reduced substantially through the years. Aluminum cans are 40 percent lighter than they were in 1969, and the steel cans are 50 percent lighter than in 1970.
By turning more to recycled materials, Ball said it can cut 95 percent of the energy used to make aluminum cans from virgin material and 74 percent of the energy required to make steel cans.
The company also is working with the metal industry to determine the carbon footprint of its metal cans. . . .
The company's Ball Metal Beverage Container has a contract with Miller Brewing Co. to serve as the sole supplier of cans for the Milwaukee brewer through 2015.

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Retrieved Text: All future events and fairs will be listed here.
Recyclers of Oklahoma had the privilege to be involoved in the first annual Getting Green Festival of Edmond. The event was held September 5,6,7 2008. We had an amazing turn out and were able to speak with many local companies in the Edmond area and pass along recycling information, drop off sites, and give a general overview of how much energy and resources are saved with your recycling efforts.
Fact # 1 Recycling One Alum soda can can power a T.V. or Radio for three hours.
Fact # 2 More than 40% of the entire worlds Copper needs are met by recycled material. This prevents the need for mining our earths core for new material.
Fact # 3 Copper has an infinite recycleable life the very same copper we use today the anicent pharohs were using more than 10,000 years ago.
Fact # 4 Recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy used to make the material from scratch. That means you can make 20 cans out of recycled material with the same amount of energy it takes to make one can out of new material. In one year at that amount of energy savings you can light a major city for more than five years.
Fact # 5 More than 35 billion aluminum cans are thrown into landfills each year, that amount of material has a scrap value of more than $500 million. Someday our children will be digging through Landfills just to recover the resources we've buried.
Fact # 6 Over 350,000 aluminum

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Retrieved Text: Use the "airburst" tool to guide the recyclables into the proper bins before they fall into the trash.
If you throw a plastic bottle in the trash today, that bottle will sit in a landfill—or worse, float in the ocean—for thousands of years.
No one knows what Earth—or humans—will be like in thousands of years. But that plastic bottle will still be a plastic bottle!
So why do Americans use 2,500,000 plastic bottles every hour? And why do they throw most of them in the trash? They can be recycled!
Making a ton of new paper from recycled paper saves up to 17 trees and uses 50 percent less water than does creating new paper from trees.
If we recycled all our aluminum cans for one year, we could save enough energy to light Washington, D.C. for 3.7 years.
The amount of aluminum currently recycled in 1 year is enough to rebuild our entire airplane commercial fleet every 6 months.
The energy saved by recycling one glass bottle can light a 100-watt light bulb for four hours or run a computer for 30 minutes.
In 2008, Americans recycled 7 million tons of metals, eliminating the equivalent of nearly 25 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, or taking 4.5 million cars off the road for one year.
It’s important to recycle or reuse as many materials as possible. It saves energy. It saves Earth’s resources. It saves the land and the oceans from being over-run with garbage!
Re-use paper from the paper shredder to make your own new paper—that grows!

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Retrieved Text: Recycle aluminum cans through this Zero Waste Box.
TerraCycle has created a zero waste solution for aluminum cans. Use this box to recycle empty aluminum cans.
The collected metal waste is melted so and recycled to be used for new metal applications.
Aluminum cans such as soda, soup, tuna and vegetable cans with tabs and tops included.
include unwanted glass containers, plastic bottles, straws, or can openers.

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Retrieved Text: Every time people throw away an item it takes energy to make it again. Many of these items could take centuries to break down, harming the earth.
We can decrease the amount of waste we produce.
Reduce means cutting back on the amount of trash we make by buying less of the items we don't really need.
Using silverware instead of plastic ones.
Buying used clothes and goods.
Saving energy by drying clothes outside, turning of the lights after leaving a room, etc.
Reuse means finding a new way to use old items so that we don't have to throw it away.
Old T-shirts can make the best cleaning rags for wood and leather furniture.
Using jars to store beverages, leftover food or used as a vase.
Trading or selling used DVDs.
You can earn money for recycling soda cans and plastic bottles.
Blue jeans can be recycled into home insulation.
Rubber tires can be recycled into flooring.
Recycle means using trash to remake new goods that can be sold again. Communities have a variety of recycling programs, such as curbside pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, and buy-back centers that pay you for valuable items.
New York City alone throws out enough garbage each day to fill the Empire State Building.
It takes 90% less energy to recycle an aluminum can than to make a new one.
In the United States we cut down 4 billion trees a year to make paper products, such as newspapers, packaging, junk mail, toilet paper, boxes, among other things. When the trees are cut down, they are turned into wood chips, which are then mixed with

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Retrieved Text: Hakan Gürsu, the lead designer of the displayed project Award Winning Cans&#039;n Caps Promotional Lids explicates, Cans&#039;n Caps are designed to re-use every aluminum beverage can in several different ways. It adds various functions to used cans with each different cap.Every minute an average of 113,204 aluminum cans are recycled while around 100,000 cans are thrown away and end up in landfills. Cans&#039;n Caps offer a simple but efficient way of reusing these aluminum cans by turning them into functional and fun objects of everyday life. The design goal behind this project is to reduce aluminum can waste in nature by re-using them, while raising environmental conscience among people around the world. .

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Retrieved Text: Hakan Gürsu, the lead designer of the award winning design Hakan Gürsu's Cans&#039;n Caps Promotional Lids illustrates, Cans&#039;n Caps are designed to re-use every aluminum beverage can in several different ways. It adds various functions to used cans with each different cap.Every minute an average of 113,204 aluminum cans are recycled while around 100,000 cans are thrown away and end up in landfills. Cans&#039;n Caps offer a simple but efficient way of reusing these aluminum cans by turning them into functional and fun objects of everyday life. The design goal behind this project is to reduce aluminum can waste in nature by re-using them, while raising environmental conscience among people around the world. .

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum can be recycled over and over and over again. By placing cans in your blue bin, they can be recycled into a new can and back on the shelf in as little as 6O days! It's important to recycle your metal cans. Recycling twenty cans uses the same amount of energy as producing one can from virgin materials.
Yes. But it needs to be clean and free of grease and food contaminants.
Do I have to rinse out my cans?
Yes, but they don't need to be sparkling clean. Just a quick rinse will do just fine to clean out those cans.

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Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Retrieved Text: Aluminium is infinitely recyclable making it the material of choice for balancing the . fluoride and lime) and eliminates the need for bauxite ore to be mined.
Policies to promote a modest amount of recycling of monitor parts, including lead, can be . Key Words: end-of-life electronics; waste stream; cost-benefit analysis ... environment: lead mining results in solid by-products released into the environment, ... to various EOL options and differences in costs for particular options.
TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2007. Life-cycle Cost . Keywords: Aluminum, life cycle, weight reduction, recycling. Abstract ... total costs for aluminum and the total costs for steel reduces, as the difference between the "Use".
due to lower production costs compared with the mining and the processing of hard .. mined cobalt of 115 to 125 kt of refined cobalt equivalent and a recycling.
Jul 24, 2017 . The costs associated with WBCs are typically less than .. When compared to the other reuse and recycling applications listed previously,.
Apr 15, 2012 . The average 'new' copper cable contains some 30% recycled material. The more we recycle, the less we need to mine. As mining costs.
'Urban Mining' of E-Waste 13x Cheaper Than Mining Metals .
Apr 10, 2018 . By comparison, they estimate mining to cost between . the total treatment costs for obtaining copper and gold from recycled CRT TVs.
Recycling is the primary energy efficiency technology for aluminum .
May 9, 2014 . Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Iron and Steel Minerals Yearbook . costs compared with those for the production of primary aluminum.
4 days ago

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======= Instance Index 29730 =========
Input Text: Process:
- You place aluminum cans and other products into recycling bins
- Your town or a private company collect and transport the aluminum to a recycling facility
- The aluminum is sorted and cleaned at the central recycling facility
- The aluminum is melted down to remove coatings and inks
- The melted aluminum is formed into large formations called ingots
- The ingots are transported to another facility and rolled out to make them easier to manipulate
- The ingots can now be turned into new aluminum products.

Question:
suppose less aluminum cans being recycled happens, how will it affect LESS aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is a wonderful material; I am banging this post out on a Mac with a case that was hydroformed out of a block of a particular virgin aluminum alloy specified by Apple. Other alloys are used in cars, planes, bullet trains and even rockets.
But it turns out that one major supplier of aluminum, Kobe Steel, has been shipping substandard aluminum and faking the data about the strength and durability of their aluminum. According to Bloomberg, “the fabrication of figures was found at all four of Kobe Steel’s local aluminum plants in conduct that was systematic, and for some items the practice dated back some 10 years.” Some of it may have gone into airplanes made by Subaru, wings made for Boeing, and yes, a rocket for Japan’s space industry.
The company is, of course, apologetic.
And why is this on TreeHugger? Because aluminum has a huge environmental impact. Sixty percent of it is recycled, but making that other forty percent takes a lot of electricity, 13,500 to 17,000 kWh per ton. More and more of it is going into cars like the Tesla and trucks like the Ford F-150 to make them lighter. No wonder Kobe was tempted to cheat; they can’t make enough of the stuff.
A lot of Aluminum is recycled, particularly beverage cans where 67 percent of it is recovered, but a lot of it is not; it is often bound to plastic in packaging (tetra packs, coffee pods and condiment packages); Heinz alone makes 11 billion little ketchup pouches every year. A lot more

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Retrieved Text: In 2006, Americans drank about 167 bottles of water each, but only recycled an average of 38 bottles per person. That means about 50 billion plastic bottles were consumed, but only 23 percent were recycled, leaving 38 billion water bottles to be thrown away.
According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, the average American consumed 1.6 gallons of bottled water in 1976. In 2006, each person consumed 28.3 gallons of bottled water.
In 2006, Americans spent $15 billion on bottled water. That’s more than we spent on iPods or movie tickets.
Bottled water costs between $1 and $4 per gallon, and 90% of the cost is in the bottle, lid, and label.
Manufacturing bottled water uses over 1.5 million barrels of oil per year; that’s enough oil to fuel 100,000 cars.
So the next time you intend to throw away a plastic bottle, look for a recycling bin instead.
Over 50% of the aluminum cans produced are recycled.
A used aluminum can can be recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can in as fast as 60 days.
Aluminum is a durable and sustainable metal, so much so that two thirds of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than producing one can using virgin ore.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours, or enough to run your television for three hours.
Americans use 100 million steel cans every day.
Each year North America recycles more steel than aluminum, glass, paper, and

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Retrieved Text: In the United States, aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item. An aluminum can that you toss out today could end up back on your grocery shelf in just less than two months. Recycling one aluminum can help save enough energy to run your television for three hours. Why is recycling aluminum so important? If left in a landfill, a single aluminum can could stay in its present form for up to 500 years.
There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each year around the world. Many years ago aluminum was actually more valuable than gold. It’s also one of those elements that can be recycled over and over again.
Reading your newspapers on line or on a tablet is a good way to save paper. Half 1 million trees are cut down just to produce the Sunday newspapers each week. You could save 75,000 trees by just recycling and days worth of New York Times newspapers. If we recycled all newspapers, then we could save over 250 million trees each year.
The average person uses at least seven trees each year through wood, paper and other products made from trees. That means over 2 trillion trees are cut down and used throughout the course of a year. Most people throw away paper but it adds up to around 680 pounds for each person. Every 2,000 pounds of paper that is recycled can save 17 trees, 350 gallons of oil and reduce landfill space.
Another important recycling fact to know is the diversion rate. That’s the percentage of

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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: Today, about 8 out of 10 bottles and cans that are sold in Sweden go on to be recycled in stores. But even if the whole world recycled like the Swedes do, we would still need 4,2 planets to make up for the waste.
Good news is that even though the number of sales of bottles and cans has increased recycling stays at a steady 80%, a 10% difference from the country’s 90% goal.
Sara Barthelson Riismark, Communication Manager at Returpack (Sweden’s Recycle Agency), says that people have different reasons for wanting to recycle, but almost all Swedes are positive towards the recycling system.
In Sweden, all regular grocery stores have recycling machines, and almost all bottles and cans can be recycled for about 10-20 cents per item. More than 9 out of 10 large bottles are recycled, but seen to smaller bottles and cans, the results aren’t as great. It’s often the smaller bottles, that people buy “on the go” that are thrown away in general garbage cans or on the ground instead of being recycled.
Last year, 1,85 million bottles and aluminum cans were recycled, which is around 183 bottles or cans, per person.

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Retrieved Text: 15 Inventive Dresses Made from Recycled Materials Anjelika Temple · Apr 20, 2013 In prepping for Earth Day, we got to thinking about all the awesome ways you can repurpose materials that would normally be discarded.
Whether you re-cut and sew vintage clothing, or use unusual materials to create truly different fashions, recycled clothing is the greenest option. Make New Clothes From Old Clothes Formaterials, look through your attic and garage for old clothing that is still in reasonably good shape.
Amazon.com: gifts made from recycled materials. From The Community. ... 4.4 out of 5 stars 121. Product Features ... Green Toys Recycling Truck in Green Color - BPA Free, Phthalates Free Garbage Truck for Improving Gross Motor, Fine Motor Skills. Kids Play Vehicles. by Green Toys.
Products Made From Recycled Aluminum Cans: Aluminum can be recycled into a lot of different products such as tractor trailer and car bodies, however, aluminum cans usually become new aluminum cans. Recycling aluminum does not reduce the quality of the metal, so it can be recycled indefinitely.
Products from recycled plastic waste material in South Africa has been in the ... Enviro Furn Outdoor furniture, walkways and paths from 100 ... Enviro Furn South Africa offers an environmentally friendly range of outdoor furniture manufactured from 100% recycled plastic.
Evergreen Global Structures manufactures all out door furniture and products from 100% recycled plastic material. No maintenance. for more info : www.egstructures.com or contact Craig Paine Garden gates. Pedestrian gates. 100% recycled plastic picket fencing. 100% recycled plastic palisade fencing. Pool gates and fencing. Double swing

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Retrieved Text: Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder, Wholesale Various High Quality Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Products from Global Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Suppliers and Heavy Duty Plastic Grinder Factory,Importer,Exporter at .
barrel crusher lightweight powerful - ETR Drills. ETR Drills' Hydraulic Barrel Crusher is powerful enough to easily flatten steel barrels to less than one third Heavy duty construction with spare hydraulic line.
Barrel easily mounts to the bottom of the can crusher and cans are automatically dropped into the collection barrel that holds 48 cans. The can crusher barrel is made from heavy duty nylon and is designed for 12 ounces aluminum cans.
The can crusher is made from heavy duty nylon, stainless steel and aluminum and is wall mounted to include mounting hardware. The crusher is designed for 12 ounces aluminum cans and includes a 3-sided recycled plastic sign with legend "Can Crushing Center".

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Retrieved Text: One of the major reasons we chose to package our kombucha with aluminum cans is because cans have the highest consumer recycling rate. In addition, aluminum can production is a closed loop system, meaning they are are infinitely recyclable so cans are recycled back into cans rather than down-cycled into a product that is of lesser value, which is the case when glass and plastic are recycled. In fact, aluminum cans are produced with three times the amount of recycled material than that of glass or plastic products. Due to aluminum’s light weight, more cans can be transported per freight load than plastic or glass, which allows for increased efficiency for our supply chain and the environment. Because aluminum cans are an American innovation, the revenue generated from the industry stays in the country, making cans the most economically viable packaging option.
Producing the highest quality kombucha is at the core of why we are in business. Our cans have a BPA-free lining, which means the kombucha never comes into contact with metal, therefore the healthy bacteria and acids do not diminish or erode. Cans cannot be infiltrated by light, which allows us to control the fermentation of our kombucha after it is packaged. Our kombucha contains high quantities of the active bacteria, Lactobacillus, and because cans cannot be infiltrated by light, we can control the fermentation and ABV of our kombucha better with the can packaging.
We believe kombucha is the perfect pairing for all adventures. Cans are the best option because they are easy to pack

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Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of nature’s great recycling success stories. Aluminum is completely, endlessly recyclable. One pound of aluminum makes approximately 30 cans; using recycled aluminum uses 95% less energy than mining new bauxite ore for new aluminum. It’s one packaging product you can feel good about using, and reusing.
In this particular case, choosing aluminum cans may be a better option than plastic bottles when choosing a soft drink or juice, as recycling options are easier on the environment and longer lasting. Recycling aluminum does not involve downcycling—an old can is made into a new can, over and over, unlike plastic, which is usually remade into a lower quality plastic. Still, it’s best to use only what you need.
Wash and reuse aluminum foil and foil baking pans; use cans to store hardware or crafts or to make children’s art projects.
Clean aluminum cans, pie plates and foil can go in your curbside CRD Blue Box. Wash these when doing the dishes! You may also take these and other aluminum items to the metal recycling facilities listed below.
Aluminum cans, foil, foil containers and wrap, pie plates and specific aerosol containers are now accepted as part of the new Multi-Materials BC (MMBC) Packaging and Printed Paper product stewardship program. These materials can be taken, free of charge, to the facilities listed here. See above for the criteria for curbside collection.

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Score: 64.02542
Retrieved Text: Next message: Bill Sheehan: "[GRRN] ZERO WASTE VIDEO NOW AVAILABLE"
Previous message: RecycleWorlds: "[GRRN] Global Warming"
> be sent out in plain text.
> the pocket is a more reliable method.
> patented carpet backing composed of recycled carpet).
> reasons for this. Some are cultural and some are geographic.
> really want the problem to be solved that's how it could work.
> glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content).
> to make change from within empires that aren't all evil.
> >before going to work for them."
> >Dirty Jobs Boycott organizer.
> You make perfect sense, and I support the "public policy"
> done that,,, and its a facade for non-action.
> really the saviour of our times, so their message played very well.
> campaign is just the beginning of a "Producer Responsibility"
> won't ever get there.
> >patented carpet backing composed of recycled carpet).
> >reasons for this. Some are cultural and some are geographic.
> >really want the problem to be solved that's how it could work.
> >glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content).
> >Does any of this make sense?
> >to make change from within empires that aren't all evil.
> >>before going to work for them."
> >>Dirty Jobs Boycott organizer.
> glass or aluminum (which we all know has recycled content)."
> I want to respond . . . . .
> cans) would be far below 56%.
> We recycled 56 billion out of the approximately 100 billion cans sold.
> means 45 billion aluminum cans were trashed last year.
> TAKE A CLOSE LOOK AT MY FIGURES AND GET BACK TO ME IF YOU SEE

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Score: 63.786343
Retrieved Text: Ball Corp. said Monday it intends to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 16 percent in the next four years.
The Broomfield, Colo.-based manufacturer of beverage cans and bottles (NYSE: BLL) said the goal for cutting emissions is based on a 2002 baseline and will occur through improved energy efficiencies. The firm operates metal beverage and metal food packaging plants in Milwaukee.
Ball disclosed the goal for 2012 in a report titled "Toward a Sustainable Future," which identifies areas where the company is trying to reduce its environmental impact.
Ball said its primary focus is to make lightweight, recyclable packaging when feasible. Using lighter cans means less material is needed, fewer greenhouse gases are produced and less energy is needed for shipping.
Ball said the weight of its products has been reduced substantially through the years. Aluminum cans are 40 percent lighter than they were in 1969, and the steel cans are 50 percent lighter than in 1970.
By turning more to recycled materials, Ball said it can cut 95 percent of the energy used to make aluminum cans from virgin material and 74 percent of the energy required to make steel cans.
The company also is working with the metal industry to determine the carbon footprint of its metal cans. . . .
The company's Ball Metal Beverage Container has a contract with Miller Brewing Co. to serve as the sole supplier of cans for the Milwaukee brewer through 2015.

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Retrieved Text: All future events and fairs will be listed here.
Recyclers of Oklahoma had the privilege to be involoved in the first annual Getting Green Festival of Edmond. The event was held September 5,6,7 2008. We had an amazing turn out and were able to speak with many local companies in the Edmond area and pass along recycling information, drop off sites, and give a general overview of how much energy and resources are saved with your recycling efforts.
Fact # 1 Recycling One Alum soda can can power a T.V. or Radio for three hours.
Fact # 2 More than 40% of the entire worlds Copper needs are met by recycled material. This prevents the need for mining our earths core for new material.
Fact # 3 Copper has an infinite recycleable life the very same copper we use today the anicent pharohs were using more than 10,000 years ago.
Fact # 4 Recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy used to make the material from scratch. That means you can make 20 cans out of recycled material with the same amount of energy it takes to make one can out of new material. In one year at that amount of energy savings you can light a major city for more than five years.
Fact # 5 More than 35 billion aluminum cans are thrown into landfills each year, that amount of material has a scrap value of more than $500 million. Someday our children will be digging through Landfills just to recover the resources we've buried.
Fact # 6 Over 350,000 aluminum

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Retrieved Text: Use the "airburst" tool to guide the recyclables into the proper bins before they fall into the trash.
If you throw a plastic bottle in the trash today, that bottle will sit in a landfill—or worse, float in the ocean—for thousands of years.
No one knows what Earth—or humans—will be like in thousands of years. But that plastic bottle will still be a plastic bottle!
So why do Americans use 2,500,000 plastic bottles every hour? And why do they throw most of them in the trash? They can be recycled!
Making a ton of new paper from recycled paper saves up to 17 trees and uses 50 percent less water than does creating new paper from trees.
If we recycled all our aluminum cans for one year, we could save enough energy to light Washington, D.C. for 3.7 years.
The amount of aluminum currently recycled in 1 year is enough to rebuild our entire airplane commercial fleet every 6 months.
The energy saved by recycling one glass bottle can light a 100-watt light bulb for four hours or run a computer for 30 minutes.
In 2008, Americans recycled 7 million tons of metals, eliminating the equivalent of nearly 25 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, or taking 4.5 million cars off the road for one year.
It’s important to recycle or reuse as many materials as possible. It saves energy. It saves Earth’s resources. It saves the land and the oceans from being over-run with garbage!
Re-use paper from the paper shredder to make your own new paper—that grows!

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Retrieved Text: Recycle aluminum cans through this Zero Waste Box.
TerraCycle has created a zero waste solution for aluminum cans. Use this box to recycle empty aluminum cans.
The collected metal waste is melted so and recycled to be used for new metal applications.
Aluminum cans such as soda, soup, tuna and vegetable cans with tabs and tops included.
include unwanted glass containers, plastic bottles, straws, or can openers.

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Retrieved Text: Every time people throw away an item it takes energy to make it again. Many of these items could take centuries to break down, harming the earth.
We can decrease the amount of waste we produce.
Reduce means cutting back on the amount of trash we make by buying less of the items we don't really need.
Using silverware instead of plastic ones.
Buying used clothes and goods.
Saving energy by drying clothes outside, turning of the lights after leaving a room, etc.
Reuse means finding a new way to use old items so that we don't have to throw it away.
Old T-shirts can make the best cleaning rags for wood and leather furniture.
Using jars to store beverages, leftover food or used as a vase.
Trading or selling used DVDs.
You can earn money for recycling soda cans and plastic bottles.
Blue jeans can be recycled into home insulation.
Rubber tires can be recycled into flooring.
Recycle means using trash to remake new goods that can be sold again. Communities have a variety of recycling programs, such as curbside pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, and buy-back centers that pay you for valuable items.
New York City alone throws out enough garbage each day to fill the Empire State Building.
It takes 90% less energy to recycle an aluminum can than to make a new one.
In the United States we cut down 4 billion trees a year to make paper products, such as newspapers, packaging, junk mail, toilet paper, boxes, among other things. When the trees are cut down, they are turned into wood chips, which are then mixed with

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Retrieved Text: Hakan Gürsu, the lead designer of the displayed project Award Winning Cans&#039;n Caps Promotional Lids explicates, Cans&#039;n Caps are designed to re-use every aluminum beverage can in several different ways. It adds various functions to used cans with each different cap.Every minute an average of 113,204 aluminum cans are recycled while around 100,000 cans are thrown away and end up in landfills. Cans&#039;n Caps offer a simple but efficient way of reusing these aluminum cans by turning them into functional and fun objects of everyday life. The design goal behind this project is to reduce aluminum can waste in nature by re-using them, while raising environmental conscience among people around the world. .

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Retrieved Text: Hakan Gürsu, the lead designer of the award winning design Hakan Gürsu's Cans&#039;n Caps Promotional Lids illustrates, Cans&#039;n Caps are designed to re-use every aluminum beverage can in several different ways. It adds various functions to used cans with each different cap.Every minute an average of 113,204 aluminum cans are recycled while around 100,000 cans are thrown away and end up in landfills. Cans&#039;n Caps offer a simple but efficient way of reusing these aluminum cans by turning them into functional and fun objects of everyday life. The design goal behind this project is to reduce aluminum can waste in nature by re-using them, while raising environmental conscience among people around the world. .

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum can be recycled over and over and over again. By placing cans in your blue bin, they can be recycled into a new can and back on the shelf in as little as 6O days! It's important to recycle your metal cans. Recycling twenty cans uses the same amount of energy as producing one can from virgin materials.
Yes. But it needs to be clean and free of grease and food contaminants.
Do I have to rinse out my cans?
Yes, but they don't need to be sparkling clean. Just a quick rinse will do just fine to clean out those cans.

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Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Retrieved Text: Aluminium is infinitely recyclable making it the material of choice for balancing the . fluoride and lime) and eliminates the need for bauxite ore to be mined.
Policies to promote a modest amount of recycling of monitor parts, including lead, can be . Key Words: end-of-life electronics; waste stream; cost-benefit analysis ... environment: lead mining results in solid by-products released into the environment, ... to various EOL options and differences in costs for particular options.
TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2007. Life-cycle Cost . Keywords: Aluminum, life cycle, weight reduction, recycling. Abstract ... total costs for aluminum and the total costs for steel reduces, as the difference between the "Use".
due to lower production costs compared with the mining and the processing of hard .. mined cobalt of 115 to 125 kt of refined cobalt equivalent and a recycling.
Jul 24, 2017 . The costs associated with WBCs are typically less than .. When compared to the other reuse and recycling applications listed previously,.
Apr 15, 2012 . The average 'new' copper cable contains some 30% recycled material. The more we recycle, the less we need to mine. As mining costs.
'Urban Mining' of E-Waste 13x Cheaper Than Mining Metals .
Apr 10, 2018 . By comparison, they estimate mining to cost between . the total treatment costs for obtaining copper and gold from recycled CRT TVs.
Recycling is the primary energy efficiency technology for aluminum .
May 9, 2014 . Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Iron and Steel Minerals Yearbook . costs compared with those for the production of primary aluminum.
4 days ago

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======= Instance Index 486 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Wind and water erode rocks
- The wind and water pick up sediment that came off the rocks
- Sediment is carried to an area by the wind, water, air, or ice
- Sediment is deposited on the same spot many times
- The sediment piles on top of other sediment for a long time
- The sediment near the bottom is compressed by the weight of newer sediment
- The sediment becomes sedimentary rock as it is pushed together by the heavy weight
- 

Question:
suppose Less sediment becomes sedimentary rock happens, how will it affect MORE sedimentary rock forming.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

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Retrieved Text: Geology 101 Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers and are only a small portion of the Earth's crust. Photograph by Pichi, Shutterstock .
Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups (along with igneous and metamorphic rocks) and is formed in three main ways—by the deposition of the weathered remains of other rocks (known as clastic sedimentary rocks); by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution.
Sedimentary rock is one of three types of rock found on Earth. The others are called igneous and metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are the most common rock types in Earth’s crust.
The sediment (the sand, mud and pebbles) that make up Sedimentary rocks come from other rocks that have been worn down by wind, rain and snow.
rock cycle Geologic materials cycle through various forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth's crust.
Relating to rocks formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, is deposited and becomes tightly compacted. Sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of sediment. See more.
Easy Science for Kids All About Sedimentary Rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rocks usually found near bodies of water. Read learn fun kids science facts.
Shale is the most abundant sedimentary rock. It is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
Intrusive rocks crystallize and harden beneath the Earth's surface in rock formations include plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.
Once the rock has been weakened and

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Retrieved Text: Red Rock Canyon, Nevada is formed from bright red and pink Navajo Sandstone formed from sand dunes during the Jurassic Period. Layering is visible apparent.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups: clastic, biologic and chemical. When sediments consolidate into a cohesive mass, they become sedimentary rock. The composition, texture (how the rock looks) and other features of a sedimentary rock can tell us a story about its origin. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock.
Clastic sediments vary widely in size, shape and composition. A single clastic sedimentary rock may be composed of one type of rock and mineral or many types of rocks and minerals. The types of sediment found in a clastic sedimentary rock can tell geologists much about past environments. Clastic sediments and the rocks formed from them are named on the basis of particle size rather than mineral composition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from microscopic silt

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
The rock cycle explains how the different types of rock form.
The three types of rock at Earth’s mantle melt into magma.
Magma that cools and hardens underground forms intrusive igneous rock.
Weathering breaks the rock into sediment. Erosion causes the sediment to move to other locations.
Pressure squeezes the sediment together, forming sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure change igneous and sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: MINERALS, ROCKS, AND SOILDifferent rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and .. These terms and definitions are available ... Mineralogy4Kids is a website for children. Follow the Rock.definition of sedimentary rock for kids,Geokids Handbook for First Grade Teachers - Stanford Earth5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.Fossils and Rocks - Schoolsmeans, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or by any .. Some common forms of sedimentary rock are sandstone, .. books for children.
9.3 Sedimentary rocks 283. 9.4 Stability and change: . Attempt to classify them as igneous, sedimentary ... spectacular examples of this is the Grand Canyon in.
Lesson #1 - How Do Rocks and Minerals Influence Our Lives? ... and to determine if local rock is classified as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. This will be .. could specify relationship to children's uses or school's uses – all the rocks and minerals visible to the .. Define the difference between a rock and a mineral.
You may want to use sand as an example of sedimentary rocks forming today. Ask students . beach." Children can spend endless hours on the beach, creating.
5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.
means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,

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Retrieved Text: - Sedimentary rock is made from sediment and/or by chemical reactions.
- Sediment is loose material, such as bits of rocks, minerals, plants, and animals.
- Water, wind, and ice can move sediment to a place where it settles.
- Whenever this happens a new layer of sediment forms.
- One treasure that can be found in sedimentary rock is fossils.
- Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in oceans and lakes where larger, heavier fragments settle first.
- Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock.
- Layers of sedimentary rock are called strata, or beds. These are the most characteristic feature.

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Learn about what materials make up sediment and how it travels. Explore sediment deposits from deltas to sand dunes, and learn how sedimentary rock is created.
As any beaver can tell you, dams are rather clever. We build dams across rivers to create reservoirs, which hold water for household and agricultural use. These give us access to water when we need it, and some bigger dams harness the power of water to create electricity.
But what happens when dams are no longer useful? What happens when we remove a large, man-made dam? We often think about the consequences of building dams, but not what happens when you take them away.
The Elwha River in Washington state was a valuable resource for the Native Americans who lived near it for generations, and 87% of it is now a protected part of the Olympic National Park. The Elwha Dam, built in 1913, and the Glines Canyon Dam, built in 1927, were constructed at the beginning of the 20th century to provide power for the growing region.
Over time, both power plants grew increasingly obsolete, and scientists learned more about how the dams negatively impacted the salmon population, who were kept from swimming upstream. In 2011, crews working on behalf of the National Park Service began to remove the Elwha Dam, and in summer 2013, removal of the two dams will be complete.
Part of the Elwha Dam was removed so water could flow freely again after 100 years. Eventually, the entire dam will be taken away and only the river will remain.
One thing

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Retrieved Text: – You have made a sedimentary rock! You have layers as a result of different types of sediment settling at different times. Epsom salt is made from the dissolved minerals of magnesium and sulfur. This is the "glue" that holds the homemade rock together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways from these different sized sediments. A sedimentary rock is a layered rock that is formed from the compaction, cementation, and the recrystallization of sediments. Compaction is the squeezing together of layers of sediment due to the great weight of overlying layers of rock.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rock Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks.
Like other rocktypes, sedimentary rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. There are two broad groups of sedimentary rocks, clastic (or detrital) sediments which accumulate from fragments of preexisting rocks and minerals, and chemical sediments or precipitates.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks The sediment in an organic sedimentary rock is made of fossils ! The hard parts of animals, such as bones and shells, can become cemented together over time to make rock.
The Meteora is a sedimentary rock formation, composed of sandstone and pebbles. The sedimentary rock was formed 60 million years ago when Earth's movements pushed the seabed upwards. It is loed at 350 km from Athens, Greece.
The name of a sedimentary rock depends on the size (and sometimes

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Retrieved Text: One of the primary effects of plate motion is to put new material from deep in the earth’s mantle onto the surface of the earth, and at the same time, destroy old crust. This creation, modification, and destruction of the surface materials of the earth is called the rock cycle. However, before we begin our discussion of the rock cycle, let’s clarify a very important point: rocks and minerals are not the same thing! A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition or compositional range and a regular internal crystal structure. A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials.
The key difference between a rock and a mineral is the ‘regular internal crystal structure’ of a mineral. For example, Quartz is a mineral (SiO2), while Granite is a rock. If you were to look at a quartz crystal at the molecular level, the entire crystal would be made up of identical building blocks (SiO2 molecules). Granite, on the other hand is not homogenous. Therefore, one chunk of a piece of granite, when viewed at the molecular level would appear very different from another chunk viewed at the molecular level because the first chunk might be a quartz crystal, while the second chunk might be another type of crystal.
Rocks are categorized by how they are formed. Rocks that are formed directly from liquid rock, or magma that wells up from deep in the earth are called igneous rocks. Rocks that form at, or just

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: A rock is a naturally occurring solid composed of one or more minerals. Considering that rocks comprise much of the Earth’s environment and the lithosphere (outermost shell of the planet), in a geological sense this is a critical area of study. However, in a less scientific context, rocks have been utilized by civilization throughout time and continue to be used today. For example, some uses (past and present) for rocks include tools, construction materials and in power plants to make electricity (coal).
1. Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks, which can be further subdivided into plutonic and volcanic rocks, are rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of magma and lava. Plutonic rocks are formed within the Earth’s crust when magma cools and crystalizes. Conversely, volcanic rocks are formed when lava reaches the Earth’s surface.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed over extremely long periods of time by the sedimentation of particles which get blown or washed away to the bottom of water bodies. Sedimentary rock can be formed near the Earth’s surface as well when loose particles get pressed down into layers eventually forming rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed when the forces of pressure and temperature transform the original form of a rock. Any type of rock, igneous, sedimentary or an already metamorphic rock, can have their physical and chemical properties transformed.
Big Bang Theory and the evidence supporting it? Also list reference for further research.
The James Webb Space Telescope is set to launch in the near future. Discuss the advantages that this telescope has over the

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Retrieved Text: If you are in the market for natural stone flooring or counters for your home, this brief compilation of stone factoids is going to be very helpful. Just a little knowledge, before you narrow in on what’s right for you, may point you in the right direction. You’ve all studied the types of rock the earth renders, but it could be you haven’t had need for that information in a long time. So here is a brief refresher.
SEDIMENTARY – Igneous rocks make up the majority of the earth’s crust and are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment. It’s this loose sediment that gets compacted and cemented together to give us sedimentary stone. Travertine and limestone fall into this category. Natural, unfilled travertine has tiny holes throughout the surface, indicative of sedimentary formations. Both travertine and limestone are very porous and will require continuing maintenance to keep them looking their best. Keep in mind, because they are so porous they are prone to staining so may not be the best choice for countertop applications. For floor applications, Torrean travertine is less porous and gives a more uniform surface texture.
METAMORPHIC – The metamorphics get their name from “meta” (change) and “morph” (form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable. Extreme temperature and pressure are the catalysts in forming metamorphic rocks and produce stones with exceptional beauty, such as slate, marble and

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Retrieved Text: Sedimentary rocks are one of three types of rocks found on the Earth’s surface. Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments or little pieces of rock, such as sand, gravel, clay, and silt. These fragments are called claysts. Other types of sedimentary rocks may contain minerals. In addition, sedimentary rocks may also consist of decomposed plant or animal matter that has accumulated over time. A large percentage of these sedimentary rocks contain fossilized remains. This excites geologists because it gives clues about Earth’s history around the time they were formed. It can take millions of years to form sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock falls into one of three classifications: clastic, biochemical, and chemical. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering and erosion, which produce broken fragments or sediments from other rocks. These sediments are transported by water, air, or glaciers and then dropped. Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed when biological elements take part in the change of rocks. For instance, limestone is created from calcium-rich skeletons of coral and mollusks. Biochemical sedimentary rocks can be found at the bottom of a lake or ocean, where marine life dies and decomposes into existing sedimentary rocks. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from changes in chemical processes. These types of sedimentary rocks are usually formed in bodies of water with high concentrations of minerals. Some examples of chemical sedimentary rocks include halite and dolomite. Dolomite is formed as a result of the crystallization of limestone under extreme temperatures.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when a river, ocean, or other body of water carries fragments

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Retrieved Text: Mica minerals are major rock forming minerals found in gneiss, schist and granite. The mica group includes muscovite mica and biotite mica. They usually form in layers of sediment on ocean floors. Weathering of continental rocks breaks large and small chunks of rock off the larger older rocks.
The upper layers create downward pressure on the sedimentary layers that lie beneath them. The upper sedimentary layers compress the moisture out of the sediments due to the weight of the overlying layers. The bottom layers turn into shale, a sedimentary rock shale due to the heat and pressure.
Micas are common minerals that crystallize in these layers. When shale recrystallizes forming microscopic mica minerals between the sedimentary layers the rock turns into slate, a metamorphic rock.
Muscovite mica is the most common mica found in gneiss, schist and granite. The name muscovite mica is derived from Muscovy-glass which used the mica in Russian window glass. Today muscovite mica is still used in glass manufactured for wood stoves.
Muscovite mica is also used as a lubricant and in electrical components. Biotite mica contains iron and magnesium minerals that create a dark mineral that is harder to see through than muscovite mica.
Muscovite and biotite mica are two common minerals that crystallize in flat sheets in sedimentary layers. They are similar to sheets of paper laying on the surface of a table. You can lift off several sheets of paper when you want to separate them. If you pick up 25 sheets of paper and try to rip them in half so you only

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: Second in our layman's-level series on evidence for a young Earth is bent rock layers. Geologists will give superficial explanations of "folding" and so forth, but when examined more closely, their explanations crumble and raise further questions — especially those hardened sedimentary rock layers that extend for miles. One place these layers can be seen is at the Grand Canyon.
In many mountainous areas, rock layers thousands of feet thick have been bent and folded without fracturing. How can that happen if they were laid down separately over hundreds of millions of years and already hardened?
If the earth’s fossil-bearing sedimentary layers were laid down over 460 million years, they could not be bent without breaking.
Hardened rock layers are brittle. Try bending a slab of concrete sometime to see what happens! But if concrete is still wet, it can easily be shaped and molded before the cement sets. The same principle applies to sedimentary rock layers. They can be bent and folded soon after the sediment is deposited, before the natural cements have a chance to bind the particles together into hard, brittle rocks.
The region around Grand Canyon is a great example showing how most of the earth’s fossil-bearing layers were laid down quickly and many were folded while still wet. Exposed in the canyon’s walls are about 4,500 feet (1,370 meters) of fossil-bearing layers, conventionally labelled Cambrian to Permian. They were supposedly deposited over a period lasting from 520 to 250 million years ago. Then, amazingly, this whole sequence of layers rose over a mile, around 60

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Retrieved Text: The worksheets found on this page help students learn how to identify rocks and minerals. We also look at the rock cycle.
We often forget the importance of rocks and minerals in our daily lives. Rocks form in nature and they are created three different ways. Igneous rock is formed when the Earth’s molten layers (magma) cools and forms a hard rock. Sedimentary rock takes time to form. As the layers of the Earth settle and form sediment, the rock layer forms. Metamorphic rock starts out as one of the other two and undergoes a great deal of heat and pressure. Whenever tectonic plates collide, you will find a bunch of metamorphic rock in its path.
You will find worksheets that teach you how to create crystals, classify rocks, label soil layers, and identify the rock cycle.
Crystals are beautiful and people have long been fascinated by their wide variety of shapes. In this exercise, you will make your own crystal shapes.
One of the most important properties used to identify and classify a mineral is its hardness. The Mohs hardness scale measures a mineral's hardness using a simple scratch test to see what the mineral can scratch and be scratched by.
Minerals can be identified by carefully observing their physical characteristics.
There are three main types of rocks; igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Use these three terms to answer the questions on this page.
Describes brightness of the light reflected from a mineral's surface.
Rocks can change from one type of rock into another due to heat, pressure, and weathering.
Soil and

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Retrieved Text: If you have ever walked along a stream or beach you may have noticed tiny sand grains, mud, and pebbles. These are particles of sediment. Sediment is small, solid pieces of material that come from rocks or living things. In addition to particles of rock, sediment may include shells, and bones. Sedimentary rocks form when sediment is deposited by water and wind. Most sedimentary rocks are formed through a series of processes: erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation.
Erosion: Destructive forces are constantly breaking up and wearing away all the rocks on Earth’s surface. These forces include heat and cold, rain, waves, and grinding ice. The forces of erosion form sediment. In erosion, running water, wind, or ice loosen and carry away fragments of rock.
Deposition: Eventually, the moving water, wind, or ice slows and deposits the sediment in layers. If water is carrying the sediment, rock fragments and other materials sink to the bottom of a lake or ocean. Deposition is the process by which sediment settles out of the water or wind carrying it.
Compaction: The process that presses sediments together is compaction. Thick layers of sediment build up gradually over millions of years. These heavy layers press down on the layers beneath them. The weight of new layers further compacts the sediments, squeezing them tightly together. The layers often remain visible in sedimentary rock.
Cementation: While compaction is taking place, the minerals in the rock slowly dissolve in the water. Cementation is the process in which dissolved minerals crystallize and glue particles of sediment together. In cementation, dissolved

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Retrieved Text: It was Mother's Day and we were at Half Moon Bay. We were just wrapping up a great day by the Ocean, when I noticed this awesome Sedimentary rock formation. Of course, I could not pass up the opportunity to impart a little scientific knowledge!
I started to explain that when mountains are first formed, they are tall and jagged like the Rocky Mountains on the west coast of North America. Over time (millions of years) mountains become old mountains like the Appalachian Mountains on the east coast of Canada and the United States.
Old mountains are rounded and lower. The rocks erode or get eaten away by natural elements like rain, wind, freeze/thaw cycle and stream or rivers flowing down cause the big mountains to crumble slowly.
These crumbled or battered rock pieces or "sediments," land in the streams and rivers that flow down from the mountains. They settle down on the bottom of the lake or oceans they run into. Over time, layers of different rocks settle at the bottom of lakes and oceans. This sediment compresses over a long period of time and consolidates into solid layers of rock. These layers are called strata.
Some examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone and shale. The pictures below are sandstone formation. Though it is hard to tell in the picture above, this formation was actually reddish in color and sandy; some of the stones actually broke apart easily. Notice the second slide; the layer of rock underneath is a different color (black spots) than the rock layer on top.
There

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Retrieved Text: || Description: Our accordion-style rock books are both an assessment tool and reinforce what students have learned about the rock cycle. Students fill the pages with illustrations of the formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. On each page they paste a paragraph explaining the rock’s formation – but it’s the illustrations of volcanoes, oceans, and mountains that tell the real story. The book is completed with a sleek cover (pictured above), and then becomes a permanent reference that the student can use all year long – and beyond!
See our page on bookmaking for more book ideas.
|| Prerequisites: Students should be learning about the rock cycle, and preferably have covered the forming of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rock.

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Retrieved Text: UVM Cosmogenic Group Laboratory Safety Manual Rock and .Sep 6, 2008 . rocks, sieving sediment and ground rock, and magnetic separation. . Lab Coats – Stored on hooks on the wall next to the rock grinder and.sediment grinding crusher,sediment grinding crusher,Basics in Minerals Processing - Minerals in operation. 2. Size reduction. 3. Crushing. Grinding. Size control. 4. Screening .. 6:7. Lamella or inclined plate sedimentation – introduction.
Impact of physical and mechanical properties of rocks on energy .Nov 15, 2014 . grinding. Characterization of rocks for selection of crusher can be done in . was higher compared to the crushing of sedimentary rocks.sediment grinding crusher,Simulation of Solid Processes by Aspen Plus 2011 - Doriausing different processes like blasting, crushing and grinding to obtain the size of ... Hydrocyclones are considered as nonmechanical and sedimentation type.
controls on downstream changes in grain shape and size in the .
that continual sediment input from tributaries in the bedrock-controlled upper .. grinding and crushing other grains in the process [Lewin & Brewer, 2002]. There.
Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Stream Sediments and Rocks .
The analysis of rock and stream sediment samples is required for the mineral potential .. through both the vertical grinder and shatterbox between samples.
May 23, 2012 . Comminution (grinding) is the process of key importance in . Grinder type ... analysis for smaller grain is performed by sedimentation, which.
Erosion and Sediment Control - International Erosion Control .
Erosion and Sediment Control – A Field Guide for Construction Site .. (e.g. via tub grinding) for use on the site ... first

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Amber: A fossil created from tree resin. Yellow or brown in color and transparent, sometimes containing ancient trapped insects.
Appalachian Plateau province: The geologic region of far western Virginia containing most of the state’s coal and natural gas. Made of mostly flat layers of sedimentary rocks with deep canyons, such as the one found in the Breaks Interstate Park measuring more than 5 miles long and 1600 feet deep.
Basalt: A dark, very fine-grained igneous rock formed by cooling lava. Basalt is generally found in the Blue Ridge province of Virginia. Small pieces of basalt called cinders can be spread on icy roads to increase traction in the winter.
Bedrock: The solid rock below the soil, gravel, or other material at the Earth’s surface.
Blue Ridge province: The long mountain chain that is a part of the Appalachian Mountains in western Virginia. Made of folded and faulted igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mount Rogers, the highest point in the state, is found in this region.
Clay: An earthy, mud-like sediment composed of very fine particles of minerals. Pliable when moist, but becomes hard when dry or fired. Commonly used to make brick, tile, and pottery. Generally found in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain provinces of Virginia.
Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along defined planes determined by the mineral’s crystal structure. Also, the tendency of a rock to break along parallel, closely-spaced planes.
Coal: A black, combustible rock made of carbon. Formed after decomposed plant matter is subjected to extreme, prolonged pressure without access to air. Commonly used as a heating fuel.

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Turning a challenge

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Retrieved Text: I went fishing for the first time today, and I’d love to write about it because it was REALLY fun – but I only managed to get one photo, and I technically was in between casts, so I wasn’t really fishing. Just sitting on a boat looking cool with a dog. Oops. So stay tuned for a post about fishing later, after I’ve had a few goes at it (and taken some more photos!).
Instead, I’m going to attempt to explain sequence stratigraphy and my graduate thesis project to non-sedimentary geologists!
Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are made up of sediment (gravel, sand, clay, mud, etc. derived from other rocks that were weathered and eroded). Water (and other things, like wind, but mostly water) moved this sediment around via rivers and waves and tides. Eventually, this sediment settles down for the long haul and slowly gets buried by more and more sediment. This burial causes the sediment to squish together and compact. At a certain point, the sediment “lithifies” and becomes a sedimentary rock. Welcome to my favorite part of the rock cycle.
Sedimentary rocks are conglomerates (gravel-sized sediment held together by smaller sediment), sandstones (basically sand that has become a rock via the process described above), shales (really fine grained stuff, generally too small to see without some kind of magnifier), and mudstones (the finest grained sediment).
The type of sedimentary rock you’re looking at, the size of the sediment grains, and any sedimentary structures that were preserved (like ripples, crossbeds, planar beds, etc,) can tell you what kind

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Retrieved Text: Hi, I'm Sterling Nesbitt , a paleontologist! I study the fossilized bones of dinosaurs and their reptilian ancestors to learn what life was like millions of years ago.
Fossilized bones of a dinosaur, surrounded by sediment, back in the lab.
Sterling (left) and Nathan Smith excavate a new dinosaur in New Mexico.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of sand, silt, dead plants, and animal skeletons.
My first job is to find the fossils . Fossils are found in layers of sedimentary rock . So that's where the team and I go�to places with sedimentary rock. They could be as close as Arizona or as far away as the Gobi Desert in Mongolia!
At the dig site we begin by looking for exposed fossils. When we find something we start digging. We dig slowly and carefully so we don't damage the specimen. Back in the lab, we can study the fossil more closely. Our goal is to determine what kind of animal it was and when it lived.
Want to find out how the history of life is written in the rocks? Let's go!

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Retrieved Text: To determine the ages of these specimens, scientists need an isotope with a very long half-life. Scientists have also made improvements to the standard radiometric measurements.
Radiometric dating determines how long ago the liquid rock solidified into solid rock. Learn More About Radiometric Dating!
But carbon dating won't work on dinosaur bones. Fossils can't form in the igneous rock that usually does contain the isotopes. You can learn more about fossils, dinosaurs, radiometric dating and related topics by reading through the links below. Other Dating Methods Radiometric dating isn't the only method of determining the age of rocks. The assumptions which underlie radiometric dating are covered in our radiometric dating article published here.
So to determine the age of sedimentary rock layers, researchers first have to find neighboring layers of Earth that include igneous rock, such as volcanic ash. Can we date sedimentary rocks using radiometric dating techniques?
How can sedimentary rocks be dated?
Some of the isotopes used for this purpose are uranium, uranium and potassium, each of which has a half-life of more than a million years.
Using the basic ideas of bracketing and radiometric dating, researchers have determined the age of rock layers all over the world. Other techniques include analyzing amino acids and measuring changes in an object's magnetic field. Each of them typically exists in igneous rock, or rock made from cooled magma. Since the moon and the Earth probably formed at the same time, this supports the current idea of the Earth's age.
In addition, the redeposition process upsets the conditions necessary to achieve accurate results through

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======= Instance Index 6264 =========
Input Text: Process:
- A bird lays an egg
- The egg hatches into a baby bird
- Baby bird eats
- Grows into an adult bird
- The bird finds a mate
- The pair build a nest
- The birds lay eggs.

Question:
suppose A Cuckoo bird lays more eggs in your nest happens, how will it affect You incubate more Cuckoo chicks mistakenly.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Common Cuckoo is well known for its typical call which announces the spring!
Adult male has grey plumage. Upperparts are ashy-grey, including the wings. The tail is dark brownish with white spots and tips, and black bars.
Underparts are white, heavily barred dark grey to black. Chin and upper breast are pale ashy-grey. Undertail feathers are black with white spots and edges.
Head is grey. The bill is yellow at base and black-tipped. Eyes are yellowish-brown to orange, surrounded by yellow eye-ring. Legs and feet are orange-yellow.
Common Cuckoo is widespread in its range, depending on the presence of its preferred host species.
This species is not threatened at this moment.
Female is almost similar, except the upper breast which is rather rufous than grey. In the race “canurus” we can find a rufous morph in females, with chestnut tinge instead grey.
Juvenile has pale brown upperparts, heavily barred black, with white-tipped feathers. Tail is strongly barred black.
Underparts are white, finely barred dark grey. Eyes are dark brown with yellow eye-ring.
C.c. bangsi; C.c. canurus; C.c. subtelephonus; C.c. bakeri.
They slightly differ in colour intensity and barring, and share the wide distribution of this species.
The male song is very typical “cuck-oo”, with higher first note. This song is far-carrying.
We can hear some variants such as “kuk-kuk-kuk-oo”, and occasionally a single “kuk”. When excited, it also utters a short “gowk gowk gowk”.
Female gives a rapid bubbling sound “kwik-kwik-kwik”.
Common Cuckoo is usually quiet during the most part of the year, but it calls almost continuously during the breeding season, for territorial behaviour and displays.
Common Cuckoo frequents coniferous

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Retrieved Text: Observations of the breeding habits of the cuckoo.
Oliver Pike , who photographed this first episode in the Secrets of Nature series, was the world's greatest pioneer of bird cinematography. He first filmed birds in their natural habitats in 1907 and had developed a specialism in this area leading to a long career with the biggest producer of those days, the Pathé Company . In 1922 Pike went to work for his friend Bruce Woolfe at British Instructional Films as part of a team of enthusiasts and experts in the field of science and nature film.
It is generally know that this bird makes no nest, but allows others to incubate her eggs and rear her young. The generally accepted theory, and it has held good for over a thousand years, is that she laid her egg on the ground, picked it up with her beak, and carried it to the selected nest... Photography showed an astonished world of nature students that the Cuckoo lays her eggs into the nest exactly the same way as other birds,that is by sitting upon it in the normal way.
Despite Pike's involvement and expertise, it seems to have been director Edgar Chance who was the project's hero, named repeatedly in the intertitles as the discoverer of the 'secret'. A keen ornithologist, Chance published his book 'The Cuckoo's Secret' that same year.
However, the film's reception was not without controversy. Stuart Baker , in the July 1922 issue of 'The Auk', the journal of the American Ornithological Union, thought that the film proved that

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Retrieved Text: It is found in Australia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia; additionally, it is vagrant in New Caledonia and New Zealand. The species is migratory over part of its range. There are three subspecies, one migratory, the other two resident. The species is listed as least concern by the IUCN.The channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family. It is monotypic within the genus Scythrops. The species is the largest brood parasite in the world, and the largest cuckoo.
The only member of the genus Scythrops, the channel-billed cuckoo was first described by ornithologist John Latham in 1790. Its generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek skuthro-/- 'angry' or 'sullen', and ops/ 'face', 'eye' or 'countenance'. The specific epithet novaehollandiae means of New Holland, hence Australian.
There are three subspecies: the nominate Scythrops novaehollandiae novaehollandiae of Australia, New Guinea and the Moluccas, Scythrops novaehollandiae fordi in Sulawesi, and Scythrops novaehollandiae schoddei in the Bismarck Archipelago.
The channel-billed cuckoo is the world's largest cuckoo, measuring between 58-66cm (23-26in) long and weighing between 550-935g (1.213-2.061lb). 24 adults were found to have averaged 684g (1.508lb) in body mass. The bill is bi-coloured, with a grey base becoming straw-coloured at the tip. The bill is large slightly curved and reminiscent of the bills of hornbills; in fact, the bird is sometimes erroneously referred to as a hornbill. The plumage of the adult is pale grey on the head, chest, belly and back, becoming paler and barred lower down on the belly. The wings are darker grey with dark

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Retrieved Text: This bird is famous for its acorn feeding habits but do you know what it is?
The all-black carrion crow is one of the cleverest, most adaptable of our birds. The closely related hooded crow has recently been split as a separate species. With cuckoos, it is the male's call that is the very familiar "cuckoo". Generally, if you hear a cuckoo singing you will probably not see it until it stops singing, which is when it flies away from its song post.
Often quite fearless, although can be wary of man.
Fairly solitary, usually found alone or in pairs.
Highly intelligent, and are among the most intelligent of all animals.
On coastal cliffs the eggs of gulls, cormorants and other birds are stolen when their owners are absent.
In the 18th century, Scottish shepherds would make offerings to them to keep them from attacking sheep.
Pairs for life and displays fidelity to its breeding site, which is usually a cave or crevice in a cliff face.
Has been depicted on postage stamps of a few countries, including the Isle of Man.
Shy woodland birds, rarely moving far from cover.
Famous for their acorn feeding habits and in the autumn you may see them burying acorns for retrieving later in the winter.
Lays its eggs in the nests of other bird species.
The female pushes one egg out of the other bird's nest, lays and flies off.
The whole process is achieved in only about 10 seconds.
Perched birds often chatter together, and before settling for the night large roosting flocks make a cackling noise.
Generally cautious of people in the

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Retrieved Text: Mangrove Cuckoo is polymorphic with dark and pale morphs.
Adult male has grey upperparts, with brownish flight feathers, and graduated blackish tail with white oval tips.
In pale morph, underparts are whitish on chin and throat, becoming buff on breast, belly and vent.
In dark morph, underparts are cinnamon-chestnut. Upperparts are slightly darker than in pale morph.
In both morphs, forehead, crown and nape are grey. We can see broad black eye-line from lores, through eyes and to ear-coverts. Cheeks are whitish in pale morph, and buffy-white in dark morph.
Curved bill has black upper mandible and lower is yellow-orange. Eyes are dark brown, with grey, sometimes yellow, narrow, bare eye-ring. Legs and feet are grey.
Juvenile has edged rufous wing coverts and flight feathers. Black eye-line and undertail pattern are less contrasting.
Mangrove Cuckoo most common call is a low “gawk gawk gawk gawk gauk gauk”. This series of hard, nasal notes accelerates towards the end. We can also hear a single “whit”.
Mangrove Cuckoo lives mainly in mangroves, but it also can be found in estuaries, swamps, thickets near water, dry scrub and loose tropical deciduous forest. It is a coastal bird, living mainly at sea-level, but locally, it can be found up to 1000 metres, and it can breed higher, up to 1300 metres.
Mangrove Cuckoo is found in the Caribbean, both Mexican coasts, and Atlantic coast of South America south to the estuary of the Amazon River.
Mangrove Cuckoo feeds mainly on insects. It hunts from a perch, looking attentively at vegetation. It pursues its prey by hopping, and it also can

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Retrieved Text: The familiar call of the male Cuckoo echoing across reed beds and moorland is widely recognised throughout Europe as a harbinger of spring; yet few have witnessed the intimate details of the life of this most elusive bird except those who dedicate their lives to observing and studying the behaviour of one of nature's most devious cheats.
The stunning photography of Oldřich Mikulica charting the lifecycle of the Cuckoo from furtive egg laying to foster parents feeding a monstrous chick is incredible testimony to a man who has devoted almost four decades to studying these fascinating brood parasites. Few will have had the opportunity and privilege to capture beautifully the moment that a female Cuckoo is attacked by a Great Reed Warbler pair; the leviathan challenge of ejecting host eggs and chicks facing every Cuckoo hatchling; or the moment a young Cuckoo launches itself from the nest box in which it was lovingly reared by its Common Redstart hosts. One feels virtually transported to the watery habitat in which most of the scenes were played out and insightfully captured by the photographer's experience, patience and skilfully positioned lens.
Mikulica's captivating imagery however, only tells one half of the story in this book with the remainder being ably written by the small team of experienced Cuckoo researchers Tomáš Grim, Karl Schulze-Hagen and Bård Gunnar Stoke. Their highly informative narrative perfectly accompanies the photographic story; documenting all aspects of Cuckoo biology and ecology, as well as the evolutionary arms race being continually run by Cuckoos and their range of host

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Retrieved Text: Bill Condie reviews an evolutionary detective story.
At first glance, 257 pages may seem rather more than you ever wanted to know about cuckoos, the birds whose name has become a byword for the unwelcome interloper. But you will be surprised.
This charming book by the Professor of Behavioural Ecology at the University of Cambridge, Nick Davies, is framed as an evolutionary detective story. It sets out to investigate why the cuckoo came to decide that its best chance of survival was to lay its eggs in other birds’ nests and leave the upbringing of its young to species not their own.
In Europe, the birds are also known as the traditional harbingers of spring and feature in the oldest known song in English – or rather Middle English: Sumer is icumen in, Lhude sing cuccu! In Australia, where some cuckoos arrive from New Guinea in spring, they are better known as storm birds, for their plaintive cry as the clouds gather.
Davies has spent the past 30 years cuckoo-watching on the East Anglian fens. He observes that to many other species of bird the cuckoo is not the harbinger of spring, or of storms, but of doom. Not only do the cuckoos lay their eggs in others’ nests but their chicks go on to eject other nestlings.
Why do the cuckoos choose some birds rather than others and what possible evolutionary purpose can it serve?
In answering these questions, Davies takes us on a wonderful trip hunting for nests and planting fake eggs in them. The results are fascinating.
It turns out

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Retrieved Text: Slipping furtively through leafy thickets, this slim, long-tailed bird is heard more often than seen. It seems even more elusive than the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and is generally seen less often during migration, although the Black-billed is the more common nesting bird toward the north.
Local numbers rise and fall as birds move around in response to caterpillar outbreaks. Surveys suggest no major change in overall population in North America.
Wood edges, groves, thickets. Breeds mostly in deciduous thickets and shrubby places, often on the edges of woodland or around marshes. Also in second growth of mixed deciduous-coniferous woods, or along their brushy edges. In migration, seeks any kind of dense cover, usually among young trees or tall shrubs.
Forages by moving about through shrubs and trees, clambering and hopping among the branches, gleaning insects from foliage.
2-3, sometimes 4-5. May lay more eggs in seasons when caterpillars are abundant. Eggs blue-green, occasionally mottled darker. Incubation is by both parents, 10-14 days. Occasionally lays eggs in nest of Yellow-billed Cuckoo or other bird. Young: Fed by both parents. May leave nest within a week after hatching, climb about in branches; if disturbed, young bird may "freeze" in upright position, with neck stretched and bill pointed straight up. Age of young at first flight about 3 weeks.
Fed by both parents. May leave nest within a week after hatching, climb about in branches; if disturbed, young bird may "freeze" in upright position, with neck stretched and bill pointed straight up. Age of young at first flight about 3 weeks.
Caterpillars and other insects. Feeds

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Retrieved Text: Hey there, Z.I. fans! I have decided to study in Puerto Rico for a while, but never fear — I am working hard to bring you a special three-month Puerto Rican edition of “Zoological Investigations”! It seems logical to write the first article about one of the birds I’ve come here to see, the smooth-billed ani (Crotophaga ani).
Smooth-billed anis are resident breeders in southern Florida, the Caribbean, Central and South America. Smooth-billed anis are members of the cuckoo family, Cuculidae. They share the sub-family Crotophaginae with three other species: groove-billed anis (C. sulcirostris), greater anis (C. major) and guira cuckoos (Guira guira).
Most cuckoos are brood parasites, birds that don’t bother to build a nest and raise their own young, but instead lay eggs in the nest of a host species. Brood parasites rely on host parents to raise their chicks, either because the host species cannot recognize the parasitic eggs and chicks as different from their own, or because the parasite hangs around for a while to monitor, threaten and terrorize the hosts. In the latter case, if the host rejects the parasitic egg, the real parent will trash the host nest, forcing the host to start a brand new nest. This can cause the host to lose an entire breeding season, meaning it will produce no offspring of its own; in this case the host often tolerates the parasitic eggs and raises the young.
The crotophagids are not brood parasites. Some species form simple monogamous pairs, build a nest and raise their young just like any

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Retrieved Text: Cuckoo, any of numerous birds of the family Cuculidae (order Cuculiformes). The name usually designates some 60 arboreal members of the subfamilies Cuculinae and Phaenicophaeinae. In western Europe “cuckoo,” without modifiers, refers to the most common local form, elsewhere called the common, or European, cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). Many cuckoos have specialized names, such as ani, coua, coucal, guira, and roadrunner. Members of the subfamily Neomorphinae are called ground cuckoos.
The family Cuculidae is worldwide, found in temperate and tropical regions but is most diverse in the Old World tropics. Cuculids tend to be shy inhabitants of thick vegetation, more often heard than seen. Many species are named for the sounds they make—e.g., brain-fever bird (a hawk cuckoo, Cuculus varius), koel (Eudynamys scolopacea), and cuckoo itself, the latter two names being imitations of the bird’s song.
Cuculids range in length from about 16 cm (6.5 inches) in the glossy cuckoos (Chrysococcyx and Chalcites) to about 90 cm (36 inches) in the larger ground cuckoos. Most are coloured in drab grays and browns, but a few have striking patches of rufous (reddish) or white, and the glossy cuckoos are largely or partially shining emerald green. Some of the tropical cuckoos have strongly iridescent bluish plumage on their backs and wings. With the exception of a few strongly migratory species, most cuckoos are short-winged. All have long (sometimes extremely long), graduated tails, usually with the individual feathers tipped with white. The legs vary from medium to rather long (in the terrestrial forms) and the feet are zygodactyl; i.e., the outer toe

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Retrieved Text: Background: Chicks of virulent brood parasitic birds eliminate their nestmates and avoid costly competition for foster parental care. Yet, efforts to evict nest contents by the blind and naked common cuckoo Cuculus canorus hatchling are counterintuitive as both adult parasites and large older cuckoo chicks appear to be better suited to tossing the eggs and young of the foster parents. Methodology/Principal Findings: Here we show experimentally that egg tossing imposed a recoverable growth cost of mass gain in common cuckoo chicks during the nestling period in nests of great reed warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus hosts. Growth rates of skeletal traits and morphological variables involved in the solicitation of foster parental care remained similar between evictor and non-evictor chicks throughout development. We also detected no increase in predation rates for evicting nests, suggesting that egg tossing behavior by common cuckoo hatchlings does not increase the conspicuousness of nests. Conclusion: The temporary growth cost of egg eviction by common cuckoo hatchlings is the result of constraints imposed by rejecter host adults and competitive nestmates on the timing and mechanism of parasite virulence.
ß 2009 Anderson et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Retrieved Text: DESCRIPTION: The Black-billed Cuckoo is a long, slender bird with white under parts and brown tops. The down curved bill, as the English name implies, is black, and there’s a red ring around the eye, as the Latin species name implies. The black-billed cuckoo measures around 30 cm (12 in.) and the tail takes up about half that length.
VOICE: https://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Coccyzus-erythropthalmus – This bird’s call can be heard at night or before the rain (giving the species the name of ‘rain crow’).
NAME: The English name ‘Cuckoo’ is an onomatopoeia for its call. The Latin genus name ‘Coccyzus’ is from ancient Greek and means ‘cuckoo’, and ‘erythrophtalmus’ is Greek for ‘red eye’.
HABITAT: Diversified – mature deciduous forests, wetlands with alders, or young forests with lots of thick shrubs.
DIET: Mainly caterpillars, including spiny ones. The bird shakes the spiny ones to try and remove their spines, but they still end up with some in their stomachs. Their solution: shedding the lining of their stomachs to get rid of them.
NESTING: The nest is built in a shrub or tree not far from the ground in a well-concealed area. About two or three green-blue eggs are laid, incubated by both parents. They also both feed the chicks.
This cuckoo is a brood parasite, like many in its family, but not an ‘obligate’ one. Some of its targets include its own species, and the American Robin, Chipping Sparrow and Grey Catbird.
DISTRIBUTION: The breeding range includes the region east of the Rockies in the south part of Canada and the northern part of the

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Retrieved Text: Crows are intelligent. According to the Hindu Mythology, crows are a link between Heaven, Hell/Earth. They are perfect with regards to adaptability. They can even count till 7. Indeed, crows are intelligent!
Crows are black, and so are cuckoos. That's the only similarity among these birds. Apart from their respective melodies, they also have a conflicting model of homes.
Cuckoos never lay eggs in their own nests. Huh! They are too lazy to build nests. Lucky birds, they can afford laziness of such levels! Anyways, so they lay their eggs in crows' nests.
Just like any parent, crows are so protective about their eggs that when their eggs are in the nests, they wouldn't allow another bird to even wander in the vicinity. But what happens to all the intelligence when the cuckoo lays its eggs in the crow's nest? Why can't a crow then count its eggs or notice that its own eggs, thrown by the cuckoo, are lying on the ground??
Love defies all the logics in this World!
Yes, it does! Just like the crow who forgets the logic of counting or checking for its eggs due to the "love" for its "own eggs", we all see humans doing the same innumerable times.
Like, logically, you should be studying for tomorrow's test, but you are either playing your favourite game, or watching your favourite actor's movie, or talking to your beloved or may be just thinking about your latest crush!
Bunking classes for a date, taking a longer route after a tiring day just to spend a few extra moments

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Retrieved Text: The Grey Warbler or Riroriro, Gerygone igata is a species of insectivorous bird in the Acanthizidae family endemic to New Zealand. Its natural habitat is temperate forests.
Smaller than the Silvereye weighing about 6.5 grams this 11cm long bird is grey-brown (tending to olive green tint) above and has a pale grey face, throat and breast and has an off white abdomen, tinged with yellow. The tail is white underneath and dark brown on top with white tips visible in flight, it also has a distinctive ruby-red eye. The female has similar plumage but is smaller in size. The young are paler with no hint of yellow and have brown eyes. The male's song often starts with a series of three squeaks and builds into a distinctive long plaintive wavering trill that rises and falls. They sing throughout the year but most vigorously, when nesting, during spring. More commonly heard than seen.
Common throughout New Zealand main islands and many off-shore islands, absent from open country and alpine areas. At home in native and exotic forests it may be found almost anywhere there is some tree or shrub cover.
Grey warblers mainly feed upon spiders, insects and their larvae. They are very active, almost never still but they can hover mid-air as they flit from perch to perch in search of food.
Grey warblers are unique among New Zealand birds in building a pear-shaped structure with a side entrance near the top. Although the male collects material, the nest itself is constructed by the female from grass, leaves, rootlets and

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Retrieved Text: Cuckoo or koel lays eggs in crow’s nest.
But these birds in Mexico looks and behaves like a crow, but coos like a coel.
Why doesn’t she makes her own nest?

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Retrieved Text: Countless times a day we are faced with the decision to choose sin or God, and we often choose sin because it feels so much better in the short-term. But what about the long-term??
home, to be in the room that morning.
This is a day we’ve been looking forward to…for years…literally!
build this building in the first place!
And the 22 nd will be no different.
legacy of this church than even work that’s done at our future building.
But why plant these new autonomous churches?
Because it’s the most effective, exponential way to change the world.
just finished 30 years as the Senior Pastor of Grace Fellowship.
churches that Dave has helped get started.
reach our goal of 10 churches in 10 years.
We’re so excited and honored that Dave is working with us!
I asked Dave to greet you and say a few words!
This morning, we are continuing in our Nearsighted series.
Sin is a loaded word.
All day long we face choices like this.
Should I gossip or should I not?
them off on the way to the door?
somewhere between 30-70 conscious decisions a day.
So why would we even choose sin over following God?
Our nearsightedness plays a huge role in this.
We want what will make us feel better…RIGHT NOW.
And you think, “Oh man, this looks delicious! I want it right now!
“I suppose it could be bad for me…BUT…BUT…it looks soooo delicious!
And so you bite into the berry, and it IS delicious!
Of course, it’s pleasurable! That’s why we do it!
The poisonous berry does taste good when you bite into it!
But sin…is like a delayed poison to your spirit.
it’s this:

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Retrieved Text: Complex behaviour patterns can be learned, but (it appears that) they can also be inherited.
Example 1 The female Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) is 'brood parasitic' in that it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. This can't be a 'learned' behaviour, since the bird has never met its parents (except in unlaid egg form) The cuckoo somehow inherits this behaviour - presumably via some as-yet-undiscovered genetic mechanism.
Other animals show much more complex behaviour patterns which can only have been inherited. (migration in salmon, eels, turtles, butterflies etc etc ). It's possible that all innate behaviours (instincts) are somehow inherited, since the process is entirely without any explanation which could discount that mode of operation.
Despite more than a century of research (Darwin puzzled over it), there are currently no plausible theories - genetic or otherwise - as to how such complex behaviour patterns could be transferred.

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Retrieved Text: The yellow-crowned night heron is a short, stocky wading bird about 24 inches in length with a wingspan of a little under four feet. It has long yellow to orange legs, red eyes, a black bill, and a short neck. It has a slate gray body, a black head with a white streak on the side of its face and a yellowish-white crown. In breeding season it has a yellow plume of feathers on its head. Males and females look alike. Immature yellow-crowned night herons are a mottled grayish-brown.
The yellow-crowned night heron breeds from southern New England south to Florida and west to Texas. It also breeds along the Mississippi River. It winters on the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts.
The yellow-crowned night heron lives in wooded swamps, fresh and saltwater marshes and thickets.
The female lays three to five eggs on a nest of sticks placed in a tree or sometimes on the ground. Both the male and female build the nest and incubate the eggs. The eggs hatch in about three weeks. Both parents care for the chicks and feed them regurgitated food. The chicks fledge when they are about 25 days old.

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Retrieved Text: Any cuckoo chicks or eggs!!!
Discussion in 'Buy Sell Auction - Archives' started by bigspringshatchery, Jan 5, 2011.
I love the cuckoo or barred look. I might be looking to pick some eggs or chicks that don't have if everything works out. Pm me or email me at [email protected] with what you have.

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Retrieved Text: The cuckoos are a family, Cuculidae, of near passerine birds. The cuckoo family has other species included, some of which are the roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis.
The cuckoos are generally medium sized slender birds. The majority are arboreal, with a sizeable minority that are terrestrial. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution, ranging across all the world’s continents except Antarctica, with the majority of species being tropical. The temperate species are migratory.
The cuckoos feed on insects, insect larvae and a variety of other animals, as well as fruit. Many species are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of other species, but the majority of species raise their own young.
Cuckoos are often highly secretive and in many cases best known for their wide repertoire of calls. Calls are usually relatively simple, resembling whistles, flutes, or hiccups. The calls are used in order to demonstrate ownership of a territory and to attract a mate.
1.a common European bird, Cuculus canorus, of the family Cuculidae, noted for its characteristic call and its brood parasitism.
2.any of several other birds of the family Cuculidae.
3.the call of the cuckoo, or an imitation of it.
4.Slang . a crazy, silly, or foolish person; simpleton.
5.to utter the call of the cuckoo or an imitation of it.
7.Slang . crazy; silly; foolish.
8.of, pertaining to, or like a cuckoo.
unconscious. : I socked him on the snoot and knocked him coo-coo.
insane. : How did I ever get involved in this cuckoo scheme, anyway?
A rainbow and a cuckoo’s song / May never come together again; / May never

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Retrieved Text: There are approximately 127 species of cuckoo birds across the globe.
Female violet cuckoos display brownish green while males have iridescent violet chin and breast.
Cuckoos are a family of birds that encompass approximately 127 species around the globe. Cuckoos are found on all continents except Antartica, and live in a diverse range of habitats. Some species are arboreal, while others are terrestrial. Many are insectivores, although some are known to consume lizards and other birds when available.
Cuckoo birds and medium-sized birds ranging from 0.03 pounds to 1.4 pounds while their length ranges from 6 to 25 inches. The channel-billed cuckoo is the largest species. The feet of cuckoos are characterized by four toes with the two inner toes pointing forward while the two outer toes point backwards.
While several species, including the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) are grey-brown, various species of cuckoos exhibit colorful feather patterns. The Violet cuckoo (Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus) has a violet chin and breast with violet or green bars on a white belly. The Asian emerald cuckoo (Chrysococcyx maculatus) has a green head and back with a green-barred white belly while the African emerald cuckoo (Chrysococcyx cupreus) has a green head and back with a bright yellow belly.
Some species like the common cuckoos can fly while others like the roadrunners are terrestrial. Both kinds of species have long tails with soft feathers that are used for steering during motion. Cuckoos that can fly have specialized wings that are capable of strong flight while terrestrial ones have short wings that are almost round. Despite several differences

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Retrieved Text: We just love this marvelous Cuckoo Clock with Woodchopper. It’ll teleport you to the woodchopper’s cottage in the forest. Designed by Romach and Haas, this chalet-style clock is an animated telltale that features a hand-carved woodchopper figure, a dog, pine trees and a well – just a usual day from a woodchopper’s life.
The telling dancers of this clock are carved with utmost precision and skill. It is a gorgeous Black Forest chalet clock that is made by watchmakers from Germany. Bring this in and create the magic of the German countryside into your home right away.
Whimsical and sometimes realistic animations such as this one were commonly reproduced mechanically in the Black Forest since the early Nineteenth Century. Here, a man in traditional Black Forest garb chops his firewood for the long winter. Meanwhile the children are above, on the balcony, dancing to the music.
This eight-day, musical cuckoo clock features a large 36-note music box with an excellent sound. This eight-day musical cuckoo clock has a night time shut-off lever so you can turn off the music and cuckoo and leave the time-keeping function running.
The dial, hands, and numbers and bird are all of solid wood. The shingles on the roof are individually laid, and all the carvings are done by hand.
This Woodchopper cuckoo clock is by Rombach und Haas and is exclusively available through North Coast Imports. It is an Original Black Forest Clock, certified by the VDS.
The clock comes packaged in genuine recycled materials, each clock made and packaged BY HAND by Black Forest craftsmen

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Retrieved Text: Cooperation between non-kin is a long-standing puzzle in evolutionary biology. Since cooperation typically involves some short-term fitness cost, it should be easily undermined by cheating and competition between group members. Our long-running research project in Panama focuses on the Greater Ani, a Neotropical cuckoo with an unusual breeding system. Whereas many cuckoos are specialized parasites which lay their eggs in the nests of other species, anis nest communally. Up to eight unrelated individuals construct a single nest in which all of the females lay their eggs, and all group members participate in incubation, defense, and food delivery to the shared clutch. However, reproductive competition within the group is intense: before laying her first egg, each female ejects any eggs that have already been laid in the communal nest. Each female stops ejecting eggs once she has laid her first egg, presumably to avoid accidentally removing her own. As a result, the first female to begin laying in the communal nest invariably loses at least one egg — sometimes several — whereas the last female to enter the laying sequence loses none. A main goal of this research is to quantify the reproductive costs and benefits to females of nesting communally.
Four unrelated Greater Anis (two males and two females) simultaneously arrive at their communal nest bearing food for the mixed clutch of nestlings. Adults cannot recognize their own eggs or nestlings, so parental care is provided indiscriminately to the shared brood. © 2016 Christina Riehl.
Striped Cuckoos parasitize white egg-laying hosts in South America and blue egg-laying hosts

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Retrieved Text: I’d forgotten just how busy I seem to get in Summer. Not only is the beekeeping season in full swing, but insects are everywhere, meaning I have loads of photos to sort out and process. Normally there’ll be the odd rainy day where I can blitz through and get things sorted and a blog post or two written – but not this year it seems! I’ve never known a dry spell like it. It’s now July 12th and we haven’t seen rain for a month, a state of affairs unheard of in Manchester! The soil is so dried out that it’s both like sand on the surface and rock hard and compacted underneath. The grass and plants are crying out for a good downpour – there’s only so much I can do with a watering can.
Perhaps trying to escape from the heat I found a frog hiding in the Frogitat! This sits in a shady corner between the ponds and I cover it in leaves each autumn to provide a handy spot for hibernation. I’ve never seen a frog using it in Summer though, until now!
I also keep finding frogs all around the garden at the moment. I think they are trying to find moisture and cooler temperatures wherever they can – crossing between the ponds and hiding under the hedging on the opposite side of the garden.
I suspect the heat this year has led this particular unwelcome visitor to expand it’s range. I’ve never seen Horseflies here before, but they’ve become a common visitor this

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Retrieved Text: If you’ve read this blog from the beginning, you may remember two beautiful boys and their tomatoes– James and Jake, my grandsons who live in England, near Oxford. It’s winter there now, of course. Not much to do in their garden. So it’s lego and library times. Museums.
And their dad, Alex, took them to the Natural History Museum in Oxford, where they read about bees. And saw bees at work, European Honey Bees – apis mellifera.
The hive was hand-built especially for the museum. It has a tube leading to the outside world, purpose-fitted with a perspex lid so that visitors can watch the bees coming and going.
The queen bee has been marked with a green spot on her back to help people identify her in the hive (but I can’t see her in this image from the museum itself).
I love the names of this group. Buff-tailed bumble bee. Cuckoo bumble bee. Longhorn bee. Nomad cuckoo bee (lays eggs in the nest of the mining bee). Brush-legged mining bee. Rose leaf-cutter bee. Large red-tailed bumble bee. Carder bee. Large red-tailed bumble bee. red-tailed cuckoo bee (lays eggs in the nest of the Red-tailed bumble bee). Lawn bee. Sweat bee. Cuckoo sweat bee. Flower bee. Honey bee. Cuckoo flower bee.
And here’s a fact that’s new to me: most bees are solitary. Only 3% of the world’s bee species are social.
Eventually…will have speakers so that people can hear the bees at work in the hive. The area directly outside the windows is being developed into a mini rooftop garden

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Retrieved Text: The chestnut-winged cuckoo or red-winged crested cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) is a cuckoo found in Southeast Asia and parts of South Asia. It has dark glossy upperparts, a black head with long crest chestnut wings, a long graduated glossy black tail, rufous throat dusky underside and a narrow white nuchal half collar. They breed along the Himalayas and migrate south in winter to Sri Lanka, southern India and tropical Southeast Asia including parts of Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines. It is about 47cm long.
This dark and crested cuckoo has chestnut wings, a glossy black crest and a graduated tail (the feathers shortening in steps from the center outwards) whose terminal edges are white and inconspicuous unlike the white tips of the Jacobin cuckoo which is found in parts of its range. The black capping on the head is broken from black of the back by a white collar that extends to the sides of the neck. The lower parts are rufous turning to dark grey towards the vent. Young birds are dusky with a scaly appearance to the wing feathers.
The species was first given its binomial name by Linnaeus in 1766. His description of what he called Cuculus coromandus was based on the notes of Brisson who described the bird as "Le coucou hup de Coromandel" which was collected on the Coromandel coast of India (probably near Pondicherry which was a French colony). Buffon noticed the close relation to the Jacobin cuckoo and called it "le Jacobin hupp de Coromande". The species was later placed under the

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Retrieved Text: Originally begun in 1957 as an American picture to star Ronald Colman, MGM shelved the project, because it was deemed potentially inflammatory and controversial, specifically due to its sinister depiction of virgin birth.
The source novel is called The Midwich Cuckoos. This is because when cuckoo birds lay eggs, they deposit these eggs in the nests of other birds, who then raise the cuckoo chicks as their own. Compounding the insidious nature of this process, the cuckoo chicks often murder their nestmates in competition for food and parental attention.
The map co-ordinates for Midwich, given over the radio when pilots are being advised to avoid the local airspace, refer to the real life village of Woodmancott in Hampshire.
This page was last modified on 14 October 2015, at 15:10.

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Retrieved Text: A few days after my arrival at Key West in the Floridas, early in the month of May, Major GLASSEL of the United States Army presented me with a specimen of this bird, which had been killed by one of the soldiers belonging to the garrison. I had already observed many Cuckoos in the course of my walks through the tangled woods of that curious island; but as they seemed to be our Common Yellow-billed species, I passed them without paying much attention to them. The moment this specimen was presented to me, however, I knew that it was a species unknown to me, and thought, as I have on many occasions had reason to do, how vigilant the student of nature ought to be, when placed in a country previously unvisited by him. The bird was immediately drawn, and I afterwards shot several others, all precisely corresponding with it.
The habits of the Mangrove Cuckoo I found to be much the same as those of our two other well known species. Like them, it is fond of sucking the eggs of all kinds of birds in the absence of their owners, and also feeds on fruits and various species of insects. It is, however, more vigilant and shy, and does not extend its migrations northward beyond the eastern capes of the Floridas; appearing, indeed, to confine itself mostly to the islets covered with mangroves, among the sombre foliage of which trees it usually builds its nest and rears its young. It retires southward in the beginning

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Retrieved Text: Then he came to a place where everything was completely different. All the people had wings! They were all flying around through the air. They all had the same big, beautiful wings as Prince Cuckoo. It was fun to fly around and look down at the houses. Everything looked different there. No one had a car, because they could all fly. Even the little babies could fly.
He asked the people with wings, are you my mother? Are you my father? But they all said, we never saw you before. Who are you, anyway? We haven’t lost track of any children. They’re all right here, where they’re supposed to be, and we even have our own prince.
Prince Cuckoo was extremely sad. He flew down to the ground and sat down on a tree stump.
An old man came walking by. He had no wings.
Are you my father? asked Prince Cuckoo.
No, said the old man. I am a dream-reader. I can tell you what your dreams mean. You only have to tell me about what you dreamed last night.
Prince Cuckoo said, my life is a mess. I’ve been looking for my family for ages and ages. I’m so lonely and always by myself, and when I go to sleep, I always dream the same dream.
Tell me about your dream, said the old man.
I can’t tell you about it, Prince Cuckoo said, because in the dream, nothing happens. It’s only music.
The old man said, I understand your dream already and I can tell you all about it.
You understand? said Prince

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Retrieved Text: Ha! Ha! Yup they surprise you, I've had the same thing happen, chick gone from the brooder and have to search around and look for it.
Its hard during breeding season as everyone wants eggs or chicks. I've had people drive 3 hrs one way to pick up eggs or chicks. I hate shipping as something always happens and its expensive. Still I would put an add on kijiji and get another chick for company for yours. When you introduce lone chicks into the rest of the flock it rarely goes well.
I found some one week old cuckoo maline chicks nearby. I have to buy 6 in order for the owner to bring them to Regina, but she doesn't charge a delivery fee. I suspect I will need a lot larger brooder box. I understand that they grow quite fast.
I changed my mind. They are going to be quite big, and I don't have room for them when they grow out. I also don't butcher. I'll see if I can find something smaller.

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======= Instance Index 4021 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Wind and water erode rocks
- The wind and water pick up sediment that came off the rocks
- Sediment is carried to an area by the wind, water, air, or ice
- Sediment is deposited on the same spot many times
- The sediment piles on top of other sediment for a long time
- The sediment near the bottom is compressed by the weight of newer sediment
- The sediment becomes sedimentary rock as it is pushed together by the heavy weight
- 

Question:
suppose More sediment and formed more sedimentary rock happens, how will it affect wind and water pick up less sediment.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Learn about what materials make up sediment and how it travels. Explore sediment deposits from deltas to sand dunes, and learn how sedimentary rock is created.
As any beaver can tell you, dams are rather clever. We build dams across rivers to create reservoirs, which hold water for household and agricultural use. These give us access to water when we need it, and some bigger dams harness the power of water to create electricity.
But what happens when dams are no longer useful? What happens when we remove a large, man-made dam? We often think about the consequences of building dams, but not what happens when you take them away.
The Elwha River in Washington state was a valuable resource for the Native Americans who lived near it for generations, and 87% of it is now a protected part of the Olympic National Park. The Elwha Dam, built in 1913, and the Glines Canyon Dam, built in 1927, were constructed at the beginning of the 20th century to provide power for the growing region.
Over time, both power plants grew increasingly obsolete, and scientists learned more about how the dams negatively impacted the salmon population, who were kept from swimming upstream. In 2011, crews working on behalf of the National Park Service began to remove the Elwha Dam, and in summer 2013, removal of the two dams will be complete.
Part of the Elwha Dam was removed so water could flow freely again after 100 years. Eventually, the entire dam will be taken away and only the river will remain.
One thing

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Retrieved Text: - Sedimentary rock is made from sediment and/or by chemical reactions.
- Sediment is loose material, such as bits of rocks, minerals, plants, and animals.
- Water, wind, and ice can move sediment to a place where it settles.
- Whenever this happens a new layer of sediment forms.
- One treasure that can be found in sedimentary rock is fossils.
- Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in oceans and lakes where larger, heavier fragments settle first.
- Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock.
- Layers of sedimentary rock are called strata, or beds. These are the most characteristic feature.

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Retrieved Text: Geology 101 Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers and are only a small portion of the Earth's crust. Photograph by Pichi, Shutterstock .
Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups (along with igneous and metamorphic rocks) and is formed in three main ways—by the deposition of the weathered remains of other rocks (known as clastic sedimentary rocks); by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution.
Sedimentary rock is one of three types of rock found on Earth. The others are called igneous and metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are the most common rock types in Earth’s crust.
The sediment (the sand, mud and pebbles) that make up Sedimentary rocks come from other rocks that have been worn down by wind, rain and snow.
rock cycle Geologic materials cycle through various forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth's crust.
Relating to rocks formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, is deposited and becomes tightly compacted. Sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of sediment. See more.
Easy Science for Kids All About Sedimentary Rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rocks usually found near bodies of water. Read learn fun kids science facts.
Shale is the most abundant sedimentary rock. It is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
Intrusive rocks crystallize and harden beneath the Earth's surface in rock formations include plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.
Once the rock has been weakened and

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: If you have ever walked along a stream or beach you may have noticed tiny sand grains, mud, and pebbles. These are particles of sediment. Sediment is small, solid pieces of material that come from rocks or living things. In addition to particles of rock, sediment may include shells, and bones. Sedimentary rocks form when sediment is deposited by water and wind. Most sedimentary rocks are formed through a series of processes: erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation.
Erosion: Destructive forces are constantly breaking up and wearing away all the rocks on Earth’s surface. These forces include heat and cold, rain, waves, and grinding ice. The forces of erosion form sediment. In erosion, running water, wind, or ice loosen and carry away fragments of rock.
Deposition: Eventually, the moving water, wind, or ice slows and deposits the sediment in layers. If water is carrying the sediment, rock fragments and other materials sink to the bottom of a lake or ocean. Deposition is the process by which sediment settles out of the water or wind carrying it.
Compaction: The process that presses sediments together is compaction. Thick layers of sediment build up gradually over millions of years. These heavy layers press down on the layers beneath them. The weight of new layers further compacts the sediments, squeezing them tightly together. The layers often remain visible in sedimentary rock.
Cementation: While compaction is taking place, the minerals in the rock slowly dissolve in the water. Cementation is the process in which dissolved minerals crystallize and glue particles of sediment together. In cementation, dissolved

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Retrieved Text: Red Rock Canyon, Nevada is formed from bright red and pink Navajo Sandstone formed from sand dunes during the Jurassic Period. Layering is visible apparent.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups: clastic, biologic and chemical. When sediments consolidate into a cohesive mass, they become sedimentary rock. The composition, texture (how the rock looks) and other features of a sedimentary rock can tell us a story about its origin. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock.
Clastic sediments vary widely in size, shape and composition. A single clastic sedimentary rock may be composed of one type of rock and mineral or many types of rocks and minerals. The types of sediment found in a clastic sedimentary rock can tell geologists much about past environments. Clastic sediments and the rocks formed from them are named on the basis of particle size rather than mineral composition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from microscopic silt

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Retrieved Text: – You have made a sedimentary rock! You have layers as a result of different types of sediment settling at different times. Epsom salt is made from the dissolved minerals of magnesium and sulfur. This is the "glue" that holds the homemade rock together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways from these different sized sediments. A sedimentary rock is a layered rock that is formed from the compaction, cementation, and the recrystallization of sediments. Compaction is the squeezing together of layers of sediment due to the great weight of overlying layers of rock.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rock Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks.
Like other rocktypes, sedimentary rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. There are two broad groups of sedimentary rocks, clastic (or detrital) sediments which accumulate from fragments of preexisting rocks and minerals, and chemical sediments or precipitates.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks The sediment in an organic sedimentary rock is made of fossils ! The hard parts of animals, such as bones and shells, can become cemented together over time to make rock.
The Meteora is a sedimentary rock formation, composed of sandstone and pebbles. The sedimentary rock was formed 60 million years ago when Earth's movements pushed the seabed upwards. It is loed at 350 km from Athens, Greece.
The name of a sedimentary rock depends on the size (and sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: One of the primary effects of plate motion is to put new material from deep in the earth’s mantle onto the surface of the earth, and at the same time, destroy old crust. This creation, modification, and destruction of the surface materials of the earth is called the rock cycle. However, before we begin our discussion of the rock cycle, let’s clarify a very important point: rocks and minerals are not the same thing! A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition or compositional range and a regular internal crystal structure. A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials.
The key difference between a rock and a mineral is the ‘regular internal crystal structure’ of a mineral. For example, Quartz is a mineral (SiO2), while Granite is a rock. If you were to look at a quartz crystal at the molecular level, the entire crystal would be made up of identical building blocks (SiO2 molecules). Granite, on the other hand is not homogenous. Therefore, one chunk of a piece of granite, when viewed at the molecular level would appear very different from another chunk viewed at the molecular level because the first chunk might be a quartz crystal, while the second chunk might be another type of crystal.
Rocks are categorized by how they are formed. Rocks that are formed directly from liquid rock, or magma that wells up from deep in the earth are called igneous rocks. Rocks that form at, or just

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen. They are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas. The length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, and basement controls. The amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island.
Sand carried by the offshore moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break.  Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the break point of even larger waves, or the break point at low tide.
There are two common definitions of coastal erosion. It is often defined as the loss or displacement of land along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. In this case, landward retreat of the shoreline, measured to a given spatial datum, is described over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes.

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Retrieved Text: MINERALS, ROCKS, AND SOILDifferent rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and .. These terms and definitions are available ... Mineralogy4Kids is a website for children. Follow the Rock.definition of sedimentary rock for kids,Geokids Handbook for First Grade Teachers - Stanford Earth5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.Fossils and Rocks - Schoolsmeans, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or by any .. Some common forms of sedimentary rock are sandstone, .. books for children.
9.3 Sedimentary rocks 283. 9.4 Stability and change: . Attempt to classify them as igneous, sedimentary ... spectacular examples of this is the Grand Canyon in.
Lesson #1 - How Do Rocks and Minerals Influence Our Lives? ... and to determine if local rock is classified as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. This will be .. could specify relationship to children's uses or school's uses – all the rocks and minerals visible to the .. Define the difference between a rock and a mineral.
You may want to use sand as an example of sedimentary rocks forming today. Ask students . beach." Children can spend endless hours on the beach, creating.
5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.
means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
The rock cycle explains how the different types of rock form.
The three types of rock at Earth’s mantle melt into magma.
Magma that cools and hardens underground forms intrusive igneous rock.
Weathering breaks the rock into sediment. Erosion causes the sediment to move to other locations.
Pressure squeezes the sediment together, forming sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure change igneous and sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.

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Retrieved Text: Sedimentary rocks are one of three types of rocks found on the Earth’s surface. Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments or little pieces of rock, such as sand, gravel, clay, and silt. These fragments are called claysts. Other types of sedimentary rocks may contain minerals. In addition, sedimentary rocks may also consist of decomposed plant or animal matter that has accumulated over time. A large percentage of these sedimentary rocks contain fossilized remains. This excites geologists because it gives clues about Earth’s history around the time they were formed. It can take millions of years to form sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock falls into one of three classifications: clastic, biochemical, and chemical. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering and erosion, which produce broken fragments or sediments from other rocks. These sediments are transported by water, air, or glaciers and then dropped. Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed when biological elements take part in the change of rocks. For instance, limestone is created from calcium-rich skeletons of coral and mollusks. Biochemical sedimentary rocks can be found at the bottom of a lake or ocean, where marine life dies and decomposes into existing sedimentary rocks. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from changes in chemical processes. These types of sedimentary rocks are usually formed in bodies of water with high concentrations of minerals. Some examples of chemical sedimentary rocks include halite and dolomite. Dolomite is formed as a result of the crystallization of limestone under extreme temperatures.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when a river, ocean, or other body of water carries fragments

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: Photograph taken in 2007 of eolian sedimentary deposits in the Palisades area of the Colorado River corridor, Grand Canyon, Ariz.
This report summarizes a 3-year study of eolian sedimentary processes in the Colorado River corridor, Grand Canyon National Park, Ariz., and discusses the relevance of those processes to the preservation of archeologic sites. The results reported here are based on detailed sedimentologic and geomorphologic investigations in three reaches of the river corridor, as well as continuous measurements of wind, rainfall, and sand transport at six sites for as long as 26 months, short-term field study at 35 other sites, examination of historical aerial photographs, and review of data collected and analyzed during previous studies. The data generated by this study, which involved collaboration with scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center, the National Park Service, Northern Arizona University, the Hopi Tribe, and GeoArch, Inc., were previously published by Draut and Rubin (2005, 2006, 2008) and Draut and others (2005, in press). This report, which supersedes that by Draut and Rubin (2007), provides an overview of the results and contains new conclusions regarding eolian sedimentary processes in the Colorado River ecosystem and their relevance to the preservation of archeologic sites.
At many of the study sites, eolian sediment serves as a substrate on which archeologic sites were formed (many sites were also built on fluvial and slopewash sediment) and, commonly, as a surficial deposit (cover) inferred to help preserve cultural materials. Over time, many cultural artifacts are exposed by wind deflation of the

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Retrieved Text: Connectivity of landslide sediment to and within fluvial systems is a key factor affecting the extent of mobilization of hillslope material. In particular, the formation of landslide dams and the transformation into landslide-induced debris flows represent "end members" of landslide sediment mobility. To quantify sediment connectivity, we developed a two-segment flume representing tributary inflow and the main channel. Mobility of sediment was examined by combinations of various topographic factors, such as tributary inflow angle (0 to 90° in 30° increments) and main channel gradient (10° and 15°), as well as water content of sediment (0 to 100% in 20% increments). We also examined differences of mobility among sediments derived from various lithologies (sand and shale, pyroclastic sediment, weathered granite, and weathered sedimentary rock). Mobility of sediment differed, depending on the water content of sediment, particularly less than saturation or greater than saturation. When all types of unsaturated landslide sediments entered the channel at inflow angles of 60° and 90°, substantial deposition occurred, suggesting the formation of landslide dams. At low inflow angles (0° and 30°) in a steep channel (15°), > 50% of landslide sediment was transported downstream, indicating the occurrence of a debris flow. The amount of sediment deposited at the junction angle was greater for pyroclastic sediment followed by weathered granite, weathered sedimentary rock, and finally, sand and shale. Our connectivity index suggests that a threshold exists between landslide dam formation and debris flow occurrence associated with topographic conditions, water content, and types of sediment.

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: If you are in the market for natural stone flooring or counters for your home, this brief compilation of stone factoids is going to be very helpful. Just a little knowledge, before you narrow in on what’s right for you, may point you in the right direction. You’ve all studied the types of rock the earth renders, but it could be you haven’t had need for that information in a long time. So here is a brief refresher.
SEDIMENTARY – Igneous rocks make up the majority of the earth’s crust and are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment. It’s this loose sediment that gets compacted and cemented together to give us sedimentary stone. Travertine and limestone fall into this category. Natural, unfilled travertine has tiny holes throughout the surface, indicative of sedimentary formations. Both travertine and limestone are very porous and will require continuing maintenance to keep them looking their best. Keep in mind, because they are so porous they are prone to staining so may not be the best choice for countertop applications. For floor applications, Torrean travertine is less porous and gives a more uniform surface texture.
METAMORPHIC – The metamorphics get their name from “meta” (change) and “morph” (form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable. Extreme temperature and pressure are the catalysts in forming metamorphic rocks and produce stones with exceptional beauty, such as slate, marble and

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Retrieved Text: I went fishing for the first time today, and I’d love to write about it because it was REALLY fun – but I only managed to get one photo, and I technically was in between casts, so I wasn’t really fishing. Just sitting on a boat looking cool with a dog. Oops. So stay tuned for a post about fishing later, after I’ve had a few goes at it (and taken some more photos!).
Instead, I’m going to attempt to explain sequence stratigraphy and my graduate thesis project to non-sedimentary geologists!
Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are made up of sediment (gravel, sand, clay, mud, etc. derived from other rocks that were weathered and eroded). Water (and other things, like wind, but mostly water) moved this sediment around via rivers and waves and tides. Eventually, this sediment settles down for the long haul and slowly gets buried by more and more sediment. This burial causes the sediment to squish together and compact. At a certain point, the sediment “lithifies” and becomes a sedimentary rock. Welcome to my favorite part of the rock cycle.
Sedimentary rocks are conglomerates (gravel-sized sediment held together by smaller sediment), sandstones (basically sand that has become a rock via the process described above), shales (really fine grained stuff, generally too small to see without some kind of magnifier), and mudstones (the finest grained sediment).
The type of sedimentary rock you’re looking at, the size of the sediment grains, and any sedimentary structures that were preserved (like ripples, crossbeds, planar beds, etc,) can tell you what kind

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Retrieved Text: These are a peculiar type of bedform called a transverse aeolian ridge, or TAR for short, with a spacing of about 50 m (164 ft). Nobody really understands these things: are they dunes or ripples or something totally different? They’re common on Mars but unusual (maybe even nonexistent) on Earth. They’re also pretty dark-toned here, whereas on most of Mars they tend to be lighter than the surrounding rocks.
The TARs mostly cover the surface, but you can see bright bits poking through in places. You can see layers sweeping around – this is a place where stuff (either sediment or volcanic rock) was deposited in successive layers. It may then have been tilted or deformed, and then it was eroded away to expose the bright layers. All that happened before the TARs piled up on top of them. Extra points if you can find a couple of old eroded crater floors – that tells us that the surface here was probably higher than it is now, and it was eroded down to the current level. So, you know, it’s yet another crazy landscape on Mars.
This would be even more compelling if this was formed by water.But i read it was wind that formed the ripples/dunes.
Yep, it’s the wind. They’re not cratered, so they’re fairly young, and with very few exceptions there hasn’t been flowing water of this scale on Mars for several billion years. Also, features of this size formed underwater are typically not preserved so nicely – water tends to erode them as easily as

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Retrieved Text: It was Mother's Day and we were at Half Moon Bay. We were just wrapping up a great day by the Ocean, when I noticed this awesome Sedimentary rock formation. Of course, I could not pass up the opportunity to impart a little scientific knowledge!
I started to explain that when mountains are first formed, they are tall and jagged like the Rocky Mountains on the west coast of North America. Over time (millions of years) mountains become old mountains like the Appalachian Mountains on the east coast of Canada and the United States.
Old mountains are rounded and lower. The rocks erode or get eaten away by natural elements like rain, wind, freeze/thaw cycle and stream or rivers flowing down cause the big mountains to crumble slowly.
These crumbled or battered rock pieces or "sediments," land in the streams and rivers that flow down from the mountains. They settle down on the bottom of the lake or oceans they run into. Over time, layers of different rocks settle at the bottom of lakes and oceans. This sediment compresses over a long period of time and consolidates into solid layers of rock. These layers are called strata.
Some examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone and shale. The pictures below are sandstone formation. Though it is hard to tell in the picture above, this formation was actually reddish in color and sandy; some of the stones actually broke apart easily. Notice the second slide; the layer of rock underneath is a different color (black spots) than the rock layer on top.
There

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Retrieved Text: A rock is a naturally occurring solid composed of one or more minerals. Considering that rocks comprise much of the Earth’s environment and the lithosphere (outermost shell of the planet), in a geological sense this is a critical area of study. However, in a less scientific context, rocks have been utilized by civilization throughout time and continue to be used today. For example, some uses (past and present) for rocks include tools, construction materials and in power plants to make electricity (coal).
1. Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks, which can be further subdivided into plutonic and volcanic rocks, are rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of magma and lava. Plutonic rocks are formed within the Earth’s crust when magma cools and crystalizes. Conversely, volcanic rocks are formed when lava reaches the Earth’s surface.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed over extremely long periods of time by the sedimentation of particles which get blown or washed away to the bottom of water bodies. Sedimentary rock can be formed near the Earth’s surface as well when loose particles get pressed down into layers eventually forming rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed when the forces of pressure and temperature transform the original form of a rock. Any type of rock, igneous, sedimentary or an already metamorphic rock, can have their physical and chemical properties transformed.
Big Bang Theory and the evidence supporting it? Also list reference for further research.
The James Webb Space Telescope is set to launch in the near future. Discuss the advantages that this telescope has over the

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Retrieved Text: Coal, which is used by human beings to generate electricity, is a sedimentary rock made from ancient plant matter.
Because it is made from living things, coal consists mostly of carbon. It also contains nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and sulfur.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, during the Carboniferous ("coal-bearing") era, oceans were wide and shallow.
Giant ferns grew in bogs that were often many miles across.
Every year these ferns would drop their leaves.
Beds of dead leaves and trees formed in the bogs. These dark brown beds, known as peat, grew to be many feet thick.
Throughout the Earth's history, the oceans have repeatedly flowed over dry land and then receded.
Each time water has covered the land, it has left behind sediment.
Over time, peat became covered with sediment. The weight of the sediment crushed it, dried it out and made it become darker. Eventually, the peat was transformed into the brownish-black substance we know as coal.
When the oceans receded, peat would accumulate once more.
Eventually, layers of coal alternated with layers of sediments washed in from the ocean. These layers of coal are known as coal beds.
Some harder forms of coal, such as anthracite coal, are formed when coal is exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Therefore, these types of coal can be considered metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Metamorphic rocks for kids brings to you some of the interesting facts about these rocks. To begin with, the word ‘Metamorphism’ comes from joining two Greek words i.e., meta meaning ‘change’ and morpho refers to ‘shape’. It means metamorphism means ‘to change shape’. Metamorphism is a process in which high temperature and pressure changes the mineral content of rocks through metamorphic reactions such that the parent (original) rock bears no resemblance at all with the newly transformed rock. Thus, not only chemical composition of rocks is changed but texture as well. This process only takes place in solid rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are derived from igneous and sedimentary rocks. As soon as rock experiences a change in its physical and chemical conditions, it undergoes metamorphism. During chemical reactions, minerals inside the rock are changed so much that the entire texture of the rock alters with it. The higher the temperature, the faster will be the changes caused by metamorphic reactions.
The interior of the earth gets hotter as depth increases. Metamorphism can take place even at a temperature as low as 50oC (temperature of hot cup of coffee). However in such a case, metamorphic reactions require millions and millions of years to occur. The maximum temperature at which metamorphism can take place varies but it generally lies somewhere between 600oC – 1200oC. Now let’s discover more in metamorphic rocks for kids!
The intensity of metamorphism is called metamorphic grade. In other words, metamorphic grades tell us how much a rock is changed with respect to changes caused by metamorphism. The

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Retrieved Text: Coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool SLOWLY DEEP in the Earth.
Molten rock INSIDE the earth.
Molten rock ON Earth's surface.
Extrusive igneous rock that cools SO FAST that NO crystals are formed. It looks like "black glass".
Extrusive igneous rock with holes due to escaping gas.
When a mineral changes from a solid to a liquid at a particular temperature. .
When the liquid rocks/minerals are able to cool off and turn into solid rocks. This is a process in the formation of Igneous Rocks.
Small pieces of rock or shells produced by weathering.
Rocks made of sediments cemented together. Usually formed under water. Examples are sandstone (medium-grain) and conglomerate (coarse).
Made from remains of once living things. Examples: limestone made from shells, coal from swamp plants, etc.
Formed from the evaporation of water that leaves minerals behind. Occurs along the coasts of oceans and large salt lakes.
When land is pushed to a higher elevation due to natural processes such as mountain building & plate tectonics. This brings deep rocks to surface where they can be weathered.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by processes, such as dissolving due acid rain, rusting/oxidation, etc.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by forces, such as waves, ice wedging, freeze-thaw, etc.
Movement and removal of surface materials to a new location. Movement may be caused by wind, moving water, gravity (landslide), etc.
"Laying down" or "settling out" of sediments after being moved by erosion. Usually happens at the bottom of a body of water.
When sediments become covered beneath layers of other sediments.
Process that transforms sediments

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Retrieved Text: Evolution: The Ocean says NO!
The subject of the age of the earth and the age of the world ocean is a matter of extreme importance. If there is evidence for an old ocean, then this could be used to support the evolutionist's supposition that life arose from primitive, inorganic marine chemicals over a billion years ago. If, however, the world ocean can be shown to be a relatively youthful feature, then the evolutionist would seem to lose his case by default.
Two basic models for the world ocean can be imagined. According to evolutionary-uniformitarian geologists, the earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old. The world ocean is supposed to have formed by outgassing of water by volcanic processes early in the earth's history. By no later than 1 billion years ago, in the popular scheme, the ocean reached its present size and chemical condition, and primitive one-celled life forms had already evolved by chance processes from lifeless chemicals. For a period of at least 1 billion years the ocean has remained at roughly constant salinity while the single-celled creatures evolved into mollusks, fish, reptiles, mammals, and finally man. During this vast period of time the continents have been eroding more or less continuously with debris being steadily deposited as sediments on the ocean floor.
An alternate to the evolutionist's view of the ocean is the creationist's view. According to the creationist, the ocean formed very recently—perhaps only 10,000 years ago. The earth in its original condition was covered with water (Genesis 1:2), but later God formed the ocean

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Retrieved Text: Sam Graham in Science & Technology on 6 October, 2015.
Skara Brae- the Neolithic settlement that gives us an insight into what humans were up to 5000 years ago.
In the four and a half billion years since our planet formed from interstellar dust and gas, it has created a stable atmosphere, built continents and oceans of liquid water. In this time, Earth has also achieved something apparently unique, it has harboured life. Over the vast expanses of geological time life has diversified from simple single cellular forms through simple parazoan organisms and onto the huge number of complex multicellular organisms we see today. With the passing of the years, nature has duly selected species for extinction, most going quietly leaving no trace of their existence, with the lucky (or could you say stubborn?) few becoming fossilised – a ‘permanent’ reminder of their existence. The process of fossilisation may simply leave behind a carbonised film on a bedding surface, or may form a perfect cast of the animal on the day it died, however this begs the curious question, how will Homo sapiens be remembered in the rock record?
Of course the answer to this question is somewhat speculative, yet we only need to turn to archaeology to begin to answer this. A lot of what we know about human settlements over the past 12,000 years comes from the uppermost layers of the stratigraphic column, namely the unconsolidated ‘modern’ sediments and soils. It is easy to think that had it not been exposed thanks to a vicious storm in

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Retrieved Text: Stromatolite promotes adaptability, promotes the ability to yield while still maintaining your point of view, helps you to process the experiences you have and helps you to grow from your experiences .
Stromatolite is a preserved structure in sedimentary rock that is a series of thin layers of sediment. These layers formed when a colony of algae trapped loose sediment particles.

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======= Instance Index 10150 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Rock begins as magma from a volcano
- The magma cools
- Crystals form and the magma become igneous rocks
- The igneous rocks break down into sediment
- Become sedimentary rocks
- If subjected to heat and/or pressure from plate-tectonic activity the sedimentary rocks become metamorphic rock
- The metamorphic rocks melt
- Become magma again.

Question:
suppose less magma become igneous rocks happens, how will it affect LESS igneous rock forming.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Rock melts in a variety of geologic settings in the crust and upper mantle of the Earth depending on the temperature and pressure conditions and on the composition and water content of the rock, but lava represents only a tiny proportion of the magma that forms within the Earth.
The type of igneous rock is also dependent on its composition (the elements that are present). ... most igneous rocks are one of three basic compositions: Felsic igneous rocks contain relatively high amounts of silicon, sodium, aluminum, potassium (Si, Na, Al, and K) and relatively low amounts of iron, magnesium, and calcium (Fe, Mg, Ca).
Chapter 4 Rocks and Minerals. Chapter 4 focuses on Rocks and Minerals, looking at types of rocks. ... Magnetite is a mineral that has a very high iron content. Magnetite has a black or brownish-red color and a black streak. ... A concordant igneous rock body runs parallel to the pre-existing bedrock.
In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.
Lab Procedures. In this lab you will identify the minerals in each rock, determine the igneous composition of the rock, name its texture, take a photograph of it and interpret its origin. To understand and identify igneous rocks, you cannot be shy about addressing the rocks.
An igneous rock that contains vesicles _____. a. is also extrusive ... c. iron oxide . d. clay .

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
The rock cycle explains how the different types of rock form.
The three types of rock at Earth’s mantle melt into magma.
Magma that cools and hardens underground forms intrusive igneous rock.
Weathering breaks the rock into sediment. Erosion causes the sediment to move to other locations.
Pressure squeezes the sediment together, forming sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure change igneous and sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: If you are in the market for natural stone flooring or counters for your home, this brief compilation of stone factoids is going to be very helpful. Just a little knowledge, before you narrow in on what’s right for you, may point you in the right direction. You’ve all studied the types of rock the earth renders, but it could be you haven’t had need for that information in a long time. So here is a brief refresher.
SEDIMENTARY – Igneous rocks make up the majority of the earth’s crust and are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment. It’s this loose sediment that gets compacted and cemented together to give us sedimentary stone. Travertine and limestone fall into this category. Natural, unfilled travertine has tiny holes throughout the surface, indicative of sedimentary formations. Both travertine and limestone are very porous and will require continuing maintenance to keep them looking their best. Keep in mind, because they are so porous they are prone to staining so may not be the best choice for countertop applications. For floor applications, Torrean travertine is less porous and gives a more uniform surface texture.
METAMORPHIC – The metamorphics get their name from “meta” (change) and “morph” (form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable. Extreme temperature and pressure are the catalysts in forming metamorphic rocks and produce stones with exceptional beauty, such as slate, marble and

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand. crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous,instrusive igneous rocks which is crushed in sand.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand heavy Contact Supplier can rock be crushed into sand .
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Igneous rock Wikipedia. Igneous rock (derived from the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes.
Possibly El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in California. Unbroken pieces of batholithic intrusive igneous rock probably exist underground which are larger.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand an intrusive igneous rock which is, Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive and igneous rock Granite, igneous rocks are classified into .
An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sa. Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock . An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sand Mining. Igneous rock: Geology and mineral planning Get More Info.
Aggregate rock crushed intrusive rock victory an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Intrusive igneous rocks are created when magma pushes up into the Earth's crust and cools there.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an Read More Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive. More.

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Retrieved Text: These are called intrusive igneous rocks because the magma has intruded into pre-exiting rock layers. Types of intrusive igneous rocks are granite and basalt .
Oct 12, 2018 ... Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, rhyolite, ... Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools inside the Earth.
... Rock Property Tests | | Types of Igneous Rocks | ... Intrusive vs. Extrusive. Igneous rocks can be classified into two main categories: intrusive and extrusive.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: One of the primary effects of plate motion is to put new material from deep in the earth’s mantle onto the surface of the earth, and at the same time, destroy old crust. This creation, modification, and destruction of the surface materials of the earth is called the rock cycle. However, before we begin our discussion of the rock cycle, let’s clarify a very important point: rocks and minerals are not the same thing! A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition or compositional range and a regular internal crystal structure. A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials.
The key difference between a rock and a mineral is the ‘regular internal crystal structure’ of a mineral. For example, Quartz is a mineral (SiO2), while Granite is a rock. If you were to look at a quartz crystal at the molecular level, the entire crystal would be made up of identical building blocks (SiO2 molecules). Granite, on the other hand is not homogenous. Therefore, one chunk of a piece of granite, when viewed at the molecular level would appear very different from another chunk viewed at the molecular level because the first chunk might be a quartz crystal, while the second chunk might be another type of crystal.
Rocks are categorized by how they are formed. Rocks that are formed directly from liquid rock, or magma that wells up from deep in the earth are called igneous rocks. Rocks that form at, or just

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are rocks, such as granite or basalt, with a regular crystalline structure, which are formed by the cooling of molten material (magma) in the Earth's crust.
Extrusive igneous rocks reach the surface of the Earth and cool there, forming small crystals, whilst intrusive igneous rocks cool within the crust, the longer cooling time resulting in larger crystals.
Igneous rocks are very hard and resistant to weathering.

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Turning a challenge

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Retrieved Text: A rock is a naturally occurring solid composed of one or more minerals. Considering that rocks comprise much of the Earth’s environment and the lithosphere (outermost shell of the planet), in a geological sense this is a critical area of study. However, in a less scientific context, rocks have been utilized by civilization throughout time and continue to be used today. For example, some uses (past and present) for rocks include tools, construction materials and in power plants to make electricity (coal).
1. Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks, which can be further subdivided into plutonic and volcanic rocks, are rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of magma and lava. Plutonic rocks are formed within the Earth’s crust when magma cools and crystalizes. Conversely, volcanic rocks are formed when lava reaches the Earth’s surface.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed over extremely long periods of time by the sedimentation of particles which get blown or washed away to the bottom of water bodies. Sedimentary rock can be formed near the Earth’s surface as well when loose particles get pressed down into layers eventually forming rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed when the forces of pressure and temperature transform the original form of a rock. Any type of rock, igneous, sedimentary or an already metamorphic rock, can have their physical and chemical properties transformed.
Big Bang Theory and the evidence supporting it? Also list reference for further research.
The James Webb Space Telescope is set to launch in the near future. Discuss the advantages that this telescope has over the

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Retrieved Text: The worksheets found on this page help students learn how to identify rocks and minerals. We also look at the rock cycle.
We often forget the importance of rocks and minerals in our daily lives. Rocks form in nature and they are created three different ways. Igneous rock is formed when the Earth’s molten layers (magma) cools and forms a hard rock. Sedimentary rock takes time to form. As the layers of the Earth settle and form sediment, the rock layer forms. Metamorphic rock starts out as one of the other two and undergoes a great deal of heat and pressure. Whenever tectonic plates collide, you will find a bunch of metamorphic rock in its path.
You will find worksheets that teach you how to create crystals, classify rocks, label soil layers, and identify the rock cycle.
Crystals are beautiful and people have long been fascinated by their wide variety of shapes. In this exercise, you will make your own crystal shapes.
One of the most important properties used to identify and classify a mineral is its hardness. The Mohs hardness scale measures a mineral's hardness using a simple scratch test to see what the mineral can scratch and be scratched by.
Minerals can be identified by carefully observing their physical characteristics.
There are three main types of rocks; igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Use these three terms to answer the questions on this page.
Describes brightness of the light reflected from a mineral's surface.
Rocks can change from one type of rock into another due to heat, pressure, and weathering.
Soil and

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: let's talk about the three different types of rocks, and how we classify them.
They are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
The definition of an igneous rock is rock that's crystallized from molten magma.
Molten magma is simply molten rock.
either underneath the earth's surface, or at the earth's surface.
these are igneous rocks that cool beneath the earth's surface.
and have cooled on the earth's surface.
between intrusive and extrusive rocks.
What we see here are two different types of intrusive rocks.
We know they're intrusive rocks, because they have very large grains.
we can see the individual crystals of the individual minerals.
Here, in this gabbro we can see large crystals of very dark minerals.
And, as a result, they're insulated, it takes a lot longer for them to cool.
the longer you leave them to cool the bigger the crystals get.
So, these are extrusive igneous rocks.
We know they're extrusive, because they have very small grain size.
This meant that the rocks cooled very quickly.
In this case, we're looking at a Basalt.
In this case, we're looking at Obsidian.
This is the way it would look if you were to find it in the field.
But here, we've used a hammer to split it open.
And, you can see the shiny glass-like surface.
This is rock that has been cooled extremely quickly.
It's cooled so quickly it has no crystalline structure at all.

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Retrieved Text: The Risco Blanco igneous intrusion is one of a significant number of intrusions to be found on the island of Gran Canaria, forming part of the Roque Nublo volcano’s Tenteniguada Formation. These intrusions formed more or less around the periphery of the statovolcano’s central emission area, in the centre of the island and represent the culmination of two separate periods of geochemical differentiation of its magmas, the first between 3.9 and 3.8 million years ago, marking the beginning of a period when the volcano’s activity was to become dominated by highly explosive eruptions and the second between 3.1 and 2.7 million years ago during the waning stages of the volcano’s activity. Standing at 400m tall and with a base diameter of 600 metres, The Risco Blanco is the largest of all the visible intrusions around the island. It is located on the northern erosive escarpment of the Tirajana depession and is composed of highly evolved alkaline hauyne-phonolite rock, intruded into previously emplaced Roque Nublo lavas. It is dated as 3.8 million years old and marks the end of the first period of geochemical differentiation (RN1) associated with this volcano and also the beginning of the explosive activity of this volcano. The Risco Blanco is visible today owing to the major gravitational collapses and intense erosion, which have created the Tirajana depression over the past 2.5 million years. Note to the lower left of the dome how the intruding highly viscous magma has forced the bedrock to deform upwards. An igneous intrusion is a body of molten

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Input Text: Process:
- Rock begins as magma from a volcano
- The magma cools
- Crystals form and the magma become igneous rocks
- The igneous rocks break down into sediment
- Become sedimentary rocks
- If subjected to heat and/or pressure from plate-tectonic activity the sedimentary rocks become metamorphic rock
- The metamorphic rocks melt
- Become magma again.

Question:
suppose more magma cools happens, how will it affect more magma become igneous rocks.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: These are called intrusive igneous rocks because the magma has intruded into pre-exiting rock layers. Types of intrusive igneous rocks are granite and basalt .
Oct 12, 2018 ... Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, rhyolite, ... Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools inside the Earth.
... Rock Property Tests | | Types of Igneous Rocks | ... Intrusive vs. Extrusive. Igneous rocks can be classified into two main categories: intrusive and extrusive.

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
The rock cycle explains how the different types of rock form.
The three types of rock at Earth’s mantle melt into magma.
Magma that cools and hardens underground forms intrusive igneous rock.
Weathering breaks the rock into sediment. Erosion causes the sediment to move to other locations.
Pressure squeezes the sediment together, forming sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure change igneous and sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: “That is not granite.” I said firmly, brimming with 24-year old certitude. The salesperson gave me a look over his glasses, annoyed. In his hands was a sample of Black Pearl.
The salesperson softened and we had a lively conversation about stones from Norway, upstate New York, and other localities. While our approaches to stone came from different directions, we shared an absolute love for them.
Scenes like this probably unfold every time a geologist walks into a stone showroom.
To a geologist, granite is one specific type of stone. It’s a light colored, coarse-grained igneous rock. Thus, “black granite,” to a geologist, is an oxymoron akin to a “vegetarian steak.” There simply is no such thing.
But neither side needs to be right or wrong on this. Naming conventions for stones vary across different industries. Those who work in mining, gemstones, commercial stones, and geology all have their own language. And that’s okay. Everyone should use the names that make the most sense for their purposes. The stone industry needn’t start labeling slabs as granodiorite or monzonite just to make geologists happy.
In the natural stone industry, “granite” often means any hard stone that is not marble. Different dealers use the term granite slightly differently. For example, quartzite and sandstone are sometimes classified as granite. Ideally, the names of stone reflect what they actually are. The more precise the definition, the clearer it is for everyone: consumers, salespeople, architects, designers, and fabricators. That said, stones with the same traits can be lumped together for simplicity’s sake.
Perhaps the most useful definition

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: Granite rock is very common.
It is the most common intrusive rock on the Earth.
It is an intrusive igneous rock, which means it is formed under the Earth's surface, in plutons and other igneous intrusions, when magma cools.
Because magma cools relatively slowly there, granite is not the finest grained, its grains are medium size.
It has an interlocking texture, i. e. its grains are intelocked like in a puzzle.
It is always closely associated with mountain building and it is often seen in large batholiths, which have been uplifted and uncovered by erosion.
We see granite everywhere, and its texture is so typical it seems really easy to identify.
But when we talk about granite, we mean what geologists actually call granitoids - a group of granite-related rocks.
The actual granite needs laboratory methods to be idenitified.
The different types of granite include, but are not limited to white, pink, graphic, porphyritic, hornblende, orbicular and rapakivi granite, porphyritic, white and pink microgranite, tonalite, granodiorite and more.
It is a felsic rock, which contains about 70% silica.
Granite's main minerals are quartz, feldspar and mica, however with so many different variations, the whole mineral composition of course varies.
If the magma with the same composition forms an extrusive igneous rock, it will be rhyolite.
Granite is widely used in buildings, kitchen countertops and tombstones. Some of the famous occurences are Devils Marbles in Australia, and El Capitan in Yosemity and Mount Rushmore in the northern US.

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand. crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous,instrusive igneous rocks which is crushed in sand.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand heavy Contact Supplier can rock be crushed into sand .
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Igneous rock Wikipedia. Igneous rock (derived from the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes.
Possibly El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in California. Unbroken pieces of batholithic intrusive igneous rock probably exist underground which are larger.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand an intrusive igneous rock which is, Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive and igneous rock Granite, igneous rocks are classified into .
An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sa. Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock . An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sand Mining. Igneous rock: Geology and mineral planning Get More Info.
Aggregate rock crushed intrusive rock victory an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Intrusive igneous rocks are created when magma pushes up into the Earth's crust and cools there.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an Read More Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive. More.

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Retrieved Text: Divergent plate boundaries, caused by the shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates, create igneous rocks as the plates move. The rocks are formed by cooling magma, and their specific type depends on the minerals available in the area.
DIvergent plate boundaries are areas in the Earth's crust where two of the tectonic plates are moving away from each other. This motion opens deep cracks in the crust, allowing magma to seep through and rise to the surface. This magma leakage creates types of rock that are common at divergent boundaries, but relatively rare elsewhere.
The main type of rock found at divergent plate boundaries is igneous. These rocks are formed when magma cools and becomes solid, either above or below ground. They are rich in elements including silicon, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium and iron, and make up about 95 percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust. More than 700 types of igneous rock have been identified.
Most rocks formed at divergent boundaries are categorized as malefic igneous rocks, which are dark-colored due to their high magnesium and iron content. This category includes basalt, gabbro and peridotites, which are often found at these boundaries.
Divergent plate boundaries are usually found at mid-ocean ridges, such as those in the Gulf of California and in the mid-Atlantic Ridge. There is also a divergent boundary in the East African rift zone and one in the Dead Sea rift valley, on land.
Graniteland.com: What is Igneous Rock?
From 2006 through 2009, Rebecca Jernigan wrote and edited articles for Laurin Publishing, where she was published in

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Turning a challenge

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: Recalling igneous rocks, the specific rock that forms from a given magma depends on the components of the magma, the temperature at which the magma cools, how quickly the magma cools and also the pressure at which the rock forms. As materials crystallize, the atoms form a structure that is most stable at the temperature and pressure of the environment.
The type of metamorphic rock that can form depends on the rock that is being metamorphosed as well as the amount of pressure and heat to which the rock is exposed. Since varied temperature and pressures will produce different minerals, the exact type of metamorphic rock produced depends on the grade (intensity) of metamorphism. The grade of metamorphism can most often be determined by the minerals present within the metamorphic rock and the type of rock formed.
Some of the more common metamorphic minerals include quartz, feldspar, biotite, muscovite, chlorite, garnet, tourmaline, calcite, and amphibole. The rock that has undergone change is called the parent rock. Parent rocks can be any of the three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, or even metamorphic rocks which can be metamorphosed again.
Metamorphism often occurs on two scales: contact and regional. Contact metamorphism occurs relatively locally, in areas adjacent to igneous intrusions or in areas that are in contact with hot water known as hydrothermal fluids.
Typically this kind of metamorphism is caused by moderate pressure and extreme heat that may last for a period of days to thousands of years. In cases of contact metamorphism, the most extreme metamorphism occurs at the contact

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth’s mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth’s crust. The word “igneous” is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning “fire”.
Granite is a common and widely-occurring group of intrusive felsic igneous rocks that form at great depths and pressures under continents. Granite consists of orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars, quartz, hornblende, biotite, muscovite and minor accessory minerals such as magnetite, garnet, zircon and apatite.
Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. Limestone makes up approximately 10 percent of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.
Slate is a fine-grained homogeneous sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash which has been metamorphosed (foliated) in layers (bedded deposits). Slate can be made into roofing shingles (‘roofing slates’ in the UK) because it has two lines of breakability: cleavage and grain. This makes it possible to split slate into thin sheets.
Because of its hardness (about 7 on Mohs’ scale of mineral hardness), crushed quartzite is often used as railway ballast.
Travertine is a white concretionary form of calcium carbonate that is usually hard and semicrystalline. It is deposited from the water of

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: The worksheets found on this page help students learn how to identify rocks and minerals. We also look at the rock cycle.
We often forget the importance of rocks and minerals in our daily lives. Rocks form in nature and they are created three different ways. Igneous rock is formed when the Earth’s molten layers (magma) cools and forms a hard rock. Sedimentary rock takes time to form. As the layers of the Earth settle and form sediment, the rock layer forms. Metamorphic rock starts out as one of the other two and undergoes a great deal of heat and pressure. Whenever tectonic plates collide, you will find a bunch of metamorphic rock in its path.
You will find worksheets that teach you how to create crystals, classify rocks, label soil layers, and identify the rock cycle.
Crystals are beautiful and people have long been fascinated by their wide variety of shapes. In this exercise, you will make your own crystal shapes.
One of the most important properties used to identify and classify a mineral is its hardness. The Mohs hardness scale measures a mineral's hardness using a simple scratch test to see what the mineral can scratch and be scratched by.
Minerals can be identified by carefully observing their physical characteristics.
There are three main types of rocks; igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Use these three terms to answer the questions on this page.
Describes brightness of the light reflected from a mineral's surface.
Rocks can change from one type of rock into another due to heat, pressure, and weathering.
Soil and

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Input Text: Process:
- You place aluminum cans and other products into recycling bins
- Your town or a private company collect and transport the aluminum to a recycling facility
- The aluminum is sorted and cleaned at the central recycling facility
- The aluminum is melted down to remove coatings and inks
- The melted aluminum is formed into large formations called ingots
- The ingots are transported to another facility and rolled out to make them easier to manipulate
- The ingots can now be turned into new aluminum products.

Question:
suppose less aluminum cans put into recycle bins happens, how will it affect LESS aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: HIX Corporation is as concerned about our environment and use of energy as any company. We have taken initiatives within our company to investigate all of our manufactured products and determine where we can reduce, recycle, and replace elements to our products (and our production of these products) that might be considered unnecessary energy consumers.
At HIX, we’ve always practice the art of recycling. All of our steel cuttings and scrap are recycled along with all of our aluminum. We re-melt aluminum solid and we sell cuttings that hit the floor to reclaimers. Bins are left for our employees to recycle their waste aluminum cans and scraped paper products that can be recycled.
The environment is every industrial manufacturer’s responsibility. The more we take from our environment, the more we need to put back into recovery. As a company we will continue to look for new ways to use less energy, and reuse and recycle materials that we use in our products. We will also continue to engineer and design our products to use less electrical and gas utilities to help reduce your overall carbon footprint and money expensed towards energy.

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: PITTSBURGH--Alcoa (NYSE: AA) will be at Super Bowl XLVI this Sunday in Indianapolis, Ind., in more ways than one. The award-winning Lucas Oil Stadium, host site of the Super Bowl football game, features several products made by Alcoa’s Kawneer architectural aluminum products business. Alcoa Foundation is also contributing to the big game by helping the City of Indianapolis “go-green” by encouraging football fans to recycle their aluminum beverage cans.
Every visitor—including the lucky 67,000 fans with Super Bowl tickets—will pass through Kawneer’s 500 Tuffline® brand entrances as they go into the stadium. The Kawneer brand of frames, doors and hardware is designed to withstand high-traffic areas. In addition, more than 225,000 square feet of Kawneer’s curtain wall, which uses glass extensively, provides spectators with a magnificent view of the Indianapolis skyline from their seats.
Kawneer’s mark on Lucas Oil Stadium continues on the interior, where even more entrances and curtain wall systems are featured, as well as Kawneer sliding doors. These recyclable aluminum architectural products were produced at Alcoa plants in Springdale, Arkansas; Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania; and Visalia, California.
While Kawneer products have helped with the design of the stadium, Alcoa Foundation is making sure fans have a place to recycle their aluminum beverage cans. Through an Alcoa Foundation grant, the Indiana Recycling Coalition has been working closely with the 2012 Super Bowl Environmental Programs Committee to ”keep score” on recycling. In addition, the investment has enabled the coalition to purchase recycling bins and place them throughout the stadium and other public venues, making it easy for people to dispose

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Retrieved Text: LUKE AIR FORCE BASE, Ariz. -- Luke Airmen can now turn in aluminum cans for instant cash.
By collecting aluminum cans, Airmen can make money for personal use and base units can earn money for shop use. "Cash for Cans" is located in the parking lot on the west side of the library and is available for use 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Collection receptacles for shop use are available at the Hazardous Material Management Office.
Paper retrievers are also a great way to make money. The Abitibi-brand bins are the yellow and green bins located in several locations on base. Unlike the solid green recycling dumpsters which accept paper, plastic, and aluminum, these bins are strictly for paper.
By using the Abitibi paper retrievers money is given back to the Luke community. Prior to the Abitibi bins, Luke was paying to have the paper, plastic and aluminum separated.
"Instead of paying to recycle, we're getting paid to recycle," says Teresa Wesley, 56th Civil Engineer Squadron hazardous material manager. "For every ton of paper recycled, the Luke community receives $20, which is used to fund quality of life programs, such as a Mercury filtration system, replacing the Gila Bend underground storage tanks, and helping valley school teachers with educational materials and curriculums used to promote recycling among grade school children."
Not only does recycling one ton of paper give money back to Luke, it also saves 17 trees, two barrels of crude oil (which is enough to run the average car for 1,260 miles), 4,100 kilowatts of energy

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Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: The main reason we can’t accept frozen food containers in our program is they are have more types of plastic coatings than the shelf stable and refrigerated cartons. Cartons are coated with a layer of Polyethylene. Frozen food containers can have various types of coatings and because of the variation they can cause problems when trying to separate the fiber (paper) layer from the coating layers. Paper mills can’t separate out these embedded plastic layers from the paper fiber, resulting in problems when they try to pulp the fiber into new paper.
All Burlington County residents, including residents of apartments and condominiums, are required to recycle cardboard, paper, food and beverage cans, glass bottles and jars, and plastic bottles # 1 and # 2 type only.
Apartment Landlords and Condominium Complex Associations are required by municipal ordinance, to provide recycling containers in convenient areas for their residents. Recycling areas and containers must be clearly labeled and residents routinely advised of recycling requirements. The County Recycling Office does provide recycling literature to those Complexes that are serviced by the Occupational Training Center, via the Burlington County Regional Recycling Program. If a Complex contracts privately for recycling services, their recycling service company should provide them guidance on what materials are accepted and how they should be prepared for recycling.
All owners, lessees, or occupants of public and private businesses, commercial and/or industrial establishments are required by local municipal ordinance to recycle paper, corrugated cardboard, bottles and cans. Businesses are required to contract privately for recycling services.
Owners, lessees, and occupants of all

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Retrieved Text: If you are a recycler in that case there are bin options that help you to do this more easily. Inside the same space that you could have your single trash is it possible to can have 4 small bins, sometimes even in different shades to help you easily separate waste material. This can eradicate the problem of getting an overflowing main trash may as less is actually going to the dump and more is being directed elsewhere to be reused or perhaps transformed. However you decide to take care of your overflowing trash spare there is an easy option available to you. Cleaning up your trash location really opens up a home and gives it an all rounded cleaner and fresher come to feel. An added bonus of getting additional trash cans is that although you'll have done more to take out; your vacations to the outside trash may will be less frequent.
Mrspalmreader - Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen. How to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles including plastic milk cartons. Recycle crushing machines. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen youtube sep 12, 2010 how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles. Crushing machines opening 25x40. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra 12 09 2010� how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans

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Retrieved Text: Use the "airburst" tool to guide the recyclables into the proper bins before they fall into the trash.
If you throw a plastic bottle in the trash today, that bottle will sit in a landfill—or worse, float in the ocean—for thousands of years.
No one knows what Earth—or humans—will be like in thousands of years. But that plastic bottle will still be a plastic bottle!
So why do Americans use 2,500,000 plastic bottles every hour? And why do they throw most of them in the trash? They can be recycled!
Making a ton of new paper from recycled paper saves up to 17 trees and uses 50 percent less water than does creating new paper from trees.
If we recycled all our aluminum cans for one year, we could save enough energy to light Washington, D.C. for 3.7 years.
The amount of aluminum currently recycled in 1 year is enough to rebuild our entire airplane commercial fleet every 6 months.
The energy saved by recycling one glass bottle can light a 100-watt light bulb for four hours or run a computer for 30 minutes.
In 2008, Americans recycled 7 million tons of metals, eliminating the equivalent of nearly 25 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, or taking 4.5 million cars off the road for one year.
It’s important to recycle or reuse as many materials as possible. It saves energy. It saves Earth’s resources. It saves the land and the oceans from being over-run with garbage!
Re-use paper from the paper shredder to make your own new paper—that grows!

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Retrieved Text: Many call recycling the way how we will save our plants, however the other half who doesn’t believe in recycling call it a waste of time. So for those who doubt the efficiency of recycling or who simply doesn’t have an opinion on it, lets exterminate if recycling still is a worthwhile task.
It is estimated that each year recycling as well as composting prevents millions of metric tons of CO2 from being released into the atmosphere which means that recycling significantly slows down the rate at which things like the greenhouse effect develops. On top of that specifically aluminum can recycling allows us to save more than 90% of the energy that would be wasted if we would make aluminum cans anew, meaning that we are able to limit the amount of energy wasted, too. In fact it is estimated that if all aluminum cans were recycled, the saved energy could power millions of homes and save several hundred of millions of dollars each year. And these are only some of the impressive achievements of recycling of different materials.
But there is the other side of recycling, too. And that side is that many recycling companies are struggling to stay afloat. Firstly it is, because of the big recycling bins which don’t require waste sorting. Recycling companies have a much harder time to recycle materials that aren’t sorted by type, since it is much more expensive to have to separate and only then recycle the waste, than it would if they could recycle the waste right away.

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Retrieved Text: Learn Liberty | Recycle Smarter Than A Third Grader! Recycle Smarter Than A Third Grader!
Reduce! Reuse! Recycle! All right? Maybe — maybe not, says scholar Daniel K. Benjamin. Making an unused tissue out of a used one wastes resources and hardly benefits the environment. Melting and casting aluminum cans, though, both saves resources and benefits the environment. But you don’t need to exhort the aluminum company to save those resources: saving scraps is in its own interest. So why does it take a lesson from your third-grade teacher to get you to recycle household waste?
"Can One Person Save an Endangered Species? See for Yourself"
"Save Our Parks! How to Keep National Parks Open During a Government Shutdown"
1. Recycling Myths Revisited (book) The myths about recycling are abound, says Daniel K. Benjamin. The truths? Landfills aren’t running out of space, packaging more conserves more resources, and more.
2. The Economics of Waste Management (podcast) Benjamin discusses the informal business of recycling in the developing world and the advantages of landfills with radio host John Batchelor.
3. The informal recycling sector in developing countries (article) The occupation of waste picking conserves resources and reduces poverty in the developing world, argues Martin Medina.
4. Recycling Myths: PM Debunks 5 Half Truths about Recycling (article) Popular Mechanics purports to debunk five half-myths. While most plastic in recycling bins does currently end up in the trash, for example, this trend is changing due to emerging technologies.
Daniel K. Benjamin: I’ve got a Kleenex in my hand — which is now a used Kleenex — and I’ve

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Retrieved Text: Every time people throw away an item it takes energy to make it again. Many of these items could take centuries to break down, harming the earth.
We can decrease the amount of waste we produce.
Reduce means cutting back on the amount of trash we make by buying less of the items we don't really need.
Using silverware instead of plastic ones.
Buying used clothes and goods.
Saving energy by drying clothes outside, turning of the lights after leaving a room, etc.
Reuse means finding a new way to use old items so that we don't have to throw it away.
Old T-shirts can make the best cleaning rags for wood and leather furniture.
Using jars to store beverages, leftover food or used as a vase.
Trading or selling used DVDs.
You can earn money for recycling soda cans and plastic bottles.
Blue jeans can be recycled into home insulation.
Rubber tires can be recycled into flooring.
Recycle means using trash to remake new goods that can be sold again. Communities have a variety of recycling programs, such as curbside pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, and buy-back centers that pay you for valuable items.
New York City alone throws out enough garbage each day to fill the Empire State Building.
It takes 90% less energy to recycle an aluminum can than to make a new one.
In the United States we cut down 4 billion trees a year to make paper products, such as newspapers, packaging, junk mail, toilet paper, boxes, among other things. When the trees are cut down, they are turned into wood chips, which are then mixed with

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Retrieved Text: Recycle aluminum cans through this Zero Waste Box.
TerraCycle has created a zero waste solution for aluminum cans. Use this box to recycle empty aluminum cans.
The collected metal waste is melted so and recycled to be used for new metal applications.
Aluminum cans such as soda, soup, tuna and vegetable cans with tabs and tops included.
include unwanted glass containers, plastic bottles, straws, or can openers.

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Retrieved Text: It is important to teach our children about their environment and how to take care of it. It is never too early to start being conscious about our natural resources and the world we live in. Therefore we created this helpful infographic for children to inform them about recycling, and how they can help their environment and community. In the following article, beside the basic information about recycling, we provide additional tips and ideas on how to reuse things that are not needed anymore, and how to organize a green school fundraiser.
Recycling is how we take trash and transform it into new products. There are several types of recycling processes that allow some materials to be used one or more times.
Recycling is good for us and the environment because it reduces the use of new raw materials to product new products. It also reduces the energy we use, improves the quality of air and water, and fights climate change.
able cutlery lowers the energy that is needed to make new products, and it also can be reused to prevent more waste in the landfill.
Reducing is keeping our new purchases to a minimum. It is a way to reduce our use of natural resources.
Reducing consumption of physical objects is important, as is reducing our use of electricity, water and gas to make new products.
If you lined up the plastic bottles tossed away each year, they would circle our planet four times.
Energy saved from recycling a glass bottle can light a light bulb as long as four hours.
Recycling saves

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Retrieved Text: With our global population increasing as well as consumer spending, we are creating more waste. The reality is that our waste is affecting our natural environment and we are seeing these changes in things like climate change. We are producing a ton of air, water, and light pollution and unfortunately, our earth cannot continue this way. Things need to change, and it starts with us as individuals. We must do our best to reduce (our consumption), reuse (products and materials) and recycle as much as possible and wherever possible.
By recycling and being more environmentally responsible, we are helping to preserve the earth for future generations. Recycling allows us to conserve raw materials and make new products from old products and recycled materials, which would have been otherwise end up in landfills. It also reduces the need to use our earth’s resources as well as the energy required to produce new products from raw materials, and less air and water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
By recycling we conserve and preserve landfill space and reduce the chemicals and greenhouse gases released by decomposition of biodegradable waste. Greenhouse gases are extremely damaging to the environment, more than carbon dioxide, and has been a contributing factor to climate change. To read more about why it’s important to recycle, click here.
Recycling organic materials in the form of composting is an easy and simple method that can be done at home. Organic waste such as fruit and vegetable peels, egg shells, coffee grounds, and other dairy products can be converted to compost

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Retrieved Text: I’m standing over three bins at Whole Foods: COMPOST, RECYCLE, and TRASH. I pause for longer than usual this time, frustrated because the recycle bin is overflowing with what appears to be 100 percent NOT RECYCLING.
After a good 45 seconds I feel defeated and shove my tray of what remains of my lunch into compost hoping that some of it may go somewhere that it is supposed to be.
But the fact of the matter is, I have no clue when it comes to trash; what to put in which bin, how recycling works, where my trash actually goes. Why did my last neighborhood have recycling bins while my current one doesn’t? It all flows over my head, and while I have always wanted to learn how to do things properly, I have never explicitly sought it out. This year, I decided it was finally time to buckle down and learn the basics.
First, check with your city and waste removal service because there may be some discrepancies in what they accept. I live in an area that is serviced by Waste Management, which is the largest, most frequently used trash collection company, but not the only one in the US. I regularly refer to their website as a tool for any burning questions that may come up.
RECYCLE metals such as aluminum, steel, paper, cardboard, glass, and plastics. (Think aluminum cans, aluminum foil, bakeware, tin cans, corrugated cardboard, magazines, office paper, newspapers, unsolicited direct mail, phone books, clear glasses, etc.) Make sure what you are recycling is clean

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Retrieved Text: Reduce means to cut back on the amount of trash we generate.
Reuse means to find new ways to use things that otherwise would have been thrown out.
Recycle means to turn something old and useless (like plastic milk jugs) into something new and useful (like picnic benches, playground equipment and recycling bins).
Pack your lunch in a lunchbox. Paper and plastic bags create a huge amount of waste — and plastic bags take hundreds of years to decompose. Try a durable lunchbox or reusable lunch bag instead. Ditto for what goes inside your lunchbox. Instead of plastic baggies, try reusable containers.
Bring reusable bags to the grocery store. Most stores sell canvas or durable plastic shopping bags that can be used again and again. Some grocery stores even give you a little money off at the checkstand when you BYOB — bring your own bags.
Say no to bottled water. Instead of buying bottled water, use a reusable water bottle.
Watch what you buy. When you’re in the supermarket, pay attention to the packaging. Can the container be cleaned out and used for something else? And when comparing two similar products, if one has less packaging, consider making that your selection.
Clean out your closet. Maybe your size has changed. Maybe your tastes have changed. Instead of throwing away clothes you don’t want anymore, give them to someone who will want them. If you have a box of toddler clothes, for example, and your “baby” is now in grade school, give the clothes to a friend with a young child. You can

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Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Retrieved Text: Full control all in yours hands, with ReGreen App you can check the status of your conferral & rewards.
ReGreen manages the first fully automated recycling system in Italy for the collection and recycling of plastics and aluminum. 98% of the waste generated can be recycled and reused with zero impact on the ecosystem.
The ReGreen App allows you to locate the ReGreen Point closest to you to convey plastic, PET and aluminum waste. The conferment of each individual bottle, bottle or can entitles you to equivalent cash points.
Add your waste and collect ReCoin on your ReGreen card. You can spend your coins in the exercises participating in the ReGreen circuit. Check your points balance and find the businesses closest to you.
For Aluminium, Plastic and Batteries there are simple set of do's and dont's which can really switch from high polluted area to an area where the recycling process is taken in serious account. It's culture and behaviour and on this matter all the governs of every country in the world should work.
Recycle aluminium (which includes tin) in the form of beverage and food cans.
Don't Recycle contaminated foil wrap, pop tops and other metals curbside. Instead, donate to charity usable items such as flatware, can openers and tools. Call a scrap metal company for heavy loads such as house siding, and gutters.
Your Aluminium becomes beverage cans, cookware, bike parts, and tennis rackets; old steel becomes new steel and may wind up as filing cabinets, auto parts, or appliances.
Don’t Recycle spray nozzles and pumps, foam packaging (note: some packing

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Retrieved Text: Recycling! When we here this word a number of thoughts start entering our minds, but the most important question would be why should we recycle and what are the benefits of recycling? This blog tries to give you a little knowledge about recycling.
First of all let us understand what recycling is all about? Recycling is the process of collecting trash to remanufacture new products which are usable. A number of products are recycled but the most common recycling process involves: glass recycling, metal recycling and paper recycling. Reusing the products for different purposes instead of throwing them is also a type of recycling.
1. Every recycled ton of paper saves 17 trees.
2. Recycling helps in preventing natural habitants from getting destroyed.
3. When one ton of steel is recycled it conserves 2,500 pounds of iron, 1,400 pounds of coal and 120 pounds of limestone.
4. Recycling protects natural resources like wood, minerals, timber and water.
5. It takes 95% less energy to recycle aluminum than it does to make it from raw materials. Making recycled steel saves 60%, recycled newspaper 40%, recycled plastics 70%, and recycled glass 40%. These savings far outweigh the energy created as by-products of incineration and land filling.
Lucky Group is recognized as a reputable scrap metal recycling company and aluminum alloy manufacturers in Dubai. The company is involved in this business since last many years and is one of the best alloy manufacturers and metal recycling companies in Dubai.
Dubai is the fastest developing city in the world but at the same time it is also generating

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Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Retrieved Text: Apr 01, 2016· The MasterCrush is also the only we tested which can crush aluminum cans up to 32 oz in size. While many potential buyers of a won't actually need to crush cans of this size, for those who do expect to have 32 oz cans, we think the MasterCrush is the best option on the market.
17-32 of 112 results for "Tin " Ministry of Warehouse Can-ram M-92 Aluminium Crushes 10 Cans in 10 Seconds Wall Mount. by Ministry of Warehouse. $27.41 $ 27 41 Prime. FREE Shipping on eligible orders. More Buying Choices. $19.36 (67 new offers) 3.4 out of 5 stars 26.
Nov 05, 2018· Heavy Duty Aluminium Beer Tin 12oz Wall Mounted Bottle Recycling. 1 x Aluminium (screws mounting kit included). If you have a couple of odd size cans, just flip up the ram when the chute is empty and insert the can into the chamber. | eBay!
Single phase (13 Amp plug) powered, the JR RP60 tin will crush tin cans up to 5 gallon cans / drums and also deal with the humble sardine can, and by removing the can crushing specific device, the new JR RP60 tin can also be used for baling paper and cardboard waste.
Mar 18, 2010· This video gives tips on how to process "tin cans" before you put them into the recycle bin.
A Mil-tek handles all forms of cans and drums up to 30 litres, and can be installed directly inside a food preparation area. Handle Paint & Oil Cans For businesses dealing in paint or

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum can be recycled over and over and over again. By placing cans in your blue bin, they can be recycled into a new can and back on the shelf in as little as 6O days! It's important to recycle your metal cans. Recycling twenty cans uses the same amount of energy as producing one can from virgin materials.
Yes. But it needs to be clean and free of grease and food contaminants.
Do I have to rinse out my cans?
Yes, but they don't need to be sparkling clean. Just a quick rinse will do just fine to clean out those cans.

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Input Text: Process:
- Magma rises through cracks in the Earth&#x27;s crust
- The pressure causes plates to move
- Magma explodes to the surface
- The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust
- After several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
- 

Question:
suppose geologic conditions cause less magma happens, how will it affect less magma cools to form new crust.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: 3.A.3 How Does Rock Melt?
What are these conditions that lead to the formation of magma?
Why is it we sometimes get melt and sometimes don't?
in the middle of South America there are no volcanoes?
along the cascade chain in North America, or in Japan.
to produce magma, some of which comes up and erupts at volcanoes.
we'll just look at these briefly.
The first cause of melting is a phenomena called decompression melting.
gas depends on the pressure and temperature conditions that it's in.
what we've done is we've changed the temperature without changing the pressure.
temperature in the freezer it becomes solid.
we're changing the temperature but keeping the pressure the same.
It undergoes a change of state and becomes liquid.
not by changing the temperature but by changing the pressure.
it's not only very hot, but it's also under a great amount of pressure.
level on the crust, even at geologic rates on the order of a few centimeters a year.
Rock is a good insulator, so it's not going to lose it's heat very fast.
So, it can make that rise and still be very hot.
where the pressure is less.
In fact, the pressure is low enough that that block starts to melt.
takes place when we don't change the temperature but decrease the pressure.
So that's one way we have can melting take place.
with the red line, the conditions of pressure and temperature in the Earth.
And with the black line, the conditions at which rock starts to melt.
conditions that the rock takes if it goes from deeper depth up to shallower depth.
And what happens is if that rise happens fast

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Magma rises to the Earth's surface due to a combination of differences in density with other rocks in the crust and pressure. The differences in density cause it to move upward until its density is the same as the other rocks in the crust. It then builds pressure, causing it to rise to the surface.
Magma is made of molten rocks and minerals. It forms in the lower crust and upper mantle layers of the Earth due to movements in the mantle, changes in temperature or contact with water or carbon dioxide under the surface. These changes cause rocks in the crust to melt, forming magma.
Sometimes, magma collects in magma chambers, and sometimes, it simply rises until its density is the same as the other rocks around it. However, once it has risen, it comes into contact with gases, forming bubbles. In some cases, the magma decompresses too quickly and the bubbles build up and create pressure. This pressure causes the surrounding rock to fracture, letting the magma rise to the surface.
Magma that is created through exposure to water can rise under different conditions. Water causes rock to melt at lower temperatures, so less pressure is involved. However, water usually enters the lower crust through subduction zones in the ocean floor, which also allow the magma to escape.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: In November 2017, the world’s eyes were focused on the tourist island of Bali, Indonesia, as Agung erupted for the first time since 1963 [Gertisser et al., 2018] (Figure 1). Locals refer to Gunung Agung, the Bahasa Indonesian term for “great mountain,” as Bali’s “great volcano.” This latest Balinese eruption and the ensuing ashfall required some 150,000 people to evacuate the area and caused airline flight disruptions and widespread anxiety.
Now that Agung has shown signs of reawakening, it is imperative that scientists understand its inner workings.
However, this latest eruption was tame compared to the climactic 1963 crisis, in which fast-flowing, glowing hot debris avalanches killed at least 1,100 people. Sulfur-rich gas emitted to the stratosphere during the 1963 event also caused global temperatures to dip by 0.1°C to 0.4°C [Self and Rampino, 2012].
Now that Agung has shown signs of reawakening, it is imperative that scientists understand its inner workings (Figure 1). Our international research team has taken on this challenge. We collected evidence from chemical analysis of volcanic crystals, which now enables us to reconstruct the magma storage network beneath Agung [Geiger et al., 2018].
We found magma storage areas at both mantle (~20 kilometers (km)) and shallow crustal (~5 km) depths beneath Agung. This type of multilevel plumbing system may be typical of Indonesian volcanoes and could cause magma in shallow reservoirs to become enriched in silica and volatile compounds containing sulfur or hydrogen, thus promoting the frequent explosive eruptions observed in the region.
A research team from Sweden, the United States, and Italy collected rock samples

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: It was once thought that granitic magma was so viscous that it would take hundred of millions of years for granitic rocks to form. However, recent research shows that granitic magmas are orders of magnitude less viscous than previously believed. Furthermore, the physical environment in which silica-rich magmas are segregated, transported and emplaced reveals that granitic magmatism is a rapid, dynamic process. These new findings are entirely consistent with the 6,000-year Earth recorded in Scripture. Granitic magmas may have been generated in the Earth in the 1,600-year period between Creation and the Flood, and emplaced and partly cooled during the Flood. Alternatively, it is possible that the dynamic tectonism associated with the Flood may be adequate to explain granites entirely within the Flood’s one-year timeframe, but this needs further investigation.
For more than a hundred years, the generation and cooling of plutonic rocks has been conventionally believed to take millions of years. The entire process of granite formation consists of several steps. To begin with, heat must be injected into the parent rock material (protolith) in order for partial melting to occur. This molten fraction (granitic magma) has to separate and be extracted from the remaining protolith matrix (residuum). The melt must then be transported through the multi-kilometre-thick crust before it pools within a section of crust. Finally, this intruded mass of granitic magma must be allowed to cool and crystallize.
The last two processes, transport through the crust and cooling, have already been shown to occur within a timescale of a few thousand years at most.1 In

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Retrieved Text: Although the phrase "melted rock" is used, technically the rock doesn’t melt at all. Instead the particles that form the rock change, causing crystals. Rocks that have melted are called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are known as magma when they are under Earth's surface, and lava when a volcano expels them.
Heat is the most important factor affecting the melting point of rock. High temperatures cause the ions in the rock to move quickly, which results in a deformation of the rock. Rock melts when subjected to temperatures between 572 degrees Fahrenheit and 1,292 degrees Fahrenheit. Different types of rock, formed by different materials, will melt at different temperatures.
A great deal of pressure is inside Earth, which causes heat. Imagine rubbing your hands together very hard; this pressure causes heat. Something like this happens -- on a much-larger scale -- under Earth's surface, which is why magma exists in Earth’s core.
The higher the water content of the rocks, the lower the melting point, meaning that they require less heat to melt. The water mixes with the rock particles and speeds up the formation of crystals.
Certain types of rock, such as basalts, must be exposed to high temperatures for a very long time before they start to melt. This reaction is also dependent on the water content of the rocks -- basalts have a low water content; therefore, they take longer to melt. Also, the less pressure the rocks are subjected to, the longer it will take for them to melt.
Harris, Linda. "What Factors Affect the Melting Temperature

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Retrieved Text: Metals and sulphur in deep magma reservoirs may float towards Earth’s surface by hitching a ride on vapour bubbles, reports a study published online this week in Nature Geoscience. The mechanism identified in the study could explain the massive transfer of nickel from magmas to the atmosphere during the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, the Permian/Triassic extinction event.
Magmas deep within Earth’s crust are often partly composed of sulphide melts that contain metals and sulphur. The metals, such as copper and gold, can accumulate in the shallow crust to form rich ore deposits, and the sulphur - when emitted during volcanic eruptions - can affect climate. However, sulphide melts are dense, so would be expected to sink to the bottom of the magma reservoir, making it unclear how the metals and sulphur migrate to shallower depths.
James Mungall and colleagues use laboratory experiments and theoretical models to analyse the behaviour of sulphide melts in magma rich with vapour bubbles. They find that small droplets of the sulphide melt can attach to the vapour bubbles and use the buoyancy of the bubbles to float upwards. This mechanism explains a possible route for the transfer of metals into the shallow crust to form ore deposits, as well as a process for the release of large amounts of sulphur into the atmosphere.

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Retrieved Text: Mountains are a great landform stretching on top of the adjacent land in a restricted region, typically as a crest. They are normally steeper compared to hills. Mountains are fashioned through tectonic energies/ volcanism. Such energies are capable of locally raising the face of the ground. Mountains wear away gradually via the acts of weather conditions, rivers, as well as glaciers.
While a small number of mountains happen to be remote summits the greater parts arise in vast mountain ranges.
There’re three key types of mountains, namely, fold, volcanic, and block.
Volcanoes come about whenever a plate’s pushed underneath an additional plate, / at any mid-ocean ridge/ hotspot. At a deepness of about 100 km, melting occurs within rock over the chunk and leads to the formation of magma that gets to the exterior. On the magma reaching the exterior, it frequently puts up a volcanic mount, like shield volcanoes/ stratovolcanos. Instances of volcanoes consist of Japan’s Mount Fuji and Philippines’s Mount Pinatubo.
A Fold mountain occurs when a couple of plates smash together, as a result of which shortening takes place down the length of thrust faults with the over thickening of the crust. Given that the less intense continental crust “glides” on the thicker mantle rocks underneath, the heaviness of all crustal matter are forced in the upward direction for forming plateaus, hills, / mountains and have got to be balanced by resilience power of a great deal greater amount forced downhill inside the mantle.
These are the cause of faults within the crust, a joint where rocks are

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Retrieved Text: A warming planet due to human-induced climate change will likely contribute to an increase in volcanic activity, according to a recent study in the journal Geology.
While a relationship between climate and volcanism might seem counter-intuitive, it turns out that pressure exerted by thick glaciers on the Earth's crust — what geologists call "surface loading" – has an impact on the flow of magma below the surface.
The correlation affects "magma flow and the voids and gaps in the Earth where magma flows to the surface as well as how much magma the crust can actually hold," the study's lead author Graeme T. Swindles, an associate professor of Earth system dynamics at the University of Leeds, wrote in an email to Scientific American.
In the study published last month, Swindles' team examined the geologic record of eruptions of Icelandic volcanoes 5,500 to 4,500 years ago – a period in Earth's history when the climate was cooler, but still not a full-blown ice age. The level of volcanic activity was discerned by looking at the record of ash that settled on the peat bogs and lakes that fell over Europe, Swindles says.
Comparing the volcanic record with glacial coverage, the team found that the number of eruptions dropped significantly as the climate cooled and ice cover increased. The eruptions that did occur also tended to be smaller in magnitude.
"There's a big change in the record in the mid-Holocene [epoch], where we see no volcanic ash in Europe and very little in Iceland," says Swindles. "This seems to overlap with a time

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Retrieved Text: Geology reports don't have to lull readers to dreamland when you explain how a natural force can explode with more power than an atomic bomb, obliterate most of an island, change the weather and hurl shock waves around the globe. These are some of the incredible effects your report can describe when you discuss volcanoes -- one of Earth's most powerful forces.
Pressure causes a multitude of physical actions to occur. Combine heat and pressure and you may create a volcano. Begin your report by explaining how magma -- hot, liquid rock below the earth -- rises because its density is less than the density of the surrounding rocks. The distance the magma moves vertically depends on factors such as the mass of the rocks it must go through and its density. Under intense pressure, dissolved gas in the magma helps propel it upward where it can make it to the surface and into the air depending on the volcano's type. Geologists call magma "lava" when it leaves a volcano via an eruption or vent.
According to the Global Volcanism Program, an extinct volcano is one people don't expect to erupt again, while an active volcano is one that has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Place these important facts into your report along with the definition of dormant: a volcano expected to erupt one day, but which hasn't in the last 10,000 years.
Not All Volcanoes Go "BOOM!"Talk about various types of volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens, a powerful stratovolcano that explodes with fury, hurling gas, rocks

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Retrieved Text: The earth materials are composed of the soil, rocks, water and the gases found in the atmosphere. The materials also possess different chemical properties. These properties make them very useful in a variety of ways. These are the resources that humans use for consumption. Minerals refer to the combination of elements that possesses a unique structure that forms an inorganic compound. A greater part of the crust of the Earth is composed of several minerals. Minerals help form rocks such as granite. Rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks also have different colors when one will be able to look closely at them. The rocks are composed of not only one kind of mineral but also different kinds of minerals. Minerals are not formed from inorganic compounds. They must occur naturally and contains the same chemical composition with the organic compound that it originates. Minerals have with them a crystalline structure. Because of this type of structure, specific atoms have the same repeated pattern.
Weathering and erosion affect the formation of rocks on earth. Weathering and erosion break down larger rocks into smaller rocks. The composition of rocks can also be changed. There are three basic forms of weathering. One type is mechanical or physical weathering wherein clasts of rocks and mineral are produced. The resulting rocks are smaller than the original ones but have the same type of composition. Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of rocks and several factors can bring about chemical weathering. These are the development of salt crystals, frost and root action.

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Retrieved Text: Download "5thscience earth science (5thscience_earth)"
4 Erosion. Critical Thinking 1. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between weathering and erosion?
Earth s Rocky Surface Earth s surface is not permanent and is constantly changing. Some changes take place very slowly over millions of years, such as crustal plates moving and creating mountains or valleys.
to change. Let s look at what happens to rocks that spend some time on the surface.
Chapter 2: Earth s Structure. The BIG Idea: Heat escaping from Earth s internal layers constantly changes the planet s surface.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition shape Earth s surface.
Think about the landforms where you live. How do you think they have changed over time? How do you think they will change in the future?
WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
Chapter 6. Table of Contents. Section 1 Volcanic Eruptions. Section 2 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions. Section 3 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.
Earth and Space Science. Semester 2 Review. Part 2. - Minerals that split easily or break apart in one direction along a flat surface.
Ride the Rock Cycle. Suggested Goals: Students will gain an understanding of how a rock can move through the different stages of the rock cycle.
The Earth System. The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth s interior.
Igneous rocks formed when hot molten material (magma) cools and hardens (crystallizes).
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions

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Retrieved Text: LAB: HOW CAN MINERALS FORM FROM WATER? Name: Many minerals form from the cooling of magma, but minerals can also form from other processes. Hydrothermal minerals are formed by concentration of hot, aqueous solutions flowing through cracks and pore spaces in crustal rocks.
2002-08-16· The solutions involve rain water and/or water derived from cooling magma bodies< Gems crystallize from solution when it encounters open spaces such as cracks. As a result, 'veins' of minerals fill preexisting cracks.
How are minerals formed from magma?
Mineral Formation Lesson Objectives. Describe how melted rock produces minerals. Describe how hot rock produces different minerals. Explain how minerals form from solutions. Introduction Minerals form under an enormous range of geologic conditions.
Minerals such as emeralds or tourmaline need unusual elements, like beryllium (for emeralds) or boron (for tourmaline) Metamorphic gems. Metamorphic rocks are rocks changed by heat, pressure, and interaction with solutions.
2013-03-07· This list details the ten most toxic and potentially deadly minerals that crystalize in the Earth’s rocks, presenting a dangerously deceptive array of stony beauty. These rocks don’t have to be thrown to hurt you.
2015-01-22· 1 Mineral Formation & Classification Mineral Formation & Classification High School Duration 2 –3 classes and Museum visit Location Module Purpose Classroom and Gem & Mineral Hall Supplies See individual lessons Standards Science 3.c; 9.a.
2018-07-04· The 'IMA database of mineral properties' (rrufffo/ima) has 173 species with 'not an IMA approved mineral' tag, some are an intermediate member of a solid solution series, others are "recently" discredited minerals.
Minerals present in the magma crystallize at different temperatures when cooling. And

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Retrieved Text: South African Journal of Geology (2010) 113 (1): 1-32.
The life of a magmatic Ni sulfide deposit can be envisaged as a series of stages: (1) birth of the magma in the source (mantle melting); (2) development of the magma (ascent into the crust); (3) fertilisation of the magma (interaction with the crust and the early development of immiscible sulfides); (4) delivery (ascent of the magma+immicible sulfides to a high level in the crust); (5) growth (concentration of the sulfides during magma emplacement); (6) nourishment (enrichment of the sulfides by further flowing magma) and (7) full maturity (cooling and crystallization of the host magma and related sulfides). In this paper the chemical and physical parameters constraining these stages are discused in theory and then with reference to three major Ni sulfide camps, Noril’sk, Voisey’s Bay and Kambalda.
Modeling of partial melting, followed by magma ascent and early fractionation indicates that unless a magma interacts with its surroundings in a manner to change its SCSS (sulfur content at sulfide saturation) or acquires additional sulfur, it will not achieve sulfide saturation until much of its contained Ni has been removed in early crystallising olivine. In most cases (e.g. Noril’sk and Voisey’s Bay), it is apparent that external sulfur has been assimilated from country rocks. If, as has been the case at Noril’sk and Voisey’s Bay, too much sulfur has been assimilated (i.e. the initial R factor is low), modeling indicates that the deposits have only achieved economic viability as a result of subsequent, high temperature magmatic upgrading of the intially

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Retrieved Text: The ‘Kimberlite Bloom’ During Pangea’s End: Caused by Mantle Cooling Or Deep Carbon Effects?
People have many uses for diamonds, ranging from engagement rings to industrial saws, and all of those uses were made possible by ancient eruptions of melted kimberlite. This carbon-rich magma forms more than 200 kilometers deep in the mantle and blasts through Earth’s continental lithosphere, including the continental crust, carrying along diamonds and other deep minerals. Nowadays, these eruptions are rare, but between 250 and 50 million years ago, Earth experienced a “kimberlite bloom,” which brought diamonds to the surface in South Africa and many other parts of the world that sit on top of ancient and thick lithosphere.
To understand the conditions that created this bloom, DCO members Sebastian Tappe, Malcolm Massuyeau (both at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa), and Katie Smart (University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa), combined and analyzed several existing geoscientific data sets to explain how these kimberlite eruptions evolved. In a new paper in Earth and Planetary Science Letters , the researchers propose that after 2 billion years ago, a cooling Earth created just the right conditions for kimberlites to become more prominent within the mantle.
Contrary to previous models, the researchers from South Africa suggest that in the last 2 billion years, carbon-bearing kimberlite melts were always present in the mantle beneath thick, old continents, but that the assembly and breakup of the supercontinents helped kimberlites drain to the surface. When Pangaea, the youngest supercontinent, began to break apart, moving tectonic plates created weak spots in the lithosphere

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Retrieved Text: David Pratt’s publication in the year 2000 enumerates multiple problems affecting the theory of plate tectonics and seafloor spreading.
The above schematic of Alaska reveals regions of rock strata that appear to have “accreted” to an original craton. Southern Alaska is composed of fragments in all shapes and sizes, each one telling its own tale. They are all “exotic terranes”, formed at different places and times. How they were transported to their present location, and why some are rotated with respect to adjoining terranes is a mystery.
Some exotic terranes arrived from regions on the other side of the world, while others are from nearby locations. They are each quite different from one another in their characteristics, representing strata from many so-called “geologic ages”. There are deposits from the Quaternary period lying in proximity to those from the Cambrian and Mesozoic periods. Those epochs represent hundreds of millions of years. If the theory of continental movement is correct, then “collisions” between landmasses took place more than a dozen times in Alaska. However, each terrane is not arranged side-by-side with its neighbor, they are intermixed with each other, as the schematic reveals.
Another puzzling aspect to the terrane lithography is that some of it is oceanic crust, while some is continental. Some terranes appear to be from volcanic islands. Others appear to be the remains of continental shelves from South America. Less than one percent of Alaska is thought to be from the “original” North American continent.
Plate tectonics represents the dominant presumption among geophysicists for Earth’s current configuration. The shapes

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Retrieved Text: The vast majority of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur near plate boundaries, but there are some exceptions. For example, the Hawaiian Islands, which are entirely of volcanic origin, have formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200 km from the nearest plate boundary. How do the Hawaiian Islands and other volcanoes that form in the interior of plates fit into the plate-tectonics picture?
In 1963, J. Tuzo Wilson, the Canadian geophysicist who discovered transform faults, came up with an ingenious idea that became known as the "hotspot" theory. Wilson noted that in certain locations around the world, such as Hawaii, volcanism has been active for very long periods of time. This could only happen, he reasoned, if relatively small, long-lasting, and exceptionally hot regions -- called hotspots -- existed below the plates that would provide localized sources of high heat energy (thermal plumes) to sustain volcanism. Specifically, Wilson hypothesized that the distinctive linear shape of the Hawaiian Island-Emperor Seamounts chain resulted from the Pacific Plate moving over a deep, stationary hotspot in the mantle, located beneath the present-day position of the Island of Hawaii. Heat from this hotspot produced a persistent source of magma by partly melting the overriding Pacific Plate. The magma, which is lighter than the surrounding solid rock, then rises through the mantle and crust to erupt onto the seafloor, forming an active seamount. Over time, countless eruptions cause the seamount to grow until it finally emerges above sea level to form an island volcano. Wilson suggested that continuing plate movement

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Retrieved Text: Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.
Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did

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Input Text: Process:
- Greenhouse gases are released into the air by human activities
- The earth changes energy from the sun into heat
- Heat rises from the ground
- Greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere prevent the heat from going into space
- The temperature of the earth increases
- The temperature continues to rise and melts the polar ice caps
- The temperature rises even faster.

Question:
suppose more greenhouse gases are released by human activity happens, how will it affect greenhouse gases trap less heat.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Reading Cafe: What is Global Warming?
A Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius, was the first to describe Global warming and greenhouse effect in 1896. Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, water vapour and methane are greenhouse gases released into the Earth’s atmosphere which help to trap heat and stop too much of it to escape into space. Without these gases, the Earth would not have been warm enough for us to live in.
The problem starts when too much of these greenhouse gases gets released into the atmosphere from human activities, which in turn causes too much heat to get trapped. One of the main causes of worry here is carbon dioxide pollution. The three main sources of Carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution in the atmosphere are: burning fossil fuel (coal and oil), cement manufacturing, and gas burning. Animals, forest fires, and other sources produce carbon dioxide naturally. But, fact remains that this natural production has been overtaken by transport, manufacturing and other such human activities. Therefore, simple equation is this: - more Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the amount of heat absorbed, and this leads to global warming.
· The earth became 0.5 degree Centigrade warmer during the 20th century and a further rise of even a couple of degrees will damage its natural balance.
· Polar ice caps will melt, sea levels will rise and many areas will be flooded.
· Changing climates will also affect plants and animals, which might not be able to adapt quickly enough to new conditions.

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Retrieved Text: Global warming refers to the increase in temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans. This is a process that happens when greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun in the earth’s atmosphere, which eventually increases the average temperature. Examples of these greenhouse gases include methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor. There is a lot of evidence that point to the fact that the global surface temperature has been increasing over the years. This phenomenon has been caused by an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, which result from natural occurrences or a number of human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels.
Evidence of global warming include documented increases in the temperature of the air and the ocean, rising sea level, and widespread melting of snow and ice as well. Some causes of global warming have been attributed to external forcing, which refers to the processes that are external to the climate system that affect the climate. Notably, climate responds to a number of external forcing, such changes in solar luminosity, radiative forcing (as a result of changes in the atmospheric composition), and variations in the earth’s orbit around the Sun. However, recent changes in global temperatures are too rapid. Orbital cycles usually vary slowly over many years and hence are too gradual to have caused the recent temperature changes.
The greenhouse effect refers to the process by which the absorption, as well as, the emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere ends up warming the earth’s lower atmosphere and surface.

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Retrieved Text: We all hear about it, all know the effects it’s having on our environment, but just what is global warming and do we really know all of the facts about it? Caused by the ‘greenhouse effect’ it is having a warming effect on the world’s average temperatures; and as the greenhouse gases accumulate, the Earth will continue to get warmer, which is what is resulting in the rapid climate change that are we are now witnessing.
The causes of global warming are due to Carbon Dioxide (CO2), which is one of the primary greenhouse gases. The increased amounts of CO2 that have been pumped into the atmosphere have been caused by the burning of fossil fuels (e.g. coal and oil) by power stations, cars and factories. They have also increased due to deforestation – as the wood dies in the forest, through things such as wood burning, the CO2 that they have taken in from the air is released back out into the atmosphere again. Equally, with fewer trees in forests, there is less CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere.
Emphasis has been placed on the energy used in homes as these are having a detrimental affect on the atmosphere. All the electricity we us to power our televisions, lights, computers and so on, is made primarily by the burning of coal. Additionally, when you drive to work in a morning you are also adding to the greenhouse affect, as cars are one of the major emitters of CO2.
What other gases contribute to the greenhouse effect?
Whilst CO2 is responsible

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Retrieved Text: Commercial: companies, science magazines, etc.
Life on Earth would be very different without the Greenhouse Effect. The Greenhouse Effect serves to keep the long term annual average temperature of the Earth approximately 32°C higher than the Earth's temperature would be without the Greenhouse Effect.
Many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as “greenhouse gases.” These gases allow sunlight, which is radiated in the visible and ultraviolet spectra, to enter the atmosphere unimpeded. When it strikes the Earth’s surface, some of the sunlight is reflected as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases tend to absorb this infrared radiation as it is reflected back towards space, trapping the heat in the atmosphere.
Radiative Equilibrium Temperature of the Earth - is the temperature that the Earth would have with no atmosphere, when infrared emission exactly balances the radiation received by the Sun.
If we assume that some of it (say 83%, like modern day Mars) is reflected, the temperature is 260oK. This is about 40o colder than the temperature today.
But, our actual temperature today is ~300°K. The atmosphere is responsible for increasing the actual temperature above the radiative equilibrium temperature. This increase is the so-called Greenhouse Effect.
Gases in the atmosphere can contribute to the greenhouse effect both directly and indirectly. Direct effects occur when the gas itself is a greenhouse gas. Indirect radiative forcing occurs when chemical transformations of the original gas produce a gas or gases that are greenhouse gases, when a gas influences the atmospheric lifetimes of other gases, and/or when a gas affects other atmospheric processes that alter the

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Retrieved Text: The Chester County Commissioners formed a task force in December 2007 to develop a plan for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the county. The Chester County Greenhouse Gas Reduction Task Force consisted of 70 volunteers from the business and creative community, clean air advocates, government, transportation, and academic institutions.
The GHGR Task Force developed recommendations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and presented to the County Commissioners during a public meeting in May of 2010.
Report in pdf format here.
Many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as “greenhouse gases.” These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely. When sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, some of it is re-radiated back towards space as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere. Many gases exhibit these “greenhouse” properties. Some of them occur in nature (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide), while others are exclusively human made (certain industrial gases).
Why Are Atmospheric Levels Increasing?
Levels of several important greenhouse gases have increased by about 25 percent since large-scale industrialization began around 150 years ago. During the past 20 years, about three-quarters of human-caused emissions came from the burning of fossil fuels.
What Effect Do Greenhouse Gases Have on Climate Change?
Assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that the Earth’s climate has warmed between 0.6 and 0.9 degrees Celsius over the past century and that human activity affecting the atmosphere is “very likely” an important driving factor.
All over America, communities are taking action to help reduce emissions. From hybrid

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Retrieved Text: The atmosphere contains a number of gases that trap some of the heat radiated from the Earth’s surface and keep the planet about 33 °C warmer than it would otherwise be. Without this ‘greenhouse effect’ the Earth would be a frozen wasteland with an average temperature of about −18 °C and life as we know it would be impossible.
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution (ca. 1750) human activity has added to the natural levels of these gases, causing an enhanced greenhouse effect. The global population has risen from less than 1 billion to 7 billion; urbanisation has gone from less than 10% to over 50%. Global energy consumption is now more than 25 times greater than it was in 1750.
Direct removal of CO2 from the atmosphere through CO2 removal (CDR), e.g. using artificial ‘trees’.
Some of the techniques to reduce atmospheric CO2 that are currently being tested are outlined below.
Post-combustion capture refers to the extraction of CO2 from the flue gases of power stations and other large facilities that involve combustion.

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Retrieved Text: Am Fam Physician. 2011 Aug 1;84(3):282-283.
See related article on global warming.
Global warming is when the Earth's average surface temperature goes up over time. Because of this, the Earth is getting warmer with each decade. Scientists have found that this is mostly caused by human activities that affect air pollution.
When people burn fossil fuels for energy (example: driving vehicles that use gasoline), it puts gases into the air. Sometimes these gases are called greenhouse gases because having too much of them in the air causes what is called the greenhouse effect.
A greenhouse is a building where plants are grown. It usually has a glass ceiling and walls for the sun to shine through. The sun's heat goes in through the glass more easily than it can get back out of it. This causes the temperature inside the greenhouse to get warmer than it is outside. Greenhouse gases cause global warming by acting like the glass of a greenhouse around the Earth's atmosphere. Adding to the problem, people also have removed a lot of the Earth's plants that would help absorb the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.
How will it affect my health?
Warmer average temperatures can increase the risk of health problems. Global warming will cause direct and indirect effects on health. The direct effects would be easier to see and may show up first (Table 1), but the indirect effects would be the most serious (Table 2).
Who is the most at risk?
About one-fifth of all greenhouse gases come from the production of food animals. Raising cows generates the most

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Retrieved Text: Climate change refers to a change in the “average weather” of an area caused by the unnatural warming of the globe. Average weather changes include all of the features that we typically associate with weather; temperature, wind patterns and precipitation. Climate change is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases as a result of anthropogenic (human) activities and can affect land, sea or air. The natural warming and cooling cycles on planet earth have been occurring for millennia. However, anthropogenic (human) sources of greenhouse gases contribute to the instability of the atmosphere causing weather patterns to be disrupted. This trend enhances the atmosphere’s ability to trap heat. In fact, the atmosphere contains 32% more carbon dioxide than it did in the mid 1800’s.
There are 6 Greenhouse Gases (GHG’s) that have been identified by the Kyoto Protocol, each of which have a carbon equivalent, or CO2e. These GHG’s are internationally recognized as the primary contributors climate change.
Greenhouse gases (GHG’s) were so named because they have the same effect on the earth that glass on the outside of a greenhouse has on its interior. GHGs allow the sun’s rays to pass through but trap in heat that sustains life on our planet. This process is known as the “greenhouse effect”. Without these gases – primarily water vapour, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide — the earth would be too cold for most creatures to survive. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) exist within the atmosphere both naturally and as a result of anthropogenic (human) processes. The primary, man-made GHGs include: Carbon dioxide,

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Retrieved Text: Some of the factors that have an affect on climate, like volcanic eruptions and changes in the amount of solar energy, are natural. Others, like the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, are caused by humans. Some of the main ones are listed below.
Climate can change if there is a change in the amount of solar energy that gets to Earth. Changes to the cycle of solar activity, called the 11-year solar cycle, can cause a small impact on climate, too small to be the cause of recent climate change. Over thousands of years, changes in the way Earth orbits the Sun can cause large changes in climate.
When volcanoes erupt they spew more than hot red lava and ash. They release tiny particles made of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere too. These particles get into the stratosphere and reflect solar radiation back out to space. This causes cooling. The cooling is temporary, lasting usually a year or two.
Greenhouse gases have a strong affect on climate. These gases trap heat through a process called the greenhouse effect. While greenhouse gases are a natural part of the atmosphere, the amount has increased over the past 150 years as fossil fuels have been burned and the amount of forests, which naturally take up the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, has shrunk.
Because the snow and ice of the cryosphere are light in color, they have a large albedo â€“ the ability to reflect most solar radiation back out to space. When snow and ice melt as Earthâ€™s climate

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Retrieved Text: These gases trap heat and cause the greenhouse effect, rising global temperatures. Human activities add to the levels of these gasses, causing more problems. The burning of solid waste, fossil fuels, and wood products are major causes. Automobiles, heat from homes and businesses, and factories are responsible for about 80% of today's carbon dioxide emissions, 25% of methane, and 20% of the nitrous oxide emissions. The increase in agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining contribute a significant share of emissions too. The gases released into the atmosphere are tracked by emission inventories. An emission inventory counts the amount of air pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. These emission inventories are used by many organizations.
The Centers for Disease Control have been involved in studying global warming's effect on human health. Global warming is a danger to a human's health. Its affect on climate can adversely affect humans. Plagues have been attributed to global warming. An increase in temperature can result in a longer life cycle for diseases or the agents spreading them. Living in a warm area makes egg production a quicker process. Global warming will lead to more precipitation, which enables infectious diseases to be more easily contracted and spread. Effects of global warming on human health might not be immediately detected.

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Retrieved Text: Human activity constantly emits greenhouse gases, which trap ever more heat in the atmosphere.
Air conditioning systems use chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that absorb infrared rays and damage the ozone layer.
Raised in great numbers, ruminants emit methane as a by-product of digestion.
To obtain the maximum yield, intensive farming uses chemical fertilizers that are responsible for various forms of air and water pollution.
Temperatures have increased by 0.5% in the last century; continued rises in temperature could result in major climate changes.
Increasingly abundant greenhouse gases reflect more and more infrared rays toward the Earth’s surface, accelerating global warming.
The combustion of wood and fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) emits carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.

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Retrieved Text: To understand what the greenhouse effect is, one must also know the contributing factors. This list of greenhouse gases includes some that may be common knowledge, but a few that may surprise you.
Carbon Dioxide makes the top five list of greenhouse gases, and this gas is released during the fossil fuel power plant processes, as well as from animals and humans breathing and other causes. Carbon Dioxide is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, with water vapor being the most prevalent.
Water vapor is on the list of greenhouse gases, even though most people would not consider this as greenhouse gas. Water vapor is produced continuously by the earth, and this vapor evaporates and rises into the atmosphere. This component makes up somewhere between one third and two thirds of all the greenhouse gases present at any given time.
Methane greenhouse gas may be one of the most damaging on the list of greenhouse gases. This gas is twenty times more damaging than carbon dioxide when it comes to contributing to global warming. Mining releases this gas that is trapped inside the earth, and so do some animals including cows when they have flatulence. There are other sources of this gas as well.
Ozone is a gas that has a double threat. Before ozone evaporates into a greenhouse gas that has an affect on global warming it stays near ground level and causes smog, air pollution, and lung problems in humans and animals. Once evaporated, ozone goes into the atmosphere and helps trap heat near the

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Retrieved Text: The most profuse greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, serve as a mantle, entrapping heat close to the earth surface and increasing the temperature.
The production of greenhouse gases is caused by both natural and human sources although it is widely accepted that climate change has been sped up as a result of human activity. From the start of the industrial revolution, human influence on our planet has has a huge impact. The plain truth is that the greatest source of greenhouse gases are from fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. The use of fossil fuels emits tons of greenhouse gases into the earth’s atmosphere. Cars, electricity produced by coal, and fuel burned by agricultural machines greatly add to the amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases have detrimental effects around the world as they contribute to climate change. Heat waves, more intense storms, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, dessert expansion, and changing weather patterns have damaging impacts on the ecosystem. Islands are disappearing and people living in coastline regions have been forced to move.
Additionally, natural greenhouse gases are contributing more to global warming and are also linked to climate changes. The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere has increased in response to the rise in global temperature, caused by the expanded water-holding ability of a warmer atmosphere. Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the rate of global warming is greater than ever before.
Finally, the impact

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Retrieved Text: ​Essential Idea: Concentrations of gases in the atmosphere affect climates experienced at the Earth’s surface.
State the sources of CO2 and water vapor in the atmosphere.
Outline the mechanism by which greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.
4.4.U2 Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact.
State the sources of methane and NO gases in the atmosphere.
4.4.U3 The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere.
State two factors that determine the warming impact of a greenhouse gas.
State two variables that determine the concentration of a gas in the atmosphere.
Compare the impact of atmospheric methane to CO2.
4.4.U4 The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat).
State that the Earth absorbs short-wave energy from the sun and re-emits longer wavelengths.
​Compare wavelengths of UV, visible and infrared radiation.
Explain the greenhouse effect, with reference to short wave radiation from the sun, long wave radiation from the Earth and the effects of ozone and greenhouse gases.
Explain why water vapor, CO2, methane and NO are greenhouse gases.
Explain why atmospheric CO2 concentration would logically impact global temperatures.
Outline the effect of global temperature on climate, specifically location and frequency of of rain and frequency of severe storms.
4.4.U7 There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures.
State the atmospheric CO2 concentration prior to the industrial revolution.
Outline the impact of the industrial revolution on atmospheric CO2 concentration.
​Describe the correlation between atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the industrial revolution and

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Retrieved Text: Climate change is caused by an increase in the earth’s temperature. Natural causes can include volcanic activity, a change in the energy from the sun and variations in the earth’s orbit around the sun.
There is little evidence of dramatic changes in any of these factors sufficient to account for the dramatic temperature increases of the past few decades, and scientists have concluded that the main cause is the increase of the gases water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. These gases trap the sun’s energy which reaches the earth’s surface, and reduce the amount reflecting back into space, thus warming the earth’s surface.
The major source of the increased gases is human activity, which has significantly increased these gases since the industrial revolution. The major causes are the burning of fossil fuels for energy generation and transport, and agricultural activities (land clearing, fertiliser use, flood irrigation and stock all produce greenhouse gases).
	7% come from agriculture – for example methane emissions from livestock and manure, and nitrous oxide emissions from chemical fertilisers. Agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
There are other elements of people's homes that contribute to climate change indirectly. Everything, from furniture to computers, from clothes to carpets, all use energy when it is produced and transported – and this causes carbon emissions to be released.
It is important, first to understand what a precious resource rainforests play in our world.

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Retrieved Text: Climate on earth has changed over time. Seven cycles of glacial advances and retreat have happened in the last 650,000 years ago with the last ice age ending about 7,000 years ago which marked the start of modern climate era and human civilization. The sun serves as earth’s primary source of energy. A balance in the atmosphere exists to ensure that the right amount of this energy is retained. Incoming sunlight is directed in different ways, some of it goes back into space through reflection by bright surfaces such as clouds and the ice. The rest is absorbed by the atmosphere and the earth’s surface (Oreskes, 2004). The absorbed energy is later re-emitted as heat, and the atmosphere, in turn, reabsorbs and re-radiates it. Some of the heat may escape back to space. A slight change in the balance, for example, an increase in the output of energy from the sun can cause significant changes. Same can be said about a change in heat emitted from the surface if all the re-emitted heat from the surface escapes to through the atmosphere to space, the earth’s average surface temperature would drop in degrees.
The climate change has been attributed to various causes. Most of the changes that took place 650,000 years ago have been attributed to the slight variations in the orbit of the earth which impact on the amount of solar energy received by the earth. From the mid-20th Century, however, the climate change has been rapid with an increase in global warming. 95% of the change

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Retrieved Text: Climate change refers to a change in the “average weather” of an area caused by the unnatural warming of the globe. Average weather changes include all of the features that we typically associate with weather; temperature, wind patterns and precipitation. Climate change is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases as a result of anthropogenic (human) activities and can affect land, sea or air. The natural warming and cooling cycles on planet earth have been occurring for millennia. However, anthropogenic (human) sources of greenhouse gases contribute to the instability of the atmosphere causing weather patterns to be disrupted. This trend enhances the atmospheres ability to trap heat. In fact, the atmosphere contains 32% more carbon dioxide than it did in the mid 1800’s.
This question is up for debate among both politicians and scientists. There is strong evidence that supports the idea that human industry and fossil fuel use has contributed significantly to the creation of emissions. There are 6 Greenhouse Gases (GHG’s) that have been identified by the Kyoto Protocol, each of which have a carbon equivalent, or CO2e. These GHG’s are internationally recognized as the primary contributors of human induced climate change.
Greenhouse gases (GHG’s) were so named because they have the same effect on the earth that glass on the outside of a greenhouse has on its interior. GHGs allow the sun’s rays to pass through but trap in heat that sustains life on our planet. This process is known as the “greenhouse effect”. Without these gases – primarily water vapour, carbon dioxide and nitrous

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Retrieved Text: A growing number of Americans believe that climate change is happening, and 59% of voters think that humans are the primary cause. As we start to see the impacts of a changing climate, the topic of climate change may be coming up more often in conversation than it has in the past. If you’re talking with someone who seems to be rethinking their skepticism about global warming, be an informed spokesperson for the environment by mentioning these quick facts about climate change and its impacts.
It’s true that the earth’s climate has changed many times over the centuries, but until a few hundred years ago, these changes were due to small variations in the earth’s orbit. These orbital shifts affected the amount of solar energy that our earth received and caused climate fluctuations. Today’s warming is far more dramatic. Researchers say that it’s more than 95% probable that this unprecedented rate of change is due to human activity, and much of this warming is caused by an increase in greenhouse gas emissions.
Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb infrared radiation (IR) from the sun and radiate that heat in all directions. Common greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and any fluorocarbons. Some of these gases are naturally produced, like water vapor, and a certain amount of greenhouse gases are necessary for our ecosystem to function. But, some of these gases are increasing rapidly because of human activity. Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere has increased by 40% since the dawn of the industrial age

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Retrieved Text: After reading 'How Big Is Your Footprint?' by Norman Bilbrough the Avengers collaborated on a Cause and Effect map and Summary.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that’s needed for life on Earth. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) are useful because they trap heat, keeping our planet warm. While our planet needs to be warm enough to allow life to exist, there is such a thing as too warm. In recent years, large amounts of greenhouse gases have been released into the atmosphere and this has upset a delicate balance.
The greenhouse effect has been linked to climate change. Currently both Texas in the USA and Bangladesh have suffered from Hurricane Harvey and extreme rainfall causing floods. These events are thought to be linked to climate change and the effect of greenhouse gas emissions.
One possible cause of greenhouse gases is deforestation. In places such as Brazil and Indonesia, thousands of hectares of rainforest are disappearing every day. As a result of the deforestation forests no longer absorb extra carbon dioxide, helping to keep our atmosphere in balance.
As a result of burning fossil fuels, such as burning coal to produce electricity and making petrol for cars from oil, the temperature of Earth has risen, which in turn will cause countries to turn to desert and crops will not be able to be produced.
Evidence suggests that cows produce half of New Zealand’s greenhouse gas emissions in the form of methane and nitrous oxide. Extra methane and nitrous oxide in

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Retrieved Text: The greenhouse effect, also known as greenhouse, is a phenomenon of global warming, consisting in the retention of a certain amount of heat emitted to the atmosphere. This is caused by the increase in the content of gases: mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), freons, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The greenhouse effect is also indirectly influenced by other gases generated during combustion, eg carbon monoxide (CO), other nitrogen oxides (NO2, NO), hydrocarbons. On the one hand, these gases pass a band of ultraviolet UV waves, on the other hand they absorb infrared radiation, thus preventing the escape of atmospheric heat into space. This process is similar to the one in a greenhouse or in a car left in the sun. The increase in CO2 and other greenhouse gases may therefore increase the Earth’s temperature to a dangerous level, which in the end may contribute to climate change. The increase in temperature can result in huge changes in the global structure and intensity of precipitation. Researchers estimate that the Earth’s surface temperature may rise by 2100 by around 1-3.5 ° C.
Greenhouse gas is a gaseous component of the atmosphere that is one of the causes of the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases prevent the emission of infrared radiation from the planet, absorbing it and returning it to the atmosphere, as a result of which the surface temperature increases. In the Earth’s atmosphere they are present both as a result of natural processes and as a result of human activity.
The impact of gas on the greenhouse effect depends on

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Retrieved Text: The US NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) has released its 2017 update of the AGGI (Annual Greenhouse Gas Index), which follows the evolution of the radiative forcing (ability of all greenhouse gases to trap heat) since the onset of the industrial revolution. The HFC impact in 2017 is now 0.98 % of the total. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, requiring an international phase-down of HFCs, which are substitutes for CFCs and other ozone-depleting gases, will ensure that radiative forcing for HFCs does not increase substantially in the future.
Radiative forcing from the sum of observed CFC changes ceased increasing in about 2000 and continued to decline through 2017. This is a response to decreased emissions related to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
While the radiative forcing of the long-lived, well-mixed greenhouse gases increased 41% from 1990 to 2017 (by ~0.90 watts m-2), CO2 has accounted for about 80% of this increase (~0.72 watts m-2). The CO2 increase is accelerating, higher than the average of the previous decade, and much higher than the two decades before that.
Figure: Global average abundances of the major greenhouse gases – CO2 (in ppm), methane and N2O (in ppb),CFC-12, CFC-11, HCFC-22 and HFC-134a (in ppt).
Figure: Radiative forcing, relative to 1750, of all the long-lived greenhouse gases. The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI), which is indexed to 1 for the year 1990, is shown on the right axis. HFCs are included in the 15 minor gases category (red band) and in 2017 were about 24% of

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Retrieved Text: AbsorptionAbsorptionjCools down8 If the amount of solar energy is less than the amount radiated, then the earth cools down. Greenhouse EffectSUNTo a certain degree, the earth acts like a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun penetrates the glass of a greenhouse and warms the air and objects within the greenhouse. The same glass slows the heat from escaping, resulting in much higher temperatures within the greenhouse than outside it.
9How different greenhouse gases are mixing into the atmosphere Earths Atmospheric GasesNitrogen (N2)Oxygen (O2)Water (H2O)Carbon Dioxide (CO2)Methane (CH4)Non-GreenhouseGases99%GreenhouseGases1%11Likewise, the earths atmospheric gases affect the ability of the earth to radiate the Suns energy back into space. Nitrogen and Oxygen make up 99% of the earths atmospheric gases and are non-greenhouse gases. Water, Carbon Dioxide, and Methane make up 1% of the earths atmosphere, but are greenhouse gases, since they cause the earth to retain heat. The U.S. emits about 6.4 billion metric tons of greenhouse gases annually, 25% of the worlds total.Carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for approximately 100 years, methane lasts about 12 years. Other greenhouse gases last even longer.As these gases continue to raise surface temperatures, they trigger the release of even greater quantities of carbon dioxide and methane that are currently trapped in frozen Arctic permafrost and tundra soils, further increasing temperatures.potentially causing runaway global warming.
12Worldwide Carbon EmissionsCarbon (109 metric tons)012345678175018001850190019502000YearLiquid fuelTotalGas fuelSolid fuel13This spike is due to the exponential increase in the use of fossil fuels over the last 150 years. Shown here are emissions of carbon from gas, solid, liquid fuels, and the

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Retrieved Text: The greenhouse effect is when the earth's heat is getting trapped inside the atmosphere causing the earth's temperature to rise. The heat from the sun is absorbed by the earths surface, then the heat that is being reflected gets trapped by the gases. This is much like a greenhouse because the heat is being absorbed then trapped inside.
The main three greenhouse gases are Methane, Carbon dioxide, and water.
These are all considered greenhouse gases because they absorbs the suns light and heat up the atmosphere.
When the infrared lights hit the gases, they bounce back down causing them to stay in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are gases that are being absorbed. When this happens, the heat gets trapped inside the atmosphere causing the temperature to rise.
This is showing the how much the earth's temperature is increasing over the years.
The earth's temperature has risen by approximately 1.53 degrees Fahrenheit since 1880.
How melting of sea ice causes warmer ocean water.
In this feedback system, the temperature rises, then the sea ice melts, after the surface Alberto decreases, lastly the ocean absorbs more heat.
This affects the atmosphere and climate because it is absorbing the heat causing it to be warmer.
This is a positive feedback cycle because it has a positive loop. When the ice melts, the water gets warmer, and so on.
3.2 percent of ice melts each decade.
This shows how much the ice has melted over time.

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Retrieved Text: The U.S. Energy Information Administration states that greenhouse gases are gases that keep heat in the earth’s atmosphere. Although greenhouse gases do occur naturally, human activity contributes a great deal to greenhouse gas emissions. Your carbon footprint — or your impact on the environment — measures the greenhouse gases that you are responsible for creating. Common activities like using electricity and driving a car emit those gases.
About three-quarters of greenhouse gas emissions that are attributed to humans come from burning fossil fuels. We burn fossil fuels — non-renewable energy sources — when we operate vehicles, heat our homes, and even use electricity, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. The Administration has also concluded that greenhouse gas emissions have been on the rise since industrialization, suggesting that humans are to blame for much of the greenhouse gas production. And science has also linked greenhouse gas production to climate change, or the increase in earth’s temperature. Because the Natural Resources Defense Council writes that global warming can cause catastrophic weather events, flooding, water shortages and disturbed ecosystems, it is important for each individual to understand his or her impact on the future and work to make that impact more positive.
Although reducing energy use is today’s latest rage, a measure of your carbon footprint will also include recycling. According to Carbon Footprint, a carbon management business, when you don’t recycle, you waste the energy that is used making and transporting new items. Recycling and reusing allows less energy to go into the process of creating new items. This

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Retrieved Text: Greenhouse gases are gases that can trap heat coming from solar radiation. They get their name from greenhouses.
A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown. That’s exactly how greenhouse gases act. Without them, our planet would be too cold, and life as we know it would not exist.

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Retrieved Text: People often think that climate and weather are the same things, but they're not!
Weather is the condition of the outdoors at a specific time and place.
For example, is it raining? Is it sunny? What is the temperature?
Climate is based on the weather conditions of large regions over a long long period of time.
Can you describe the climate in the UK?
The Earth's climate has been changing for millions of years and this always happened slowly.
As climate changes, new environments are created and animals and plants need to adapt to survive. How would you adapt to living in the North Pole?
The Earth has had 11 Ice Ages in the last 4.6 billion years!
Why is Climate change different now?
Scientists say that recently, the world's temperature has been rising much faster!
This is to do with more of a gas called 'Carbon Dioxide'. We call it CO2 for short.
This graph shows how the Earth's temperature has been rising in the past 140 years!
WHAT CONTROLS THE EARTH'S HEAT?
The atmosphere is like a blanket around the Earth.
The Sun sends heat rays through space. Some of it bounces off the atmosphere and some of it goes past to the Earth.
Heat rays are known as infrared rays!
Some of the heat rays escape from the atmosphere.
Others are absorbed into the Earth or are reflected by greenhouse gasses (like CO2) and stay trapped.
Without greenhouse gases, it would always be cold!
Remember CO2 is carbon dioxide!
How do humans affect climate change?
We burn coal, oil, and gas to heat our homes and produce electricity. This releases a lot of greenhouse

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Retrieved Text: Greenhouse Gases, or GHG’s are those unwanted gases that exist in our atmosphere and as such contribute to global climate change, either directly or indirectly by trapping the Earth’s heat and making our planet warmer. Although some of these greenhouse gases occur naturally within the atmosphere, the result of human and industrial activity on the Earth has increased their quantity altering and affecting the atmospheric balance.
We all know that the Earth’s atmosphere is slightly more warmer than we would normally expect it to be, due mainly to the effects of direct solar heating of the greenhouse effect. Normally the Earth is heated by both visible and infra-red light coming directly from the Sun. The heated surface then emits back the infra-red light. The small amounts of greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere absorbs and re-emits the infra-red radiation back to Earth in all directions, effectively trapping it within the atmosphere.
As a result the Earth naturally experiences a mild greenhouse effect keeping the temperature at the Earth surface just right, that is not too cold, and not too hot. This allows humans to live happily on the planet and just as important, for most of the water at the surface to stay in liquid form.
The two primary gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2) which we breath, but themselves do not absorb infra-red radiation or play any significant role in setting the temperature of the planet so are therefore not classed as a greenhouse gas.
But as well as Nitrogen and Oxygen, there are

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Retrieved Text: On a global scale, climate change is threatening the livability of the planet, and is therefore one of the greatest threats to our way of life, the economy, and the environment.
Climate scientists have shown the cause of climate change is primarily our burning of fossil fuels which has released enough greenhouse gases to alter the natural balance of the earth’s atmosphere and increased the amount of energy the atmosphere retains.
New OCP emphasizes Smart Growth principles which emphasizes sustainability, alternative energy sources, protection of environmentally sensitive areas, and compact and complete communities which reduces GHG emissions associated with commuting to work.
14 level two electric vehicle charging stations were installed in the last couple years (7 dual charging stations) for public, staff and fleet use.
Purchased first two EVs for fleet (both 2018 Nissan Leafs) as start of long-term plan to electrify and decarbonize the District fleet.
Introduced bi-weekly garbage collection which encourages more composting resulting in less organics in landfill, which means less landfill gas (methane) which is approximately 22-times worse than CO2 in terms of its climate change impact.
Zoning Bylaw is under review to require new residential to have 100% of residential parking to be roughed-in for EV charging, with 15% to 25% for ICI parking.
Construction of used oil collection facility at the Mission Recycling Depot so residents don’t have to drive to neighbouring municipalities to dispose of their waste oil.
Water conservation efforts include metering new homes, rebates for toilets and washers. The District is also looking at meters in all homes.
Encouraging developments with local jobs which will

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Retrieved Text: At Co-operative Energy, we think it’s important you see the bigger picture when it comes to climate change. We care about the world we live in, and we think you should too, which is why we’re always looking for new ways to help our customers live more sustainably. One way to do this is to offer insight into environmental change, and the practices that are having a negative effect on the planet.
Global warming is a growing environmental issue, which has recently become a big priority. By signing the Paris Agreement, almost 200 nations have vowed to reduce rising global temperatures - the cause of increasing sea levels and climates. But what has triggered global warming? To help you further understand climate change, we’re highlighting one if its key components - the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is the natural process of gases from the Earth’s atmosphere trapping the Sun’s energy.
Step-by-step: How does the greenhouse effect occur?
1. Electromagnetic radiation from the Sun passes through the Earth’s atmosphere.
2. The Earth absorbs a proportion of the Sun’s energy, which warms up the planet, while some is radiated back into space as Infra-Red (IR) energy.
3. As it makes it way out of the atmosphere, a proportion of the IR energy is trapped by a layer of greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated back into the Earth’s atmosphere.
4. The trapped IR atmosphere then warms up the atmosphere.
The layer of greenhouse gases surrounding Earth includes water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, plus more – all of which contribute to the warming of the

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Retrieved Text: However, coal mining is a significant source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Extracting coal through underground and surface mining releases methane (CH 4 ) stored in the coal bed and the surrounding geology.
ACARP is a collaborative program that utilises the experience and technical strength of both the coal mining industry and research institutions in solving technical problems and addressing issues of significance to the industry's long term future.
Nov 28, 2017· Switching from coal to natural gas for cooking is another way to reduce the production of greenhouse gases in our homes. Using solar panels for our energy requirements is an effective way to reduce greenhouse gases in our homes.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Iowa Code section 455B.131, as amended by Senate File 485 in 2007, requires the Iowa DNR to include estimates of emissions of some greenhouse gases in its construction permitting and emissions inventory programs.
Global climate change, caused by the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) that trap solar heat in the Earth's atmosphere, has major impacts on both people and the environment. Nearly 40% of GHG emissions are attributed to the design, construction, and operation of buildings.
This statistic shows the greenhouse gas emissions of mining company AngloAmerican from 2009 to 2017. In 2010, the company emitted approximately 20 million metric tons of greenhouse gases.
May 08, 2013· Coal mining accounts for about 10 percent of US releases of methane (CH 4), a potent global warming gas. It is the fourth largest source of methane, following landfills, natural gas systems, and enteric fermentation.
Caval Ridge Coal Mine Project Environmental Impact

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======= Instance Index 29750 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Blood sugar levels increase after a meal
- Cells in the pancreas release insulin
- Insulin causes the body to absorb glucose from the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal
- Blood sugar is too low
- The amount of insulin goes down
- Cells in the pancreas release glucagon
- The liver turns stored glycogen into glucose
- The liver releases the glucose into the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal.

Question:
suppose pancreas releases more insulin happens, how will it affect pancreas releases more glucagon.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Pancreas – an elongated gland with both endocrine and exocrine functions that lies beneath the stomach on the upper left side of the abdomen, beneath the lower ribs. Both realms of function play roles in digestion, though the endocrine functions of the pancreas are also significant for maintaining the body’s glucose-insulin balance and for regulating cellular use of glucose.
The main body of the pancreas is a loose collection of secretory cells, looking somewhat like a mass of fish eggs, that produce digestive enzymes and juices. These cells organize in lobular formations, called acini, around ducts that channel their secretions to the main pancreatic duct coursing through the center of the pancreas (hence their designation as exocrine). The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct from the gallbladder just before the duodenum (the first segment of the small intestine), adding its juices to the bile that then flows into the duodenum.
Interspersed among the secretory cells are about a million clusters of specialized cells that produce the hormones insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. called the islets of langerhans, these clusters are the endocrine glands of the pancreas. An extensive blood supply infiltrates the islets, which secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream (hence their designation as endocrine). These hormones regulate numerous functions of metabolism throughout the body, including many that take place in the gastrointestinal system.
The primary hormones the pancreas produces are insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Insulin is key to carbohydrate and lipid (fatty acid) metabolism, in the gastrointestinal tract as well as at the cellular level throughout the

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Retrieved Text: Beneath your ribs, you’ll find the pancreas, an organ that works a lot like a personal health coach. This organ controls your sugar levels that releases the nutrients from your food to help keep you in the best possible shape.
The pancreas controls your sugar levels and produces a special juice that releases the nutrients from your food to help keep you in the best possible shape. The pancreas sits just behind your stomach. It breaks down the food you eat by making digestive enzymes.
The pancreas also controls the amount of sugar in your blood. Having too much or too little sugar can be life threatening, so the pancreas must stay on constant alert. After a big meal, the blood often becomes flushed with sugar. If blood sugar is low, the pancreas releases a hormone called glucagon that tells the body’s cells and liver to release stored sugars back into the bloodstream. The interplay between insulin and glucagon keeps our sugar levels balanced.
But a faulty pancreas can no longer coach us like this. If it’s weakened by disease, the pancreas has difficulty – or cannot – produce insulin. That can trigger a condition known as diabetes. Without regular insulin release, sugar steadily builds up in the blood, eventually hardening the blood vessels and causing heart attacks, kidney failure, and strokes. The same lack of insulin deprives cells of the energy-rich sugar they need to grow and function. People with diabetes also tend to have higher levels of glucagon, which makes even more sugar circulate. Without this internal

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Retrieved Text: From understanding what insulin is, to learning about the four types of insulin, knowing about this hormone your body produces naturally can help. So, here you'll find the basics about insulin and get answers to questions you may have.
Insulin is a hormone the pancreas makes to help your body use blood sugar for energy—or store it for later use.
What role does insulin play in your body?
The cells in your body need sugar for energy. But sugar cannot go into most of your cells directly, so that's where insulin comes in. Insulin helps keep your blood sugar levels from getting too high, which can be dangerous.
When we eat, most of our food breaks down into its basic components. One of them is glucose (sugar), which runs into our bloodstream. Turning blood sugar into energy that our cells can use requires insulin.
For many people, just the right amount of insulin is released from the pancreas to help the body use or store the sugar it gets from food.
For people with type 2 diabetes, the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body can’t properly use the insulin it produces to keep their blood sugar controlled.
Insulin resistance is the term sometimes used when the body can't correctly use the insulin it produces.
For people with type 1 diabetes, the body does not produce insulin at all. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in children and young adults and is managed with insulin therapy and other treatments.
4 kinds of insulin do?
The body continuously releases some insulin all day and extra

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Retrieved Text: She Can’t Eat That…She Has Diabetes!
Ever heard this said about your child? I have. Usually it’s coming from someone who is stuffing themself with the same item my daughter may be enjoying at the time. Things like chips, ice cream, cake, pie, candy. But the fact of the matter is, she CAN eat it. The difference is that whatever she eats, she has to get insulin from an outside source to use the food for fuel, unlike someone without diabetes whose body does all that fancy calculating and insulin administration all on it’s own.
Of course, for someone with a functioning pancreas the process is much more precise and streamlined. They probably have no clue what’s going on inside their own body. I read somewhere recently that a normally functioning pancreas starts releasing insulin as soon as you see or smell food in anticipation of you eating food. And there’s a built in safety mechanism if insulin is released, but then you don’t eat so your blood sugar starts going low – your pancreas releases glucagon to signal your liver to release some extra glucose into your blood stream to counteract the insulin.
For someone with type 1 diabetes their insulin comes from a syringe, insulin pen, or insulin pump. As a parent, I will never be as efficient or as exact at dosing Angelina’s insulin as her own pancreas was. I can give her insulin, but it won’t always be at the right time, or the right dose, and even rarely both. But I can give it

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Retrieved Text: Have you ever gotten ready for work and found the only thing in your cupboard was a box of Fruit Loops or Cocoa Puffs? So, you ate a bowl full and a few hours later got that early morning sugar crash. It’s a bigger deal than you think because for anyone trying to lose fat/weight, sugar is the enemy of weight loss.
The primary source of weight gain, other than lack of exercise, is sugar intake at the wrong time, and in too large a quantity. Yes, that cola, ice cream, or large plate of pasta you may be eating right now. Not all sugar is bad, but it should be eaten in moderation. Let’s explain it in lay terms. Because of the effects of sugar and other forms of carbohydrates on blood-sugar levels, we shall refer to insulin for illustration of this concept, which is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreas, as the insulin level. This is because of the general appearance of the blood sugar level as it rises and falls in response to sugar intake and insulin release has a cyclic appearance.
The key is to be able to manipulate both insulin and glucagon to help you lose fat. I know many of you lean, mean, workout machine junkies may care less about body-fat reduction. While fitness junkies are already there, for a great many this is a big problem.
The segment of the population that have a fat or weight loss problem far outnumber the fitness junkies among us. This group

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: Abstract: Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas is a large gland behind the stomach and close to the duodenum?the first part of the small intestine. The pancreas secretes digestive juices, or enzymes, into the duodenum through a tube called the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes join with bile?a liquid produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder?to digest food. The pancreas also releases the hormones insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream. These hormones help the body regulate the glucose it takes from food for energy. Normally, digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas do not become active until they reach the small intestine. But when the pancreas is inflamed, the enzymes inside it attack and damage the tissues that produce them. Pancreatitis can be acute or chronic. Either form is serious and can lead to complications. In severe cases, bleeding, infection, and permanent tissue damage may occur. 200 patients of all age group clinically diagnosed as pancreatitis and parotitis were studied during my study 100 from IPD and 100 from OPD. Serum amylase levels were measured by fully automatic clinical biochemistry analyzer (DIRUI CS-400. Pancreatitis was seen most in adults and parotitis were seen in children.

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Score: 63.07764
Retrieved Text: The pancreas is a narrow, 6-inch long gland that lies posterior and inferior to the stomach on the left side of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas extends laterally and superiorly across the abdomen from the curve of the duodenum to the spleen. The head of the pancreas, which connects to the duodenum, is the widest and most medial region of the organ. Extending laterally toward the left, the pancreas narrows slightly to form the body of the pancreas. The tail of the pancreas extends from the body as a narrow, tapered region on the left side of the abdominal cavity near the spleen.
Glandular tissue that makes up the pancreas gives it a loose, lumpy structure. The glandular tissue surrounds many small ducts that drain into the central pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct carries the digestive enzymes produced by endocrine cells to the duodenum.
The pancreas is classified as a heterocrine gland because it contains both endocrine and exocrine glandular tissue. The exocrine tissue makes up about 99% of the pancreas by weight while endocrine tissue makes up the other 1%. The exocrine tissue is arranged into many small masses known as acini. Acini are small raspberry-like clusters of exocrine cells that surround tiny ducts. The exocrine cells in the acini produce digestive enzymes that are secreted from the cells and enter the ducts. The ducts of many acini connect to form larger and larger ducts until the products of many acini run into the large pancreatic duct.
The endocrine portion of the pancreas is made of small bundles

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Rank: 7
Score: 62.68662
Retrieved Text: In which state, fed or fasted, does glucagon dominate?
What 4 processes are up regulated when insulin dominates in the fed state?
alpha, beta and D cells are all part of the endocrine/exocrine system.
True or False? Decreased plasma glucose will up regulate beta cells of the pancreas.
What pancreatic cells will upregulate the production of glucose?
What will up regulate the alpha cells of the pancreas?
What will down regulate the alpha cells of the pancreas?
Prolonged ___ leads to the production of ketones.
Which domain of the insulin receptor is in the cell?
How are the alpha and beta chains of the insulin receptor linked?
Which channels are open and which are closed during insulin secretion?
Which glucose receptors is involved in insulin secretion?
What negatively feeds back to the beta cells of the pancreas?
Which is the largest energy store in grams?
Is the brain insulin dependent or independent?
What will muscles use when glucose levels are low?
What hormones inhibit glucagon secretion?
How many amino acids is the alpha cell made of?
How many amino acids is the alpha-chain of insulin made of?
How many amino acids is the beta-chain of insulin made of?
How many peptide chains make up insulin?
Which Type of diabetes in juvenile onset?
True or False? Type 2 diabetes is insuin dependent.
True or False? Some tissues can only metabolize glucose.
What, besides glucose can muscle metabolize?
free fatty acids and ketones, right?
True or False? Carb are water soluble.
What is the problem with transporting fats?
What is required for gluconeogenesis?
True or False? The largest store is what we need the most of.
True or False? Brain is insulin dependent.
Primary store of large chain carbohydrates.
How

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Rank: 8
Score: 62.66676
Retrieved Text: A dual-hormone artificial pancreas using liquid glucagon with the potential to reduce hypoglycemia is undergoing testing in America.
The research could represent a very useful step forwards in the treatment of type 1 diabetes by helping to minimise the risk of severe hypoglycemia.
An artificial pancreas uses continuous glucose monitoring technology to monitor blood sugar levels and insulin pump technology together with computation to adjust the delivery of insulin. This means the device can automatically regulate blood sugar levels and takes away some of the pressure of monitoring blood sugar and estimating insulin doses.
The dual-hormone functionality means that the device is able to release glucagon as well as insulin. Glucagon is useful as it helps to raise blood sugar if levels go too low. Until recently, glucagon was only available in a dry-powder form which is not ideal for use within insulin pump technology.
But now researchers from OHSU (Oregon Health &Science University) School of Medicine are able to use a liquid form of glucagon made by Xeris Pharmaceuticals. The liquid glucagon is stable at room temperature and is suitable for using in an insulin pump.
The study is supported by type 1 diabetes charity, JDRF, and led by Dr Jessica Castle, who is an associate professor of medicine at OHSU School of Medicine. The research will aim to find out if the dual-hormone artificial pancreas together with an exercise detection algorithm is better than a single-hormone artificial pancreas.
The single-hormone artificial pancreas provides insulin but not glucagon and has a low glucose suspend function which switches off insulin delivery if

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Rank: 9
Score: 62.315464
Retrieved Text: This is an unfunded public project for people who are highly motivated to realize the capability to control an insulin pump with blood glucose data from a continuous blood glucose sensor. It's being studies elsewhere, but this algorithm will use expert diabetes care standards of practice rather than a generic PID controller, and will use adaptive variables to learn the unique insulin delivery requirements of each user individually and apply them in daily care. It's all about building a better pancreas.
We are a very new organization. Please be patient as this project and wiki grows.
The pancreas (below the stomach and above the duodenum) releases endocrine hormones (insulin, amylin, and glucagon) into the portal vein, where it flows directly to the liver.
and glucagon, which raises the blood glucose.
Upon digestion of carbohydrates, glucose levels in the blood will begin to rise. As the blood and glucose flow into the pancreas, insulin and amylin are cosecreted by the pancreatic beta cells directly into the bloodstream in response to elevated blood glucose levels. Insulin causes blood glucose to be removed from the bloodstream and stored in the liver and muscle cells. Notice as the blood sugar goes higher, additional insulin will bring the blood sugar back down in a classic negative feedback loop. As insulin is released from the beta cells, amylin is also released into the bloodstream. Amylin slows gastric emptying, and also inhibits the release of glucagon from the pancreatic alpha cells. The effect of amylin is to spread out the blood glucose peak after eating, reducing the

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Rank: 10
Score: 59.941647
Retrieved Text: Sometimes the quantity of ketone bodies in our blood system may skyrocket beyond what is considered as normal. At this state, you are termed to be in the metabolic state of ketosis. To be in the ketogenic state simply means that your lipid energy metabolism has not undergone any alterations. At this point, your body turns to your body fat to break it down for the energy required to keep the normal functions up and running. A ketogenic diet refers to any meal that orients your body to burn fat for energy production. It comes with both pros and cons.
Burning Fats: If you consume ketogenic diet, it improves your body’s ability to exploit stored fat for energy production. You body’s ability to convert fat into fuel decreases if you consume a meal that is rich in carbohydrates. However, in the state of ketosis, your body has no option other than turning to fats for fuel.
Aids Excretion Of Ketones: When in a state of ketosis, your body is no longer in need of ketones and, therefore, has to be excreted via urine as a waste product. This implies that your urine will constitute body fat. The best thing about this is that your body no longer requires storing energy substrates for future use.
Protein Sparing Effect: Let’s assume that you ingest an adequate amount of protein and calories in your diet. When your body is in the ketosis state, it would go for ketones rather than glucose. Because your body contain high amount of fat, there won’t be

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Rank: 11
Score: 59.277058
Retrieved Text: Home Self care What is Insulin Insensitivity?
There is a lot written and heard about diabetes type 2“the modern life style disease”. Controlling of blood sugar level in body is done by a small gland named “Pancreas”; it secretes two hormones that play the role of regulator of blood sugar. Functioning of human body is dependent on optimum blood glucose level which runs all organs and regulates their secretions.
Pancreas gland is located in the lower abdomen right hand side below liver and is a leaf life structure. It secretes two hormones “Insulin & glucagon” Insulin is from beta cells and glucagon is from alpha cells. Both are responsible for the blood glucose regulation.
How blood sugar is regulated?
The body tightly regulates blood glucose level as a part of metabolic homeostasis . After digestion of the food there is a rise in the blood sugar level in this event pancreas secretes insulin hormone, which stimulates the cells in our body to use glucose, resulting a fall in glucose level. It also instructs liver to converts the excess glucose to glycogen which is stored in liver as a reserve to be used when required.
When glucose level falls below an optimal point glucagon hormone is secreted that instruct liver to convert the stored glycogen to glucose.
Consumption of high GI (Glycemic Index) foods leads to a sharp rise to blood glucose level followed by low dip in its level in a short period of time. Refined floor, bakery items, canned juices; aerated drinks are few food items with high GI. This over

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Rank: 12
Score: 59.275883
Retrieved Text: Glucagon, often called the “weight loss hormone” is a hormone produced by the pancreas. In many respects it serves as a counter-signal to insulin.
When the blood sugar begins to fall below normal, glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts. And that’s a really good thing for your physique since this unique hormone stimulates the breakdown of glycogen and body fat.
Eat fewer carbs, more healthy fat and a moderate amount of protein. While protein is beneficial for stimulating your weight loss hormone, the body can convert protein into glucose through a process called gluconeogenesis. When this happens, blood sugar will rise… and glucagon secretion will be blunted.
Learn more about hormonal weight loss, blood sugar balance and eating to create your ideal physique.

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Rank: 13
Score: 59.003773
Retrieved Text: Pancreatic cancer can cause no symptoms at first so it is difficult to diagnose. Symptoms usually appear if cancer has entered an advanced stage when the cancer cells have begun to spread. You can visit hope 4 cancer reviews to see the medicine for cancer. Symptoms of pancreatic cancer can vary, depending on the type.
Pancreatic cancer carcinoma is a cancer cell that forms in the pancreatic duct and attacks the exocrine gland. The exocrine gland is a gland that produces and releases substances to the epithelial surface through a duct.
– Abdominal pain characterized by dull pain in the upper abdomen. The pain can spread to the back. These symptoms are recurrent; can come and go, but it happens often.
– Bloated. The presence of tumors in the pancreas will cause the stomach to feel uncomfortable, easy bloating, and easily feel full. In addition, there are also other symptoms such as nausea and vomiting.
– Jaundice (jaundice). Cancer cells in the pancreas can block the flow of bile causing bile buildup in the blood. This condition changes the skin and whites of the eyes to yellow. In addition, the color of the urine becomes darker. Other symptoms of jaundice are itching and light colored feces.
– Insulinoma (excess insulin), characterized by sweating, anxiety, dizziness, and fainting due to low blood sugar.
– Glucagonoma (excess glucagon), characterized by diarrhea, excessive thirst or frequent urination, and weight loss.
– Gastrinoma (excess gastrin), characterized by abdominal pain, such as gastritis, but blood loss, and weight loss.
– Somatostatinoma (excess somatostatin), characterized by diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatty

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Rank: 14
Score: 58.803055
Retrieved Text: The pancreas is the organ positioned behind the stomach in the upper part of the abdomen. As the body's main digestive organ, the pancreas is composed of different cells that serve distinct functions. Some cells produce digestive enzymes, while others produce hormones. Food that passes through the duodenum stimulates the pancreas to produce digestive enzymes. The most important hormone the pancreas produces is insulin, which controls the amount of glucose in our bloodstream. When an insufficient amount of insulin is secreted, the body's cells are unable to take in glucose, which raises glucose levels in the bloodstream and may ultimately lead to diabetes. In addition to insulin, the pancreas produces other hormones, all of which pass into the blood.
Pancreatitis is the most common pancreatic condition. It is categorized as either acute and chronic. Acute pancreatitis causes the pancreas to suddenly become swollen and releases digestive enzymes into the bloodstream. Acute pancreatitis can cause pain, fever, shortness of breath or kidney problems. In rare cases death may result from infection, respiratory failure, bleeding or other complications.
Chronic pancreatitis is characterized by persistent abdominal pain, nausea, and intolerance of food. Chronic pancreatitis can affect the ability of the pancreas to produce digestive enzymes and hormones, which can lead to diabetes. Pancreatic cancer is the most fatal of all cancers. Most pancreatic cancer patients have minimal or no symptoms until the later, less curable stages. The symptoms that appear are usually the same as those for chronic pancreatitis.

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Rank: 15
Score: 58.712006
Retrieved Text: Some diabetics carry a chocolate bar.
This Biology quiz is called 'Glucagon' and it has been written by teachers to help you if you are studying the subject at middle school. Playing educational quizzes is a fabulous way to learn if you are in the 6th, 7th or 8th grade - aged 11 to 14.
The amount of glucose, or sugar, in the blood must be kept within certain levels. This middle school Biology quiz looks at how the body regulates blood sugar levels with hormones, and it concentrates on how glucagon is used to increase the amount of glucose in the blood.
If you measure the blood glucose level of two people who haven't eaten for several hours, it would normally be between 4 to 6 mmol/l. If the test subjects then swallow a glucose drink, measuring the level again would give a reading of higher than the top value, perhaps around 8 - 10 mmol/l. But if the level is measured again, about 30 minutes later, it would be lower, with exercise, it could even be back down into the normal range. Somehow, the body regulates its blood sugar level. It does this by using two hormones, insulin and glucagon. Glucose is required for the process of respiration so it is important to always have the right concentration in the bloodstream. The regulation of glucose involves the liver and also the pancreas.
When the level of glucose in the blood is high, it stimulates the pancreas to release the hormone insulin. Hormones are chemical messengers and insulin makes

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Rank: 16
Score: 58.69726
Retrieved Text: What is the pancreas? What is an artificial pancreas device system?
The pancreas is an organ in the body that secretes several hormones, including insulin and glucagon, as well as digestive enzymes that help break down food. Insulin helps cells in the body take up glucose (sugar) from the blood to use for energy, which lowers blood glucose levels. Glucagon causes the liver to release stored glucose, which raises blood glucose levels.
Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas produces little or none of the insulin needed to regulate blood glucose. Type 2 diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body becomes resistant to the insulin that is present. Patients with type 1 diabetes and some patients with type 2 diabetes inject insulin, and occasionally glucagon, to regulate their blood glucose, which is critical to lower their risk of long-term complications such as blindness, kidney failure and cardiovascular disease.
When managing diabetes, many patients must vigilantly test blood glucose with a glucose meter, calculate insulin doses, and administer necessary insulin doses with a needle or insulin infusion pump to lower blood glucose. Glucagon may be injected in an emergency to treat severe low blood glucose. Some patients benefit from additional monitoring with a continuous glucose monitoring system.
The FDA is collaborating with diabetes patient groups, diabetes care providers, medical device manufactures, researchers, and academic investigators to foster innovation by clarifying agency expectations for clinical studies and product approvals. These efforts have accelerated the development of the first hybrid closed loop system, the Medtronic's MiniMed 670G

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Rank: 17
Score: 58.391956
Retrieved Text: There are many ways that diabetics deal with their disease. Many take medications, others resort to finding relief through natural supplements. But there are those who seek help by way of a procedure called islet transplantation. For some, this has proven to be a very effective venture.
In order to understand the importance of an islet transplantation, you first have to understand the important role that islets play in a diabetic's insulin management.
Islets are a specialized group of five different types of insulin-producing cells located in the pancreas. Besides producing insulin, these islets also secrete it. In addition to producing insulin, these cells also produce an opposing hormone known as glucagon. The two-fold purpose of glucagon is to release fatty acids from fat tissue, but more importantly to release glucose that is stored in the liver.
The goal of this procedure is to take islets from a donor pancreas and introduce them into a diabetic's pancreas. The hope is that the new islets will take over and begin to produce a sufficient amount of insulin for the diabetic, thus eliminating the need for additional insulin to be artificially introduced into the body.
Since the islets are added from an outside source, they run the risk of being identified as foreign tissue and being attacked by the body. In order to combat this reaction, the diabetic will need to use immunosuppressants in their follow-up therapy to lower the risk of rejection.
The success of islet transplantation has been well documented. After the first year following the procedure, more than half of

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Rank: 18
Score: 57.305992
Retrieved Text: I've been interviewed for the artificial pancreas!
How did I end up helping this research? Well, I found a survey on Facebook helping the researchers with the esthetic part of the artificial pancreas (its image towards others, its size), as well as the features that I would like to have in it. When the survey was completed, they asked if I would be interested in doing an hour interview in person to help the research with more personal questions and of course I clicked on YES!!
So as I was saying, last week I met with a student doing her master’s degree on the artificial pancreas. We went in a room and we started the interview while I was recorded. I felt like a star for 2 minutes!! First, I talked about my history with diabetes, my management, the medication that I take and the tools that I use. To be honest, I was still confused about WHAT is going to be the artificial pancreas. Is it going to be a look-alike pump, a software, a transmitter? Are we going to need 2 machines since they’re working on an artificial pancreas with insulin AND glucagon (that would be awesome). So, of course, I asked the girl and she told me that they still don’t know how it will look like and that’s what the research is for. It might be a software on the phone connected to a pump and a continuous glucose monitor, and being able to calculate the insulin needed with the readings AND injecting it

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Rank: 19
Score: 57.22418
Retrieved Text: Having pancreatic cancer can affect your diet and the way that you eat and drink. This can happen whatever stage your cancer is in and regardless of the treatments that are being used to combat your cancer. In this blog post, we will look at how pancreatic cancer affects your diet, why it does so and what you can do about it.
What does pancreatic cancer have to do with your eating habits?
It’s not just the cancer itself that can cause these problems. Common treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy can also change your dietary habits.
Why does pancreatic cancer affect your eating habits?
The pancreas plays a key role in the digestion process. Located near the stomach and small intestine, it secretes insulin which helps in the breakdown of carbohydrates, as well as enzymes that help to breakdown proteins and fats. The gland also produces glucagon which, along with insulin, controls blood sugar levels.
Pancreatic cancer has been known to reduce the number of enzymes that your pancreas makes and stops the enzymes getting to the bowel by blocking the pancreatic duct. If the enzymes are reduced or stopped from getting to the bowel, your body will not be able to take in the nutrients that it needs. Pancreatic cancer can also reduce the amount of insulin and glucagon hormones that the body produces, which can lead to diabetes.
Eating small meals regularly. If you feel full quickly, it is essential that you try to eat as often as you can. Aim for six smallish meals throughout the day every

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Rank: 20
Score: 57.047096
Retrieved Text: The pancreas, which is an important part of your digestive tract, has two critical roles.
The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper-left area of the abdomen.
Your pancreas is an organ that's part of both the digestive system and the endocrine system.
The digestive system, which breaks down food into tiny components that are then absorbed into the body, is made up of numerous organs in addition to the pancreas, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines.
The endocrine system is a collection of many different endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland, testes, and pituitary gland, which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Your pancreas is located in the upper left area of your abdomen, behind your stomach and near your duodenum, the first section of your small intestine.
The organ measures about 6 inches long and weighs about one-fifth of a pound.
Looking somewhat like a sweet potato, the pancreas is made up of a bulbous head and neck, a tubular body, and a narrow, pointy tail.
The pancreas contains a tubelike structure called the main pancreatic duct, which runs from the tail to the head of the organ.
The gallbladder's bile duct enters at the top of the pancreas's head to connect to the main pancreatic duct. The joined ducts exit from the pancreas's head and connect to the duodenum.
Some people also have an additional pancreatic duct, sometimes known as the duct of Santorini, which connects to another part of the duodenum.
Your pancreas has two main responsibilities: It helps the body digest food, and it helps

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Rank: 21
Score: 56.921173
Retrieved Text: This is an excerpt from Athlete’s Guide to Diabetes, The by Sheri Colberg-Ochs.
The ­human body only has insulin to lower blood glucose but has five hormones that raise it (with some overlap). This hormone redundancy tells you that, at least from a survival standpoint, your body is desperate to make sure you do not run out of blood glucose; it is not as concerned about you having too much. Insulin is an impor­tant hormone for regulating your body's storage of fuels (carbohydrate, fat, and protein) ­after you eat. It tells your insulin-­sensitive cells (mainly your muscle and fat cells but also your liver) to take up glucose and fat to store them for ­later as muscle and liver glycogen (the storage form of glucose) as well as stored fat. During exercise, any insulin in your bloodstream can make your muscles take up extra blood glucose. In ­people who have a pancreas that functions normally, insulin levels typically decrease during exercise, and levels of a hormone called glucagon (released from the alpha cells of the pancreas) rise to stimulate glucose release.
Your blood glucose levels are managed by your liver, which would normally respond to the relative amounts of insulin and glucagon (­table 2.1). Insulin and glucagon released from the pancreas go directly to the liver via the portal circulation. ­After a meal, high insulin and glucose levels tell the liver to store glucose for ­later use; fasting overnight or ­doing extended exercise leads to glucagon signaling the liver to release glucose. How ­people with type 1 diabetes

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Rank: 22
Score: 56.57531
Retrieved Text: By Jimmie D. Bailey II, M.D.
Glucose is a simple sugar you get from the foods you eat; the body uses it for energy, especially the brain.
It mainly comes from foods rich in carbohydrates such as bread, cereal, pasta, rice, potatoes and fruit.
As it travels through your bloodstream to your cells, it’s called blood glucose or blood sugar.
How Does the Body Use Glucose?
After you eat, the pancreas releases insulin to help the available glucose get into the cells to provide energy. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When the body needs additional energy, the glycogen is converted back into glucose with the help of glucagon.
Glucagon is a peptide hormone that generally increases the concentration of glucose in the blood by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. The effects of glucagon are just the opposite of insulin, glucagon makes the blood sugar increase and insulin makes the blood sugar decrease. In order to maintain balance with blood glucose levels, these two hormones need to work together.
They are less than 100 mg/dL after not eating (fasting) for at least 8 hours. And they're less than 140 mg/dL two hours after eating.
The glucose (blood sugar) in your blood by assessing the amount of what's called glycated hemoglobin.
An A1C between 5.7 and 6.4 percent signals pre-diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is diagnosed when the A1C is over 6.5 percent.
A condition that occurs when the sugar levels in your blood are too low. Many people think of hypoglycemia as something that only occurs in people with diabetes. However, it can also

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Rank: 23
Score: 56.38515
Retrieved Text: More than 29 million people in the US have diabetes, and it is the seventh-leading cause of death in the country. But could a cure be on the horizon? According to researchers from Cornell University in Ithaca, NY, it could - in the form of a probiotic pill.
Using engineered human gut bacteria, researchers were able to reprogram the cells of diabetic rats to produce insulin. Pictured is a reprogrammed rat cell; the green coloring shows insulin.
In a proof-of-principle study published in the journal Diabetes, senior author John March and colleagues from Cornell reveal how they were able to reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic rats using a common bacteria found in the human gut.
Diabetes is a condition in which the pancreas is either unable to produce enough of the hormone insulin, the body's cells do not effectively respond to the hormone, or both.
As a result, blood glucose levels rise higher than normal - known as hyperglycemia. This can cause a number of complications, including stroke, heart disease and nerve damage.
Diabetes prevalence has risen in the US in recent years, increasing from 25.8 million people affected in 2010 to 29.1 million in 2012.
But with the findings of their study, March and colleagues say they may be one step closer to a cure for the condition.
The researchers engineered a common strain of "friendly" human gut bacteria called Lactobacillus to secrete Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) - a hormone that releases insulin in response to food.
Lactobacillus is a probiotic often used to prevent and treat diarrhea, as well as irritable

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Rank: 24
Score: 56.221424
Retrieved Text: Keep diaTribe FREE! Make a difference by investing $5 now - your charitable donation matters!
Want more news like this? Sign Up Now!
Beta Bionics shared exclusive breaking news with diaTribe today that it has received an impressive $5 million investment from insulin maker Novo Nordisk in its newest strategic partnership. This very meaningful development will help the Boston-based “public benefit corporation” advance its fully integrated iLet Bionic Pancreas device that automates delivery of insulin and insulin and glucagon (via Dexcom CGM and a smart algorithm).
With this $5 million commitment, Novo Nordisk matches the investment made about a year ago by Lilly, another prominent insulin maker. Partnering with both leading insulin makers is a first in diabetes technology, and it is great to see that the iLet will now be compatible with both Lilly’s Humalog and Novo Nordisk’s NovoLog insulins – giving people with diabetes more options to choose from.
What’s the latest timing? The first insulin-only version of the iLet Bionic Pancreas could be available in the US as early as the end of 2018, though the exact launch will depend on upcoming trials and the FDA process.
CEO Dr. Ed Damiano told diaTribe that he hopes for a four to five month FDA review of the insulin-only iLet Bionic Pancreas, pending positive trial results. For comparison, the FDA took three months to review and approve Medtronic’s MiniMed 670G, so this seems very doable if all goes well. The FDA process for the bihormonal device is still being discussed, since it will require a longer test for a new

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Rank: 25
Score: 56.123165
Retrieved Text: Your pancreas is an organ that is located just below the stomach and stretches partway across the back of your abdomen. Its main functions are to secrete enzymes into your intestines that aid digestion and to produce hormones involved in the regulation of blood glucose. A key pancreatic hormone, insulin, delivers glucose, our most important source of energy, to cells throughout the body.
The process begins in the mouth, where enzymes in your saliva start to break down the carbohydrates in the food you’ve consumed. As food travels through the digestive tract, additional enzymes in the pancreas and small intestine further break down the partially digested carbohydrates into simple sugar molecules, most notably glucose, that are permitted to pass through the intestinal wall, enabling them to enter the bloodstream.
After glucose enters the bloodstream, it triggers beta cells in the pancreas to release insulin. In turn, insulin acts like a “key,” opening a door that is specifically designed to allow glucose to enter many cells in the body, including energy-utilizing cells such as muscle, red blood, and fat cells. This “opening” allows glucose to move from the bloodstream and into those cells, where it is used for energy (or stored in the liver and muscle tissue for later use). This absorption of glucose by the cells prevents glucose levels in the bloodstream from rising too high, which can damage nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues over time.
In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas produces little or no insulin, and instead of entering the cells, glucose remains in the bloodstream

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Rank: 26
Score: 56.08718
Retrieved Text: The pancreas is one of many organs with both endocrine and exocrine functions. Islets of Langerhans are regions of the pancreas made of clusters of endocrine cells that secrete two major hormones. Each islet has alpha cells, which secrete glucagon, and a population of beta cells, which secrete insulin. Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. When blood glucose is too high, insulin is released. This lowers the glucose levels by stimulating all body cells, except those of the brain, to take up glucose from the blood. When blood glucose is too low, glucagon increases glucose concentration by stimulating liver cells to break down glycogen into glucose.
Illustration courtesy of MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine, NIH.

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Rank: 27
Score: 55.619682
Retrieved Text: Onglyza® is the brand name for a type 2 diabetes medication that regulates the levels of insulin that a patient’s body produces. Onglyza® and other similar drugs with the same active ingredient, saxagliptin, such as Kombiglyze™ XR, are popular medications because they can effectively help control blood sugar without encouraging weight gain as other diabetes medications often can. However, an increased risk of complications that the manufacturers and marketers of the drugs failed to disclose to patients and physicians has led many to file claims in the Onglyza® lawsuit. If you have taken any of these medications and experienced adverse side effects or complications, please contact an experienced pharmaceutical attorney for a complimentary case evaluation.
Onglyza® has been the subject of many lawsuits after patients experienced troubling complications.
Onglyza® belongs to a specific class of diabetes drugs called dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors. This type of medication works by encouraging the pancreas to secrete more insulin and by inhibiting the liver from producing an excessive amount of sugar as a byproduct of metabolism.
The active ingredients in these drugs are DPP-4 inhibitors. DPP-4 is a naturally occurring enzyme that breaks down the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). GLP-1 is released into the bloodstream after eating, signaling the pancreas to produce insulin to maintain blood glucose levels.
Had healthcare practitioners and diabetic patients been appropriately informed of the inherent dangers associated with DPP-4 inhibitors, they may have chosen another medication.
In diabetic patients, the secretion of GLP-1 is restricted, and the pancreas produces less insulin, which can allow blood glucose levels to rise

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Rank: 28
Score: 55.2499
Retrieved Text: Natural organic pancreas support herbal supplement | Herbal Supplements For A Better You!
KMD BOTANICALS Pancreas Support is an herbal supplement that contains natural vitamins and plants to help rejuvenate the pancreas for optimal health. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help further the break down of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats). The pancreas also produces several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Because the pancreas is an essential part of our body, the organic supplement Pancreas Support will help you maintain your health at an optimal level in a healthy/organic way!
Ingredients: Milk Thistle, Gokshura Seed, Gotu Kola, Barberry Root, Tumeric Root, Cinnamon Bark, Solomons Seal, Black Pepper, Gymnema, Dandelion, Bitter Melon, Tulasi, Anise, Neem.

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Rank: 29
Score: 55.07399
Retrieved Text: Pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas is an organ that lies near the stomach. It is responsible for secreting digestive enzymes into the small intestine. It is also responsible for glucose homeostasis by secreting insulin and glucagon in response to changes in blood glucose levels. Pancreatitis can develop can develop acutely, last for days, and then resolve. Repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis can lead to the development of chronic pancreatitis. The symptoms of chronic pancreatitis include upper abdominal pain that may radiate to the back, nausea, vomiting and weight loss. As the function of the pancreas begins to decline, digestion is altered and stool becomes oily and smelly. Diabetes Mellitus may develop as insulin and glucagon production are affected. Chronic pancreatitis is most commonly caused by alcohol ingestion, cystic fibrosis and pancreatic cancer. Gallstones, elevated levels of calcium and triglycerides in the blood are also associated with pancreatitis. The diagnosis of chronic panceatitis is made by history and physical exam. Blood work is useful to look for elevated levels of lipase and amylase which are pancreatic enzymes. CT scan, MRI scan and ultrasound examinations are useful to look for damage of the pancreas and to exclude other causes of abdominal pain. Treatment of chronic pancreatitis includes pain medications and supplementation of pancreatic enzymes. A celiac plexus block by an interventional pain management physician is used to block pain impulses from the pancreas and decrease pain.

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======= Instance Index 21854 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Prophase is the first and longest stage of mitosis
- In this stage the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In prophase the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In metaphase the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell and become connected to the spindle fiber at their centromere
- In anaphase the sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are pulled apart
- During telophase the chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct rod-like shapes
- Two new nuclear membranes then form around each of the two regions of DNA and the spindle fibers disappear.

Question:
suppose if during anaphase sister chromatids separate happens, how will it affect the process of mitosis will decrease.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: chromatid A threadlike strand formed from a chromosome during the early stages of cell division. Each chromosome divides along its length into two chromatids, which are at first held together at the centromere. They separate completely at a later stage. The DNA of the chromosome reproduces itself exactly so that each chromatid has the complete amount of DNA and becomes a daughter chromosome with exactly the same genes as the original chromosome from which it was formed.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides during the third stage (anaphase) of cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides at the anaphase of mitosis or the second stage of meiosis (meiosis II), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Zoology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division during interphase. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: Within 24 hours, a human cell can divide into two daughter cells that are identical to the original. This cell cycle includes growth of the cell, duplication of the DNA and division of the chromosomes and cell contents. The stages of the cycle -- which occur in both plants and animals -- are called interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis. Kinetochore and nonkinetochore -- also known as interpolar -- microtubules play an important role in the separation of chromosomes and the formation of daughter cells. These microscopic structures are both made from subunits called tubulin, but they have different functions during cell division.
When a cell enters mitosis, a microtubule-based structure called a spindle forms with two poles at either end of the enlarged cell. The chromosomes align along the center of the spindle prior to separation of the chromatids -- half of the duplicated chromosomes. Kinetochore microtubules extend from the spindle poles toward the center of the cell and attach to the chromatids at a structure called the kinetochore. The nonkinetochore microtubules also extend from the spindle toward the center of the cell, but they do not attach to the chromatids. Instead they overlap at the center of the spindle.
During late prophase -- one of the phases of mitosis -- the plate-like kinetochore forms on the duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome has two kinetochores -- one for each identical sister chromatid -- attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles. Kinetochore microtubules attached to the kinetochore cause the chromosomes to line up along the middle of the spindle. Nonkinetochore microtubules

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: In Eukaryotic Cells, Chromosomes Are Composed Of _____.
How is plant cell cytokinesis different from animal cell cytokinesis Plant cells deposit vesicles containing cell-wall building blocks on the metaphase plate; animal cells form a cleavage furrow.
The beginning of anaphase is indicated by which of the following? Cohesin is cleaved enzymatically.
What happens if MPF (mitosis-promoting factor) is introduced into immature frog oocytes that are arrested in G2? The cells enter mitosis.
Once a cell completes mitosis, molecular division triggers must be turned off. What happens to MPF during mitosis? The cyclin component of MPF is degraded.
Density-dependent inhibition is explained by which of the following? As cells become more numerous, the cell surface proteins of one cell contact the adjoining cells and they stop dividing.
A research team began a study of a cultured cell line. Their preliminary observations showed them that the cell line did not exhibit either density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. What could they conclude right away? The cells show characteristics of tumors.
For a chemotherapeutic drug to be useful for treating cancer cells, which of the following is most desirable? It interferes with rapidly dividing cells.
Cells from advanced malignant tumors often have very abnormal chromosomes and an abnormal number of chromosomes. What might explain the association between malignant tumors and chromosomal abnormalities? Cell cycle checkpoints are not in place to stop cells with chromosome abnormalities.
Exposure of zebrafish nuclei to meiotic cytosol resulted in phosphorylation of NEP55 and L68 proteins by cyclin-dependent kinase 2. NEP55 is a protein of the inner nuclear membrane, and L68 is a protein of

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Retrieved Text: Here you have a list of opinions about Anaphase and you can also give us your opinion about it.
You will see other people's opinions about Anaphase and you will find out what the others say about it.
Anaphase (from the Greek ἀνά, "up" and φάσις, "stage"), is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the cell cycle's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Metaphase ends with the destruction of B cyclin. B cyclin is marked with ubiquitin which flags it for destruction by proteasomes, which is required for the function of metaphase cyclin-dependent kinases (M-Cdks). Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting complex marks an inhibitory chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for destruction. Securin is a protein which inhibits a protease known as separase. The destruction of securin unleashes separase which then breaks down cohesin, a protein responsible for holding sister chromatids together. The centromeres are split, and the new daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. They take on a V-shape as they are pulled back.
While the chromosomes are drawn to each side of the cell, the non-kinetochore spindle fibers push against each other, in a ratcheting action, that stretches the cell into an oval.
Once anaphase is complete, the cell moves into telophase.
In the image below, you can see a graph with the evolution of the times that people look for Anaphase. And below it, you can see how many pieces of news

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: What are centromeres composed of?
The chromosome structure is similar in most cases to an X, but the location of the point where the two arms of the X touch may vary. This contact point has a name, of course (a biologist never misses a chance to name something): the centromere.
Without centromeres, cells cannot divide properly and mitosis fails.
Centromeres are actually defined by specific regions of DNA called alpha satellite, which specifically bind centromere proteins.
Scientists have identified over 20 that contribute to forming the centromere complex.
Without them, kinetochores do not have a place to attach to pull the sister chromatids apart.
Why is mitosis necessary for living organisms?
How do cytokinesis and telophase differ?
How do chromosomes divide during anaphase?
How can mitosis be a form of asexual reproduction?
How does mitosis conserve the chromosome number?
How are mitosis and meiosis different?
What are kinetochores made of?

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Retrieved Text: digital age skills teach students to learn how to learn for them- selves, which is the foundation of the 5E science learning cycle that includes engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. In my AP Biology class, students used this process to explore the concept of mitosis through three learning stations. This allowed them to work in small groups, which fostered their collaboration and communication skills.
The first was a craft station. Students created a cell-cycle flipbook and discussed what happened during each phase and subphase of mitosis. The second was a laptop station where students received a list of websites that included texts, interactive illustrations, videos, and a simulation game intended to introduce them to the concept, teach the concept, and allow them to apply the concept. The final station included three iPads loaded with the Mitosis app, a free download from the Apple i Tunes store.
The highlight of the day for most su-dents was the third station because most had never used an iPad before. The lesson began with three or four eager students gathered around each iPad. They turned the iPad to change from landscape to portrait view and clicked on the app.
connected mitotic spindle fibers to each of the sister chromatids at their kinetochore during prometaphase. They pulled their thumbs and index fingers in opposite directions to pull apart the sister chromatids and then swiped their fingers down the metaphase plate to fully separate the chromosomes in the anaphase. They completed the cell cycle by using their fingers to circle cell contents to create

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Retrieved Text: The stage in mitosis and in the second meiotic division when the centromere splits and the chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
The stage of the first meiotic division when the two halves of a bivalent chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.
With respect to the results listed in Table 2, the orange and grape juices of the five food companies, at both exposure times considered, induced significant formation of mitotic spindle changes, represented in this study by colchicine metaphase and anaphase and telophase bridges, proving to be genotoxic, and chromosome breaks, characterized by the formation of micronuclei.
To determine if aurora A kinase (AAK) plays a post-metaphase role in Drosophila S2 cell division, AAK was knocked down by RNA interference (RNAi), and microtubule (MT) intensity in the spindle midzone during late anaphase was quantified (Fig.
1 (b) IVM, in vitro maturation; GVBD, germinal vesicle breakdown; MI, Metaphase 1; AI, Anaphase 1; TI, TelophaseI; MII, MetaphaseII; SEM, standard error of the mean.
The damaged chromosomes, in the form of acentric chromatids or chromosome fragments, lag behind in anaphase when centric elements move towards the spindle poles.
Several chromosomal aberrations (CA's) like chromosomal break, stickiness, laggard, and multipolar anaphase have been formed.
It delivers the two groups of chromosomes to positions adjacent to the polar furrows midway between pairs of plastids in anaphase and a phragmoplast is constructed in the midzone (Fig.
10 and 50 [micro]g/ml number of prophases and telophases generally increases by prolonging treatments, and the number of metaphases and anaphases decreases.
This can be seen from the simulation results in To

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Retrieved Text: Unit 5 - Patrick Stephen Jr.
A student can model what complementary base pairs means in a strand of DNA.
A student can identify the difference between a 5' and a 3' deoxyribose sugar and relate these differences to the leading and lagging strands of DNA.
A student can identify the different sections of a chromosome including (centromeres (acrocentric, metacentric, submetacentric), sister chromatids, coding and non coding bands, telomeres).
A student can create an argument as to why genetic variation is important for the survival of a species.
A student can utilize proper vocabulary in distinguishing the types of cells created during mitosis and meiosis.
A student can explain the differences that occur during prophase and anaphase of mitosis and meiosis I.
A student can create an argument on the age and/or health of a plant or animal tissue by analying the cells in specific mitotic stages.
A student can explain how carcinogens impact the cell cycle controllers such as the p53 gene and the BRCA1 gene.

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Retrieved Text: The first draft of the human genome sequence was reported a year ago. It may be a good time to remind ourselves that the genetic information encoded in the ∼3000-Mb sequence is stored not only in the public or private databases but also in the tiny space of the cell nucleus. The total length of human genomic DNA, which resides in 23 chromosomes, reaches approximately one meter. It is by no means a simple task to fold up the long DNA molecules and package them within a cell nucleus whose diameter is only ∼10 μm. Even more striking is that the DNA molecules are faithfully duplicated and segregated into two daughter cells in an extremely limited space. Although more than 100 years have passed since Walther Flemming first described the dynamic behavior of chromosomes (or mitosis) during cell division, it remains highly mysterious how this remarkable process of chromosome segregation is achieved at a mechanistic level. From a cytological point of view, two dramatic events occur on chromosomes during mitosis. The first one is the conversion of an amorphous mass of interphase chromatin into a discrete set of rod-shaped chromosomes (chromosome condensation), which occurs from prophase to metaphase (Koshland and Strunnikov 1996; Hirano 2000). The second is the splitting of chromosomes into two halves, which takes place highly synchronously at the onset of anaphase (Dej and Orr-Weaver 2000; Nasmyth et al. 2000). As a crucial prerequisite for these events, duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) must be held together immediately after DNA replication in S phase and throughout

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Retrieved Text: During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.... prophase I - meiosis term refers to the first phase of meiosis I, which together with meiosis II results in the reductive cell division only occurring gametes. Prophase can be further divided into a number of stages: leptotene zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
Go back to prophase 1 and write in alleles for your chromosomes. The drawing below shows what they would look like before they are copied during interphase. Make sure that you write in the alleles on the copied sister chromatids too! a A. B b g G . R r H h. D d. Now, show the alleles of one gene crossing over in one set of homologous chromosomes. Circle the set you chose. Now follow along and... During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.
Prophase – The replicated chromosomes condense into compact rods. Each rod Each rod consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere or the chromosome.
☆ These questions asked the reader to describe and draw the cell when it was in the telophase and the late prophase stages of mitosis. ☆ During meiotic prophase in females, chromosomes condense and pair to

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Retrieved Text: Each of sister chromatids of a chromosme, when they separate during Anaphase, seems to be taking half of the centromere along with it. If this process is repeated, there wouldn't be any centomere left to be divided. So when exactly is this centromere resynthesized to its original size? is it done during G1 or S or G2? Thanks in advance.
Ah, yes I see. Since we are on the topic, then is Kinetochore protein synthesizes during G1 phase and splitted evently during anaphase?
The centromere is an incredibly specialized area of chromatin. It has a distinct and unique complement of proteins. Without looking it up, I believe the actual kinetochore (used during M phase) is added during G2 and is not present during G1/S (when the typical centromere proteins are present that simply associate with its unique DNA regions). The kinetochore is present bilaterally on each chromatid and is split evenly.
See this EM: http://www.wadsworth.org/rvbc/kinetochore_1.jpg which in the upper left figure shows the kinetochore being pulled by microtubules. The puffy stuff on each side of the kinetochore is the adjacent condensed chromatin. This is one chromatid, with the other one off the figure.

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Retrieved Text: The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus.
arrangement of p g pairs of chromosomes. The diagram below g shows four possible arrangements of chromosomes during metaphase 1 from an individual that has 6 total chromosomes. chromosomes Suppose that the pink chromosomes are those that the individual inherited from its mother and the blue colored ones were inherited from its father. For each chromosome pair, the chromosome that is on the left (maternal or paternal) is determined randomly. As can be , g p seen, there are several alignment possibilities.
Can you tell the stage of cells Can o (image in the right hand) What do the different colors represent for?
chromosomes, four per set. In the h f t I th following diagram, what phase of mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II, is this cell in?
The cell is in metaphase of meiosis II. You can tell because the chromosomes are lined up along the metaphase plate, and it plate has only four pairs of sister chromatids. If it were mitosis, the cell would have eight pairs of ll ld h i ht i f sister chromatids.
A cell is diploid and contains three chromosomes per set. Draw the arrangement g of chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, and metaphase I and II of meiosis.
1. Division of intracellular organelles 2. Cell cycle control 3. Mechanics of cell division 4..

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Retrieved Text: Spatial regulation of the spindle assembly checkpoint and anaphase-promoting complex in Aspergillus nidulans.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) plays a critical role in preventing mitotic errors by inhibiting anaphase until all kinetochores are correctly attached to spindle microtubules. In spite of the economic and medical importance of filamentous fungi, relatively little is known about the behavior of SAC proteins in these organisms. In our efforts to understand the role of gamma-tubulin in cell cycle regulation, we have created functional fluorescent protein fusions of four SAC proteins in Aspergillus nidulans, the homologs of Mad2, Mps1, Bub1/BubR1 and Bub3. Time-lapse imaging reveals that SAC proteins are in distinct compartments of the cell until early mitosis when they co-localize at the spindle pole body. SAC activity is, thus, spatially regulated in A. nidulans. Likewise, Cdc20, an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, is excluded from interphase nuclei, but enters nuclei at mitotic onset and accumulates to a higher level in mitotic nuclei than in the surrounding nucleoplasm before leaving in anaphase/telophase. The activity of this critical cell cycle regulatory complex is likely regulated by the location of Cdc20. Finally, the gamma-tubulin mutation mipAD159 causes a nuclear-specific failure of nuclear localization of Mps1 and Bub1/R1 but not of Cdc20, Bub3 or Mad2.
Chromosome segregation in budding yeast: sister chromatid cohesion and related mechanisms.
Studies on budding yeast have exposed the highly conserved mechanisms by which duplicated chromosomes are evenly distributed to daughter cells at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The establishment of proteinaceous bridges between sister chromatids, a function provided by a ring-shaped complex known as

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Retrieved Text: My project focuses on mechanisms underlying chromosome segregation fidelity in human cells. During division, missegregation occurs due to kinetochore-microtubule mal-attachments, whose correction is necessary for faithful segregation. We have uncovered that the Kinesin-13, Kif2b, increases microtubule dynamics at the kinetochores, hence allowing for the release of erronous attachments and the general destabilization of kinetochore fibers in early mitosis necessary for proper chromosome alignment.
These pictures represent a monopolar spindle, a bipolar spindle with monooriented unaligned chromosomes, and an anaphase spindle with lagging chromatids.

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Retrieved Text: Meiosis is the process by which gametes are made. In this process, we begin with a 4n cell (double the normal amount of DNA), and we will end up with 4 non-identical haploid (n) daughter gametes, after 2 divisions. There are 6 stages within each of the divisions; Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis. In this article, we will look at all the stages of meiosis in addition to its significance in diseases.
Firstly the nuclear envelope disintegrates and the chromosomes begin to condense. Spindle fibres appear which will be important for successful division of the chromosomes.
Now the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes at a points along the chromosomes called centromeres. While this is happening the chromosomes continue to condense.
Fig 2 – Image of prometaphase I.
Next, homologous (Maternal and Paternal versions of the same chromosome) chromosomes align along the equator of the cell and a process called random assortment occurs here – this is when maternal and paternal chromosomes line up randomly align themselves on either side of the equator, this leads to genetic diversity among offspring.
To further increase the genetic diversity, homologous chromosomes exchange parts of themselves such that one chromosome contains both maternal and paternal DNA. This process is known as crossing over, and the points at which this occurs on a chromosome are refund to as chiasmata.
Here each of the homologous chromosomes get pulled towards opposite poles of the cell as the spindle fibres retract to divide the DNA between the two cells which will be formed.
Fig 4 – Image of Anaphase

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Retrieved Text: The epitope recognized by ab992 maps to a region between residue 575 and the C-terminus (residue 631) human Rad21 homolog using the numbering given in entry NP_006256.1 (GeneID 5885).
Synthetic peptide (Human) conjugated to KLH - which represented a portion of human Rad21 encoded within exon 14 (LocusLink ID 5885).
HeLa cell lysate. FFPE human breast fibroadenoma tissue sections.
Our Abpromise guarantee covers the use of ab992 in the following tested applications.
Used at a dilution of 1/200 for 30 min incubation (see Abreview for further information).
WB 1/500 - 1/5000. Predicted molecular weight: 72 kDa.
Band observed at ~130 kDa.
Cleavable component of the cohesin complex, involved in chromosome cohesion during cell cycle, in DNA repair, and in apoptosis. The cohesin complex is required for the cohesion of sister chromatids after DNA replication. The cohesin complex apparently forms a large proteinaceous ring within which sister chromatids can be trapped. At metaphase-anaphase transition, this protein is cleaved by separase/ESPL1 and dissociates from chromatin, allowing sister chromatids to segregate. The cohesin complex may also play a role in spindle pole assembly during mitosis. Also plays a role in apoptosis, via its cleavage by caspase-3/CASP3 or caspase-7/CASP7 during early steps of apoptosis: the C-terminal 64 kDa cleavage product may act as a nuclear signal to initiate cytoplasmic events involved in the apoptotic pathway.
Belongs to the rad21 family.
The C-terminal part associates with the head of SMC1A, while the N-terminal part binds to the head of SMC3.
Cleaved by separase/ESPL1 at the onset of anaphase. Cleaved by caspase-3 and caspase-7 at the beginning of apoptosis. The cleavage by

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Retrieved Text: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis. Chapter 5. 5.1 – The Cell Cycle. Key Concept: Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions. When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?.
Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions.
When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
Does an animal get larger because each cell increases in size or because it produces more of them?
What are some things that all cells in your body must have?
The cell cycle has 4 main stages.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
The main stages of the cell cycle are: Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, & Mitosis.
Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for that type of cell.
Cell volume increases faster than surface area.
Cells need to stay small to allow diffusion and osmosis to work efficiently.
Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesisinto two new daughter cells.
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
Chromosomes: carry genetic information (DNA) that is passed from one generation of cells to the next.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.
DNA plus proteins (histones) is called chromatin.
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
Interphase prepares the cell to divide.
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.
Sister chromatids

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Retrieved Text: A definition of the medical term "ookinesis" is presented. Ookinesis refers to the mitosis of oogonia in the embryonic ovary to form primary oocytes. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metakinesis" is presented. It refers to the moving of the two chromatids of each chromosome away from each other as they move to opposite poles in the anaphase of mitosis. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metaphase" is presented. It refers to the second stage of mitosis in which the pairs of chromatids line up on the equator of the cell. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the medical term "monozygotic" is presented. Monozygotic means originating from a single fertilized ovum, said of identical twins. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co. The pronunciation of the term is also provided.
A definition of the medical term "ootid" is presented. Ootid refers to the ovum after first maturation has been completed and the second meiotic division has begun. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.

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Retrieved Text: Hey guys, I was just wondering does interphase double the chrosome number from 46 to 92 due to DNA replication?
Is meiosis part of the cell cycle?
HELP - Mitosis and Meiosis???
It doesn't double the chromosome number, but it doubles the amount of DNA. Chromosomes usually look like chromatids, but because you only see them in prophase, you see them with twice the amount of DNA. There are the same number of chromosomes, as the number of centromeres does not increase.
But how can it go from 46 to 46 to 23? How can it divide in way that maintains the same no. of chromosomes after a division into 2 cells?
It contains 46 chromosomes. It divides to give 23 chromosomes in meiosis 1. This then divides again to give 23 chromosomes.
The original DNA has been replicated before division. The reason you think a chromosome lookes like and "X" rather than an "l" is because you only see them during mitosis when they are dividing.
But they are still called a single chromosome, because a) the two strands are exactly the same and b) they are attached to a single centromere.
So it starts with 46, then divides to give 2 cells of 23 each, then those divide to give 4 cells of 23?
the cell goes through normal interphase and chromosones are copied and are visible as sister chromoatids.
chromotids are seperated in meiosis 2.
so to answer your question it goes 2N -> 2N -> N -> N because after interpahse the chromosones are sister chromatids (the have replicated) but they are still

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Retrieved Text: Results demonstrate that chromosome behavior in meiosis is independently influenced by the kinetochore associated Monopolin protein that mediates monopolar attachement and Rec8, which is involved in maintaining cohesion between sister centromeres in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Studies have identified a protein required for cohesion but is not a Cohesin subunit. This protein, Eco1p(Ctf7), was found during experiments searching for mutants that generate separate sister centromeres. While Eco1p(Ctf7) is needed for cohesion establishment during DNA replication, it is not required for cohesion maintenance during the G2 and M phases.
A study has been conducted to investigate the behavior of two cohesin subunits known to important for sister chromatid cohesion processes during mitosis and meiosis. Findings indicate that Scc1p is expressed at extremely low levels in meiotic cells, while the scc1-73 allele, considered to be conditionally lethal in mitosis, exerts a modest influence on spore formation and viability. A meiotic cohesin that binds sister chromatids together is also required for repair of strand exchange between homologs.
Abstracts: Golgi membranes are absorbed into and reemerge from the ER during mitosis. The debate about transport in the Golgi - two sides of the same coin?

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Retrieved Text: A spindle poison, also known as a spindle toxin, is a poison that disrupts cell division by affecting the protein threads that connect the centromere regions of chromosomes, known as spindles. Spindle poisons effectively cease the production of new cells by interrupting the mitosis phase of cell division at the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). Unfortunately, spindle poisons, as numerous and varied as they are, still are yet to be 100% effective at ending the formation of tumors (neoplasms). Although not 100% effective, substantive therapeutic efficacy has been found in these types of chemotherapeutic treatments. The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules (polymerized tubulin) that aid, along with regulatory proteins; each other in the activity of appropriately segregating replicated chromosomes. Certain compounds affecting the mitotic spindle have proven highly effective against solid tumors and hematological malignancies. Two specific families of antimitotic agents, vinca alkaloids and taxanes, interrupt the cell’s division by the agitation of microtubule dynamics. The vinca alkaloids work by causing the inhibition of the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules, resulting in the G2/M arrest within the cell cycle and eventually cell death. In contrast, the taxanes arrest the mitotic cell cycle by stabilizing microtubules against depolymerization. Even though numerous other spindle proteins exist that could be the target of novel chemotherapeutics, tubulin-binding agents are the only types in clinical use. Agents that affect the motor proteinkinesin are beginning to enter clinical trials. Another type, Paclitaxel, acts by attaching to tubulin within existing microtubules. Next, it stabilizes the polymer.
Normally, cells duplicate their genetic material and then

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Retrieved Text: Following DNA replication, sister chromatids must stay connected for the remainder of the cell cycle in order to ensure accurate segregation in the subsequent cell division. This important function involves an evolutionarily conserved protein complex known as cohesin; any loss of cohesin causes premature sister chromatid separation in mitosis. Here, we examined the role of cohesin in sister chromatid cohesion prior to mitosis, using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to assay the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase Drosophila cells. Surprisingly, we found that sister chromatid cohesion can be maintained in G2 with little to no cohesin. This capacity to maintain cohesion is widespread in Drosophila, unlike in other systems where a reduced dependence on cohesin for sister chromatid segregation has been observed only at specific chromosomal regions, such as the rDNA locus in budding yeast. Additionally, we show that condensin II antagonizes the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase, supporting a model wherein cohesin and condensin II oppose each other’s functions in the alignment of sister chromatids. Finally, because the maternal and paternal homologs are paired in the somatic cells of Drosophila, and because condensin II has been shown to antagonize this pairing, we consider the possibility that condensin II-regulated mechanisms for aligning homologous chromosomes may also contribute to sister chromatid cohesion.
As cells grow, they replicate their DNA to give rise to two copies of each chromosome, known as sister chromatids, which separate from each other once the cell divides. To ensure that sister chromatids end up in different daughter cells, they are kept together

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Retrieved Text: Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in a certain area in the body that can spread. The way we treat cancer as of now is chemotherapy, or injecting radiation into the body to kill the extra cells. Chemotherapy is very dangerous and kills people all the time, but it is the only way we know of at the moment to treat cancer. When the cancer cell isn’t checked by polymerase and gets sent through and replicates, it makes more and more of the bad cells and is unable to be stopped. Cancer keeps going through the replication process making more cells than needed and unless treated soon, will kill you.
The G1 phase also known as the growth phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle. This phase is where cells and the contents of cells excluding chromosomes. Helicase is used here to unzip the double helix.
The next phase in the cell cycle is the S phase, this is where the chromosomes replicate and consist of two sister chromatids.Genes are located in chromosomes and DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
G2 phase is up next and this is where error check occurs for mutations and preparation of the cell for mitosis using DNA polymerase.Cancer skips this step and just keeps replicating without being checked.
Cell division begins with prophase where the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The chromatin is at its least dense state.
The next phase of cell division is metaphase or the middle phase, this is where chromosomes become

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Retrieved Text: A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G 1 involves cell growth and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G 2 involves further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G 1 , S, and G 2 .
The first stage of interphase is called the G 1 phase , or first gap, because little change is visible. However, during the G 1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated during

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Retrieved Text: This article is about the cellular structure. For other uses, see Spindle (disambiguation).
In cell biology, the spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle) refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells, or the meiotic spindle during meiosis, a process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Besides chromosomes, the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds of proteins. Microtubules comprise the most abundant components of the machinery.
This diagram depicts the organization of a typical mitotic spindle found in animal cells. Chromosomes are attached to kinetochore microtubules via a multiprotein complex called the kinetochore. Polar microtubules interdigitate at the spindle midzone and push the spindle poles apart via motor proteins. Astral microtubules anchor the spindle poles to the cell membrane. Microtubule polymerization is nucleated at the microtubule organizing center.
Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamic drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores; bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules emanating from opposite cell poles couples opposing tension forces, aligning chromosomes at the cell equator and poising them for segregation to daughter cells. Once every chromosome is bi-oriented, anaphase commences and cohesin, which couples sister chromatids, is severed, permitting the transit of the sister chromatids to opposite poles.
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated

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Retrieved Text: target cell cycle proteins for maxi ica stormarknad norrköping degradation by the 26S proteasome. Once degraded, separin is released, cohesin is degraded and sister chromatids are prepared to move to their respective poles for anaphase. By late G1, enough of the G1/S cyclins have accumulated and phosphorylated Cdh1 to inactivate the APC/C until the next metaphase.
NB, are highlighted 1, hemerly, r With apcccdc20 being more dependent on the D box and apcccdh1 more dependent on the KEN box. Has intersport i karlskrona been shown to promote substrate solidariteit bonus champions league binding by mediating their interactions with Cdh1 and Cdc20. M Apc10Doc1, in late prophase 3 doi" de Oliveira 589600 journal"1007s language" van Deursen. Pegoraro, eloy, sagit, galardy, allowing Cdh1 to have a broader substrate specificity. And other mechanisms by which the catalytic activity of apcc is tightly regulated to ensure proper timing of degradation of each of its mitotic substrates 6 Consequently, aPCC 1420682X number" f KW Anaphasepromoting complex KW apcc KW Cdc20 KW Cdh1 KW Spindle assembly checkpoint. C T, emi1 is phosphorylated by Pololike kinase. AC, having two distinct degradation sequences creates a high level of substrate specificity on the apcc. Elofsson, contribute towards substrate association as well. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences issn" C 1 Emi1 association with Cdc20 allows for the stabilization of various cyclins throughout S and G2 phase 64 pages" english US volume"5 TY jour T1 Mitotic regulation of the anaphasepromoting complex AU Baker. A Vargas 10, this, bretz, l Core apcc subunits,.
Cdc20 and Cdh1, indicates that Cdh1 also

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Retrieved Text: Chromosome*s contain the long strands of DNA* that carry genetic information. They are the unit of DNA replication in living cells. Typical prokaryotic cells contain a single circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells, with their much larger genomes, have multiple, linear chromosomes. The length and linear nature of eukaryotic chromosomes increases the challenge of keeping the genetic material organized and of passing the proper amount of DNA to each daughter cell during mitosis.
During cell division, eukaryotic chromosomes condense into highly coiled 4 armed structures. The tight coiling and high degree of organization in this supercoiled DNA facilitates proper segregation during mitosis and cell division. The following illustration explores the structure, classification and features of a eukaryotic chromosome.
The earliest efforts to describe chromosomes were based on visible characteristics. The most obvious features are the centromere* which is the central constriction point and the branches stemming from this constriction point. These branches are called arms. Each chromosome has either two or four arms extending from the centromere.
Late in the cell cycle when the process of mitosis has begun but before the cell has divided, cells contain two complete copies of their genome. When the DNA is supercoiled in preparation for cell division, the pair of copies of each chromosome come together to form the characteristic x-shaped structure. The point of attachment of the two complete copies occurs at the centromere. Each copy of the chromosome is called a chromatid*. The two copies of each chromosome are called sister chromatids. When cells divide, one sister chromatid is delivered to each of

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Input Text: Process:
- Magma rises through cracks in the Earth&#x27;s crust
- The pressure causes plates to move
- Magma explodes to the surface
- The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust
- After several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
- 

Question:
suppose geologic conditions cause more magma happens, how will it affect less magma cools to form new crust.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: 3.A.3 How Does Rock Melt?
What are these conditions that lead to the formation of magma?
Why is it we sometimes get melt and sometimes don't?
in the middle of South America there are no volcanoes?
along the cascade chain in North America, or in Japan.
to produce magma, some of which comes up and erupts at volcanoes.
we'll just look at these briefly.
The first cause of melting is a phenomena called decompression melting.
gas depends on the pressure and temperature conditions that it's in.
what we've done is we've changed the temperature without changing the pressure.
temperature in the freezer it becomes solid.
we're changing the temperature but keeping the pressure the same.
It undergoes a change of state and becomes liquid.
not by changing the temperature but by changing the pressure.
it's not only very hot, but it's also under a great amount of pressure.
level on the crust, even at geologic rates on the order of a few centimeters a year.
Rock is a good insulator, so it's not going to lose it's heat very fast.
So, it can make that rise and still be very hot.
where the pressure is less.
In fact, the pressure is low enough that that block starts to melt.
takes place when we don't change the temperature but decrease the pressure.
So that's one way we have can melting take place.
with the red line, the conditions of pressure and temperature in the Earth.
And with the black line, the conditions at which rock starts to melt.
conditions that the rock takes if it goes from deeper depth up to shallower depth.
And what happens is if that rise happens fast

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Magma rises to the Earth's surface due to a combination of differences in density with other rocks in the crust and pressure. The differences in density cause it to move upward until its density is the same as the other rocks in the crust. It then builds pressure, causing it to rise to the surface.
Magma is made of molten rocks and minerals. It forms in the lower crust and upper mantle layers of the Earth due to movements in the mantle, changes in temperature or contact with water or carbon dioxide under the surface. These changes cause rocks in the crust to melt, forming magma.
Sometimes, magma collects in magma chambers, and sometimes, it simply rises until its density is the same as the other rocks around it. However, once it has risen, it comes into contact with gases, forming bubbles. In some cases, the magma decompresses too quickly and the bubbles build up and create pressure. This pressure causes the surrounding rock to fracture, letting the magma rise to the surface.
Magma that is created through exposure to water can rise under different conditions. Water causes rock to melt at lower temperatures, so less pressure is involved. However, water usually enters the lower crust through subduction zones in the ocean floor, which also allow the magma to escape.

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: In November 2017, the world’s eyes were focused on the tourist island of Bali, Indonesia, as Agung erupted for the first time since 1963 [Gertisser et al., 2018] (Figure 1). Locals refer to Gunung Agung, the Bahasa Indonesian term for “great mountain,” as Bali’s “great volcano.” This latest Balinese eruption and the ensuing ashfall required some 150,000 people to evacuate the area and caused airline flight disruptions and widespread anxiety.
Now that Agung has shown signs of reawakening, it is imperative that scientists understand its inner workings.
However, this latest eruption was tame compared to the climactic 1963 crisis, in which fast-flowing, glowing hot debris avalanches killed at least 1,100 people. Sulfur-rich gas emitted to the stratosphere during the 1963 event also caused global temperatures to dip by 0.1°C to 0.4°C [Self and Rampino, 2012].
Now that Agung has shown signs of reawakening, it is imperative that scientists understand its inner workings (Figure 1). Our international research team has taken on this challenge. We collected evidence from chemical analysis of volcanic crystals, which now enables us to reconstruct the magma storage network beneath Agung [Geiger et al., 2018].
We found magma storage areas at both mantle (~20 kilometers (km)) and shallow crustal (~5 km) depths beneath Agung. This type of multilevel plumbing system may be typical of Indonesian volcanoes and could cause magma in shallow reservoirs to become enriched in silica and volatile compounds containing sulfur or hydrogen, thus promoting the frequent explosive eruptions observed in the region.
A research team from Sweden, the United States, and Italy collected rock samples

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: A warming planet due to human-induced climate change will likely contribute to an increase in volcanic activity, according to a recent study in the journal Geology.
While a relationship between climate and volcanism might seem counter-intuitive, it turns out that pressure exerted by thick glaciers on the Earth's crust — what geologists call "surface loading" – has an impact on the flow of magma below the surface.
The correlation affects "magma flow and the voids and gaps in the Earth where magma flows to the surface as well as how much magma the crust can actually hold," the study's lead author Graeme T. Swindles, an associate professor of Earth system dynamics at the University of Leeds, wrote in an email to Scientific American.
In the study published last month, Swindles' team examined the geologic record of eruptions of Icelandic volcanoes 5,500 to 4,500 years ago – a period in Earth's history when the climate was cooler, but still not a full-blown ice age. The level of volcanic activity was discerned by looking at the record of ash that settled on the peat bogs and lakes that fell over Europe, Swindles says.
Comparing the volcanic record with glacial coverage, the team found that the number of eruptions dropped significantly as the climate cooled and ice cover increased. The eruptions that did occur also tended to be smaller in magnitude.
"There's a big change in the record in the mid-Holocene [epoch], where we see no volcanic ash in Europe and very little in Iceland," says Swindles. "This seems to overlap with a time

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: The earth materials are composed of the soil, rocks, water and the gases found in the atmosphere. The materials also possess different chemical properties. These properties make them very useful in a variety of ways. These are the resources that humans use for consumption. Minerals refer to the combination of elements that possesses a unique structure that forms an inorganic compound. A greater part of the crust of the Earth is composed of several minerals. Minerals help form rocks such as granite. Rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks also have different colors when one will be able to look closely at them. The rocks are composed of not only one kind of mineral but also different kinds of minerals. Minerals are not formed from inorganic compounds. They must occur naturally and contains the same chemical composition with the organic compound that it originates. Minerals have with them a crystalline structure. Because of this type of structure, specific atoms have the same repeated pattern.
Weathering and erosion affect the formation of rocks on earth. Weathering and erosion break down larger rocks into smaller rocks. The composition of rocks can also be changed. There are three basic forms of weathering. One type is mechanical or physical weathering wherein clasts of rocks and mineral are produced. The resulting rocks are smaller than the original ones but have the same type of composition. Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of rocks and several factors can bring about chemical weathering. These are the development of salt crystals, frost and root action.

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Retrieved Text: The ‘Kimberlite Bloom’ During Pangea’s End: Caused by Mantle Cooling Or Deep Carbon Effects?
People have many uses for diamonds, ranging from engagement rings to industrial saws, and all of those uses were made possible by ancient eruptions of melted kimberlite. This carbon-rich magma forms more than 200 kilometers deep in the mantle and blasts through Earth’s continental lithosphere, including the continental crust, carrying along diamonds and other deep minerals. Nowadays, these eruptions are rare, but between 250 and 50 million years ago, Earth experienced a “kimberlite bloom,” which brought diamonds to the surface in South Africa and many other parts of the world that sit on top of ancient and thick lithosphere.
To understand the conditions that created this bloom, DCO members Sebastian Tappe, Malcolm Massuyeau (both at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa), and Katie Smart (University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa), combined and analyzed several existing geoscientific data sets to explain how these kimberlite eruptions evolved. In a new paper in Earth and Planetary Science Letters , the researchers propose that after 2 billion years ago, a cooling Earth created just the right conditions for kimberlites to become more prominent within the mantle.
Contrary to previous models, the researchers from South Africa suggest that in the last 2 billion years, carbon-bearing kimberlite melts were always present in the mantle beneath thick, old continents, but that the assembly and breakup of the supercontinents helped kimberlites drain to the surface. When Pangaea, the youngest supercontinent, began to break apart, moving tectonic plates created weak spots in the lithosphere

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Retrieved Text: Metals and sulphur in deep magma reservoirs may float towards Earth’s surface by hitching a ride on vapour bubbles, reports a study published online this week in Nature Geoscience. The mechanism identified in the study could explain the massive transfer of nickel from magmas to the atmosphere during the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, the Permian/Triassic extinction event.
Magmas deep within Earth’s crust are often partly composed of sulphide melts that contain metals and sulphur. The metals, such as copper and gold, can accumulate in the shallow crust to form rich ore deposits, and the sulphur - when emitted during volcanic eruptions - can affect climate. However, sulphide melts are dense, so would be expected to sink to the bottom of the magma reservoir, making it unclear how the metals and sulphur migrate to shallower depths.
James Mungall and colleagues use laboratory experiments and theoretical models to analyse the behaviour of sulphide melts in magma rich with vapour bubbles. They find that small droplets of the sulphide melt can attach to the vapour bubbles and use the buoyancy of the bubbles to float upwards. This mechanism explains a possible route for the transfer of metals into the shallow crust to form ore deposits, as well as a process for the release of large amounts of sulphur into the atmosphere.

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Retrieved Text: Download "5thscience earth science (5thscience_earth)"
4 Erosion. Critical Thinking 1. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between weathering and erosion?
Earth s Rocky Surface Earth s surface is not permanent and is constantly changing. Some changes take place very slowly over millions of years, such as crustal plates moving and creating mountains or valleys.
to change. Let s look at what happens to rocks that spend some time on the surface.
Chapter 2: Earth s Structure. The BIG Idea: Heat escaping from Earth s internal layers constantly changes the planet s surface.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition shape Earth s surface.
Think about the landforms where you live. How do you think they have changed over time? How do you think they will change in the future?
WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
Chapter 6. Table of Contents. Section 1 Volcanic Eruptions. Section 2 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions. Section 3 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.
Earth and Space Science. Semester 2 Review. Part 2. - Minerals that split easily or break apart in one direction along a flat surface.
Ride the Rock Cycle. Suggested Goals: Students will gain an understanding of how a rock can move through the different stages of the rock cycle.
The Earth System. The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth s interior.
Igneous rocks formed when hot molten material (magma) cools and hardens (crystallizes).
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: LAB: HOW CAN MINERALS FORM FROM WATER? Name: Many minerals form from the cooling of magma, but minerals can also form from other processes. Hydrothermal minerals are formed by concentration of hot, aqueous solutions flowing through cracks and pore spaces in crustal rocks.
2002-08-16· The solutions involve rain water and/or water derived from cooling magma bodies< Gems crystallize from solution when it encounters open spaces such as cracks. As a result, 'veins' of minerals fill preexisting cracks.
How are minerals formed from magma?
Mineral Formation Lesson Objectives. Describe how melted rock produces minerals. Describe how hot rock produces different minerals. Explain how minerals form from solutions. Introduction Minerals form under an enormous range of geologic conditions.
Minerals such as emeralds or tourmaline need unusual elements, like beryllium (for emeralds) or boron (for tourmaline) Metamorphic gems. Metamorphic rocks are rocks changed by heat, pressure, and interaction with solutions.
2013-03-07· This list details the ten most toxic and potentially deadly minerals that crystalize in the Earth’s rocks, presenting a dangerously deceptive array of stony beauty. These rocks don’t have to be thrown to hurt you.
2015-01-22· 1 Mineral Formation & Classification Mineral Formation & Classification High School Duration 2 –3 classes and Museum visit Location Module Purpose Classroom and Gem & Mineral Hall Supplies See individual lessons Standards Science 3.c; 9.a.
2018-07-04· The 'IMA database of mineral properties' (rrufffo/ima) has 173 species with 'not an IMA approved mineral' tag, some are an intermediate member of a solid solution series, others are "recently" discredited minerals.
Minerals present in the magma crystallize at different temperatures when cooling. And

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Retrieved Text: Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.
Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did

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Retrieved Text: The vast majority of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur near plate boundaries, but there are some exceptions. For example, the Hawaiian Islands, which are entirely of volcanic origin, have formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200 km from the nearest plate boundary. How do the Hawaiian Islands and other volcanoes that form in the interior of plates fit into the plate-tectonics picture?
In 1963, J. Tuzo Wilson, the Canadian geophysicist who discovered transform faults, came up with an ingenious idea that became known as the "hotspot" theory. Wilson noted that in certain locations around the world, such as Hawaii, volcanism has been active for very long periods of time. This could only happen, he reasoned, if relatively small, long-lasting, and exceptionally hot regions -- called hotspots -- existed below the plates that would provide localized sources of high heat energy (thermal plumes) to sustain volcanism. Specifically, Wilson hypothesized that the distinctive linear shape of the Hawaiian Island-Emperor Seamounts chain resulted from the Pacific Plate moving over a deep, stationary hotspot in the mantle, located beneath the present-day position of the Island of Hawaii. Heat from this hotspot produced a persistent source of magma by partly melting the overriding Pacific Plate. The magma, which is lighter than the surrounding solid rock, then rises through the mantle and crust to erupt onto the seafloor, forming an active seamount. Over time, countless eruptions cause the seamount to grow until it finally emerges above sea level to form an island volcano. Wilson suggested that continuing plate movement

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Retrieved Text: View southwest across Laguna del Maule, Chile, from near the summit of the vent for the Holocene rhyolite flows of Cari Launa at 3030 meters above sea level. The 1.2 cubic kilometers of brown glassy lava comprising the central lakeshore in the middle of the photo is the late Holocene rhyolite coulée of Las Nieblas, whose vent is 12.7 kilometers away. The center of maximum uplift measured using InSAR geodesy is in the bay just to the right (north) of the Nieblas rhyolite. Nathan Andersen is collecting pumice blocks for geochemical and geochronological study. Credit: Brad Singer, 6 April 2013.
Explosive eruptions of large-volume rhyolitic magma systems are common in the geologic record and pose a major potential threat to society. Unlike other natural hazards, such as earthquakes and tsunamis, a large rhyolitic volcano may provide warning signs long before a caldera-forming eruption occurs. Yet, these signs—and what they imply about magma-crust dynamics—are not well known.
This is because we have learned how these systems form, grow, and erupt mainly from the study of ash-flow tuffs deposited tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago or more, or from the geophysical imaging of the unerupted portions of the reservoirs beneath the associated calderas.
Research findings thus far lead to the hypothesis that the silicic vents have tapped an extensive layer of crystal-poor, rhyolitic melt that began to form atop a magmatic mush zone that was established by about 20,000 years ago, with a renewed phase of rhyolite eruptions during the Holocene. Modeling of surface deformation, magnetotelluric data, and gravity

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Retrieved Text: The underground mass of water is between the size of Lake Superior and Lake Huron.
A team of researchers has discovered an enormous reservoir of water mixed with magma, or semi-molten rock, roughly nine miles beneath Uturuncu, a dormant volcano in the Andes.
In an article published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, the scientists say there that there may be many lakes deep in the Earth beneath other volcanoes as well, and that the bodies of water may explain how and why eruptions happen. The lakes also may play a role in the formation of the Earth's crust.
The subterranean lake apparently contains a volume of water that's somewhere between Lake Huron (850 cubic miles) and Lake Superior (2,903 cubic miles), according to Jon Blundy, a volcano researcher and professor at the UK's University of Bristol, who was one of the study's authors.
According to New Scientist, Blundy and colleagues discovered the massive lake while investigating the Altiplano-Puna magma body, an even more massive underground formation that slows down seismic waves and conducts electricity.
The researchers took rocks ejected by an eruption of Uturuncu that occurred half a billion years ago, mixed them with water in the lab and then subjected them to pressure and temperature conditions comparable to those deep in the Earth. They found that with a mix of about eight to 10% water, the electrical conductivity matched the actual Altiplano-Puna.
That data matched other formations that have been discovered beneath volcanoes such as Mount St. Helen's in Washington state, which led the researchers to suspect that

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Retrieved Text: Before talking about predicting eruptions, we need to look at why they occur.
Deep inside Earth, between the molten iron core and the thin crust at the surface, there is the mantle, a large layer of rock that is largely solid, but flows like plastic. When, for various reasons, rock from the mantle melts, it sometimes moves to the Earth?s surface through weak spots in the crust, releasing heat, gasses, and rock--a volcanic eruption. But why does this solid rock melt and come to the surface?
Extremely high temperature and pressure can cause the lower mantle to melt and become liquid rock, or magma. When a body of magma rises through the denser rock layers toward Earth's surface, some of it remains liquid. Magma that has reached the surface is called lava.
Magma comes in different "flavors," or compositions. Each of these will produce a different lava, from fluid, fast-moving basalt to slower, more viscous andesite. Because rocks are made up of collections of minerals that melt at different temperatures, the makeup of the rock being melted affects the magma that results.
Take a look at two lava types: pahoehoe and slow, viscous aa.
"Volcanoes" is inspired by programs from Earth Revealed.

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: Geology reports don't have to lull readers to dreamland when you explain how a natural force can explode with more power than an atomic bomb, obliterate most of an island, change the weather and hurl shock waves around the globe. These are some of the incredible effects your report can describe when you discuss volcanoes -- one of Earth's most powerful forces.
Pressure causes a multitude of physical actions to occur. Combine heat and pressure and you may create a volcano. Begin your report by explaining how magma -- hot, liquid rock below the earth -- rises because its density is less than the density of the surrounding rocks. The distance the magma moves vertically depends on factors such as the mass of the rocks it must go through and its density. Under intense pressure, dissolved gas in the magma helps propel it upward where it can make it to the surface and into the air depending on the volcano's type. Geologists call magma "lava" when it leaves a volcano via an eruption or vent.
According to the Global Volcanism Program, an extinct volcano is one people don't expect to erupt again, while an active volcano is one that has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Place these important facts into your report along with the definition of dormant: a volcano expected to erupt one day, but which hasn't in the last 10,000 years.
Not All Volcanoes Go "BOOM!"Talk about various types of volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens, a powerful stratovolcano that explodes with fury, hurling gas, rocks

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Input Text: Process:
- Wind and water erode rocks
- The wind and water pick up sediment that came off the rocks
- Sediment is carried to an area by the wind, water, air, or ice
- Sediment is deposited on the same spot many times
- The sediment piles on top of other sediment for a long time
- The sediment near the bottom is compressed by the weight of newer sediment
- The sediment becomes sedimentary rock as it is pushed together by the heavy weight
- 

Question:
suppose Less sediment becomes sedimentary rock happens, how will it affect wind and water pick up less sediment.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

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Retrieved Text: Learn about what materials make up sediment and how it travels. Explore sediment deposits from deltas to sand dunes, and learn how sedimentary rock is created.
As any beaver can tell you, dams are rather clever. We build dams across rivers to create reservoirs, which hold water for household and agricultural use. These give us access to water when we need it, and some bigger dams harness the power of water to create electricity.
But what happens when dams are no longer useful? What happens when we remove a large, man-made dam? We often think about the consequences of building dams, but not what happens when you take them away.
The Elwha River in Washington state was a valuable resource for the Native Americans who lived near it for generations, and 87% of it is now a protected part of the Olympic National Park. The Elwha Dam, built in 1913, and the Glines Canyon Dam, built in 1927, were constructed at the beginning of the 20th century to provide power for the growing region.
Over time, both power plants grew increasingly obsolete, and scientists learned more about how the dams negatively impacted the salmon population, who were kept from swimming upstream. In 2011, crews working on behalf of the National Park Service began to remove the Elwha Dam, and in summer 2013, removal of the two dams will be complete.
Part of the Elwha Dam was removed so water could flow freely again after 100 years. Eventually, the entire dam will be taken away and only the river will remain.
One thing

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Retrieved Text: - Sedimentary rock is made from sediment and/or by chemical reactions.
- Sediment is loose material, such as bits of rocks, minerals, plants, and animals.
- Water, wind, and ice can move sediment to a place where it settles.
- Whenever this happens a new layer of sediment forms.
- One treasure that can be found in sedimentary rock is fossils.
- Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in oceans and lakes where larger, heavier fragments settle first.
- Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock.
- Layers of sedimentary rock are called strata, or beds. These are the most characteristic feature.

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Retrieved Text: Geology 101 Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers and are only a small portion of the Earth's crust. Photograph by Pichi, Shutterstock .
Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups (along with igneous and metamorphic rocks) and is formed in three main ways—by the deposition of the weathered remains of other rocks (known as clastic sedimentary rocks); by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution.
Sedimentary rock is one of three types of rock found on Earth. The others are called igneous and metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are the most common rock types in Earth’s crust.
The sediment (the sand, mud and pebbles) that make up Sedimentary rocks come from other rocks that have been worn down by wind, rain and snow.
rock cycle Geologic materials cycle through various forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth's crust.
Relating to rocks formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, is deposited and becomes tightly compacted. Sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of sediment. See more.
Easy Science for Kids All About Sedimentary Rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rocks usually found near bodies of water. Read learn fun kids science facts.
Shale is the most abundant sedimentary rock. It is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
Intrusive rocks crystallize and harden beneath the Earth's surface in rock formations include plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.
Once the rock has been weakened and

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Retrieved Text: If you have ever walked along a stream or beach you may have noticed tiny sand grains, mud, and pebbles. These are particles of sediment. Sediment is small, solid pieces of material that come from rocks or living things. In addition to particles of rock, sediment may include shells, and bones. Sedimentary rocks form when sediment is deposited by water and wind. Most sedimentary rocks are formed through a series of processes: erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation.
Erosion: Destructive forces are constantly breaking up and wearing away all the rocks on Earth’s surface. These forces include heat and cold, rain, waves, and grinding ice. The forces of erosion form sediment. In erosion, running water, wind, or ice loosen and carry away fragments of rock.
Deposition: Eventually, the moving water, wind, or ice slows and deposits the sediment in layers. If water is carrying the sediment, rock fragments and other materials sink to the bottom of a lake or ocean. Deposition is the process by which sediment settles out of the water or wind carrying it.
Compaction: The process that presses sediments together is compaction. Thick layers of sediment build up gradually over millions of years. These heavy layers press down on the layers beneath them. The weight of new layers further compacts the sediments, squeezing them tightly together. The layers often remain visible in sedimentary rock.
Cementation: While compaction is taking place, the minerals in the rock slowly dissolve in the water. Cementation is the process in which dissolved minerals crystallize and glue particles of sediment together. In cementation, dissolved

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Retrieved Text: Red Rock Canyon, Nevada is formed from bright red and pink Navajo Sandstone formed from sand dunes during the Jurassic Period. Layering is visible apparent.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups: clastic, biologic and chemical. When sediments consolidate into a cohesive mass, they become sedimentary rock. The composition, texture (how the rock looks) and other features of a sedimentary rock can tell us a story about its origin. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock.
Clastic sediments vary widely in size, shape and composition. A single clastic sedimentary rock may be composed of one type of rock and mineral or many types of rocks and minerals. The types of sediment found in a clastic sedimentary rock can tell geologists much about past environments. Clastic sediments and the rocks formed from them are named on the basis of particle size rather than mineral composition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from microscopic silt

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Connectivity of landslide sediment to and within fluvial systems is a key factor affecting the extent of mobilization of hillslope material. In particular, the formation of landslide dams and the transformation into landslide-induced debris flows represent "end members" of landslide sediment mobility. To quantify sediment connectivity, we developed a two-segment flume representing tributary inflow and the main channel. Mobility of sediment was examined by combinations of various topographic factors, such as tributary inflow angle (0 to 90° in 30° increments) and main channel gradient (10° and 15°), as well as water content of sediment (0 to 100% in 20% increments). We also examined differences of mobility among sediments derived from various lithologies (sand and shale, pyroclastic sediment, weathered granite, and weathered sedimentary rock). Mobility of sediment differed, depending on the water content of sediment, particularly less than saturation or greater than saturation. When all types of unsaturated landslide sediments entered the channel at inflow angles of 60° and 90°, substantial deposition occurred, suggesting the formation of landslide dams. At low inflow angles (0° and 30°) in a steep channel (15°), > 50% of landslide sediment was transported downstream, indicating the occurrence of a debris flow. The amount of sediment deposited at the junction angle was greater for pyroclastic sediment followed by weathered granite, weathered sedimentary rock, and finally, sand and shale. Our connectivity index suggests that a threshold exists between landslide dam formation and debris flow occurrence associated with topographic conditions, water content, and types of sediment.

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Retrieved Text: MINERALS, ROCKS, AND SOILDifferent rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and .. These terms and definitions are available ... Mineralogy4Kids is a website for children. Follow the Rock.definition of sedimentary rock for kids,Geokids Handbook for First Grade Teachers - Stanford Earth5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.Fossils and Rocks - Schoolsmeans, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or by any .. Some common forms of sedimentary rock are sandstone, .. books for children.
9.3 Sedimentary rocks 283. 9.4 Stability and change: . Attempt to classify them as igneous, sedimentary ... spectacular examples of this is the Grand Canyon in.
Lesson #1 - How Do Rocks and Minerals Influence Our Lives? ... and to determine if local rock is classified as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. This will be .. could specify relationship to children's uses or school's uses – all the rocks and minerals visible to the .. Define the difference between a rock and a mineral.
You may want to use sand as an example of sedimentary rocks forming today. Ask students . beach." Children can spend endless hours on the beach, creating.
5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.
means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,

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Retrieved Text: – You have made a sedimentary rock! You have layers as a result of different types of sediment settling at different times. Epsom salt is made from the dissolved minerals of magnesium and sulfur. This is the "glue" that holds the homemade rock together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways from these different sized sediments. A sedimentary rock is a layered rock that is formed from the compaction, cementation, and the recrystallization of sediments. Compaction is the squeezing together of layers of sediment due to the great weight of overlying layers of rock.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rock Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks.
Like other rocktypes, sedimentary rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. There are two broad groups of sedimentary rocks, clastic (or detrital) sediments which accumulate from fragments of preexisting rocks and minerals, and chemical sediments or precipitates.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks The sediment in an organic sedimentary rock is made of fossils ! The hard parts of animals, such as bones and shells, can become cemented together over time to make rock.
The Meteora is a sedimentary rock formation, composed of sandstone and pebbles. The sedimentary rock was formed 60 million years ago when Earth's movements pushed the seabed upwards. It is loed at 350 km from Athens, Greece.
The name of a sedimentary rock depends on the size (and sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen. They are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas. The length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, and basement controls. The amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island.
Sand carried by the offshore moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break.  Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the break point of even larger waves, or the break point at low tide.
There are two common definitions of coastal erosion. It is often defined as the loss or displacement of land along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. In this case, landward retreat of the shoreline, measured to a given spatial datum, is described over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes.

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: One of the primary effects of plate motion is to put new material from deep in the earth’s mantle onto the surface of the earth, and at the same time, destroy old crust. This creation, modification, and destruction of the surface materials of the earth is called the rock cycle. However, before we begin our discussion of the rock cycle, let’s clarify a very important point: rocks and minerals are not the same thing! A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition or compositional range and a regular internal crystal structure. A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials.
The key difference between a rock and a mineral is the ‘regular internal crystal structure’ of a mineral. For example, Quartz is a mineral (SiO2), while Granite is a rock. If you were to look at a quartz crystal at the molecular level, the entire crystal would be made up of identical building blocks (SiO2 molecules). Granite, on the other hand is not homogenous. Therefore, one chunk of a piece of granite, when viewed at the molecular level would appear very different from another chunk viewed at the molecular level because the first chunk might be a quartz crystal, while the second chunk might be another type of crystal.
Rocks are categorized by how they are formed. Rocks that are formed directly from liquid rock, or magma that wells up from deep in the earth are called igneous rocks. Rocks that form at, or just

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: I went fishing for the first time today, and I’d love to write about it because it was REALLY fun – but I only managed to get one photo, and I technically was in between casts, so I wasn’t really fishing. Just sitting on a boat looking cool with a dog. Oops. So stay tuned for a post about fishing later, after I’ve had a few goes at it (and taken some more photos!).
Instead, I’m going to attempt to explain sequence stratigraphy and my graduate thesis project to non-sedimentary geologists!
Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are made up of sediment (gravel, sand, clay, mud, etc. derived from other rocks that were weathered and eroded). Water (and other things, like wind, but mostly water) moved this sediment around via rivers and waves and tides. Eventually, this sediment settles down for the long haul and slowly gets buried by more and more sediment. This burial causes the sediment to squish together and compact. At a certain point, the sediment “lithifies” and becomes a sedimentary rock. Welcome to my favorite part of the rock cycle.
Sedimentary rocks are conglomerates (gravel-sized sediment held together by smaller sediment), sandstones (basically sand that has become a rock via the process described above), shales (really fine grained stuff, generally too small to see without some kind of magnifier), and mudstones (the finest grained sediment).
The type of sedimentary rock you’re looking at, the size of the sediment grains, and any sedimentary structures that were preserved (like ripples, crossbeds, planar beds, etc,) can tell you what kind

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
The rock cycle explains how the different types of rock form.
The three types of rock at Earth’s mantle melt into magma.
Magma that cools and hardens underground forms intrusive igneous rock.
Weathering breaks the rock into sediment. Erosion causes the sediment to move to other locations.
Pressure squeezes the sediment together, forming sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure change igneous and sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: It was Mother's Day and we were at Half Moon Bay. We were just wrapping up a great day by the Ocean, when I noticed this awesome Sedimentary rock formation. Of course, I could not pass up the opportunity to impart a little scientific knowledge!
I started to explain that when mountains are first formed, they are tall and jagged like the Rocky Mountains on the west coast of North America. Over time (millions of years) mountains become old mountains like the Appalachian Mountains on the east coast of Canada and the United States.
Old mountains are rounded and lower. The rocks erode or get eaten away by natural elements like rain, wind, freeze/thaw cycle and stream or rivers flowing down cause the big mountains to crumble slowly.
These crumbled or battered rock pieces or "sediments," land in the streams and rivers that flow down from the mountains. They settle down on the bottom of the lake or oceans they run into. Over time, layers of different rocks settle at the bottom of lakes and oceans. This sediment compresses over a long period of time and consolidates into solid layers of rock. These layers are called strata.
Some examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone and shale. The pictures below are sandstone formation. Though it is hard to tell in the picture above, this formation was actually reddish in color and sandy; some of the stones actually broke apart easily. Notice the second slide; the layer of rock underneath is a different color (black spots) than the rock layer on top.
There

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Retrieved Text: Sedimentary rocks are one of three types of rocks found on the Earth’s surface. Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments or little pieces of rock, such as sand, gravel, clay, and silt. These fragments are called claysts. Other types of sedimentary rocks may contain minerals. In addition, sedimentary rocks may also consist of decomposed plant or animal matter that has accumulated over time. A large percentage of these sedimentary rocks contain fossilized remains. This excites geologists because it gives clues about Earth’s history around the time they were formed. It can take millions of years to form sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock falls into one of three classifications: clastic, biochemical, and chemical. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering and erosion, which produce broken fragments or sediments from other rocks. These sediments are transported by water, air, or glaciers and then dropped. Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed when biological elements take part in the change of rocks. For instance, limestone is created from calcium-rich skeletons of coral and mollusks. Biochemical sedimentary rocks can be found at the bottom of a lake or ocean, where marine life dies and decomposes into existing sedimentary rocks. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from changes in chemical processes. These types of sedimentary rocks are usually formed in bodies of water with high concentrations of minerals. Some examples of chemical sedimentary rocks include halite and dolomite. Dolomite is formed as a result of the crystallization of limestone under extreme temperatures.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when a river, ocean, or other body of water carries fragments

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Retrieved Text: At the start of the sedimentary cycle we find erosion. The agents of erosion (wind, rain, freezing) tear away fine particles or whole fragments from rocks. Once torn away, these materials are displaced by the agents of transport (glaciers, wind, water). Gravity plays a primary role in this process.
When transport is carried out by water, we speak of fluvial or marine transport.
The greater the speed of flowing water, the greater its capacity to transport materials is. On reaching a plain, then in lakes or oceans, the rate of flow slows down and sediments become immobile, and accumulate.
One river can transport up to 10 million tons of sediment per year.
Erosion – transport – accumulation: these are the three links in the chain of the sedimentary cycle.
To understand how sedimentary particles produced by the erosion of soils find their way to the oceans.

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Retrieved Text: UVM Cosmogenic Group Laboratory Safety Manual Rock and .Sep 6, 2008 . rocks, sieving sediment and ground rock, and magnetic separation. . Lab Coats – Stored on hooks on the wall next to the rock grinder and.sediment grinding crusher,sediment grinding crusher,Basics in Minerals Processing - Minerals in operation. 2. Size reduction. 3. Crushing. Grinding. Size control. 4. Screening .. 6:7. Lamella or inclined plate sedimentation – introduction.
Impact of physical and mechanical properties of rocks on energy .Nov 15, 2014 . grinding. Characterization of rocks for selection of crusher can be done in . was higher compared to the crushing of sedimentary rocks.sediment grinding crusher,Simulation of Solid Processes by Aspen Plus 2011 - Doriausing different processes like blasting, crushing and grinding to obtain the size of ... Hydrocyclones are considered as nonmechanical and sedimentation type.
controls on downstream changes in grain shape and size in the .
that continual sediment input from tributaries in the bedrock-controlled upper .. grinding and crushing other grains in the process [Lewin & Brewer, 2002]. There.
Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Stream Sediments and Rocks .
The analysis of rock and stream sediment samples is required for the mineral potential .. through both the vertical grinder and shatterbox between samples.
May 23, 2012 . Comminution (grinding) is the process of key importance in . Grinder type ... analysis for smaller grain is performed by sedimentation, which.
Erosion and Sediment Control - International Erosion Control .
Erosion and Sediment Control – A Field Guide for Construction Site .. (e.g. via tub grinding) for use on the site ... first

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Retrieved Text: Photograph taken in 2007 of eolian sedimentary deposits in the Palisades area of the Colorado River corridor, Grand Canyon, Ariz.
This report summarizes a 3-year study of eolian sedimentary processes in the Colorado River corridor, Grand Canyon National Park, Ariz., and discusses the relevance of those processes to the preservation of archeologic sites. The results reported here are based on detailed sedimentologic and geomorphologic investigations in three reaches of the river corridor, as well as continuous measurements of wind, rainfall, and sand transport at six sites for as long as 26 months, short-term field study at 35 other sites, examination of historical aerial photographs, and review of data collected and analyzed during previous studies. The data generated by this study, which involved collaboration with scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center, the National Park Service, Northern Arizona University, the Hopi Tribe, and GeoArch, Inc., were previously published by Draut and Rubin (2005, 2006, 2008) and Draut and others (2005, in press). This report, which supersedes that by Draut and Rubin (2007), provides an overview of the results and contains new conclusions regarding eolian sedimentary processes in the Colorado River ecosystem and their relevance to the preservation of archeologic sites.
At many of the study sites, eolian sediment serves as a substrate on which archeologic sites were formed (many sites were also built on fluvial and slopewash sediment) and, commonly, as a surficial deposit (cover) inferred to help preserve cultural materials. Over time, many cultural artifacts are exposed by wind deflation of the

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Retrieved Text: Limestone is a sedimentary stone created by the accumulation of finely eroded particles of rock and other fine materials carried by the wind or water most often collecting in basins and seabeds. These deposits densified over the millions of years of the earth’s development to create uniform layers or formations. The layers of sediment contain organic material that is cemented with other materials that are sometimes inorganic in origin. Many limestones are sawn parallel to the bedding plane (cross cut) or perpendicular to the bedding plane (vein cut).

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Retrieved Text: Sam Graham in Science & Technology on 6 October, 2015.
Skara Brae- the Neolithic settlement that gives us an insight into what humans were up to 5000 years ago.
In the four and a half billion years since our planet formed from interstellar dust and gas, it has created a stable atmosphere, built continents and oceans of liquid water. In this time, Earth has also achieved something apparently unique, it has harboured life. Over the vast expanses of geological time life has diversified from simple single cellular forms through simple parazoan organisms and onto the huge number of complex multicellular organisms we see today. With the passing of the years, nature has duly selected species for extinction, most going quietly leaving no trace of their existence, with the lucky (or could you say stubborn?) few becoming fossilised – a ‘permanent’ reminder of their existence. The process of fossilisation may simply leave behind a carbonised film on a bedding surface, or may form a perfect cast of the animal on the day it died, however this begs the curious question, how will Homo sapiens be remembered in the rock record?
Of course the answer to this question is somewhat speculative, yet we only need to turn to archaeology to begin to answer this. A lot of what we know about human settlements over the past 12,000 years comes from the uppermost layers of the stratigraphic column, namely the unconsolidated ‘modern’ sediments and soils. It is easy to think that had it not been exposed thanks to a vicious storm in

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Retrieved Text: Evolution: The Ocean says NO!
The subject of the age of the earth and the age of the world ocean is a matter of extreme importance. If there is evidence for an old ocean, then this could be used to support the evolutionist's supposition that life arose from primitive, inorganic marine chemicals over a billion years ago. If, however, the world ocean can be shown to be a relatively youthful feature, then the evolutionist would seem to lose his case by default.
Two basic models for the world ocean can be imagined. According to evolutionary-uniformitarian geologists, the earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old. The world ocean is supposed to have formed by outgassing of water by volcanic processes early in the earth's history. By no later than 1 billion years ago, in the popular scheme, the ocean reached its present size and chemical condition, and primitive one-celled life forms had already evolved by chance processes from lifeless chemicals. For a period of at least 1 billion years the ocean has remained at roughly constant salinity while the single-celled creatures evolved into mollusks, fish, reptiles, mammals, and finally man. During this vast period of time the continents have been eroding more or less continuously with debris being steadily deposited as sediments on the ocean floor.
An alternate to the evolutionist's view of the ocean is the creationist's view. According to the creationist, the ocean formed very recently—perhaps only 10,000 years ago. The earth in its original condition was covered with water (Genesis 1:2), but later God formed the ocean

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Retrieved Text: 1United Nations Development Programme, Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Environmental development and protection measures such as feasibility studies, land-use planning and soil and water conservation are some of the issues that need to be considered in watersheds management. Apparently, integrated watershed management is emerging as an approach for the sustained development and management of natural resources. The integral enactment of different environmental frameworks, strategies and policies could positively impact watershed- based developmental approaches. Sediment which is brought through water erosion can hamper the proper functioning of waterways as well as the quality of water in dams. Knowhow on soil erosion and the sedimentation process is among the requisites that need to be considered for the control of sedimentation. Other elements like climate, edaphic factors, land management, topography, and land cover, etc. will also determine the sedimentation process. Integrated Watershed Management approach is a worthy approach to manage the ecological, social and economic watershed development challenges in countries like Ethiopia. Thus, this article is intended to assess watershed characteristics that will help to explore the possibilities of reducing sedimentation and its related effects.
Different names has been adopted for the term watershed like Watershed (USA) and drainage basin (USA), catchments (British), and in some others drainage area. These all would agree that watershed/drainage basin/is an area drained by a stream of/or a system of connecting streams in such a way that all flow originating in that area is discharged through a single outlet. Chow cited by Nigussie  stated that the watershed was a divide separating one drainage basin from another

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Retrieved Text: We now know that there is a huge time gap between the top of the Chuar Group (the upper part of the Grand Canyon Supergroup) and the overlying sediments that were laid down in Cambrian times. Like the underlying and older Unkar sediment, the Chuar strata were also laid down in shallow seas, with sediments ranging from muds and sandstones to stromatolitic carbonates (originally calcium carbonate limestone, but subsequently altered to a magnesium carbonate rock called dolostone). There are frequent signs of exposure of the sediment surface to the air such as mudcracks, but red beds are less common than in the Unkar strata. For continued shallow-water sedimentation like this, the whole basin of deposition has to have been slowly sinking at roughly the same rate as it was being filled with sediment.
Several other features, such as the presence of pull-apart faults that developed during sedimentation, show that the basin of sedimentation was actively sagging and stretching. This can only happen when the underlying, basement rocks are being pulled apart on a regional or larger scale. Furthermore, the uppermost 60 m of Grand Canyon Supergroup sediments are made up of a dramatic sequence of red beds with angular pebble breccias (called the Sixty-mile Formation). They reflect exposure at the surface and terrestrial conditions, with some substantial uplift and erosion related to block faulting, which is also typical of extensional basins.
Some experts argue that this sedimentary record of deposition on a newly formed western continental margin to Laurentia is the handiwork of the big extensional event that

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Retrieved Text: If you are in the market for natural stone flooring or counters for your home, this brief compilation of stone factoids is going to be very helpful. Just a little knowledge, before you narrow in on what’s right for you, may point you in the right direction. You’ve all studied the types of rock the earth renders, but it could be you haven’t had need for that information in a long time. So here is a brief refresher.
SEDIMENTARY – Igneous rocks make up the majority of the earth’s crust and are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment. It’s this loose sediment that gets compacted and cemented together to give us sedimentary stone. Travertine and limestone fall into this category. Natural, unfilled travertine has tiny holes throughout the surface, indicative of sedimentary formations. Both travertine and limestone are very porous and will require continuing maintenance to keep them looking their best. Keep in mind, because they are so porous they are prone to staining so may not be the best choice for countertop applications. For floor applications, Torrean travertine is less porous and gives a more uniform surface texture.
METAMORPHIC – The metamorphics get their name from “meta” (change) and “morph” (form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable. Extreme temperature and pressure are the catalysts in forming metamorphic rocks and produce stones with exceptional beauty, such as slate, marble and

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Retrieved Text: Accelerating sea-level rise associated with global climate change will affect sedimentary processes on coral reefs and other shoreline environments by increasing energy and sediment resuspension. On reefs, sedimentation is known to increase coral stress and bleaching as particles that settle on coral surfaces interfere with photosynthesis and feeding, and turbidity induced by suspended sediment reduces incident light levels. Using relationships developed from observations of wave orbital velocity, water-surface elevation, and suspended-sediment concentration on a fringing reef flat of Molokai, Hawaii, predictions of the average daily maximum in suspended-sediment concentration increase from ~11 mg/l to ~20 mg/l with 20 cm sea-level rise. The duration of time concentrations exceeds 10 mg/l increases from 9% to 37%. An evaluation of the reduction of wave energy flux through breaking and frictional dissipation across the reef flat shows an increase of ~80% relative to the present will potentially reach the shoreline as sea level increases by 20 cm. Where the shoreline exists on low, flat terrain, the increased energy could cause significant erosion of the shoreline. Considering the sediment budget, the sediment flux is predicted to increase and removal of fine-grained sediment may be expedited on some fringing reefs, and sediment in storage on the inner reef could ultimately be reduced. However, increased shoreline erosion may add sediment and offset removal from the reef flat. The shifts in sediment availability and transport that will occur as result of a modest increase in sea level have wide application to fringing coral reefs elsewhere, as well as other shoreline environments.

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Input Text: Process:
- Rock begins as magma from a volcano
- The magma cools
- Crystals form and the magma become igneous rocks
- The igneous rocks break down into sediment
- Become sedimentary rocks
- If subjected to heat and/or pressure from plate-tectonic activity the sedimentary rocks become metamorphic rock
- The metamorphic rocks melt
- Become magma again.

Question:
suppose more magma comes from volcano happens, how will it affect more magma become igneous rocks.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.
Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: The surface of the earth is made up of soil and rock. Most of the part of the earth is made of rock> Rock are also found below the sea as well as in interior part of the earth.
The outer surface of the earth is uneven as there is the presence of high mountains, plateaus and plains. The uneven outer surface is known as topography. The earth surface is always changing. It is believed that nearly 30 million years ago, Nepal and Himalayas were in the womb of Tethys Ocean stretching from the northern part of India to the southern part of Tibet.
The change is sometimes sudden and sometimes over a period. There are two kinds of agents that cause change.
Earthquake and volcano are considered as the internal agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Rivers, Glacier, Winds, Waves are considered as the external agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Give reasons Why igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them? .
Igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them because they are formed at high temperature where there are no fossils.
Why plutonic rocks have big crystals?
Plutonic rocks have big crystals because it is formed by cooling of magma inside rock.
Why pumice floats on water?
Pumice floats on water because they are porous in nature.
Why silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock?
Silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock because silica is pure substance and sandstone is formed from the minerals.
Minerals are natural solid, crystalline and pure substances found in

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: “That is not granite.” I said firmly, brimming with 24-year old certitude. The salesperson gave me a look over his glasses, annoyed. In his hands was a sample of Black Pearl.
The salesperson softened and we had a lively conversation about stones from Norway, upstate New York, and other localities. While our approaches to stone came from different directions, we shared an absolute love for them.
Scenes like this probably unfold every time a geologist walks into a stone showroom.
To a geologist, granite is one specific type of stone. It’s a light colored, coarse-grained igneous rock. Thus, “black granite,” to a geologist, is an oxymoron akin to a “vegetarian steak.” There simply is no such thing.
But neither side needs to be right or wrong on this. Naming conventions for stones vary across different industries. Those who work in mining, gemstones, commercial stones, and geology all have their own language. And that’s okay. Everyone should use the names that make the most sense for their purposes. The stone industry needn’t start labeling slabs as granodiorite or monzonite just to make geologists happy.
In the natural stone industry, “granite” often means any hard stone that is not marble. Different dealers use the term granite slightly differently. For example, quartzite and sandstone are sometimes classified as granite. Ideally, the names of stone reflect what they actually are. The more precise the definition, the clearer it is for everyone: consumers, salespeople, architects, designers, and fabricators. That said, stones with the same traits can be lumped together for simplicity’s sake.
Perhaps the most useful definition

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: The Risco Blanco igneous intrusion is one of a significant number of intrusions to be found on the island of Gran Canaria, forming part of the Roque Nublo volcano’s Tenteniguada Formation. These intrusions formed more or less around the periphery of the statovolcano’s central emission area, in the centre of the island and represent the culmination of two separate periods of geochemical differentiation of its magmas, the first between 3.9 and 3.8 million years ago, marking the beginning of a period when the volcano’s activity was to become dominated by highly explosive eruptions and the second between 3.1 and 2.7 million years ago during the waning stages of the volcano’s activity. Standing at 400m tall and with a base diameter of 600 metres, The Risco Blanco is the largest of all the visible intrusions around the island. It is located on the northern erosive escarpment of the Tirajana depession and is composed of highly evolved alkaline hauyne-phonolite rock, intruded into previously emplaced Roque Nublo lavas. It is dated as 3.8 million years old and marks the end of the first period of geochemical differentiation (RN1) associated with this volcano and also the beginning of the explosive activity of this volcano. The Risco Blanco is visible today owing to the major gravitational collapses and intense erosion, which have created the Tirajana depression over the past 2.5 million years. Note to the lower left of the dome how the intruding highly viscous magma has forced the bedrock to deform upwards. An igneous intrusion is a body of molten

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Retrieved Text: The underground mass of water is between the size of Lake Superior and Lake Huron.
A team of researchers has discovered an enormous reservoir of water mixed with magma, or semi-molten rock, roughly nine miles beneath Uturuncu, a dormant volcano in the Andes.
In an article published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, the scientists say there that there may be many lakes deep in the Earth beneath other volcanoes as well, and that the bodies of water may explain how and why eruptions happen. The lakes also may play a role in the formation of the Earth's crust.
The subterranean lake apparently contains a volume of water that's somewhere between Lake Huron (850 cubic miles) and Lake Superior (2,903 cubic miles), according to Jon Blundy, a volcano researcher and professor at the UK's University of Bristol, who was one of the study's authors.
According to New Scientist, Blundy and colleagues discovered the massive lake while investigating the Altiplano-Puna magma body, an even more massive underground formation that slows down seismic waves and conducts electricity.
The researchers took rocks ejected by an eruption of Uturuncu that occurred half a billion years ago, mixed them with water in the lab and then subjected them to pressure and temperature conditions comparable to those deep in the Earth. They found that with a mix of about eight to 10% water, the electrical conductivity matched the actual Altiplano-Puna.
That data matched other formations that have been discovered beneath volcanoes such as Mount St. Helen's in Washington state, which led the researchers to suspect that

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Retrieved Text: Scientists are worried about Campi Flegrei.
Scientists have discovered that an ancient volcano in one of the most densely populated parts of the world may erupt at any moment. Here’s why: Magma could be approaching critical degassing pressure at Campi Flegrei, a volcano in the metropolitan area of Naples, home to over four million people.
New research published this week in the journal Nature aims to explain how volcanoes reach that tipping point, something that still isn’t totally understood. In short, rising magma reaches a sudden point when it releases too much steam into nearby rocks, causing an eruption. Campi Flegrei is about to reach that point.
“[The at-risk nearby population] highlights the urgency of obtaining a better understanding of Campi Flegrei’s behaviour,” said Giovanni Chiodini, one of the paper’s authors and a researcher at the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Bologna, said in a report published Wednesday.
Magma, molten rock moving up from the Earth’s mantle, is not a necessarily bad thing. While some theorize that volcanic activity is leading to the end of the world, cooler heads are proposing systems that harness the energy from hot volcanoes to generate power.
The densely populated city of Naples, Italy.
The main issue, the paper explains, is that as magma moves through the hydrothermal rocks during a volcano’s reawakening, interactions take place that researchers still don’t fully understand. In silicic volcanoes, complex hydrothermal systems develop during a volcano’s dormant stage, and not understanding these interactions means predicting when magma will erupt through the surface is a gamble.
Campi Flegrei has been showing

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: 5 Mountain Layers & magma?
29 Spawn Distance For Creatures?
32 Flies spawning from magma?
does magma melt non-magma save walls? can it do it vertically, assuming i channeled out the floor? up and down? it would be interesting to just melt a bunch of stone in a big line straight up instead of build a huge pump system.
Does the type of rock around the mountainous areas hint at magma? If you check out this article and this site list a bunch of common volcanic rocks: Granite, Rhyolite, Diorite, Andesite, Gabbro, Basalt, Peridotite and Komatite. Perhaps some clues as to where to find magma?
It may be possible to find magma vents by searching for extrusive igneous rocks (such as basalt, felsite, rhyolite and andesite), but continental shelves and deep earth are just naturally made of intrusive igneous rock (such as granite, diorite and gabbro). It's generally indicative of rock that has been pushed up to the surface (or erosion has withered the rock down), and not a volcano.
I made a few tests with magma and buildings/constructions and I can confirm some known results and I can provide a few new aspects. Constructions (b->C) are magma safe (walls, floors, stairs, others not tested). No matter what the material is.
Open test: bridge with blocks considered as not magma safe.
Since magma replenishes now, I've rewritten that snippet from the article. If I've missed something(a kind of magma not regenerating, though this always worked for me on several maps), feel free to correct things. --Romantic Warrior 15:47, 18 February 2008 (EST).
"The minerals directly

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: These are called intrusive igneous rocks because the magma has intruded into pre-exiting rock layers. Types of intrusive igneous rocks are granite and basalt .
Oct 12, 2018 ... Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, rhyolite, ... Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools inside the Earth.
... Rock Property Tests | | Types of Igneous Rocks | ... Intrusive vs. Extrusive. Igneous rocks can be classified into two main categories: intrusive and extrusive.

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Retrieved Text: an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand. crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous,instrusive igneous rocks which is crushed in sand.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand heavy Contact Supplier can rock be crushed into sand .
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Igneous rock Wikipedia. Igneous rock (derived from the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes.
Possibly El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in California. Unbroken pieces of batholithic intrusive igneous rock probably exist underground which are larger.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand an intrusive igneous rock which is, Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive and igneous rock Granite, igneous rocks are classified into .
An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sa. Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive igneous rock . An Intrusive Igneous Rock Which Is Crushed Into Sand Mining. Igneous rock: Geology and mineral planning Get More Info.
Aggregate rock crushed intrusive rock victory an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sand Intrusive igneous rocks are created when magma pushes up into the Earth's crust and cools there.
an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. an intrusive igneous rock which is crushed into sa. crushing of igneous rock grinding mill equipmentwhat is an Read More Crushed rock aggregate from intrusive. More.

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Input Text: Process:
- Rock begins as magma from a volcano
- The magma cools
- Crystals form and the magma become igneous rocks
- The igneous rocks break down into sediment
- Become sedimentary rocks
- If subjected to heat and/or pressure from plate-tectonic activity the sedimentary rocks become metamorphic rock
- The metamorphic rocks melt
- Become magma again.

Question:
suppose less magma comes from volcano happens, how will it affect less magma become igneous rocks.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.
Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: The Risco Blanco igneous intrusion is one of a significant number of intrusions to be found on the island of Gran Canaria, forming part of the Roque Nublo volcano’s Tenteniguada Formation. These intrusions formed more or less around the periphery of the statovolcano’s central emission area, in the centre of the island and represent the culmination of two separate periods of geochemical differentiation of its magmas, the first between 3.9 and 3.8 million years ago, marking the beginning of a period when the volcano’s activity was to become dominated by highly explosive eruptions and the second between 3.1 and 2.7 million years ago during the waning stages of the volcano’s activity. Standing at 400m tall and with a base diameter of 600 metres, The Risco Blanco is the largest of all the visible intrusions around the island. It is located on the northern erosive escarpment of the Tirajana depession and is composed of highly evolved alkaline hauyne-phonolite rock, intruded into previously emplaced Roque Nublo lavas. It is dated as 3.8 million years old and marks the end of the first period of geochemical differentiation (RN1) associated with this volcano and also the beginning of the explosive activity of this volcano. The Risco Blanco is visible today owing to the major gravitational collapses and intense erosion, which have created the Tirajana depression over the past 2.5 million years. Note to the lower left of the dome how the intruding highly viscous magma has forced the bedrock to deform upwards. An igneous intrusion is a body of molten

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Retrieved Text: The surface of the earth is made up of soil and rock. Most of the part of the earth is made of rock> Rock are also found below the sea as well as in interior part of the earth.
The outer surface of the earth is uneven as there is the presence of high mountains, plateaus and plains. The uneven outer surface is known as topography. The earth surface is always changing. It is believed that nearly 30 million years ago, Nepal and Himalayas were in the womb of Tethys Ocean stretching from the northern part of India to the southern part of Tibet.
The change is sometimes sudden and sometimes over a period. There are two kinds of agents that cause change.
Earthquake and volcano are considered as the internal agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Rivers, Glacier, Winds, Waves are considered as the external agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Give reasons Why igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them? .
Igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them because they are formed at high temperature where there are no fossils.
Why plutonic rocks have big crystals?
Plutonic rocks have big crystals because it is formed by cooling of magma inside rock.
Why pumice floats on water?
Pumice floats on water because they are porous in nature.
Why silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock?
Silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock because silica is pure substance and sandstone is formed from the minerals.
Minerals are natural solid, crystalline and pure substances found in

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Although the phrase "melted rock" is used, technically the rock doesn’t melt at all. Instead the particles that form the rock change, causing crystals. Rocks that have melted are called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are known as magma when they are under Earth's surface, and lava when a volcano expels them.
Heat is the most important factor affecting the melting point of rock. High temperatures cause the ions in the rock to move quickly, which results in a deformation of the rock. Rock melts when subjected to temperatures between 572 degrees Fahrenheit and 1,292 degrees Fahrenheit. Different types of rock, formed by different materials, will melt at different temperatures.
A great deal of pressure is inside Earth, which causes heat. Imagine rubbing your hands together very hard; this pressure causes heat. Something like this happens -- on a much-larger scale -- under Earth's surface, which is why magma exists in Earth’s core.
The higher the water content of the rocks, the lower the melting point, meaning that they require less heat to melt. The water mixes with the rock particles and speeds up the formation of crystals.
Certain types of rock, such as basalts, must be exposed to high temperatures for a very long time before they start to melt. This reaction is also dependent on the water content of the rocks -- basalts have a low water content; therefore, they take longer to melt. Also, the less pressure the rocks are subjected to, the longer it will take for them to melt.
Harris, Linda. "What Factors Affect the Melting Temperature

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Geology reports don't have to lull readers to dreamland when you explain how a natural force can explode with more power than an atomic bomb, obliterate most of an island, change the weather and hurl shock waves around the globe. These are some of the incredible effects your report can describe when you discuss volcanoes -- one of Earth's most powerful forces.
Pressure causes a multitude of physical actions to occur. Combine heat and pressure and you may create a volcano. Begin your report by explaining how magma -- hot, liquid rock below the earth -- rises because its density is less than the density of the surrounding rocks. The distance the magma moves vertically depends on factors such as the mass of the rocks it must go through and its density. Under intense pressure, dissolved gas in the magma helps propel it upward where it can make it to the surface and into the air depending on the volcano's type. Geologists call magma "lava" when it leaves a volcano via an eruption or vent.
According to the Global Volcanism Program, an extinct volcano is one people don't expect to erupt again, while an active volcano is one that has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Place these important facts into your report along with the definition of dormant: a volcano expected to erupt one day, but which hasn't in the last 10,000 years.
Not All Volcanoes Go "BOOM!"Talk about various types of volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens, a powerful stratovolcano that explodes with fury, hurling gas, rocks

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: 5 Mountain Layers & magma?
29 Spawn Distance For Creatures?
32 Flies spawning from magma?
does magma melt non-magma save walls? can it do it vertically, assuming i channeled out the floor? up and down? it would be interesting to just melt a bunch of stone in a big line straight up instead of build a huge pump system.
Does the type of rock around the mountainous areas hint at magma? If you check out this article and this site list a bunch of common volcanic rocks: Granite, Rhyolite, Diorite, Andesite, Gabbro, Basalt, Peridotite and Komatite. Perhaps some clues as to where to find magma?
It may be possible to find magma vents by searching for extrusive igneous rocks (such as basalt, felsite, rhyolite and andesite), but continental shelves and deep earth are just naturally made of intrusive igneous rock (such as granite, diorite and gabbro). It's generally indicative of rock that has been pushed up to the surface (or erosion has withered the rock down), and not a volcano.
I made a few tests with magma and buildings/constructions and I can confirm some known results and I can provide a few new aspects. Constructions (b->C) are magma safe (walls, floors, stairs, others not tested). No matter what the material is.
Open test: bridge with blocks considered as not magma safe.
Since magma replenishes now, I've rewritten that snippet from the article. If I've missed something(a kind of magma not regenerating, though this always worked for me on several maps), feel free to correct things. --Romantic Warrior 15:47, 18 February 2008 (EST).
"The minerals directly

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: These are called intrusive igneous rocks because the magma has intruded into pre-exiting rock layers. Types of intrusive igneous rocks are granite and basalt .
Oct 12, 2018 ... Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, rhyolite, ... Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools inside the Earth.
... Rock Property Tests | | Types of Igneous Rocks | ... Intrusive vs. Extrusive. Igneous rocks can be classified into two main categories: intrusive and extrusive.

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Retrieved Text: “That is not granite.” I said firmly, brimming with 24-year old certitude. The salesperson gave me a look over his glasses, annoyed. In his hands was a sample of Black Pearl.
The salesperson softened and we had a lively conversation about stones from Norway, upstate New York, and other localities. While our approaches to stone came from different directions, we shared an absolute love for them.
Scenes like this probably unfold every time a geologist walks into a stone showroom.
To a geologist, granite is one specific type of stone. It’s a light colored, coarse-grained igneous rock. Thus, “black granite,” to a geologist, is an oxymoron akin to a “vegetarian steak.” There simply is no such thing.
But neither side needs to be right or wrong on this. Naming conventions for stones vary across different industries. Those who work in mining, gemstones, commercial stones, and geology all have their own language. And that’s okay. Everyone should use the names that make the most sense for their purposes. The stone industry needn’t start labeling slabs as granodiorite or monzonite just to make geologists happy.
In the natural stone industry, “granite” often means any hard stone that is not marble. Different dealers use the term granite slightly differently. For example, quartzite and sandstone are sometimes classified as granite. Ideally, the names of stone reflect what they actually are. The more precise the definition, the clearer it is for everyone: consumers, salespeople, architects, designers, and fabricators. That said, stones with the same traits can be lumped together for simplicity’s sake.
Perhaps the most useful definition

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Retrieved Text: Scientists are worried about Campi Flegrei.
Scientists have discovered that an ancient volcano in one of the most densely populated parts of the world may erupt at any moment. Here’s why: Magma could be approaching critical degassing pressure at Campi Flegrei, a volcano in the metropolitan area of Naples, home to over four million people.
New research published this week in the journal Nature aims to explain how volcanoes reach that tipping point, something that still isn’t totally understood. In short, rising magma reaches a sudden point when it releases too much steam into nearby rocks, causing an eruption. Campi Flegrei is about to reach that point.
“[The at-risk nearby population] highlights the urgency of obtaining a better understanding of Campi Flegrei’s behaviour,” said Giovanni Chiodini, one of the paper’s authors and a researcher at the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Bologna, said in a report published Wednesday.
Magma, molten rock moving up from the Earth’s mantle, is not a necessarily bad thing. While some theorize that volcanic activity is leading to the end of the world, cooler heads are proposing systems that harness the energy from hot volcanoes to generate power.
The densely populated city of Naples, Italy.
The main issue, the paper explains, is that as magma moves through the hydrothermal rocks during a volcano’s reawakening, interactions take place that researchers still don’t fully understand. In silicic volcanoes, complex hydrothermal systems develop during a volcano’s dormant stage, and not understanding these interactions means predicting when magma will erupt through the surface is a gamble.
Campi Flegrei has been showing

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Input Text: Process:
- Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomates by diffusion
- Water is transported to the leaves in the xylem
- Energy harvested through light reaction is stored by forming ATP
- Carbon dioxide and energy from ATP are used to create sugar
- Oxygen exits the leaves through the stomata by diffusion
- The plant reuses the water or the water exits through the stomata as water vapor.

Question:
suppose Humans breathe out less carbon dioxide happens, how will it affect Plants will have less access to carbon dioxide.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Another popular project in primary schools is the one about how animals breathe in air, how their lungs then take the oxygen out of the air, how the oxygen is then used to power the animals' muscles, converting it into carbon dioxide in the process, and then how the unwanted carbon dioxide is released into their lungs to be breathed out into the air. (In short, animals turn oxygen into carbon dioxide.) The second half of the story is that plants take in carbon dioxide from the air through pores in their leaves, they use the energy from sunlight to split it into carbon and oxygen, they use the carbon to make new plant material, and then they release the unwanted oxygen back into the air. (in short, plants turn carbon dioxide into oxygen.) This is a good balance - plants make oxygen for animals to breathe, and animals make carbon dioxide for plants to breathe, and the whole thing is powered by the sun. Now, I don't think you need to spend a month of your life doing a project on this or to cover a wall in a giant picture of it. Let's just save ourselves a lot of time and move straight on so that we can learn more.
There is a third part of the story which is very rarely told in primary schools: animals and plants are both made of carbon, plus a lot of other things such as water (which is in turn made of oxygen and hydrogen), but it's mainly

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Retrieved Text: As carbon dioxide levels increase in the atmosphere some of our food crops will respond by becoming less nutritious and produce more toxins.
We've constantly fought a battle against weeds, disease, pests and drought when growing crops. But the security of our food supply is being threatened by a sinister new player generated by us.
The next big food issue could be how rising levels of carbon dioxide are affecting our fruit and vegies. Now we know that plants love CO2 so rising levels of it will affect their metabolisms and it seems almost certain that for many foods the levels of nutrition will go down and for some toxin levels will go up. Both serious issues when you are trying to feed a world with an increasing population.
We're tracking worst case scenario with carbon dioxide at the moment and we need to predict what sort of things are going to happen in the future.
Carbon dioxide is crucial for plant growth. Plants breathe in CO2 and convert the gas into usable energy.
Plants use carbon dioxide. It's a carbon catcher and storage system so you think if there's more carbon dioxide they would just capture and store more. But in fact that doesn't happen. Plants do grow faster at elevated carbon dioxide usually, but not as fast as you'd expect.
Ros Gleadow has been studying the effects of raised C02 on plant growth.
Leaves of plants grown at elevated carbon dioxide have a lot less protein wheat, barley, rice, all of those in probably only 50 to 60 years time will

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Retrieved Text: facing the fire: Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
The House Committee on Energy and Commerce has developed what is arguably the broadest (non-tax-oriented) jurisdiction of any Congressional committee. Today, it maintains principal responsibility for legislative oversight relating to telecommunications, consumer protection, food and drug safety, public health, air quality and environmental health, the supply and delivery of energy, and interstate and foreign commerce in general. This jurisdiction extends over five Cabinet-level departments and seven independent agencies--from the Energy Department, Health and Human Services, the Transportation Department to the Federal Trade Commission, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal Communications Commission — and sundry quasi-governmental organizations.
Which is to say, this is a pretty powerful committee. They get to advance (or squelch) a lot of potentially important legislation. And Barton, as ranking member, is a powerful guy within this powerful committee. So it matter that he thinks crazy things, like that marathon runners could be considered a source of pollution. Yeah, didn't you read that article? It goes back to the EPA's decision that carbon dioxide can be considered a pollutant, and as such can be regulated. Barton thinks that people are point sources of carbon dioxide, and I guess because marathons are a large group of heavily exhaling people, Joe thinks that means a large source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The point Barton is trying, and failing, to make is that carbon dioxide is difficult to regulate because it is a naturally

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Retrieved Text: increase took place before the year 1940, which is prior to most human-emitted carbon dioxide. Warmth is essential; too much is bad but thats not a problem right now.
The question is though, how much more acidic, or warmer or fewer? People are panicking and theyre jumping over the Constitution and theyre jumping over common sense. However, according to the National Center for Policy Analysis, human-produced carbon dioxide could have only played a small role in this warming. These changes have an effect on crops, plants, and how carbon monoxide is exchanged (Britt, 2004). But what is Global Warming? Along with William. Firstly, global warming is said to be caused by the high levels of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by humans. Suppose everyone in the world stops driving their fossil fuel powered vehicles and switched to electric vehicles instead. These changes have naturally created changes up until the introduction of the industrial age which has since contributed to the overflow of greenhouse gas effect within the Earths climate changes. With various ideas as to global warmings existence for many the question may always remain as to the truthfulness of such an element. Smoke produced by factories, vehicular show more content, we&apos;ve got to think of the polar bears right? This website displays photographs of surface stations that are positioned beside airport runways, large industrial areas, response and sewage treatment plants; all of which distort temperature readings. Lately these questions are being asked more and more by people who believe that the earths climate is growing

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Retrieved Text: In many ways, we take foliage for granted. We walk by it every day, step on it, and it slowly becomes a background entity on the path to our next destination. But plants have always been an important part of balance in the ecosystem, and in our homes. They keep us healthy, quiet our space, make us feel good, and evoke the need within us to connect to nature. This blog post will outline the amazing benefits of indoor plants, and maybe make you consider adding a few to your home.
I wasn’t lying when I said plants are an important part of balance in the ecosystem. As humans, when we breathe we take in oxygen, and release carbon dioxide. Plants, on the other hand, take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. They eliminate ½ lb of carbon dioxide per square inch of leaf surface per year. Pretty cool right? By doing this they also clean the air in other ways. Plants reduce 87% of air toxins in 24 hours. They tackle chemicals like nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, toluene, xylene, and benzene. Plants also reduce airborne dust by filtering it out as they take air in. All of this intern helps to create healthier inhabitants.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release 97% of the water they take in. Therefore, they naturally create humidity levels matching the recommended human comfort level of 30%-60%. They are a beautiful, natural, and cost-effective humidifier for any space. Just group 2-4 plants together and you will start to notice a difference in your space.
Biophilia–

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Retrieved Text: Adding plants to your study room or work office will make you not only work in a happier healthier environment but it can also achieve better results for you too.
I know it sounds hard to believe but this simple act of adding a few leafy green pot around you will actually make a difference. You must note though that not any plants will help you work more productively, there are certain types of plants that help and will benefit you more than others.
So what the main advantages of adding plants to your work space?
Plants naturally take carbon dioxide from the air and filter it through their leaves reproducing clean oxygen for our lungs to breathe. This works in perfect unison with humans. It’s quite amazing actually, humans breathe in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide while plants draw in carbon dioxide and expel clean oxygen. Making the air you breathe cleaner is not only going to help you work more diligently but will also increase your overall health over sitting in a sterile office or study area. Clean air has been proven to make your lungs work with less stress and operate more smoothly therefore allowing more clean oxygen to the brain and making you concentrate better. Plants also draw in toxins from the air that can be harmful to our lungs. This again helps benefit us while working or studying for long periods.
Plants do help you concentrate for longer periods, it’s been proven!
Studies have proven that having plants around you while studying increases concentration. These studies

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Retrieved Text: Mounting levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide reduce the medicinal properties of milkweed plants that protect monarch butterflies from disease, according to a recent experiment.
Milkweed leaves contain bitter toxins that help monarchs ward off predators and parasites. The study looked at how elevated carbon dioxide levels alter plant chemistry and how those changes, in turn, affect interactions between monarchs and their parasites. Milkweed is the sole food of monarch caterpillars. In a multi-year experiment, researchers grew four milkweed species with varying levels of those protective compounds, which are called cardenolides. Half the plants were grown under normal carbon dioxide levels, and half of them were bathed, from dawn to dusk, in nearly twice that amount. Then the plants were fed to hundreds of monarch caterpillars.
This leads to some interesting speculation. Humans use chemicals in the environment to help control parasites and diseases. Aspirin, digitalis, Taxol and many other drugs originally came from plants. "If elevated carbon dioxide reduces the concentration of medicines in plants that monarchs use, it could be changing the concentration of drugs for all animals that self-medicate, including humans," said co-author Dr. Mark Hunter in a statement.

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Retrieved Text: It could cause major problems for our diets by 2050.
We all know plants need carbon dioxide to do their photosynthetic magic. But just as too much carbon dioxide can have negative effects on humans ability to function, so too can an influx of CO2 affect how plants grow. Researchers at Harvard's School of Public Health had previously proved that carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere was hurting the protein, iron, and zinc content of rice, wheat, peas, and other crops. But in a new study, those researchers sought to find out how much damage carbon dioxide was really causing, now and for the future.
They analyzed diets of people in 152 countries, cataloging the nutritional content of 225 foods, then calculated who among those people weren't getting enough of key nutrients, such as protein and iron. With those numbers in hand, the researchers could predict what people's diets—and their nutritional benefits—might look like into 2050.
It doesn't look good: as carbon dioxide continues to fill our atmosphere, the nutritional content of many crops will lessen, to the point that some 150 million people around the world could suffer protein deficiencies by 2050, the researchers found. What's more, iron supplies could plummet in the some regions.
Countries in Asia and Africa face the highest risk, the researchers say, because there, people's diets rely heavily on wheat and rice, two foods that already lack in protein and that, with increases in carbon dioxide, will continue to dwindle in nutritional value.
Protein deficiency is a real problem. Low protein won't just keep you

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Retrieved Text: Change Climate Change One Tree at a Time!
WHAT WE NEED AS HUMANS AND OUR INTERDEPENDENCE ON TREES AND PLANTS AND WHY YOUR HELP IS SO IMPORTANT?
Human beings require sun for Vitamin D and health, good unpolluted oxygen and water.
Plants and trees also require good quality water and the sun to photosynthesise and turn carbon dioxide into the oxygen that humans breathe.
WHAT CLIMATE CHANGE INCREASE THE EFFECTS OF!
Climate Change increases the effects of ; Twisters, Fires, Floods, Typhoons, Hurricanes, Cyclones, acid rain, Firestorms, Tsunami’s, El Nino’s and events like Chernobyl, bleaching of coral, melting of the Polar Ice Caps, Skin Cancer, rising sea temperatures, changed habitat, increased loss of biodiversity, loss of plant and animal species, increased use of air conditioning.
Increased Population means more Carbon Created which means more bad Climate change.
The burning of coal for electric power, burning of oil based fuels (Fossil fuels) causes massive increases in CO2 which leads to massive Global Warming, shrinking of the Polar Ice Caps and ice shelf’s which leads to more water and therefore rising ocean levels and sea temperatures which cause changes to weather patterns and mega weather occurrences.
WHAT WILL HELP CHANGE DISASTROUS CLIMATE CHANGE?
Currently 25 percent of Western pharmaceuticals are derived from tropical rainforest ingredients, and 70 percent of the plants with anti-cancer properties are found only in this shrinking biome.
Trees through their growing cycle (Photosynthesis) absorb sun, water and CO2 (Carbon).
They give back to human beings the valuable clean oxygen that we need in order to breathe and live. In blog 3 we will tell you

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide is part and parcel of a marijuana plant’s growth. Carbon dioxide is to plants like oxygen is to humans. It is that simple. If you are growing outdoors, you may not need to know about the importance of enough carbon dioxide in your weed plant’s system but if you are using an indoor grow room or a greenhouse, then CO2 is an important part of your growing concern. Without proper amounts of CO2, your pot plants will die and all your efforts will go to waste. Avoid this problem from ever afflicting your indoor set-up. Learn about proper use of CO2 by getting it straight from our e-book.
“Aside from humidity and temperature maintenance, I learned about CO2 benefits by reading this book. At first I thought that as long as there is air where we can breathe then plants can also do the same but I was wrong and thanks to this book I was able to understand better about the use of carbon dioxide.
Get all the CO2 information you need, its effect on cannabis plants, and why CO2 is one of the best techniques to make cannabis plants grow faster, while producing huge yields when harvested. This is one of the ways to make a small amount of cannabis plants produce dense crystal covered buds that will last till the next plants are ready to harvest.
Raising the level of carbon dioxide levels in the grow area increases the cannabis grow speed to an exceptional growth rate, which can even double the harvest.
Read the

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Retrieved Text: Earth’s atmosphere does many important tasks for us—it shields us from UV radiation, generates weather, and is the very air we breathe. But its ability to keep our planet warm is what makes the atmosphere so important to climate change.
* These include methane (CH4), water vapor, nitrous oxide (N2O), and some fluorinated gases.
The orange arrows show heat energy (also known as infrared) radiating upward from the Earth. The atmosphere is composed of CO2 and other gases, that form a heat-trapping blanket around the Earth.
Since the late 1800s, humans have been burning fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—to get energy. Burning these fuels, generates tons of extra CO2, which makes the heat-trapping blanket thicker and thicker, warming the planet.
Isn’t CO2 part of the air we breathe?
Yes, CO2 is a natural part of Earth’s atmosphere. Plants absorb it as they grow (through photosynthesis); humans and other animals exhale it with every breath. The problem is, burning fossil fuels produces billions of tons of excess CO2 every year. These rampant CO2 levels are the root cause of climate change.
This graph shows the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere from March 1958 to the present, as measured at Mauna Loa Observatory on the island of Hawai’i. The red line shows the daily measurements, while the black line is an average that smooths out the seasonal fluctuations.
Other CO2 observatories around the world show the same trend—CO2 is rising steadily every year as we continue to produce excess CO2 by burning fossil fuels.
Why does the red line rise and fall? In a

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Retrieved Text: Spurred by increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, forests over the last two decades have become dramatically more efficient in how they use water, a Harvard study has found.
Studies have long predicted that plants would begin to use water more efficiently as atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rose. A research team led by Research Associate Trevor Keenan and Assistant Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Andrew Richardson, however, has found that forests across the globe are becoming more efficient than expected.
Using data collected from forests in the northeastern US and elsewhere around the world, Keenan and Richardson, found increases in efficiency larger than those predicted by even the most state-of-the-art computer models. The research, which was done in collaboration with researchers from the Harvard's Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, the USDA Forest Service, Ohio State University, Indiana University, and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany, is described in a July 10 paper in Nature.
"This could be considered a beneficial effect of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide," said Keenan, the first author of the paper. "What's surprising is we didn't expect the effect to be this big. A large proportion of the ecosystems in the world are limited by water – they don't have enough water during the year to reach their maximum potential growth. If they become more efficient at using water, they should be able to take more carbon out of the atmosphere due to higher growth rates."
While increased atmospheric carbon dioxide may benefit forests in the short term, Richardson emphasized that the overall climate

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Retrieved Text: The Personal Climate Change Calculator is an easy to use tool which will help you measure your climate-affecting carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. After calculating your carbon footprint, you will be presented with a convenient option for offsetting these emissions by making a donation to plant trees in one of AMERICAN FORESTS Global ReLeaf forest restoration projects. Each tree costs just $1 and is “planted” with the click of a mouse.
Why plant trees? According to AmericanForests.org, during photosynthesis, a tree "inhales" CO2 from the air and then separates the carbon from the oxygen molecules. The carbon is absorbed by the tree, which then "exhales" pure oxygen back into the air for us to breathe. This process, called sequestration is how forests have always helped regulate the earth's atmospheric balance. Trees, then, are natural regulators of the Earth's atmospheric balance, sequestering carbon and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that builds up in the atmosphere. The less excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the lower the "greenhouse effect," and the less chance that we will suffer the devastating weather effects associated with a rapid shift in our planet's climate.
Plant a tree. Breathe deeply!

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Retrieved Text: Launching early next year, a NASA satellite for carbon dioxide study will collect data that will help scientists figure out how nature absorbs man-made emissions.
NASA plans to launch a satellite early next year to track carbon dioxide emissions. The launch is part of a data-gathering mission that could affect climate change policies and carbon emissions trading worldwide.
The satellite, Orbiting Carbon Observatory, is scheduled for launch from the Vandenberg Air Force base in California some time after January 2009.
"The idea is to fly over the Earth and look down and measure columns of CO2" said David Crisp, who heads the research at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif.
Researchers hope the OCO will provide data to help answer some questions about how nature wipes clean a large amount of carbon dioxide emitted by human activities. The question they are seeking to answer is: What is the carbon dioxide concentration in different parts of the world and what causes it?
The OCO is the first NASA spacecraft dedicated to studying carbon dioxide. It will orbit the Earth at an altitude of 705 kilometers (438 miles) and take carbon dioxide measurements three times a second using three spectrometers.
The compact satellite – at 2-meters tall and 1.9-meter wide – will cover the whole Earth every 16 days, said Crisp. He and a fellow researcher, Scott Denning, presented their $270 million research project at the American Geophysical Union's meeting in San Francisco Tuesday.
Scientists have been collecting carbon dioxide data on the ground for decades, but those projects aren't able to easily

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Retrieved Text: We are working our way through the solar system with these fun, hands-on space themed science experiments! It's the perfect unit study because space is an exciting topic for everyone around here! I have extra interest in it lately because I'm studying astronomy this month as part of my MA degree!
1- Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be made here on Earth by simply combining vinegar and baking soda.
2- CO2 is more dense than our air.
3- CO2 will crowd out oxygen and extinguish fires.
4- CO2 will trap particulates (like smoke) and make hazy clouds, just like on Venus!
* is the 2nd planet from the sun.
* is the 6th largest planet in our solar system.
* is only a tiny big smaller than Earth.
* takes 225 Earth days to go around the sun.
* takes 243 Earth days for one day.
* has an atomosphere made of 96% carbon dioxide.
1- Discuss carbon dioxide. What is it? Where is it found? What do your kids know about it already? Key points: carbon dioxide is a gas. Less than 1/2% of our atmosphere is carbon dioxide. It is also the gas used to carbonate drinks, the gas released when you mix vinegar and baking soda, and about 5% of the air we breathe out.
2- Discuss the planet Venus. What do your kids know about it already? Key point: More than 96% of Venus's atmosphere is carbon dioxide. This traps a TON of heat, making Venus THE HOTTEST planet in our solar system (over 800 degrees Farhenheit on the surface--hot enough to melt lead!). It

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: I learned the structure and function of ecology, ecology is the interactions between organisms and their environment. Sunlight plays a key role in ecology, and it is needed for all life on earth. Heterotrophs are organizations that consume other organisms to provide food and energy, such as humans and animals. Autotrophs are organisms that can provide themselves food and energy, such as plants. So without sunlight, food and energy can be provided for the plants, and plants cant be consumed by heterotrophs. Biotic is living things that affect the ecosystem. Non-biotic is non living things that affect the ecosystem.
I learnt the structure and function of the carbon cycle are that it moves around the atmosphere, oceans, and land. The most important part of the carbon cycle is carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle also moves through photosynthesis when carbon dioxide is inhaled by plants, then the carbon is made into food for plants. Humans and animals breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon, and it just moves through the carbon cycle.
I learnt the structure and function of cellular respiration is the process of energy in glucose being dropped in a cell, and is used for life purposes. Cellular respiration is essential to life because you need it to breathe,move, and have blood circulation.
My model represents faults, faults are caused by tectonic forces and faults happen when there’s movement of the crust. For example, there are four layers: blue, red, yellow, and green. Blue occurred first because it is the bottom layer and it’s the deepest layer of the

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Retrieved Text: I don't like global warming and to stop that, we need to plant plants. Carbon Dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that is making are world hotter than it should be. We could get rid of this Carbon Dioxide by planting plants. The plants breathe in Carbon Dioxide and will get rid of some of the greenhouse gases.

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Retrieved Text: Hydrocarbons are burned, or combusted, primarily in engines, power plants and heating systems. Known more commonly as fossil fuels, the hydrocarbons humans burn are coal, natural gas and petroleum products. If combustion were 100 percent efficient and all hydrocarbons contained only hydrogen and carbon, the sole byproducts would be water and carbon dioxide. There are unintended waste products, however, and they cause environmental harm. Even carbon dioxide, which is a natural part of the atmosphere, becomes a pollutant when released in excessive amounts. The environmental liabilities associated with hydrocarbons provide incentives for the development of alternative energy sources.
The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, especially coal and diesel fuel, causes the release of altered hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbon pollutants, known collectively as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, take a variety of forms. Some are quite toxic, known to harm aquatic life and cause cancer.
Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons also results in carbon monoxide pollution. An odorless, colorless gas, carbon monoxide causes headaches and complications for people with heart disease. Carbon dioxide is always released when hydrocarbons are burned. It is a leading cause of global climate change and the acidification of oceans. Combustion of oil and coal, in particular, causes the release of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Because it makes certain nutrients, such as calcium and phosphorus, less available to plants, it reduces the productivity of ecosystems

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Retrieved Text: Global warming refers to the increase in temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans. This is a process that happens when greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun in the earth’s atmosphere, which eventually increases the average temperature. Examples of these greenhouse gases include methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor. There is a lot of evidence that point to the fact that the global surface temperature has been increasing over the years. This phenomenon has been caused by an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, which result from natural occurrences or a number of human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels.
Evidence of global warming include documented increases in the temperature of the air and the ocean, rising sea level, and widespread melting of snow and ice as well. Some causes of global warming have been attributed to external forcing, which refers to the processes that are external to the climate system that affect the climate. Notably, climate responds to a number of external forcing, such changes in solar luminosity, radiative forcing (as a result of changes in the atmospheric composition), and variations in the earth’s orbit around the Sun. However, recent changes in global temperatures are too rapid. Orbital cycles usually vary slowly over many years and hence are too gradual to have caused the recent temperature changes.
The greenhouse effect refers to the process by which the absorption, as well as, the emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere ends up warming the earth’s lower atmosphere and surface.

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Retrieved Text: Carl Bernacchi's primary employer is the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the the United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA). He has funding from the USDA ARS and from Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that is engineering crops to photosynthesize more efficiently to sustainably increase worldwide food productivity with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR), and the U.K. Government’s Department for International Development (DFID).
Ivan Baxter works for the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and has received funding from the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, The USDA-ARS and Cotton Inc.
Researchers around the world are trying to figure out ways to feed a growing population, which is estimated to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050. But as humanity struggles to increase crop yield, might nutritional quality of crops suffer?
The process that allows plants to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air into stored sugars and fats – carbohydrates – that ultimately lead to growth is called photosynthesis. These carbohydrates end up in what farmers harvest. Plants also absorb minerals from the soil, which are critical for them to survive. These minerals also end up in the food farmers harvest. Therefore, plants are critical to human health both in terms of calories from carbohydrates and minerals in our diets.
For several decades, studies have consistently revealed that higher carbon dioxide levels produce higher yields of most crops. However, there are very few real-world, field experiments on major crops that examine the impact

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Retrieved Text: ….cows produce between 66 and 132 gallons of methane each day (250 - 500 liters)? In one year, that adds up to somewhere between 24,090 to 48,180 gallons each year for just one cow (91,250 -182,500 liters )! According to beef industry reports, the last five years has averaged a beef population of about 3.7 million worldwide. That makes for about 89,133,000,000 to 178,266,000,000 gallons each year (337,625,000,000 to 675,250,000,000 liters)! That's a lot of methane to put into the atmosphere every year.
….growing crops for food doesn't put any pollution into the air, except what is used for planting and harvesting. If these two functions are done with horses, or if forest gardens are used, the amount of air contamination is nearly non-existent.
....hemp breathes in four times the CO2 that trees do?
….5% of the air pollution in the United States is created by gas-powered yard tools like lawnmowers?
….air pollution kills about 2 million people worldwide each year, with 656,000 of them in China?
….some estimate that about 60 million tons of carbon monoxide are pumped into the air in the United States each year?
….fracking pollutes the air with pollutants such as methane, nitrogen oxides, BTEX compounds, NMHCs, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide?
….some of the oil and gas fields in the U.S. state of Wyoming have ozone worse than Los Angeles, California has at its worst? It is reportedly due to the fracking activities that go on there.
….in the United States, 45% (95% in large cities) of carbon monoxide is produced by vehicle emissions?
….approximately 50,000 species

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Retrieved Text: Plants respire through microscopic pores in the underside of their leaves; these pores are called stomata. Plants can open or close their stomata to regulate the amount of gas exchange that takes place.
Plants produce the oxygen that animals need to breathe.
There are three kinds of gases that plants release through their stomata: carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapor. Each of these gases is a byproduct of a process essential to the plant's survival.
Plants produce carbon dioxide through cellular respiration. The amount of CO2 they release, however, is much less than the amount of CO2 they consume through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis releases oxygen gas as a byproduct and the oxygen diffuses out through the stomata of the leaves. Plants also lose water vapor through their stomata; this process of water loss is called transpiration.
Transpiration is essential to plants; in combination with the high surface tension of water, it creates negative pressure that draws water up the plant's stem and from the roots. Although it decreases their rate of growth, many plants will nonetheless close their stomata in response to stress caused by drought to avoid drying out.

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Retrieved Text: According to a new study issued this week in the Nature journal, the plants lose their capacity to absorb human-made carbon dioxide emissions. At the current rate at which we produce CO2, the Earth’s vegetation might not be able to store the carbon dioxide.
Every year, humans release more than 40 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the planet’s atmosphere. Currently, about 50 percent of these emissions are absorbed by plants. However, soon, Earth’s vegetation might lose its ability to absorb carbon dioxide emissions, a group of researchers from the Columbia University stated. That would lead to increased global warming and ocean warming which would intensify the episodes of coral bleaching and ocean acidification.
The plants capacity of absorbing carbon dioxide emissions depends on the variations in the water cycle, such as droughts and floods. Using different climate models, the researchers assessed how periods of either drought or floods affect plants.
“Essentially, if there were no droughts and heat waves, if there were not going to be any long-term drying over the next century, then the continents would be able to store almost twice as much carbon as they do now,” said Pierre Gentine, the study’s leading author.
“This is a big deal. If soil moisture continues to reduce the net biome productivity at the current rate, and the rate of carbon uptake by the land starts to decrease by the middle of this century—as we found in the models—we could potentially see a large increase in the concentration of atmospheric CO2 and a corresponding rise in the effects of

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Retrieved Text: How Does Nitrogen Enter Our Body?
How Does the Skeletal System Work With the Respiratory System?
As a species, humans require air to survive; a need it shares with most other members of the Kingdom Animalia. After a human breathes in Earth's air (roughly 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), he or she exhales a mixture of compounds similar to the air inhaled: 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent argon, and four percent carbon dioxide. Some scientists suggest that exhaled air contains as many as 3,500 compounds, most of which are in microscopic amounts. There is some variability in this, however. Air quality can affect both the content of what humans both breathe in and breathe out, a concern some conservationists worry about when it comes to industries and automobiles releasing potentially harmful gases. Similarly, some doctors suggest that monitoring the chemical content of an air a human exhales can be a useful diagnostic tool in catching respiratory ailments.
Humans, and many other species, need air to live. They breathe in the combination of elements and compounds and exhale a similar set with different proportions. Exhaled air consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 4 percent carbon dioxide and potentially thousands of other compounds.
Humans, along with many other animals, breathe in air through their mouth, into their lungs. The chest cavity containing the lungs expands and contracts with the diaphragm as it moves down and up. Inside the lungs, small sacs called the alveoli fill with the air. From there the oxygen in the air

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Retrieved Text: (ii) Which two gases make the bulk of the atmosphere?
(iii) Which gas creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?
(i) Atmosphere is a thin blanket of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the harmful rays of the sun. It consists of several gases in which nitrogen and oxygen occupy the major portion.
(ii) Nirtrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) make the bulk of the atmosphere.
(iii) Carbon dioxide creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.
(iv) Weather is hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.
(vi) The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface is known as air pressure.
(iii) Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is free from clouds?
Answer: (i)—(c), (ii)—(a), (iii)—(b), (iv)—(b), (v)—(b).
(ii) Amount of insolation decreases from equator torwards poles?
Answer: (i) On a humid day the air is full of water vapour. Hence, evaporation is very slow. This is the reason why wet clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day.
(ii) Insolation comes through vertical rays on equator. Thus, it covers up less space but we feel more heat there when it goes up from equator towards poles, the sun rays become slanting. Needless to say that slanting rays come on the earth covering longer distance. Although these slanting rays heat up more space, the degree of hotness is felt less. This is the reason why amount of insolation decreases from equator towards poles.
Question 1. How does carbon dioxide create green house effect?
Answer: Crbon dioxide creates greenhouse effect by trappeing the heat radiated from the earth.
Question 2. What is the significance of

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Retrieved Text: Rising CO2 levels can interfere with photosynthesis, robbing some foods of important nutrients.
For most of us, when we think of climate change, we imagine tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and blizzards; but what you might not have considered is its impact on nutrition. Not only is climate change likely to affect nutrition, the effects could happen in your lifetime.
Humanity is conducting a global experiment by rapidly altering the environmental conditions on the only habitable planet we know.
It is easy to overlook the effect on climate change on food production, though the current drought out West may make it easier to imagine. But an even broader danger may be emerging.
According to a Harvard School of Public Health study that looked at crops grown in an environment with atmospheric conditions similar to those expected in 2050, rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) will lower the nutritional value of food crops 35 years from now, making the foods you eat — from bread to tofu — less nutritious.
“This study is the first to resolve the question of whether rising CO2 concentrations — which have been increasing steadily since the Industrial Revolution — threaten human nutrition,” said Samuel Myers, research scientist in the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health and the study’s lead author.
It all has to do with photosynthesis and which type of the process certain plants use. Photosynthesis involves the bonding together of carbon dioxide and water to make sugar and oxygen from the energy of the sun. The sugar contains the energy and serves

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Retrieved Text: Global warming is expected to hit northern latitudes hardest, raising temperatures between 5 and 7 degrees Celsius by the year 2100. But now scientists experimenting with life under dryer conditions have made a stunning discovery about Northern forests that could be key in the fight against global warming itself.
The scientists found out that mushrooms growing in the warmer, dry spruce forests of Alaska, Canada, and Scandinavia produce less climate-warming carbon dioxide than fungi in cooler, wetter soil. That’s baffling. Normally, you’d expect warmer soil to increase carbon emitted. You’d expect extreme cold to slow down the process by which fungi plants convert soil carbon into carbon dioxide. Turns out the opposite is the case.
“We don’t get a vicious cycle of warming in dry, boreal forests. Instead, we get the reverse, where warming actually prevents further warming from occurring,” said Steven Allison, ecology and evolutionary biology assistant professor and lead author of the study.
Allison wrote up his team’s findings in an article in Global Change Biology.
“The Earth’s natural processes could give us some time to implement responsible policies to counteract warming globally,” said Allison, who is attached to the University of California at Irvine. A precise idea of how forests cycle carbon is key to get a precise picture on future global climate warming, not least because forest soil contains about the equivalent to the amount of atmospheric carbon. And northern forests contain around 30 percent of the planet’s soil carbon which is mostly coming from dead grasses, trees and shrubs. The mushrooms or fungi plants that

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Input Text: Process:
- Prophase is the first and longest stage of mitosis
- In this stage the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In prophase the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In metaphase the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell and become connected to the spindle fiber at their centromere
- In anaphase the sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are pulled apart
- During telophase the chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct rod-like shapes
- Two new nuclear membranes then form around each of the two regions of DNA and the spindle fibers disappear.

Question:
suppose if during anaphase sister chromatids separate happens, how will it affect HELPING mitosis to proceed normally.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

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Retrieved Text: chromatid A threadlike strand formed from a chromosome during the early stages of cell division. Each chromosome divides along its length into two chromatids, which are at first held together at the centromere. They separate completely at a later stage. The DNA of the chromosome reproduces itself exactly so that each chromatid has the complete amount of DNA and becomes a daughter chromosome with exactly the same genes as the original chromosome from which it was formed.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides during the third stage (anaphase) of cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides at the anaphase of mitosis or the second stage of meiosis (meiosis II), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Zoology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division during interphase. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: Within 24 hours, a human cell can divide into two daughter cells that are identical to the original. This cell cycle includes growth of the cell, duplication of the DNA and division of the chromosomes and cell contents. The stages of the cycle -- which occur in both plants and animals -- are called interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis. Kinetochore and nonkinetochore -- also known as interpolar -- microtubules play an important role in the separation of chromosomes and the formation of daughter cells. These microscopic structures are both made from subunits called tubulin, but they have different functions during cell division.
When a cell enters mitosis, a microtubule-based structure called a spindle forms with two poles at either end of the enlarged cell. The chromosomes align along the center of the spindle prior to separation of the chromatids -- half of the duplicated chromosomes. Kinetochore microtubules extend from the spindle poles toward the center of the cell and attach to the chromatids at a structure called the kinetochore. The nonkinetochore microtubules also extend from the spindle toward the center of the cell, but they do not attach to the chromatids. Instead they overlap at the center of the spindle.
During late prophase -- one of the phases of mitosis -- the plate-like kinetochore forms on the duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome has two kinetochores -- one for each identical sister chromatid -- attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles. Kinetochore microtubules attached to the kinetochore cause the chromosomes to line up along the middle of the spindle. Nonkinetochore microtubules

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Retrieved Text: What are centromeres composed of?
The chromosome structure is similar in most cases to an X, but the location of the point where the two arms of the X touch may vary. This contact point has a name, of course (a biologist never misses a chance to name something): the centromere.
Without centromeres, cells cannot divide properly and mitosis fails.
Centromeres are actually defined by specific regions of DNA called alpha satellite, which specifically bind centromere proteins.
Scientists have identified over 20 that contribute to forming the centromere complex.
Without them, kinetochores do not have a place to attach to pull the sister chromatids apart.
Why is mitosis necessary for living organisms?
How do cytokinesis and telophase differ?
How do chromosomes divide during anaphase?
How can mitosis be a form of asexual reproduction?
How does mitosis conserve the chromosome number?
How are mitosis and meiosis different?
What are kinetochores made of?

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Retrieved Text: In Eukaryotic Cells, Chromosomes Are Composed Of _____.
How is plant cell cytokinesis different from animal cell cytokinesis Plant cells deposit vesicles containing cell-wall building blocks on the metaphase plate; animal cells form a cleavage furrow.
The beginning of anaphase is indicated by which of the following? Cohesin is cleaved enzymatically.
What happens if MPF (mitosis-promoting factor) is introduced into immature frog oocytes that are arrested in G2? The cells enter mitosis.
Once a cell completes mitosis, molecular division triggers must be turned off. What happens to MPF during mitosis? The cyclin component of MPF is degraded.
Density-dependent inhibition is explained by which of the following? As cells become more numerous, the cell surface proteins of one cell contact the adjoining cells and they stop dividing.
A research team began a study of a cultured cell line. Their preliminary observations showed them that the cell line did not exhibit either density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. What could they conclude right away? The cells show characteristics of tumors.
For a chemotherapeutic drug to be useful for treating cancer cells, which of the following is most desirable? It interferes with rapidly dividing cells.
Cells from advanced malignant tumors often have very abnormal chromosomes and an abnormal number of chromosomes. What might explain the association between malignant tumors and chromosomal abnormalities? Cell cycle checkpoints are not in place to stop cells with chromosome abnormalities.
Exposure of zebrafish nuclei to meiotic cytosol resulted in phosphorylation of NEP55 and L68 proteins by cyclin-dependent kinase 2. NEP55 is a protein of the inner nuclear membrane, and L68 is a protein of

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Retrieved Text: Here you have a list of opinions about Anaphase and you can also give us your opinion about it.
You will see other people's opinions about Anaphase and you will find out what the others say about it.
Anaphase (from the Greek ἀνά, "up" and φάσις, "stage"), is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the cell cycle's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Metaphase ends with the destruction of B cyclin. B cyclin is marked with ubiquitin which flags it for destruction by proteasomes, which is required for the function of metaphase cyclin-dependent kinases (M-Cdks). Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting complex marks an inhibitory chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for destruction. Securin is a protein which inhibits a protease known as separase. The destruction of securin unleashes separase which then breaks down cohesin, a protein responsible for holding sister chromatids together. The centromeres are split, and the new daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. They take on a V-shape as they are pulled back.
While the chromosomes are drawn to each side of the cell, the non-kinetochore spindle fibers push against each other, in a ratcheting action, that stretches the cell into an oval.
Once anaphase is complete, the cell moves into telophase.
In the image below, you can see a graph with the evolution of the times that people look for Anaphase. And below it, you can see how many pieces of news

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: The stage in mitosis and in the second meiotic division when the centromere splits and the chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
The stage of the first meiotic division when the two halves of a bivalent chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.
With respect to the results listed in Table 2, the orange and grape juices of the five food companies, at both exposure times considered, induced significant formation of mitotic spindle changes, represented in this study by colchicine metaphase and anaphase and telophase bridges, proving to be genotoxic, and chromosome breaks, characterized by the formation of micronuclei.
To determine if aurora A kinase (AAK) plays a post-metaphase role in Drosophila S2 cell division, AAK was knocked down by RNA interference (RNAi), and microtubule (MT) intensity in the spindle midzone during late anaphase was quantified (Fig.
1 (b) IVM, in vitro maturation; GVBD, germinal vesicle breakdown; MI, Metaphase 1; AI, Anaphase 1; TI, TelophaseI; MII, MetaphaseII; SEM, standard error of the mean.
The damaged chromosomes, in the form of acentric chromatids or chromosome fragments, lag behind in anaphase when centric elements move towards the spindle poles.
Several chromosomal aberrations (CA's) like chromosomal break, stickiness, laggard, and multipolar anaphase have been formed.
It delivers the two groups of chromosomes to positions adjacent to the polar furrows midway between pairs of plastids in anaphase and a phragmoplast is constructed in the midzone (Fig.
10 and 50 [micro]g/ml number of prophases and telophases generally increases by prolonging treatments, and the number of metaphases and anaphases decreases.
This can be seen from the simulation results in To

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Retrieved Text: Unit 5 - Patrick Stephen Jr.
A student can model what complementary base pairs means in a strand of DNA.
A student can identify the difference between a 5' and a 3' deoxyribose sugar and relate these differences to the leading and lagging strands of DNA.
A student can identify the different sections of a chromosome including (centromeres (acrocentric, metacentric, submetacentric), sister chromatids, coding and non coding bands, telomeres).
A student can create an argument as to why genetic variation is important for the survival of a species.
A student can utilize proper vocabulary in distinguishing the types of cells created during mitosis and meiosis.
A student can explain the differences that occur during prophase and anaphase of mitosis and meiosis I.
A student can create an argument on the age and/or health of a plant or animal tissue by analying the cells in specific mitotic stages.
A student can explain how carcinogens impact the cell cycle controllers such as the p53 gene and the BRCA1 gene.

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Retrieved Text: digital age skills teach students to learn how to learn for them- selves, which is the foundation of the 5E science learning cycle that includes engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. In my AP Biology class, students used this process to explore the concept of mitosis through three learning stations. This allowed them to work in small groups, which fostered their collaboration and communication skills.
The first was a craft station. Students created a cell-cycle flipbook and discussed what happened during each phase and subphase of mitosis. The second was a laptop station where students received a list of websites that included texts, interactive illustrations, videos, and a simulation game intended to introduce them to the concept, teach the concept, and allow them to apply the concept. The final station included three iPads loaded with the Mitosis app, a free download from the Apple i Tunes store.
The highlight of the day for most su-dents was the third station because most had never used an iPad before. The lesson began with three or four eager students gathered around each iPad. They turned the iPad to change from landscape to portrait view and clicked on the app.
connected mitotic spindle fibers to each of the sister chromatids at their kinetochore during prometaphase. They pulled their thumbs and index fingers in opposite directions to pull apart the sister chromatids and then swiped their fingers down the metaphase plate to fully separate the chromosomes in the anaphase. They completed the cell cycle by using their fingers to circle cell contents to create

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Retrieved Text: During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.... prophase I - meiosis term refers to the first phase of meiosis I, which together with meiosis II results in the reductive cell division only occurring gametes. Prophase can be further divided into a number of stages: leptotene zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
Go back to prophase 1 and write in alleles for your chromosomes. The drawing below shows what they would look like before they are copied during interphase. Make sure that you write in the alleles on the copied sister chromatids too! a A. B b g G . R r H h. D d. Now, show the alleles of one gene crossing over in one set of homologous chromosomes. Circle the set you chose. Now follow along and... During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.
Prophase – The replicated chromosomes condense into compact rods. Each rod Each rod consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere or the chromosome.
☆ These questions asked the reader to describe and draw the cell when it was in the telophase and the late prophase stages of mitosis. ☆ During meiotic prophase in females, chromosomes condense and pair to

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Retrieved Text: The first draft of the human genome sequence was reported a year ago. It may be a good time to remind ourselves that the genetic information encoded in the ∼3000-Mb sequence is stored not only in the public or private databases but also in the tiny space of the cell nucleus. The total length of human genomic DNA, which resides in 23 chromosomes, reaches approximately one meter. It is by no means a simple task to fold up the long DNA molecules and package them within a cell nucleus whose diameter is only ∼10 μm. Even more striking is that the DNA molecules are faithfully duplicated and segregated into two daughter cells in an extremely limited space. Although more than 100 years have passed since Walther Flemming first described the dynamic behavior of chromosomes (or mitosis) during cell division, it remains highly mysterious how this remarkable process of chromosome segregation is achieved at a mechanistic level. From a cytological point of view, two dramatic events occur on chromosomes during mitosis. The first one is the conversion of an amorphous mass of interphase chromatin into a discrete set of rod-shaped chromosomes (chromosome condensation), which occurs from prophase to metaphase (Koshland and Strunnikov 1996; Hirano 2000). The second is the splitting of chromosomes into two halves, which takes place highly synchronously at the onset of anaphase (Dej and Orr-Weaver 2000; Nasmyth et al. 2000). As a crucial prerequisite for these events, duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) must be held together immediately after DNA replication in S phase and throughout

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Retrieved Text: A spindle poison, also known as a spindle toxin, is a poison that disrupts cell division by affecting the protein threads that connect the centromere regions of chromosomes, known as spindles. Spindle poisons effectively cease the production of new cells by interrupting the mitosis phase of cell division at the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). Unfortunately, spindle poisons, as numerous and varied as they are, still are yet to be 100% effective at ending the formation of tumors (neoplasms). Although not 100% effective, substantive therapeutic efficacy has been found in these types of chemotherapeutic treatments. The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules (polymerized tubulin) that aid, along with regulatory proteins; each other in the activity of appropriately segregating replicated chromosomes. Certain compounds affecting the mitotic spindle have proven highly effective against solid tumors and hematological malignancies. Two specific families of antimitotic agents, vinca alkaloids and taxanes, interrupt the cell’s division by the agitation of microtubule dynamics. The vinca alkaloids work by causing the inhibition of the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules, resulting in the G2/M arrest within the cell cycle and eventually cell death. In contrast, the taxanes arrest the mitotic cell cycle by stabilizing microtubules against depolymerization. Even though numerous other spindle proteins exist that could be the target of novel chemotherapeutics, tubulin-binding agents are the only types in clinical use. Agents that affect the motor proteinkinesin are beginning to enter clinical trials. Another type, Paclitaxel, acts by attaching to tubulin within existing microtubules. Next, it stabilizes the polymer.
Normally, cells duplicate their genetic material and then

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Retrieved Text: The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus.
arrangement of p g pairs of chromosomes. The diagram below g shows four possible arrangements of chromosomes during metaphase 1 from an individual that has 6 total chromosomes. chromosomes Suppose that the pink chromosomes are those that the individual inherited from its mother and the blue colored ones were inherited from its father. For each chromosome pair, the chromosome that is on the left (maternal or paternal) is determined randomly. As can be , g p seen, there are several alignment possibilities.
Can you tell the stage of cells Can o (image in the right hand) What do the different colors represent for?
chromosomes, four per set. In the h f t I th following diagram, what phase of mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II, is this cell in?
The cell is in metaphase of meiosis II. You can tell because the chromosomes are lined up along the metaphase plate, and it plate has only four pairs of sister chromatids. If it were mitosis, the cell would have eight pairs of ll ld h i ht i f sister chromatids.
A cell is diploid and contains three chromosomes per set. Draw the arrangement g of chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, and metaphase I and II of meiosis.
1. Division of intracellular organelles 2. Cell cycle control 3. Mechanics of cell division 4..

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Retrieved Text: My project focuses on mechanisms underlying chromosome segregation fidelity in human cells. During division, missegregation occurs due to kinetochore-microtubule mal-attachments, whose correction is necessary for faithful segregation. We have uncovered that the Kinesin-13, Kif2b, increases microtubule dynamics at the kinetochores, hence allowing for the release of erronous attachments and the general destabilization of kinetochore fibers in early mitosis necessary for proper chromosome alignment.
These pictures represent a monopolar spindle, a bipolar spindle with monooriented unaligned chromosomes, and an anaphase spindle with lagging chromatids.

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Retrieved Text: Spatial regulation of the spindle assembly checkpoint and anaphase-promoting complex in Aspergillus nidulans.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) plays a critical role in preventing mitotic errors by inhibiting anaphase until all kinetochores are correctly attached to spindle microtubules. In spite of the economic and medical importance of filamentous fungi, relatively little is known about the behavior of SAC proteins in these organisms. In our efforts to understand the role of gamma-tubulin in cell cycle regulation, we have created functional fluorescent protein fusions of four SAC proteins in Aspergillus nidulans, the homologs of Mad2, Mps1, Bub1/BubR1 and Bub3. Time-lapse imaging reveals that SAC proteins are in distinct compartments of the cell until early mitosis when they co-localize at the spindle pole body. SAC activity is, thus, spatially regulated in A. nidulans. Likewise, Cdc20, an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, is excluded from interphase nuclei, but enters nuclei at mitotic onset and accumulates to a higher level in mitotic nuclei than in the surrounding nucleoplasm before leaving in anaphase/telophase. The activity of this critical cell cycle regulatory complex is likely regulated by the location of Cdc20. Finally, the gamma-tubulin mutation mipAD159 causes a nuclear-specific failure of nuclear localization of Mps1 and Bub1/R1 but not of Cdc20, Bub3 or Mad2.
Chromosome segregation in budding yeast: sister chromatid cohesion and related mechanisms.
Studies on budding yeast have exposed the highly conserved mechanisms by which duplicated chromosomes are evenly distributed to daughter cells at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The establishment of proteinaceous bridges between sister chromatids, a function provided by a ring-shaped complex known as

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Retrieved Text: The epitope recognized by ab992 maps to a region between residue 575 and the C-terminus (residue 631) human Rad21 homolog using the numbering given in entry NP_006256.1 (GeneID 5885).
Synthetic peptide (Human) conjugated to KLH - which represented a portion of human Rad21 encoded within exon 14 (LocusLink ID 5885).
HeLa cell lysate. FFPE human breast fibroadenoma tissue sections.
Our Abpromise guarantee covers the use of ab992 in the following tested applications.
Used at a dilution of 1/200 for 30 min incubation (see Abreview for further information).
WB 1/500 - 1/5000. Predicted molecular weight: 72 kDa.
Band observed at ~130 kDa.
Cleavable component of the cohesin complex, involved in chromosome cohesion during cell cycle, in DNA repair, and in apoptosis. The cohesin complex is required for the cohesion of sister chromatids after DNA replication. The cohesin complex apparently forms a large proteinaceous ring within which sister chromatids can be trapped. At metaphase-anaphase transition, this protein is cleaved by separase/ESPL1 and dissociates from chromatin, allowing sister chromatids to segregate. The cohesin complex may also play a role in spindle pole assembly during mitosis. Also plays a role in apoptosis, via its cleavage by caspase-3/CASP3 or caspase-7/CASP7 during early steps of apoptosis: the C-terminal 64 kDa cleavage product may act as a nuclear signal to initiate cytoplasmic events involved in the apoptotic pathway.
Belongs to the rad21 family.
The C-terminal part associates with the head of SMC1A, while the N-terminal part binds to the head of SMC3.
Cleaved by separase/ESPL1 at the onset of anaphase. Cleaved by caspase-3 and caspase-7 at the beginning of apoptosis. The cleavage by

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Retrieved Text: A definition of the medical term "ookinesis" is presented. Ookinesis refers to the mitosis of oogonia in the embryonic ovary to form primary oocytes. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metakinesis" is presented. It refers to the moving of the two chromatids of each chromosome away from each other as they move to opposite poles in the anaphase of mitosis. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metaphase" is presented. It refers to the second stage of mitosis in which the pairs of chromatids line up on the equator of the cell. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the medical term "monozygotic" is presented. Monozygotic means originating from a single fertilized ovum, said of identical twins. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co. The pronunciation of the term is also provided.
A definition of the medical term "ootid" is presented. Ootid refers to the ovum after first maturation has been completed and the second meiotic division has begun. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.

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Retrieved Text: Each of sister chromatids of a chromosme, when they separate during Anaphase, seems to be taking half of the centromere along with it. If this process is repeated, there wouldn't be any centomere left to be divided. So when exactly is this centromere resynthesized to its original size? is it done during G1 or S or G2? Thanks in advance.
Ah, yes I see. Since we are on the topic, then is Kinetochore protein synthesizes during G1 phase and splitted evently during anaphase?
The centromere is an incredibly specialized area of chromatin. It has a distinct and unique complement of proteins. Without looking it up, I believe the actual kinetochore (used during M phase) is added during G2 and is not present during G1/S (when the typical centromere proteins are present that simply associate with its unique DNA regions). The kinetochore is present bilaterally on each chromatid and is split evenly.
See this EM: http://www.wadsworth.org/rvbc/kinetochore_1.jpg which in the upper left figure shows the kinetochore being pulled by microtubules. The puffy stuff on each side of the kinetochore is the adjacent condensed chromatin. This is one chromatid, with the other one off the figure.

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Retrieved Text: Hey guys, I was just wondering does interphase double the chrosome number from 46 to 92 due to DNA replication?
Is meiosis part of the cell cycle?
HELP - Mitosis and Meiosis???
It doesn't double the chromosome number, but it doubles the amount of DNA. Chromosomes usually look like chromatids, but because you only see them in prophase, you see them with twice the amount of DNA. There are the same number of chromosomes, as the number of centromeres does not increase.
But how can it go from 46 to 46 to 23? How can it divide in way that maintains the same no. of chromosomes after a division into 2 cells?
It contains 46 chromosomes. It divides to give 23 chromosomes in meiosis 1. This then divides again to give 23 chromosomes.
The original DNA has been replicated before division. The reason you think a chromosome lookes like and "X" rather than an "l" is because you only see them during mitosis when they are dividing.
But they are still called a single chromosome, because a) the two strands are exactly the same and b) they are attached to a single centromere.
So it starts with 46, then divides to give 2 cells of 23 each, then those divide to give 4 cells of 23?
the cell goes through normal interphase and chromosones are copied and are visible as sister chromoatids.
chromotids are seperated in meiosis 2.
so to answer your question it goes 2N -> 2N -> N -> N because after interpahse the chromosones are sister chromatids (the have replicated) but they are still

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Retrieved Text: Results demonstrate that chromosome behavior in meiosis is independently influenced by the kinetochore associated Monopolin protein that mediates monopolar attachement and Rec8, which is involved in maintaining cohesion between sister centromeres in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Studies have identified a protein required for cohesion but is not a Cohesin subunit. This protein, Eco1p(Ctf7), was found during experiments searching for mutants that generate separate sister centromeres. While Eco1p(Ctf7) is needed for cohesion establishment during DNA replication, it is not required for cohesion maintenance during the G2 and M phases.
A study has been conducted to investigate the behavior of two cohesin subunits known to important for sister chromatid cohesion processes during mitosis and meiosis. Findings indicate that Scc1p is expressed at extremely low levels in meiotic cells, while the scc1-73 allele, considered to be conditionally lethal in mitosis, exerts a modest influence on spore formation and viability. A meiotic cohesin that binds sister chromatids together is also required for repair of strand exchange between homologs.
Abstracts: Golgi membranes are absorbed into and reemerge from the ER during mitosis. The debate about transport in the Golgi - two sides of the same coin?

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Retrieved Text: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis. Chapter 5. 5.1 – The Cell Cycle. Key Concept: Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions. When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?.
Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions.
When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
Does an animal get larger because each cell increases in size or because it produces more of them?
What are some things that all cells in your body must have?
The cell cycle has 4 main stages.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
The main stages of the cell cycle are: Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, & Mitosis.
Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for that type of cell.
Cell volume increases faster than surface area.
Cells need to stay small to allow diffusion and osmosis to work efficiently.
Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesisinto two new daughter cells.
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
Chromosomes: carry genetic information (DNA) that is passed from one generation of cells to the next.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.
DNA plus proteins (histones) is called chromatin.
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
Interphase prepares the cell to divide.
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.
Sister chromatids

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Retrieved Text: Following DNA replication, sister chromatids must stay connected for the remainder of the cell cycle in order to ensure accurate segregation in the subsequent cell division. This important function involves an evolutionarily conserved protein complex known as cohesin; any loss of cohesin causes premature sister chromatid separation in mitosis. Here, we examined the role of cohesin in sister chromatid cohesion prior to mitosis, using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to assay the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase Drosophila cells. Surprisingly, we found that sister chromatid cohesion can be maintained in G2 with little to no cohesin. This capacity to maintain cohesion is widespread in Drosophila, unlike in other systems where a reduced dependence on cohesin for sister chromatid segregation has been observed only at specific chromosomal regions, such as the rDNA locus in budding yeast. Additionally, we show that condensin II antagonizes the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase, supporting a model wherein cohesin and condensin II oppose each other’s functions in the alignment of sister chromatids. Finally, because the maternal and paternal homologs are paired in the somatic cells of Drosophila, and because condensin II has been shown to antagonize this pairing, we consider the possibility that condensin II-regulated mechanisms for aligning homologous chromosomes may also contribute to sister chromatid cohesion.
As cells grow, they replicate their DNA to give rise to two copies of each chromosome, known as sister chromatids, which separate from each other once the cell divides. To ensure that sister chromatids end up in different daughter cells, they are kept together

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Retrieved Text: Meiosis is the process by which gametes are made. In this process, we begin with a 4n cell (double the normal amount of DNA), and we will end up with 4 non-identical haploid (n) daughter gametes, after 2 divisions. There are 6 stages within each of the divisions; Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis. In this article, we will look at all the stages of meiosis in addition to its significance in diseases.
Firstly the nuclear envelope disintegrates and the chromosomes begin to condense. Spindle fibres appear which will be important for successful division of the chromosomes.
Now the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes at a points along the chromosomes called centromeres. While this is happening the chromosomes continue to condense.
Fig 2 – Image of prometaphase I.
Next, homologous (Maternal and Paternal versions of the same chromosome) chromosomes align along the equator of the cell and a process called random assortment occurs here – this is when maternal and paternal chromosomes line up randomly align themselves on either side of the equator, this leads to genetic diversity among offspring.
To further increase the genetic diversity, homologous chromosomes exchange parts of themselves such that one chromosome contains both maternal and paternal DNA. This process is known as crossing over, and the points at which this occurs on a chromosome are refund to as chiasmata.
Here each of the homologous chromosomes get pulled towards opposite poles of the cell as the spindle fibres retract to divide the DNA between the two cells which will be formed.
Fig 4 – Image of Anaphase

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Retrieved Text: Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in a certain area in the body that can spread. The way we treat cancer as of now is chemotherapy, or injecting radiation into the body to kill the extra cells. Chemotherapy is very dangerous and kills people all the time, but it is the only way we know of at the moment to treat cancer. When the cancer cell isn’t checked by polymerase and gets sent through and replicates, it makes more and more of the bad cells and is unable to be stopped. Cancer keeps going through the replication process making more cells than needed and unless treated soon, will kill you.
The G1 phase also known as the growth phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle. This phase is where cells and the contents of cells excluding chromosomes. Helicase is used here to unzip the double helix.
The next phase in the cell cycle is the S phase, this is where the chromosomes replicate and consist of two sister chromatids.Genes are located in chromosomes and DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
G2 phase is up next and this is where error check occurs for mutations and preparation of the cell for mitosis using DNA polymerase.Cancer skips this step and just keeps replicating without being checked.
Cell division begins with prophase where the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The chromatin is at its least dense state.
The next phase of cell division is metaphase or the middle phase, this is where chromosomes become

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Retrieved Text: This article is about the cellular structure. For other uses, see Spindle (disambiguation).
In cell biology, the spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle) refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells, or the meiotic spindle during meiosis, a process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Besides chromosomes, the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds of proteins. Microtubules comprise the most abundant components of the machinery.
This diagram depicts the organization of a typical mitotic spindle found in animal cells. Chromosomes are attached to kinetochore microtubules via a multiprotein complex called the kinetochore. Polar microtubules interdigitate at the spindle midzone and push the spindle poles apart via motor proteins. Astral microtubules anchor the spindle poles to the cell membrane. Microtubule polymerization is nucleated at the microtubule organizing center.
Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamic drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores; bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules emanating from opposite cell poles couples opposing tension forces, aligning chromosomes at the cell equator and poising them for segregation to daughter cells. Once every chromosome is bi-oriented, anaphase commences and cohesin, which couples sister chromatids, is severed, permitting the transit of the sister chromatids to opposite poles.
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated

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Retrieved Text: Repair of DNA breaks by homologous recombination (HR) can lead to the formation of recombination intermediates, which often contain four-way structures known as Holliday junctions (HJs) that physically link sister chromatids. The efficient resolution of these joint molecules is essential for chromosome segregation. In human mitotic cells, HJs can be cleaved by resolvases, including MUS81-EME1, SLX1-SLX4 and GEN1. MUS81-EME1 associates with SLX1-SLX4 and a third nuclease, XPF-ERCC1, to form the SMX tri-nuclease complex. The SMX complex and GEN1 cleave recombination intermediates in two genetically distinct resolution pathways. To understand the molecular mechanism of HJ resolution in human cells, I have purified human GEN1 protein and showed that it mediates a pair of symmetrical nicks in the two opposite strands across the junction. I also discovered that GEN1 actions are restricted to the late stages of the cell cycle by nuclear exclusion to suppress the formation of sister chromatid exchanges. Furthermore, we have followed the fate of unresolved recombination intermediates that arise in GEN1-/- knock-out cells depleted for MUS81. We found that the recombination intermediates persist until mitosis where they form a novel class of anaphase bridges, which we term homologous recombination ultra-fine bridges, or HR-UFBs. HR-UFBs are distinct from replication stress-associated UFBs that arise at common fragile sites, and also those that form between centromeres. Importantly, inhibiting the HR machinery by depleting RAD51 or BRCA2 leads to a reduction in the number of HR-UFBs. We found that the HR-UFBs are acted upon by BLM helicase to generate single-stranded RPA-coated bridges that are broken at cell division.

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Retrieved Text: target cell cycle proteins for maxi ica stormarknad norrköping degradation by the 26S proteasome. Once degraded, separin is released, cohesin is degraded and sister chromatids are prepared to move to their respective poles for anaphase. By late G1, enough of the G1/S cyclins have accumulated and phosphorylated Cdh1 to inactivate the APC/C until the next metaphase.
NB, are highlighted 1, hemerly, r With apcccdc20 being more dependent on the D box and apcccdh1 more dependent on the KEN box. Has intersport i karlskrona been shown to promote substrate solidariteit bonus champions league binding by mediating their interactions with Cdh1 and Cdc20. M Apc10Doc1, in late prophase 3 doi" de Oliveira 589600 journal"1007s language" van Deursen. Pegoraro, eloy, sagit, galardy, allowing Cdh1 to have a broader substrate specificity. And other mechanisms by which the catalytic activity of apcc is tightly regulated to ensure proper timing of degradation of each of its mitotic substrates 6 Consequently, aPCC 1420682X number" f KW Anaphasepromoting complex KW apcc KW Cdc20 KW Cdh1 KW Spindle assembly checkpoint. C T, emi1 is phosphorylated by Pololike kinase. AC, having two distinct degradation sequences creates a high level of substrate specificity on the apcc. Elofsson, contribute towards substrate association as well. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences issn" C 1 Emi1 association with Cdc20 allows for the stabilization of various cyclins throughout S and G2 phase 64 pages" english US volume"5 TY jour T1 Mitotic regulation of the anaphasepromoting complex AU Baker. A Vargas 10, this, bretz, l Core apcc subunits,.
Cdc20 and Cdh1, indicates that Cdh1 also

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Retrieved Text: Chromosome*s contain the long strands of DNA* that carry genetic information. They are the unit of DNA replication in living cells. Typical prokaryotic cells contain a single circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells, with their much larger genomes, have multiple, linear chromosomes. The length and linear nature of eukaryotic chromosomes increases the challenge of keeping the genetic material organized and of passing the proper amount of DNA to each daughter cell during mitosis.
During cell division, eukaryotic chromosomes condense into highly coiled 4 armed structures. The tight coiling and high degree of organization in this supercoiled DNA facilitates proper segregation during mitosis and cell division. The following illustration explores the structure, classification and features of a eukaryotic chromosome.
The earliest efforts to describe chromosomes were based on visible characteristics. The most obvious features are the centromere* which is the central constriction point and the branches stemming from this constriction point. These branches are called arms. Each chromosome has either two or four arms extending from the centromere.
Late in the cell cycle when the process of mitosis has begun but before the cell has divided, cells contain two complete copies of their genome. When the DNA is supercoiled in preparation for cell division, the pair of copies of each chromosome come together to form the characteristic x-shaped structure. The point of attachment of the two complete copies occurs at the centromere. Each copy of the chromosome is called a chromatid*. The two copies of each chromosome are called sister chromatids. When cells divide, one sister chromatid is delivered to each of

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Input Text: Process:
- You breathe in
- Diaphragm and other muscles expand to allow room for your lungs to fill
- The air flows into the narrow bronchioles in the lungs
- From the bronchioles to the alveoli
- The oxygen enters into the bloodstream
- Is switched with the carbon dioxide in the bloodstream
- The carbon dioxide enters through the alveoli
- Through the narrow bronchioles
- Into the lungs
- The carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body.

Question:
suppose less oxygen enters alveoli happens, how will it affect more oxygen enters alveoli.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: This lesson provides an overview of the respiratory system. In particular it focuses on the physical aspects of breathing, and the importance of gas exchange for respiration and life.
We need oxygen to live. When we breathe in, oxygen travels in the air through the trachea and bronchi, into the bronchioles and finally reaches numerous sac-like structures called alveoli. The thin surfaces of the alveoli are in contact with blood vessels calledcapillaries. At the alveoli, oxygen enters the blood to be carried to cells in the body. Waste carbon dioxide in the blood is excretedat the alveoli and expelled in the air we breathe out.
What is the Irish connection with breathing?
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691), the Irish chemist showed that a change in the volume of a fixed mass of gas causes a change in pressure. If the gas volume increases the pressure decreases and vice versa.
When the air in the lungs expands, its pressure decreases to less than atmospheric pressure. But its pressure rises above atmospheric pressure when it is compressed.
Air moves from higher to lower pressure until the air pressures are equal. Therefore by creating a pressure difference, air can be moved into and out of the lungs.

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Retrieved Text: In short, diffusion, involves molecules moving from higher concentration to lower concentration. This movement is known as the concentration gradient.
This happens with liquids and in gases. As gases are more difficult in an experiment to show children how diffusion works I will use this experiment which involves liquid, in this case water.
We will also experiment with temperatures in the experiment and talk about how temperature effects the rate of diffusion.
500ml of water to one large clear cup and 500ml of hot water to the other clear cup.
You will need a responsible adult present as you are dealing with hot water.
Now get your pipettes. Add 2ml of one colour to the centre of the top of your cold water.
The colder the water the better, so long as it is still in liquid state.
Now add 2ml of the second colour in the centre of the top of the hot water.
As I said, in this experiment we will look at how temperatures effect the rate of diffusion.
The diffusion of food colouring in hot and cold water showed us clearly how temperature effects the rate of diffusion, with the process being much faster in hot water than in cold water.
This is because heat provides energy and the energy from the heat makes the molecules up and makes the move faster so the diffusion process works quicker.
The cold can take a lot longer however it will eventually completely diffusion into the water, which is of lower concentration (as it has no food colouring in to start with) until the whole cup

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: By inhaling oxygenation catalysts, such as those that are produced by plants, like oxygen at the time of photosynthesis, the biocatalyst plays a role of a "super transmitter" in oxygen metabolism. It is very useful for treating cancer because cancer cannot survive in an oxygen rich environment as it is anerobic. Is also usefull in treating fatigue, anxiety, anorexia, bulimia, heart disease, cardiovascular problems, and circulation issues amongst other conditions.
The cells undergoing biocatalytic oxygenation resist +25% above the normal average. The air around is composed of 21% oxygen. When we breathe, air enters the airways to the alveoli, where gas exchange and oxygen from the air diffuses through the blood. In the blood, over 95% of the oxygen attaches to hemoglobin, a major protein in red blood cells, which serves as a transporter. Although it has successfully captured the oxygen, hemoglobin releases the cells under specific conditions (temperature, acidity, quantity of carbon dioxide) If any of these conditions within tissues change, hemoglobin will not release the oxygen. Pollution, free radicals, stress, internal contamination, age, sedentary lifestyle, chronic diseases, emotional stress, prolonged sun exposure, among other things can greatly affect the level of oxygen in our body.
The deficit of oxygen in tissues can cause a reduction in energy production. The biochemical reactions of assimilation and transformation of nutrients are not completed successfully. Waste poorly eliminated will gradually accumulate and become toxicity in the body. The brain and the central nervous system which are the largest consumers of oxygen are the first to be affected. This is when

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are among the busiest organs in our body. It is their duty to supply oxygen to the rest of the body and drive out carbon dioxide. The lungs function by expanding when inhaling and contracting when exhaling at a rate of 20 times per minute.
Your lungs consist of two organs that look and work like a sponge. They are both filled with air and are located on opposite sides of the thorax or chest. The lungs are connected to the nose through the windpipe which is also known as the trachea. The air you inhale comes in through the trachea and enters the bronchi before entering the lungs. The bronchi are tubular branches that divide and further subdivide into a number of small and microscopic branches known as the bronchioles.
On the end of each of your bronchiole, there is a bunch of alveoli. The alveoli are small air sacs in which absorption of oxygen into blood takes place. Moreover, the expulsion of carbon dioxide also takes place in the alveoli. The carbon dioxide generated in your body as a result of metabolic reactions is expelled from the blood and absorbed by the alveoli, from where it is dispatched out of the body through exhalation. The alveoli are supported by a thin layer of cells, which is known as the interstitium that are present in between them.
The thin layer of tissue, called as Pleura, covers your lungs. It is also the same tissue layer that forms the lining of the inside portion of your chest

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Retrieved Text: The cardiorespiratory system generally refers to the interaction of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs as they work to take in oxygen for cellular use and remove waste products from the body. Arteries carry fresh oxygen to the body, while veins carry depleted blood back to the lungs to replenish the body's oxygen supply.
The cardiorespiratory system works to keep the human body both oxygenated and free of waste products. As oxygen enters the lungs from the air, it flows into the alveolar sacs, small air chambers within the lungs. From there, individual oxygen molecules continue to the bloodstream through small arteries within the alveolar sacs. This newly oxygenated blood moves into the left atrium and ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary veins. The blood circulates throughout the body via the aorta, eventually traveling through every organ and cell in the body.
Cells receive oxygen from the arterial blood, and the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the venous system, carrying carbon dioxide and other waste products. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and ventricle of the heart via the vena cavae, where it returns to the alveoli in the lungs to exchange its carbon dioxide and waste products for fresh oxygen. This carbon dioxide then exits the body upon exhalation.
What Is the Main Function of the Circulatory System?
What Is the Relationship Between the Heart and the Lungs?

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Retrieved Text: With so many organisms on Earth, living things are bound to interact with one another. Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species. One type of interaction between two species is called mutualism. An example of mutualism exists between honey bees and flowers. Flowers provide nectar to the bees. The bees use the sugar rich liquid to make honey. As the bees fly from flower to flower tiny grains of pollen get stuck to the bee. The bee moves the pollen without even knowing it. The pollination is necessary for flowers to reproduce. In this relationship both species benefit. The bee gets nectar and the flower gets pollinated. Another relationship is called commensalism. This interaction takes place when sharks and remora live together. The remora use sucking disks on their heads to attach themselves to sharks. The sharks are powerful swimmers and do not even notice the remora and are neither helped nor harmed. However the remora benefit from this relationship. The fish get a free ride and protection. They also feed on scraps left over by the shark. In commensalism one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. The last type of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. An example of this relationship exists between humans and mosquitoes. The insects land on and take the blood from humans. The mosquito benefits as it uses the blood for energy. The human or host is harmed in this relationship as blood is needed and the human could become infected with disease. In parasitism one species

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Score: 63.80871
Retrieved Text: With each inhalation, air travels through two tubes called bronchi into the left and right lung.
Within each lung, the bronchi branches into thousands of smaller airways, or bronchioles, and then even further, splitting into millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli. Oxygen exchange occurs within the alveoli. Each air sac is lined with a paper-thin membrane (interstitium) and surrounded by capillaries. As air enters the alveoli, oxygen is absorbed through the membrane and into the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, is removed.
While scarring mechanisms are vital for proper healing, the uncontrolled deposition of fibrin and formation of scar tissue around the alveoli is detrimental, even lethal. In humans, plasmin functions as the body’s natural fibrin-degrading enzyme, circulating in the blood as plasminogen until activated. In most people, less plasminogen is produced by the body over time. Research indicates that patients with pulmonary fibrosis not only produce less plasminogen, but also have excessive amounts of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)2. PAI-1 prevents the conversion of the enzyme precursor plasminogen into plasmin, drastically reducing the body’s innate ability to dissolve fibrin.
Occupational or environmental exposures: metal or wood dust, pesticides, asbestos, silica dust, etc.
Other medical conditions: lung infections such as pneumonia or tuberculosis; chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, etc.
Often times, symptoms do not appear until the disease state advances and scarring has already occurred. The severity of symptoms and their worsening over time can vary and are at least partially dependent on the cause of the interstitial fibrosis.
The progression of pulmonary fibrosis and the

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Rank: 9
Score: 63.36171
Retrieved Text: Within the body, there are a total of four pulmonary veins, and all of them connect to the left atrium of the heart. The heart pumps oxygen-depleted blood into the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Once the blood has been oxygenated, it returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. Then, the heart circulates this newly oxygenated blood throughout the body. In this way, pulmonary veins are different from other veins in the body, which are used to carry deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body back to the heart. The left pulmonary veins connect with the left lung, and the lungs themselves are filled with hollow air sacs called alveoli. This is where oxygen is removed from inhaled air. This also works as a gas exchange. Oxygen enters the blood while carbon dioxide leaves the blood stream. This carbon dioxide is then exhaled out of the body.

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Rank: 10
Score: 61.98562
Retrieved Text: To study available and modern techniques for position measurement of endotracheal tubes.
The need for Instrumentation is to make proper and accurate measurement of various parameters related to medical science. All measurement mainly depends on the detection, acquisition and display of biological signal.
Respiration is to get Oxygen into the body and Waste Gases out of the Body.
The entire process of taking in oxygen from environment, transporting the oxygen to the cells, removing the carbon dioxide from the cells, and exhausting this waste product to the atmosphere must be considered with in the definition of respiration.
1.The Human Respiratory System consists of the Nose, Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Smaller conducting passageways (Bronchi and Bronchioles) and lungs.
2. The Respiratory System may be divided into the Upper Respiratory Tract and the Lower Respiratory Tract.
3. The Upper Respiratory Tract consists of the parts outside of the Thoracic (Chest) Cavity: The air passages of the nose, nasal cavities, Pharynx (Windpipe), Larynx (Voice Box), and upper Trachea.
4. The lower Respiratory Tract consists of the parts found in the Thoracic (Chest) Cavity: the Lower Trachea and the Lungs themselves.
5. Air enters the Respiratory System through the Mouth or Nose.
6. Air entering the Nose passes into the Nasal Cavity. The Nasal Cavity is richly supplied with arteries, veins, and capillaries, which bring nutrients and water to its cells.
7. As air pushes back from the Nasal Cavity, it enters the Pharynx. The Pharynx is located in the back of the mouth and serves as a passageway for both air and food. When food is swallowed, a

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Score: 61.773247
Retrieved Text: COPD Emphysema is one of the two major forms of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, which comes about when the alveoli become damaged. Those are the tiny sacs in the lung that exchange oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out.
Think of the airways and lungs as an upside down tree, with a trunk being the trachea or windpipe, the branches are the bronchi, twigs are the bronchioles, and the leaves alveoli. Air flows into the trunk, passing progressively down until it reaches the alveoli.
Under normal circumstances, oxygen moves in and carbon dioxide moves out. However, cigarette smoke, industrial chemical exposure, and other irritants can damage the walls of the small sacs, reducing the efficiency of the gas exchange. COPD Emphysema makes the alveoli lose elasticity as inflammation sets in. The sacs become less effective at emptying air because they do not contract far enough. That leaves gas trapped inside them.
Since that gas now has less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, it does not supply the blood with needed fresh oxygen and clear out the old carbon dioxide as much. In addition, it takes up space that would be occupied by incoming oxygen-rich air. The net result is a feeling of shortness of breath, called dyspnea, especially under mild exertion.
Tragically, the disease is often progressive. More and more alveoli enlarge, making them less elastic. A healthy lung will have about three hundred million of these tiny sacs, but COPD emphysema will, over time, reduce that by up to fifty percent or sometimes more.
As that gas exchange capacity

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Retrieved Text: Pneumonia is an inflammation in lungs caused by an infection which can be viral, bacterial, fungal or due to some parasite. Human lungs are composed of lobes. The respiratory system consists of trachea, windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Capillaries that surround the alveoli help in exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Normally, the germs that cause pneumnia are caught in the mucus lining. Coughing up yellow mucus expels these germs. The germs that pass on to the alveoli are neutralized by our immune system. However, if the immune system is weak, the germs can multiply rapidly, overwhelming the immune system. This causes the bronchioles and alveoli to become inflamed. The alveoli fill with fluid and the oxygen intake is obstructed.
There are several different kinds of pneumonia. The symptoms vary from difficulty in breathing, chest pain, coughing, fever etc. The bacteria may enter blood stream to infect other organs. The treatments for pneumonia are antibiotics, antiviral and antifungal medication, rest and fluids, anti-fever and pain medication.
1A weakened immune system impairs the body’s ability to stop germs, parasites, bacteria and fungi from causing pnuemonia.
2Pnuemonia can affect one lobe of a lung or multiple places, and can cause respritory difficulties or failure.
3Antibiotics, antifungal and antiviral medication paired with rest and fluids can help to cure pnuemonia.

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Score: 57.930748
Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Score: 57.44603
Retrieved Text: There are several diseases that can affect a person's ability to breath. Emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthma are the three most common causes of chronic obstructive lung disease.
Emphysema is often caused from repeated exposure to noxious substances. Most emphysema cases are directly related to cigarette smoking. When the lungs are exposed to toxic substances, the walls of the alveoli are destroyed. This results in less surface area available for gas exchange. More and more surface area will be lost as the disease progresses.
The loss of surface area will eventually cause a person to become barrel chested and to breath through pursed lips in order to alter airway resistance. The body tries to make up for the lack of oxygen by increasing its red blood cell production. Patients with emphysema often end up with pink skin due to the increase in red blood cells. A lot of physical effort must be put into each breath and many calories are used. As a result, most emphysema patients are very thin. Eventually emphysema patients will require inhalers and possible a constant supply of oxygen.
Chronic bronchitis is also often caused by cigarette smoking. The cigarette smoke causes an excess production of mucous in the respiratory tree causing less surface area to be available for gas exchange. Unlike emphysema, chronic bronchitis does not cause the destruction of alveoli. Instead the alveoli are occluded by mucous plugs. Patients with chronic bronchitis typically have a history of cigarette use or respiratory infections and are often cyanotic and overweight.
Asthma is another common respiratory problem

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Score: 57.399986
Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Score: 56.89375
Retrieved Text: Many parents have read about the controversy on the Ferber method, more famously known as the “cry-it-out” method. The goal of this method essentially claims to help the baby soothe him/herself to sleep. This article will not try to attempt to explain the pros and cons for using this method for sleep training. Rather it will scientifically focus on the implications of using such a method. This article is a two-part series which will first focus on the anatomic and physiological changes in respiration. Part two will focus on the importance of maintaining an unrestricted airway and why prolonged crying is not recommended especially during the first six months after birth.
A very important concept to keep in mind is that anatomic development precedes functional development. Putting it in more simple terms, in order for something to work, it must first be built. In most cases, crafting a masterpiece requires time. As with the human body, maturation of organs require time for it to function properly and to be at its full capacity.
There are four important changes in respiration that occurs from childbirth to six months.
1. Maturation and number of air sacs in the lung nearly quadruples (conservatively speaking) from birth to six months of age.
This is a picture of a lung which is magnified to show alveoli (air sacs) and microscopically magnified once more to show the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood vessels and the air sacs.
Alveoli is where the exchange of gas (ie. oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs. It is the

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Score: 55.595963
Retrieved Text: How Does Nitrogen Enter Our Body?
How Does the Skeletal System Work With the Respiratory System?
As a species, humans require air to survive; a need it shares with most other members of the Kingdom Animalia. After a human breathes in Earth's air (roughly 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), he or she exhales a mixture of compounds similar to the air inhaled: 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent argon, and four percent carbon dioxide. Some scientists suggest that exhaled air contains as many as 3,500 compounds, most of which are in microscopic amounts. There is some variability in this, however. Air quality can affect both the content of what humans both breathe in and breathe out, a concern some conservationists worry about when it comes to industries and automobiles releasing potentially harmful gases. Similarly, some doctors suggest that monitoring the chemical content of an air a human exhales can be a useful diagnostic tool in catching respiratory ailments.
Humans, and many other species, need air to live. They breathe in the combination of elements and compounds and exhale a similar set with different proportions. Exhaled air consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 4 percent carbon dioxide and potentially thousands of other compounds.
Humans, along with many other animals, breathe in air through their mouth, into their lungs. The chest cavity containing the lungs expands and contracts with the diaphragm as it moves down and up. Inside the lungs, small sacs called the alveoli fill with the air. From there the oxygen in the air

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Score: 55.557697
Retrieved Text: In the lung there are millions of tiny, thin-walled, elastic air sacs called alveoli (see Anatomy of the Respiratory System). These tiny sacs perform the crucial task of replenishing the blood with oxygen (via inhalation) and ridding the body of carbon dioxide (CO2) in exhalation.
Emphysema is the enlargement of the alveoli accompanied by destruction of their walls. In "smokers emphysema" an agent in cigarette smoke sets off a self-perpetuating, low-grade inflammation that causes the release of enzymes (elastase) from inflammatory cells that break down collagen and elastin - substances that maintain the structure and elasticity of alveoli - in the alveolar walls. The NHLBI (National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute) reports that this creates an imbalance between the elastin-degrading enzymes and their inhibitors. They also found that oxidants in cigarette smoke inactivate a significant number of elastase inhibitors, thereby decreasing the amount of active antielastase available to protect the lung and further upsetting the elastase-antielastase balance.
This disruption of the alveolar walls and elastin leads to a decrease in the elastic recoil of the lungs, limiting the ability of the alveoli to passively shrink and to exhale. This accounts for the main limitation to exhalation seen in severe COPD. The disruption of the alveolar walls also leads to their increase in size, making the lungs larger and placing the chest at a mechanical disadvantage. Disruption of the alveolar walls also makes exchange of oxygen from the alveoli to the capillaries and carbon dioxide from the capillaries to the alveoli more difficult. Collapse of the bronchial walls occurs

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Retrieved Text: Answer: Air enters in the body through two passages i.e. nasal cavity (nose) and oral cavity (mouth). Afterwards, the air passes through trachea (windpipe) and reaches the bronchi. From bronchi the air moves to bronchioles and then reaches the alveoli (air sacs). The exchange of gases takes place in alveoli as blood vessels are present there.

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Retrieved Text: Core Physiology: A shunt too far.
Which one of the following statements is true regarding the pathophysiology of pulmonary shunts?
e. Alveolar ventilation and the alveolar–arterial (A-a) gradient are both unaffected.
The answer is b. Alveolar ventilation and gas exchange are both reduced in a pulmonary shunt, while the alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient is increased.
A pulmonary shunt is a volume of lung with adequate perfusion but poor or absent ventilation. This creates regions of little or no gas exchange so that blood leaving the shunt remains de-oxygenated. When the deoxygenated blood from the shunt mixes with the oxygenated blood from rest of the lung, it lowers the overall arterial oxygen concentration (PaO2) and if the shunt is large enough, cause systemic arterial hypoxia. Shunts may be as small as a few alveoli in a tiny patch of atelectasis or large as an entire lung. A common cause of pulmonary shunting is pneumonia where the alveoli fill with inflammatory fluid (consolidation).
The alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient is a measure of the difference between the alveolar concentration of oxygen (PAO2) and the arterial concentration of oxygen (PaO2): A-a gradient = PAO2 – PaO2. Now, the ‘ideal’ alveolar oxygen concentration (PAO2) calculated by the alveolar gas equation is largely unaffected by pulmonary shunts while the arterial oxygen concentration (PaO2) measured by blood gas analysis is markedly reduced, resulting in an increase in the A-a gradient.
Dead space refers to areas of lung that are ventilated but not perfused (the opposite of a shunt) and therefore shunts do not affect dead space.

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Score: 55.162838
Retrieved Text: The summary below is from the full report titled “Sildenafil Increased Exercise Capacity during Hypoxia at Low Altitudes and at Mount Everest Base Camp. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial.” It is in the 3 August 2004 issue of Annals of Internal Medicine (volume 141, pages 169-177). The authors are H.A. Ghofrani, F. Reichenberger, M.G. Kohstall, E.H. Mrosek, T. Seeger, H. Olschewski, W. Seeger, and F. Grimminger.
The alveoli are the parts of the lung in which oxygen transfers from air to blood. When the amount of oxygen in air is reduced, changes occur in the lungs and heart to compensate for the low oxygen at the alveoli. These changes, which include constriction of the blood vessels in the lung, decrease a person's ability to exercise. High altitude is one situation where the amount of oxygen in air is low. The low oxygen and resulting changes in the heart and lungs account for many of the symptoms that people develop when they go from low to high altitudes. Sildenafil, a drug that has become a popular treatment for erectile dysfunction, causes the blood vessels of the lung to dilate (become wider). Previous studies have shown this effect of sildenafil in patients breathing air mixtures with low oxygen content at sea level. These observations have led experts to speculate that sildenafil might help prevent some of the problems with exercise ability caused by other conditions of low oxygen. One such condition is high altitude.
To explore the effects of sildenafil on exercise capacity in people exposed to low oxygen

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest (thorax). The trachea (windpipe) conducts inhaled air into the lungs through its tubular branches, called bronchi. The bronchi then divide into smaller and smaller branches (bronchioles), finally becoming microscopic.
The bronchioles eventually end in clusters of microscopic air sacs called alveoli. In the alveoli, oxygen from the air is absorbed into the blood. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, travels from the blood to the alveoli, where it can be exhaled. Between the alveoli is a thin layer of cells called the interstitium, which contains blood vessels and cells that help support the alveoli.
The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleura. The same kind of thin tissue lines the inside of the chest cavity -- also called pleura. A thin layer of fluid acts as a lubricant allowing the lungs to slip smoothly as they expand and contract with each breath.

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Retrieved Text: The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing and separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, the American Lung Association noted. When a breath it taken, it flattens out and pulls forward, making more space for the lungs. During exhalation, the diaphragm expands and forces air out.
When a baby is born, it must convert from getting all of its oxygen through the placenta to absorbing oxygen through its lungs. This is a complicated process, involving many changes in both air and blood pressures in the baby's lungs. For a baby born preterm (before 37 weeks gestation), the change is even harder. This is because the baby's lungs may not yet be mature enough to cope with the transition.
Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body where it is needed, according to the American Lung Association. During the process, the red blood cells collect the carbon dioxide and transport it back to the lungs, where it leaves the body when we exhale.
The major problem with a preterm baby's lungs is a lack of something called 'surfactant'. This is a substance produced by cells in the lungs which helps keep the air sacs, or alveoli, open. Without surfactant, the pressures in the lungs change and the smaller alveoli collapse.

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: Answer: Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzyme called lipase for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Answer: In double circulation there is complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Because of this the blood passes twice through the heart in one cycle of circulation hence the name double circulation.
This is necessary for optimum oxygen utilization as humans are warm blooded animals and need extra energy to maintain their body temperature.
Answer: Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which breaks complex molecules into sugar.
What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its byproducts?
Answer: Conditions necessary for photosynthesis: Sunlight, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.
Answer: In aerobic respiration there is complete oxidation of glucose and the end product is water and carbon dioxide.
In anaerobic respiration there is incomplete oxidation of glucose and the end product is either lactic acid or alcohol.
Yeast and bacteria use anaerobic mode of respiration.
Answer: The wall of alveoli contains a fine network of blood capillaries. This ensures maximum exchange of gases.
Answer: Haemoglobin is the carrier of oxygen in blood. Deficiency of haemoglobin will lead to less supply of oxygen to different cells. This will, in turn lead inefficient utilization of food by the body. Finally

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======= Instance Index 20863 =========
Input Text: Process:
- A can is thrown away into a recycling bin
- The can is taken to a recycling center
- Melted down along with other cans
- The melted metal is turned into bars
- Becomes material for other products.

Question:
suppose Less recycling of aluminum cans happens happens, how will it affect MORE aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 74.76123
Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Retrieved Text: All future events and fairs will be listed here.
Recyclers of Oklahoma had the privilege to be involoved in the first annual Getting Green Festival of Edmond. The event was held September 5,6,7 2008. We had an amazing turn out and were able to speak with many local companies in the Edmond area and pass along recycling information, drop off sites, and give a general overview of how much energy and resources are saved with your recycling efforts.
Fact # 1 Recycling One Alum soda can can power a T.V. or Radio for three hours.
Fact # 2 More than 40% of the entire worlds Copper needs are met by recycled material. This prevents the need for mining our earths core for new material.
Fact # 3 Copper has an infinite recycleable life the very same copper we use today the anicent pharohs were using more than 10,000 years ago.
Fact # 4 Recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy used to make the material from scratch. That means you can make 20 cans out of recycled material with the same amount of energy it takes to make one can out of new material. In one year at that amount of energy savings you can light a major city for more than five years.
Fact # 5 More than 35 billion aluminum cans are thrown into landfills each year, that amount of material has a scrap value of more than $500 million. Someday our children will be digging through Landfills just to recover the resources we've buried.
Fact # 6 Over 350,000 aluminum

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Retrieved Text: Do you take great pleasure in crushing your drinks cans before you put them in the recycling? Although it can be a great stress reliever, crushing the can while you think of your boss at the end of a tough day, it turns out that crushing them might actually prevent them from being recycled.
The warning comes from a director at the Aluminum* Association in the US (*not a typo, just the US spelling), who explains that most waste sorting facilities use a single-stream recycling system, which means that all the waste is mixed together before its sorted. The machinery sorts materials by type and shape, so if you have crushed your can, the machine might not recognise it and will push it into the non-recyclable pile, destined for incineration or landfill.
He added that while many cans are recycled, more than 40 billion cans end up in landfill in the US every single year, which amounts to the loss of a staggering $800 million of materials which could have been used to make new products.
Okay, so that’s what happens in the US, we hear you say, what about the UK?
Well waste management experts say that when recyclables are all put in the same bin, it can make it harder for a crushed can to be separated out at the materials recovery facility. This is because the sorting machines find it easier to detect and sort cans that are in their original size and shape because they have a larger surface area. And this doesn’t just apply to

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Retrieved Text: Around The World In 60 Days: Life Story Of An Aluminum Can | Recycle USA, Inc.
The average life cycle of a human being from a birth to a death is 60 years and the life cycle of an aluminum can from mining to recycling is 60 days.
The life of aluminum can starts in tropical and sub-tropical countries like Australia, Central and South America, Africa and Asia where are major bauxite ore deposits are located, but before bauxite can be converted to aluminum it has to go through the infancy stage where it is called alumina. After processing, alumina or aluminum oxide looks like a fine grained white powder, just like baby powder.
What happens when baby touches electric current? Most likely baby will get an electric shock. In the case of aluminum electrical energy is necessary part of its production. Usually, aluminum is extracted from alumina by electrolysis in smelting plants of China, North America, Europe, and Asia.
Just like any other teenager In North America and Western Europe aluminum likes rock-and-roll. It is rolled in a shape of sheet and foil and used for making beverage cans, foil containers and foil wrapping.
An adult person is responsible enough to make own choices and decisions, and for aluminum it is the time when it formed into products. Aluminium has a unique combination of properties that enables designers and manufacturers to develop different products that enhance the quality of life.
The retiring age is a time to think about past and future from a life-long perspective. For an aluminum can it

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Retrieved Text: In 2006, Americans drank about 167 bottles of water each, but only recycled an average of 38 bottles per person. That means about 50 billion plastic bottles were consumed, but only 23 percent were recycled, leaving 38 billion water bottles to be thrown away.
According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, the average American consumed 1.6 gallons of bottled water in 1976. In 2006, each person consumed 28.3 gallons of bottled water.
In 2006, Americans spent $15 billion on bottled water. That’s more than we spent on iPods or movie tickets.
Bottled water costs between $1 and $4 per gallon, and 90% of the cost is in the bottle, lid, and label.
Manufacturing bottled water uses over 1.5 million barrels of oil per year; that’s enough oil to fuel 100,000 cars.
So the next time you intend to throw away a plastic bottle, look for a recycling bin instead.
Over 50% of the aluminum cans produced are recycled.
A used aluminum can can be recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can in as fast as 60 days.
Aluminum is a durable and sustainable metal, so much so that two thirds of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than producing one can using virgin ore.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours, or enough to run your television for three hours.
Americans use 100 million steel cans every day.
Each year North America recycles more steel than aluminum, glass, paper, and

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of nature’s great recycling success stories. Aluminum is completely, endlessly recyclable. One pound of aluminum makes approximately 30 cans; using recycled aluminum uses 95% less energy than mining new bauxite ore for new aluminum. It’s one packaging product you can feel good about using, and reusing.
In this particular case, choosing aluminum cans may be a better option than plastic bottles when choosing a soft drink or juice, as recycling options are easier on the environment and longer lasting. Recycling aluminum does not involve downcycling—an old can is made into a new can, over and over, unlike plastic, which is usually remade into a lower quality plastic. Still, it’s best to use only what you need.
Wash and reuse aluminum foil and foil baking pans; use cans to store hardware or crafts or to make children’s art projects.
Clean aluminum cans, pie plates and foil can go in your curbside CRD Blue Box. Wash these when doing the dishes! You may also take these and other aluminum items to the metal recycling facilities listed below.
Aluminum cans, foil, foil containers and wrap, pie plates and specific aerosol containers are now accepted as part of the new Multi-Materials BC (MMBC) Packaging and Printed Paper product stewardship program. These materials can be taken, free of charge, to the facilities listed here. See above for the criteria for curbside collection.

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Retrieved Text: In the United States, aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item. An aluminum can that you toss out today could end up back on your grocery shelf in just less than two months. Recycling one aluminum can help save enough energy to run your television for three hours. Why is recycling aluminum so important? If left in a landfill, a single aluminum can could stay in its present form for up to 500 years.
There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each year around the world. Many years ago aluminum was actually more valuable than gold. It’s also one of those elements that can be recycled over and over again.
Reading your newspapers on line or on a tablet is a good way to save paper. Half 1 million trees are cut down just to produce the Sunday newspapers each week. You could save 75,000 trees by just recycling and days worth of New York Times newspapers. If we recycled all newspapers, then we could save over 250 million trees each year.
The average person uses at least seven trees each year through wood, paper and other products made from trees. That means over 2 trillion trees are cut down and used throughout the course of a year. Most people throw away paper but it adds up to around 680 pounds for each person. Every 2,000 pounds of paper that is recycled can save 17 trees, 350 gallons of oil and reduce landfill space.
Another important recycling fact to know is the diversion rate. That’s the percentage of

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Retrieved Text: Recycling rate at lowest point in 24 years.
Recently released data* reveal that over one trillion aluminum beer and soda cans have been thrown in the trash—not the recycling bin—since Americans began buying these cans more than thirty years ago. The trillion wasted beverage cans weigh in at 17.5 million tons—a quantity of scrap aluminum worth about $21 billion at today's market prices.
Over the last four decades, the damages from aluminum manufacturing and associated infrastructure include thousand of square miles of habitat loss on every major continent, the displacement of tens of thousands of indigenous people, and the release of tens of millions of tons of greenhouse gasses and other toxic air and water pollutants.
While we are steadily trashing millions of tons of cans that could be used to make new cans and other aluminum products, multi-national companies like Alcoa and Alcan are forging ahead to build new aluminum smelters in pristine environments all over the world, including Brazil, Australia, Mozambique, and Iceland.
If we recycled 85% of our cans instead, as we could with a national beverage container deposit law, or "bottle bill," we could save about 600 thousand tons of aluminum metal annually —eliminating the need to build one or two brand new aluminum smelters.
*The first disposable all-aluminum cans were marketed in 1964, but t he Aluminum Association, an industry trade group, only began collecting sales and recycling data in 1972. Since 1990, the Container Recycling Institute has used U.S. Department of Commerce data to adjust the Aluminum Association recycling rate to account for imported scrap

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Retrieved Text: Fiberboard - Beverage, Cereal, Cake Mix, Pasta, Cracker, Gift Boxes etc.
​Recycling a stack of newspaper just three feet high can save one tree.
Recycling one ton of aluminum cans saves 37 barrels of oil.
Enough energy is saved by recycling one aluminum can to run TV set for three hours or to light ​one 100 watt bulb for 20 hours.
Everyday Americans use enough steel and tin cans to make a steel pipe from Los Angeles to New York and back.
Making cans from recycled aluminum saves 95% of the energy required to produce cans from virgin materials.
​It is a free service.

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Retrieved Text: Today, about 8 out of 10 bottles and cans that are sold in Sweden go on to be recycled in stores. But even if the whole world recycled like the Swedes do, we would still need 4,2 planets to make up for the waste.
Good news is that even though the number of sales of bottles and cans has increased recycling stays at a steady 80%, a 10% difference from the country’s 90% goal.
Sara Barthelson Riismark, Communication Manager at Returpack (Sweden’s Recycle Agency), says that people have different reasons for wanting to recycle, but almost all Swedes are positive towards the recycling system.
In Sweden, all regular grocery stores have recycling machines, and almost all bottles and cans can be recycled for about 10-20 cents per item. More than 9 out of 10 large bottles are recycled, but seen to smaller bottles and cans, the results aren’t as great. It’s often the smaller bottles, that people buy “on the go” that are thrown away in general garbage cans or on the ground instead of being recycled.
Last year, 1,85 million bottles and aluminum cans were recycled, which is around 183 bottles or cans, per person.

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Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Retrieved Text: If you are a recycler in that case there are bin options that help you to do this more easily. Inside the same space that you could have your single trash is it possible to can have 4 small bins, sometimes even in different shades to help you easily separate waste material. This can eradicate the problem of getting an overflowing main trash may as less is actually going to the dump and more is being directed elsewhere to be reused or perhaps transformed. However you decide to take care of your overflowing trash spare there is an easy option available to you. Cleaning up your trash location really opens up a home and gives it an all rounded cleaner and fresher come to feel. An added bonus of getting additional trash cans is that although you'll have done more to take out; your vacations to the outside trash may will be less frequent.
Mrspalmreader - Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen. How to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles including plastic milk cartons. Recycle crushing machines. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen youtube sep 12, 2010 how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles. Crushing machines opening 25x40. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra 12 09 2010� how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans

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Retrieved Text: One of the major reasons we chose to package our kombucha with aluminum cans is because cans have the highest consumer recycling rate. In addition, aluminum can production is a closed loop system, meaning they are are infinitely recyclable so cans are recycled back into cans rather than down-cycled into a product that is of lesser value, which is the case when glass and plastic are recycled. In fact, aluminum cans are produced with three times the amount of recycled material than that of glass or plastic products. Due to aluminum’s light weight, more cans can be transported per freight load than plastic or glass, which allows for increased efficiency for our supply chain and the environment. Because aluminum cans are an American innovation, the revenue generated from the industry stays in the country, making cans the most economically viable packaging option.
Producing the highest quality kombucha is at the core of why we are in business. Our cans have a BPA-free lining, which means the kombucha never comes into contact with metal, therefore the healthy bacteria and acids do not diminish or erode. Cans cannot be infiltrated by light, which allows us to control the fermentation of our kombucha after it is packaged. Our kombucha contains high quantities of the active bacteria, Lactobacillus, and because cans cannot be infiltrated by light, we can control the fermentation and ABV of our kombucha better with the can packaging.
We believe kombucha is the perfect pairing for all adventures. Cans are the best option because they are easy to pack

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Retrieved Text: Among the many things that you can do to help protect the Pennsylvania environment, recycling is one of the most popular things to do.
Recycling refers to the re-processing of used items or waste products into reusable or new products. Recycling offers a number of eco-friendly and financial benefits. Here’s a more in-depth and balanced look at how recycling helps to benefit both man and the environment.
According to environment advocates and government planners, recycling saves businesses, governments and households considerable sums of money. According to the Institute for Local Self Reliance, communities save money when they treat recycling as a replacement for traditional waste disposal and handling methods. Through implementing recycling initiatives in local communities, community managers and planners redesign their garbage collection schedules, as well as reduce the operating time of their trucks and equipment.
While some skeptics argue that recycling costs so much more than traditional garbage disposal methods, green advocates say that the prices paid for scrap materials are a direct measure of the immense value of recyclables. For example, scarp aluminum fetches a high price because recycling it eats up less energy as compared to producing a new aluminum can or container.
According to data from the US Energy Information Administration, a paper mill actually uses 40 percent less energy to make paper from recycled materials, than it does to make paper from freshly-cut lumber. Proponents of recycling also tress that the need to use a second timber or logging truck is defrayed when paper is collected and used for recycled.
The US Environmental Protection Agency

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Retrieved Text: Earn a New Kind of Scouts’ Honor—The Great American Can Roundup Scout Council Challenge!
Al the Can is ready to award cash prizes and cool gear to Scouts, Scouting units, and councils that recycle the most aluminum beverage cans per registered scout between January 15 and April 30, 2016. National wide, the top two aluminum can recycling Councils will be recognized with cash awards.
Register your unit/troop for the 2016 Challenge by April 30, 2016. Registration is required.
Get everyone excited about recycling. Tie in the Challenge with work toward a merit badge!
At this time, lone scouts can participate for gear only. Their recycling efforts will be counted towards their Council’s total poundage collected.
Your troop/unit size doesn’t matter—just the amount of aluminum cans recycled per registered member. Lone Scouts can participate for gear and help their Council with recycling pounds.
Collect and recycle aluminum cans.
Earn $ from your local recycling center to donate for scouting activities or use for a good cause.
The top six units and top two councils win cash prizes ranging from $100-$500.
What’s the best reason to recycle aluminum cans?
Keep waste out of landfills.
Reduce air and water pollution.

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Retrieved Text: PITTSBURGH--Alcoa (NYSE: AA) will be at Super Bowl XLVI this Sunday in Indianapolis, Ind., in more ways than one. The award-winning Lucas Oil Stadium, host site of the Super Bowl football game, features several products made by Alcoa’s Kawneer architectural aluminum products business. Alcoa Foundation is also contributing to the big game by helping the City of Indianapolis “go-green” by encouraging football fans to recycle their aluminum beverage cans.
Every visitor—including the lucky 67,000 fans with Super Bowl tickets—will pass through Kawneer’s 500 Tuffline® brand entrances as they go into the stadium. The Kawneer brand of frames, doors and hardware is designed to withstand high-traffic areas. In addition, more than 225,000 square feet of Kawneer’s curtain wall, which uses glass extensively, provides spectators with a magnificent view of the Indianapolis skyline from their seats.
Kawneer’s mark on Lucas Oil Stadium continues on the interior, where even more entrances and curtain wall systems are featured, as well as Kawneer sliding doors. These recyclable aluminum architectural products were produced at Alcoa plants in Springdale, Arkansas; Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania; and Visalia, California.
While Kawneer products have helped with the design of the stadium, Alcoa Foundation is making sure fans have a place to recycle their aluminum beverage cans. Through an Alcoa Foundation grant, the Indiana Recycling Coalition has been working closely with the 2012 Super Bowl Environmental Programs Committee to ”keep score” on recycling. In addition, the investment has enabled the coalition to purchase recycling bins and place them throughout the stadium and other public venues, making it easy for people to dispose

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Retrieved Text: New York City is going all out when it comes to Recycling……. but New Rochelle is not following.
Apart from Glen Island park, recycling bins at New Rochelle Parks are non existent. None of the ball fields are sporting recycling cans, none of the playgrounds, none of the tennis courts.
The Source separation law is in effect since the late 80ies and here we are in 2013 and there are still no Recycling cans in sight.
How can we teach our children about recycling if no logistics are provided.
Especially at the ball fields, because, guess what, there are mainly bottles and cans discarded there. I did a survey and found 800 beverage containers per weekend day at the ALMS and Ward Ball fields alone. And no recycling can!
Here is an article on what Central Park is doing, it should be an example to New Rochelle.
Trash and recycling bins in New York City’s Central Park will be replaced with more than 700 new receptacles.
The Central Park Conservancy, in partnership with aluminum recycler Alcoa Inc., will replace existing plastic bins with receptacles made from 30% recycled aluminum, as well as adding more than 400 new bins, the Conservancy announced. The new bins are designed to prevent trash overflow and access by pests.
The additions will nearly double the number of recycling receptacles in Manhattan, the Conservancy said.

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is a wonderful material; I am banging this post out on a Mac with a case that was hydroformed out of a block of a particular virgin aluminum alloy specified by Apple. Other alloys are used in cars, planes, bullet trains and even rockets.
But it turns out that one major supplier of aluminum, Kobe Steel, has been shipping substandard aluminum and faking the data about the strength and durability of their aluminum. According to Bloomberg, “the fabrication of figures was found at all four of Kobe Steel’s local aluminum plants in conduct that was systematic, and for some items the practice dated back some 10 years.” Some of it may have gone into airplanes made by Subaru, wings made for Boeing, and yes, a rocket for Japan’s space industry.
The company is, of course, apologetic.
And why is this on TreeHugger? Because aluminum has a huge environmental impact. Sixty percent of it is recycled, but making that other forty percent takes a lot of electricity, 13,500 to 17,000 kWh per ton. More and more of it is going into cars like the Tesla and trucks like the Ford F-150 to make them lighter. No wonder Kobe was tempted to cheat; they can’t make enough of the stuff.
A lot of Aluminum is recycled, particularly beverage cans where 67 percent of it is recovered, but a lot of it is not; it is often bound to plastic in packaging (tetra packs, coffee pods and condiment packages); Heinz alone makes 11 billion little ketchup pouches every year. A lot more

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Retrieved Text: The main reason we can’t accept frozen food containers in our program is they are have more types of plastic coatings than the shelf stable and refrigerated cartons. Cartons are coated with a layer of Polyethylene. Frozen food containers can have various types of coatings and because of the variation they can cause problems when trying to separate the fiber (paper) layer from the coating layers. Paper mills can’t separate out these embedded plastic layers from the paper fiber, resulting in problems when they try to pulp the fiber into new paper.
All Burlington County residents, including residents of apartments and condominiums, are required to recycle cardboard, paper, food and beverage cans, glass bottles and jars, and plastic bottles # 1 and # 2 type only.
Apartment Landlords and Condominium Complex Associations are required by municipal ordinance, to provide recycling containers in convenient areas for their residents. Recycling areas and containers must be clearly labeled and residents routinely advised of recycling requirements. The County Recycling Office does provide recycling literature to those Complexes that are serviced by the Occupational Training Center, via the Burlington County Regional Recycling Program. If a Complex contracts privately for recycling services, their recycling service company should provide them guidance on what materials are accepted and how they should be prepared for recycling.
All owners, lessees, or occupants of public and private businesses, commercial and/or industrial establishments are required by local municipal ordinance to recycle paper, corrugated cardboard, bottles and cans. Businesses are required to contract privately for recycling services.
Owners, lessees, and occupants of all

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Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Retrieved Text: The start of the New Year is usually a reflective time, and that got us thinking about recycling, because let’s face it – that’s something we think about a lot here. We try to be mindful about reusing materials, recycling and the amount of trash we generate both at home and at work, and from this came the idea for a year-long blog series we’re calling #WasteNotWantNot.
The advantage of recycling is two-fold: materials are kept out of landfills and a new purpose is given to existing items, so virgin materials are not needed, or can be utilized in other ways. A great example of recycling working is aluminum soda cans which have a very high recycling rate. When an empty soda can is recycled that aluminum can be used to create new cans, so very little, if any, new aluminum is needed.
Unfortunately, there are plenty of examples of recycling failing, or when items that can be recycled end up in a trash can instead of a recycling bin. Before you throw something away take a quick second to think about whether that item should be destined for a landfill or a recycling center. We’ve rounded up a list of items that more often than not are landfilled when they really could be recycled.
Books – Paper is recyclable no matter what form it is in. Gently used books should be donated, but if you have some old books that are beyond their usefulness toss them in the recycling bin.
Plastic bottle caps – Just about everyone knows to

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Input Text: Process:
- Prophase is the first and longest stage of mitosis
- In this stage the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In prophase the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In metaphase the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell and become connected to the spindle fiber at their centromere
- In anaphase the sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are pulled apart
- During telophase the chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct rod-like shapes
- Two new nuclear membranes then form around each of the two regions of DNA and the spindle fibers disappear.

Question:
suppose if during anaphase the sister chromatids stay together happens, how will it affect HURTING mitosis to proceed normally.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: chromatid A threadlike strand formed from a chromosome during the early stages of cell division. Each chromosome divides along its length into two chromatids, which are at first held together at the centromere. They separate completely at a later stage. The DNA of the chromosome reproduces itself exactly so that each chromatid has the complete amount of DNA and becomes a daughter chromosome with exactly the same genes as the original chromosome from which it was formed.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides during the third stage (anaphase) of cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides at the anaphase of mitosis or the second stage of meiosis (meiosis II), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Zoology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division during interphase. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie

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Retrieved Text: Within 24 hours, a human cell can divide into two daughter cells that are identical to the original. This cell cycle includes growth of the cell, duplication of the DNA and division of the chromosomes and cell contents. The stages of the cycle -- which occur in both plants and animals -- are called interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis. Kinetochore and nonkinetochore -- also known as interpolar -- microtubules play an important role in the separation of chromosomes and the formation of daughter cells. These microscopic structures are both made from subunits called tubulin, but they have different functions during cell division.
When a cell enters mitosis, a microtubule-based structure called a spindle forms with two poles at either end of the enlarged cell. The chromosomes align along the center of the spindle prior to separation of the chromatids -- half of the duplicated chromosomes. Kinetochore microtubules extend from the spindle poles toward the center of the cell and attach to the chromatids at a structure called the kinetochore. The nonkinetochore microtubules also extend from the spindle toward the center of the cell, but they do not attach to the chromatids. Instead they overlap at the center of the spindle.
During late prophase -- one of the phases of mitosis -- the plate-like kinetochore forms on the duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome has two kinetochores -- one for each identical sister chromatid -- attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles. Kinetochore microtubules attached to the kinetochore cause the chromosomes to line up along the middle of the spindle. Nonkinetochore microtubules

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Retrieved Text: Here you have a list of opinions about Anaphase and you can also give us your opinion about it.
You will see other people's opinions about Anaphase and you will find out what the others say about it.
Anaphase (from the Greek ἀνά, "up" and φάσις, "stage"), is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the cell cycle's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Metaphase ends with the destruction of B cyclin. B cyclin is marked with ubiquitin which flags it for destruction by proteasomes, which is required for the function of metaphase cyclin-dependent kinases (M-Cdks). Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting complex marks an inhibitory chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for destruction. Securin is a protein which inhibits a protease known as separase. The destruction of securin unleashes separase which then breaks down cohesin, a protein responsible for holding sister chromatids together. The centromeres are split, and the new daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. They take on a V-shape as they are pulled back.
While the chromosomes are drawn to each side of the cell, the non-kinetochore spindle fibers push against each other, in a ratcheting action, that stretches the cell into an oval.
Once anaphase is complete, the cell moves into telophase.
In the image below, you can see a graph with the evolution of the times that people look for Anaphase. And below it, you can see how many pieces of news

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: What are centromeres composed of?
The chromosome structure is similar in most cases to an X, but the location of the point where the two arms of the X touch may vary. This contact point has a name, of course (a biologist never misses a chance to name something): the centromere.
Without centromeres, cells cannot divide properly and mitosis fails.
Centromeres are actually defined by specific regions of DNA called alpha satellite, which specifically bind centromere proteins.
Scientists have identified over 20 that contribute to forming the centromere complex.
Without them, kinetochores do not have a place to attach to pull the sister chromatids apart.
Why is mitosis necessary for living organisms?
How do cytokinesis and telophase differ?
How do chromosomes divide during anaphase?
How can mitosis be a form of asexual reproduction?
How does mitosis conserve the chromosome number?
How are mitosis and meiosis different?
What are kinetochores made of?

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Retrieved Text: In Eukaryotic Cells, Chromosomes Are Composed Of _____.
How is plant cell cytokinesis different from animal cell cytokinesis Plant cells deposit vesicles containing cell-wall building blocks on the metaphase plate; animal cells form a cleavage furrow.
The beginning of anaphase is indicated by which of the following? Cohesin is cleaved enzymatically.
What happens if MPF (mitosis-promoting factor) is introduced into immature frog oocytes that are arrested in G2? The cells enter mitosis.
Once a cell completes mitosis, molecular division triggers must be turned off. What happens to MPF during mitosis? The cyclin component of MPF is degraded.
Density-dependent inhibition is explained by which of the following? As cells become more numerous, the cell surface proteins of one cell contact the adjoining cells and they stop dividing.
A research team began a study of a cultured cell line. Their preliminary observations showed them that the cell line did not exhibit either density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. What could they conclude right away? The cells show characteristics of tumors.
For a chemotherapeutic drug to be useful for treating cancer cells, which of the following is most desirable? It interferes with rapidly dividing cells.
Cells from advanced malignant tumors often have very abnormal chromosomes and an abnormal number of chromosomes. What might explain the association between malignant tumors and chromosomal abnormalities? Cell cycle checkpoints are not in place to stop cells with chromosome abnormalities.
Exposure of zebrafish nuclei to meiotic cytosol resulted in phosphorylation of NEP55 and L68 proteins by cyclin-dependent kinase 2. NEP55 is a protein of the inner nuclear membrane, and L68 is a protein of

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Retrieved Text: During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.... prophase I - meiosis term refers to the first phase of meiosis I, which together with meiosis II results in the reductive cell division only occurring gametes. Prophase can be further divided into a number of stages: leptotene zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
Go back to prophase 1 and write in alleles for your chromosomes. The drawing below shows what they would look like before they are copied during interphase. Make sure that you write in the alleles on the copied sister chromatids too! a A. B b g G . R r H h. D d. Now, show the alleles of one gene crossing over in one set of homologous chromosomes. Circle the set you chose. Now follow along and... During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.
Prophase – The replicated chromosomes condense into compact rods. Each rod Each rod consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere or the chromosome.
☆ These questions asked the reader to describe and draw the cell when it was in the telophase and the late prophase stages of mitosis. ☆ During meiotic prophase in females, chromosomes condense and pair to

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Retrieved Text: Unit 5 - Patrick Stephen Jr.
A student can model what complementary base pairs means in a strand of DNA.
A student can identify the difference between a 5' and a 3' deoxyribose sugar and relate these differences to the leading and lagging strands of DNA.
A student can identify the different sections of a chromosome including (centromeres (acrocentric, metacentric, submetacentric), sister chromatids, coding and non coding bands, telomeres).
A student can create an argument as to why genetic variation is important for the survival of a species.
A student can utilize proper vocabulary in distinguishing the types of cells created during mitosis and meiosis.
A student can explain the differences that occur during prophase and anaphase of mitosis and meiosis I.
A student can create an argument on the age and/or health of a plant or animal tissue by analying the cells in specific mitotic stages.
A student can explain how carcinogens impact the cell cycle controllers such as the p53 gene and the BRCA1 gene.

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: The first draft of the human genome sequence was reported a year ago. It may be a good time to remind ourselves that the genetic information encoded in the ∼3000-Mb sequence is stored not only in the public or private databases but also in the tiny space of the cell nucleus. The total length of human genomic DNA, which resides in 23 chromosomes, reaches approximately one meter. It is by no means a simple task to fold up the long DNA molecules and package them within a cell nucleus whose diameter is only ∼10 μm. Even more striking is that the DNA molecules are faithfully duplicated and segregated into two daughter cells in an extremely limited space. Although more than 100 years have passed since Walther Flemming first described the dynamic behavior of chromosomes (or mitosis) during cell division, it remains highly mysterious how this remarkable process of chromosome segregation is achieved at a mechanistic level. From a cytological point of view, two dramatic events occur on chromosomes during mitosis. The first one is the conversion of an amorphous mass of interphase chromatin into a discrete set of rod-shaped chromosomes (chromosome condensation), which occurs from prophase to metaphase (Koshland and Strunnikov 1996; Hirano 2000). The second is the splitting of chromosomes into two halves, which takes place highly synchronously at the onset of anaphase (Dej and Orr-Weaver 2000; Nasmyth et al. 2000). As a crucial prerequisite for these events, duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) must be held together immediately after DNA replication in S phase and throughout

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Retrieved Text: digital age skills teach students to learn how to learn for them- selves, which is the foundation of the 5E science learning cycle that includes engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. In my AP Biology class, students used this process to explore the concept of mitosis through three learning stations. This allowed them to work in small groups, which fostered their collaboration and communication skills.
The first was a craft station. Students created a cell-cycle flipbook and discussed what happened during each phase and subphase of mitosis. The second was a laptop station where students received a list of websites that included texts, interactive illustrations, videos, and a simulation game intended to introduce them to the concept, teach the concept, and allow them to apply the concept. The final station included three iPads loaded with the Mitosis app, a free download from the Apple i Tunes store.
The highlight of the day for most su-dents was the third station because most had never used an iPad before. The lesson began with three or four eager students gathered around each iPad. They turned the iPad to change from landscape to portrait view and clicked on the app.
connected mitotic spindle fibers to each of the sister chromatids at their kinetochore during prometaphase. They pulled their thumbs and index fingers in opposite directions to pull apart the sister chromatids and then swiped their fingers down the metaphase plate to fully separate the chromosomes in the anaphase. They completed the cell cycle by using their fingers to circle cell contents to create

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Retrieved Text: A spindle poison, also known as a spindle toxin, is a poison that disrupts cell division by affecting the protein threads that connect the centromere regions of chromosomes, known as spindles. Spindle poisons effectively cease the production of new cells by interrupting the mitosis phase of cell division at the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). Unfortunately, spindle poisons, as numerous and varied as they are, still are yet to be 100% effective at ending the formation of tumors (neoplasms). Although not 100% effective, substantive therapeutic efficacy has been found in these types of chemotherapeutic treatments. The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules (polymerized tubulin) that aid, along with regulatory proteins; each other in the activity of appropriately segregating replicated chromosomes. Certain compounds affecting the mitotic spindle have proven highly effective against solid tumors and hematological malignancies. Two specific families of antimitotic agents, vinca alkaloids and taxanes, interrupt the cell’s division by the agitation of microtubule dynamics. The vinca alkaloids work by causing the inhibition of the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules, resulting in the G2/M arrest within the cell cycle and eventually cell death. In contrast, the taxanes arrest the mitotic cell cycle by stabilizing microtubules against depolymerization. Even though numerous other spindle proteins exist that could be the target of novel chemotherapeutics, tubulin-binding agents are the only types in clinical use. Agents that affect the motor proteinkinesin are beginning to enter clinical trials. Another type, Paclitaxel, acts by attaching to tubulin within existing microtubules. Next, it stabilizes the polymer.
Normally, cells duplicate their genetic material and then

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Retrieved Text: The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus.
arrangement of p g pairs of chromosomes. The diagram below g shows four possible arrangements of chromosomes during metaphase 1 from an individual that has 6 total chromosomes. chromosomes Suppose that the pink chromosomes are those that the individual inherited from its mother and the blue colored ones were inherited from its father. For each chromosome pair, the chromosome that is on the left (maternal or paternal) is determined randomly. As can be , g p seen, there are several alignment possibilities.
Can you tell the stage of cells Can o (image in the right hand) What do the different colors represent for?
chromosomes, four per set. In the h f t I th following diagram, what phase of mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II, is this cell in?
The cell is in metaphase of meiosis II. You can tell because the chromosomes are lined up along the metaphase plate, and it plate has only four pairs of sister chromatids. If it were mitosis, the cell would have eight pairs of ll ld h i ht i f sister chromatids.
A cell is diploid and contains three chromosomes per set. Draw the arrangement g of chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, and metaphase I and II of meiosis.
1. Division of intracellular organelles 2. Cell cycle control 3. Mechanics of cell division 4..

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Retrieved Text: My project focuses on mechanisms underlying chromosome segregation fidelity in human cells. During division, missegregation occurs due to kinetochore-microtubule mal-attachments, whose correction is necessary for faithful segregation. We have uncovered that the Kinesin-13, Kif2b, increases microtubule dynamics at the kinetochores, hence allowing for the release of erronous attachments and the general destabilization of kinetochore fibers in early mitosis necessary for proper chromosome alignment.
These pictures represent a monopolar spindle, a bipolar spindle with monooriented unaligned chromosomes, and an anaphase spindle with lagging chromatids.

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Retrieved Text: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis. Chapter 5. 5.1 – The Cell Cycle. Key Concept: Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions. When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?.
Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions.
When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
Does an animal get larger because each cell increases in size or because it produces more of them?
What are some things that all cells in your body must have?
The cell cycle has 4 main stages.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
The main stages of the cell cycle are: Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, & Mitosis.
Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for that type of cell.
Cell volume increases faster than surface area.
Cells need to stay small to allow diffusion and osmosis to work efficiently.
Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesisinto two new daughter cells.
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
Chromosomes: carry genetic information (DNA) that is passed from one generation of cells to the next.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.
DNA plus proteins (histones) is called chromatin.
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
Interphase prepares the cell to divide.
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.
Sister chromatids

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Retrieved Text: The stage in mitosis and in the second meiotic division when the centromere splits and the chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
The stage of the first meiotic division when the two halves of a bivalent chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.
With respect to the results listed in Table 2, the orange and grape juices of the five food companies, at both exposure times considered, induced significant formation of mitotic spindle changes, represented in this study by colchicine metaphase and anaphase and telophase bridges, proving to be genotoxic, and chromosome breaks, characterized by the formation of micronuclei.
To determine if aurora A kinase (AAK) plays a post-metaphase role in Drosophila S2 cell division, AAK was knocked down by RNA interference (RNAi), and microtubule (MT) intensity in the spindle midzone during late anaphase was quantified (Fig.
1 (b) IVM, in vitro maturation; GVBD, germinal vesicle breakdown; MI, Metaphase 1; AI, Anaphase 1; TI, TelophaseI; MII, MetaphaseII; SEM, standard error of the mean.
The damaged chromosomes, in the form of acentric chromatids or chromosome fragments, lag behind in anaphase when centric elements move towards the spindle poles.
Several chromosomal aberrations (CA's) like chromosomal break, stickiness, laggard, and multipolar anaphase have been formed.
It delivers the two groups of chromosomes to positions adjacent to the polar furrows midway between pairs of plastids in anaphase and a phragmoplast is constructed in the midzone (Fig.
10 and 50 [micro]g/ml number of prophases and telophases generally increases by prolonging treatments, and the number of metaphases and anaphases decreases.
This can be seen from the simulation results in To

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Retrieved Text: Spatial regulation of the spindle assembly checkpoint and anaphase-promoting complex in Aspergillus nidulans.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) plays a critical role in preventing mitotic errors by inhibiting anaphase until all kinetochores are correctly attached to spindle microtubules. In spite of the economic and medical importance of filamentous fungi, relatively little is known about the behavior of SAC proteins in these organisms. In our efforts to understand the role of gamma-tubulin in cell cycle regulation, we have created functional fluorescent protein fusions of four SAC proteins in Aspergillus nidulans, the homologs of Mad2, Mps1, Bub1/BubR1 and Bub3. Time-lapse imaging reveals that SAC proteins are in distinct compartments of the cell until early mitosis when they co-localize at the spindle pole body. SAC activity is, thus, spatially regulated in A. nidulans. Likewise, Cdc20, an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, is excluded from interphase nuclei, but enters nuclei at mitotic onset and accumulates to a higher level in mitotic nuclei than in the surrounding nucleoplasm before leaving in anaphase/telophase. The activity of this critical cell cycle regulatory complex is likely regulated by the location of Cdc20. Finally, the gamma-tubulin mutation mipAD159 causes a nuclear-specific failure of nuclear localization of Mps1 and Bub1/R1 but not of Cdc20, Bub3 or Mad2.
Chromosome segregation in budding yeast: sister chromatid cohesion and related mechanisms.
Studies on budding yeast have exposed the highly conserved mechanisms by which duplicated chromosomes are evenly distributed to daughter cells at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The establishment of proteinaceous bridges between sister chromatids, a function provided by a ring-shaped complex known as

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Retrieved Text: The epitope recognized by ab992 maps to a region between residue 575 and the C-terminus (residue 631) human Rad21 homolog using the numbering given in entry NP_006256.1 (GeneID 5885).
Synthetic peptide (Human) conjugated to KLH - which represented a portion of human Rad21 encoded within exon 14 (LocusLink ID 5885).
HeLa cell lysate. FFPE human breast fibroadenoma tissue sections.
Our Abpromise guarantee covers the use of ab992 in the following tested applications.
Used at a dilution of 1/200 for 30 min incubation (see Abreview for further information).
WB 1/500 - 1/5000. Predicted molecular weight: 72 kDa.
Band observed at ~130 kDa.
Cleavable component of the cohesin complex, involved in chromosome cohesion during cell cycle, in DNA repair, and in apoptosis. The cohesin complex is required for the cohesion of sister chromatids after DNA replication. The cohesin complex apparently forms a large proteinaceous ring within which sister chromatids can be trapped. At metaphase-anaphase transition, this protein is cleaved by separase/ESPL1 and dissociates from chromatin, allowing sister chromatids to segregate. The cohesin complex may also play a role in spindle pole assembly during mitosis. Also plays a role in apoptosis, via its cleavage by caspase-3/CASP3 or caspase-7/CASP7 during early steps of apoptosis: the C-terminal 64 kDa cleavage product may act as a nuclear signal to initiate cytoplasmic events involved in the apoptotic pathway.
Belongs to the rad21 family.
The C-terminal part associates with the head of SMC1A, while the N-terminal part binds to the head of SMC3.
Cleaved by separase/ESPL1 at the onset of anaphase. Cleaved by caspase-3 and caspase-7 at the beginning of apoptosis. The cleavage by

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Retrieved Text: A definition of the medical term "ookinesis" is presented. Ookinesis refers to the mitosis of oogonia in the embryonic ovary to form primary oocytes. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metakinesis" is presented. It refers to the moving of the two chromatids of each chromosome away from each other as they move to opposite poles in the anaphase of mitosis. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the term "metaphase" is presented. It refers to the second stage of mitosis in which the pairs of chromatids line up on the equator of the cell. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.
A definition of the medical term "monozygotic" is presented. Monozygotic means originating from a single fertilized ovum, said of identical twins. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co. The pronunciation of the term is also provided.
A definition of the medical term "ootid" is presented. Ootid refers to the ovum after first maturation has been completed and the second meiotic division has begun. The definition is from the "Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary," published by F.A. Davis Co.

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Retrieved Text: Hey guys, I was just wondering does interphase double the chrosome number from 46 to 92 due to DNA replication?
Is meiosis part of the cell cycle?
HELP - Mitosis and Meiosis???
It doesn't double the chromosome number, but it doubles the amount of DNA. Chromosomes usually look like chromatids, but because you only see them in prophase, you see them with twice the amount of DNA. There are the same number of chromosomes, as the number of centromeres does not increase.
But how can it go from 46 to 46 to 23? How can it divide in way that maintains the same no. of chromosomes after a division into 2 cells?
It contains 46 chromosomes. It divides to give 23 chromosomes in meiosis 1. This then divides again to give 23 chromosomes.
The original DNA has been replicated before division. The reason you think a chromosome lookes like and "X" rather than an "l" is because you only see them during mitosis when they are dividing.
But they are still called a single chromosome, because a) the two strands are exactly the same and b) they are attached to a single centromere.
So it starts with 46, then divides to give 2 cells of 23 each, then those divide to give 4 cells of 23?
the cell goes through normal interphase and chromosones are copied and are visible as sister chromoatids.
chromotids are seperated in meiosis 2.
so to answer your question it goes 2N -> 2N -> N -> N because after interpahse the chromosones are sister chromatids (the have replicated) but they are still

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Retrieved Text: Results demonstrate that chromosome behavior in meiosis is independently influenced by the kinetochore associated Monopolin protein that mediates monopolar attachement and Rec8, which is involved in maintaining cohesion between sister centromeres in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Studies have identified a protein required for cohesion but is not a Cohesin subunit. This protein, Eco1p(Ctf7), was found during experiments searching for mutants that generate separate sister centromeres. While Eco1p(Ctf7) is needed for cohesion establishment during DNA replication, it is not required for cohesion maintenance during the G2 and M phases.
A study has been conducted to investigate the behavior of two cohesin subunits known to important for sister chromatid cohesion processes during mitosis and meiosis. Findings indicate that Scc1p is expressed at extremely low levels in meiotic cells, while the scc1-73 allele, considered to be conditionally lethal in mitosis, exerts a modest influence on spore formation and viability. A meiotic cohesin that binds sister chromatids together is also required for repair of strand exchange between homologs.
Abstracts: Golgi membranes are absorbed into and reemerge from the ER during mitosis. The debate about transport in the Golgi - two sides of the same coin?

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Retrieved Text: Following DNA replication, sister chromatids must stay connected for the remainder of the cell cycle in order to ensure accurate segregation in the subsequent cell division. This important function involves an evolutionarily conserved protein complex known as cohesin; any loss of cohesin causes premature sister chromatid separation in mitosis. Here, we examined the role of cohesin in sister chromatid cohesion prior to mitosis, using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to assay the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase Drosophila cells. Surprisingly, we found that sister chromatid cohesion can be maintained in G2 with little to no cohesin. This capacity to maintain cohesion is widespread in Drosophila, unlike in other systems where a reduced dependence on cohesin for sister chromatid segregation has been observed only at specific chromosomal regions, such as the rDNA locus in budding yeast. Additionally, we show that condensin II antagonizes the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase, supporting a model wherein cohesin and condensin II oppose each other’s functions in the alignment of sister chromatids. Finally, because the maternal and paternal homologs are paired in the somatic cells of Drosophila, and because condensin II has been shown to antagonize this pairing, we consider the possibility that condensin II-regulated mechanisms for aligning homologous chromosomes may also contribute to sister chromatid cohesion.
As cells grow, they replicate their DNA to give rise to two copies of each chromosome, known as sister chromatids, which separate from each other once the cell divides. To ensure that sister chromatids end up in different daughter cells, they are kept together

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Retrieved Text: Repair of DNA breaks by homologous recombination (HR) can lead to the formation of recombination intermediates, which often contain four-way structures known as Holliday junctions (HJs) that physically link sister chromatids. The efficient resolution of these joint molecules is essential for chromosome segregation. In human mitotic cells, HJs can be cleaved by resolvases, including MUS81-EME1, SLX1-SLX4 and GEN1. MUS81-EME1 associates with SLX1-SLX4 and a third nuclease, XPF-ERCC1, to form the SMX tri-nuclease complex. The SMX complex and GEN1 cleave recombination intermediates in two genetically distinct resolution pathways. To understand the molecular mechanism of HJ resolution in human cells, I have purified human GEN1 protein and showed that it mediates a pair of symmetrical nicks in the two opposite strands across the junction. I also discovered that GEN1 actions are restricted to the late stages of the cell cycle by nuclear exclusion to suppress the formation of sister chromatid exchanges. Furthermore, we have followed the fate of unresolved recombination intermediates that arise in GEN1-/- knock-out cells depleted for MUS81. We found that the recombination intermediates persist until mitosis where they form a novel class of anaphase bridges, which we term homologous recombination ultra-fine bridges, or HR-UFBs. HR-UFBs are distinct from replication stress-associated UFBs that arise at common fragile sites, and also those that form between centromeres. Importantly, inhibiting the HR machinery by depleting RAD51 or BRCA2 leads to a reduction in the number of HR-UFBs. We found that the HR-UFBs are acted upon by BLM helicase to generate single-stranded RPA-coated bridges that are broken at cell division.

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Retrieved Text: Chromosome*s contain the long strands of DNA* that carry genetic information. They are the unit of DNA replication in living cells. Typical prokaryotic cells contain a single circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells, with their much larger genomes, have multiple, linear chromosomes. The length and linear nature of eukaryotic chromosomes increases the challenge of keeping the genetic material organized and of passing the proper amount of DNA to each daughter cell during mitosis.
During cell division, eukaryotic chromosomes condense into highly coiled 4 armed structures. The tight coiling and high degree of organization in this supercoiled DNA facilitates proper segregation during mitosis and cell division. The following illustration explores the structure, classification and features of a eukaryotic chromosome.
The earliest efforts to describe chromosomes were based on visible characteristics. The most obvious features are the centromere* which is the central constriction point and the branches stemming from this constriction point. These branches are called arms. Each chromosome has either two or four arms extending from the centromere.
Late in the cell cycle when the process of mitosis has begun but before the cell has divided, cells contain two complete copies of their genome. When the DNA is supercoiled in preparation for cell division, the pair of copies of each chromosome come together to form the characteristic x-shaped structure. The point of attachment of the two complete copies occurs at the centromere. Each copy of the chromosome is called a chromatid*. The two copies of each chromosome are called sister chromatids. When cells divide, one sister chromatid is delivered to each of

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Retrieved Text: Each of sister chromatids of a chromosme, when they separate during Anaphase, seems to be taking half of the centromere along with it. If this process is repeated, there wouldn't be any centomere left to be divided. So when exactly is this centromere resynthesized to its original size? is it done during G1 or S or G2? Thanks in advance.
Ah, yes I see. Since we are on the topic, then is Kinetochore protein synthesizes during G1 phase and splitted evently during anaphase?
The centromere is an incredibly specialized area of chromatin. It has a distinct and unique complement of proteins. Without looking it up, I believe the actual kinetochore (used during M phase) is added during G2 and is not present during G1/S (when the typical centromere proteins are present that simply associate with its unique DNA regions). The kinetochore is present bilaterally on each chromatid and is split evenly.
See this EM: http://www.wadsworth.org/rvbc/kinetochore_1.jpg which in the upper left figure shows the kinetochore being pulled by microtubules. The puffy stuff on each side of the kinetochore is the adjacent condensed chromatin. This is one chromatid, with the other one off the figure.

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Retrieved Text: Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in a certain area in the body that can spread. The way we treat cancer as of now is chemotherapy, or injecting radiation into the body to kill the extra cells. Chemotherapy is very dangerous and kills people all the time, but it is the only way we know of at the moment to treat cancer. When the cancer cell isn’t checked by polymerase and gets sent through and replicates, it makes more and more of the bad cells and is unable to be stopped. Cancer keeps going through the replication process making more cells than needed and unless treated soon, will kill you.
The G1 phase also known as the growth phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle. This phase is where cells and the contents of cells excluding chromosomes. Helicase is used here to unzip the double helix.
The next phase in the cell cycle is the S phase, this is where the chromosomes replicate and consist of two sister chromatids.Genes are located in chromosomes and DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
G2 phase is up next and this is where error check occurs for mutations and preparation of the cell for mitosis using DNA polymerase.Cancer skips this step and just keeps replicating without being checked.
Cell division begins with prophase where the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The chromatin is at its least dense state.
The next phase of cell division is metaphase or the middle phase, this is where chromosomes become

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Retrieved Text: This article is about the cellular structure. For other uses, see Spindle (disambiguation).
In cell biology, the spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle) refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells, or the meiotic spindle during meiosis, a process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Besides chromosomes, the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds of proteins. Microtubules comprise the most abundant components of the machinery.
This diagram depicts the organization of a typical mitotic spindle found in animal cells. Chromosomes are attached to kinetochore microtubules via a multiprotein complex called the kinetochore. Polar microtubules interdigitate at the spindle midzone and push the spindle poles apart via motor proteins. Astral microtubules anchor the spindle poles to the cell membrane. Microtubule polymerization is nucleated at the microtubule organizing center.
Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamic drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores; bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules emanating from opposite cell poles couples opposing tension forces, aligning chromosomes at the cell equator and poising them for segregation to daughter cells. Once every chromosome is bi-oriented, anaphase commences and cohesin, which couples sister chromatids, is severed, permitting the transit of the sister chromatids to opposite poles.
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated

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Retrieved Text: target cell cycle proteins for maxi ica stormarknad norrköping degradation by the 26S proteasome. Once degraded, separin is released, cohesin is degraded and sister chromatids are prepared to move to their respective poles for anaphase. By late G1, enough of the G1/S cyclins have accumulated and phosphorylated Cdh1 to inactivate the APC/C until the next metaphase.
NB, are highlighted 1, hemerly, r With apcccdc20 being more dependent on the D box and apcccdh1 more dependent on the KEN box. Has intersport i karlskrona been shown to promote substrate solidariteit bonus champions league binding by mediating their interactions with Cdh1 and Cdc20. M Apc10Doc1, in late prophase 3 doi" de Oliveira 589600 journal"1007s language" van Deursen. Pegoraro, eloy, sagit, galardy, allowing Cdh1 to have a broader substrate specificity. And other mechanisms by which the catalytic activity of apcc is tightly regulated to ensure proper timing of degradation of each of its mitotic substrates 6 Consequently, aPCC 1420682X number" f KW Anaphasepromoting complex KW apcc KW Cdc20 KW Cdh1 KW Spindle assembly checkpoint. C T, emi1 is phosphorylated by Pololike kinase. AC, having two distinct degradation sequences creates a high level of substrate specificity on the apcc. Elofsson, contribute towards substrate association as well. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences issn" C 1 Emi1 association with Cdc20 allows for the stabilization of various cyclins throughout S and G2 phase 64 pages" english US volume"5 TY jour T1 Mitotic regulation of the anaphasepromoting complex AU Baker. A Vargas 10, this, bretz, l Core apcc subunits,.
Cdc20 and Cdh1, indicates that Cdh1 also

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Retrieved Text: A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G 1 involves cell growth and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G 2 involves further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G 1 , S, and G 2 .
The first stage of interphase is called the G 1 phase , or first gap, because little change is visible. However, during the G 1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated during

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Input Text: Process:
- Bees find a place for the hive, such as a rock crevice or tree branch
- Bees gather nectar from flowers
- The bees evaporate the nectar by passing it back and forth to each other
- The evaporation turns the nectar into sugary honey
- The bees chew the honey until it turns into moldable wax
- The bees mold the wax into hexagonal (six sided) cylinders
- Thousands of these hexagonal cylinders put together form the hive
- 

Question:
suppose Flowers are producing less nectar happens, how will it affect Bees will extract less nectar from the flowers.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: It seems that everywhere honey bees go, they bring life. They are master pollinators. There is a secret to the honey bees’ productivity, however. There is a very specific reason that they are such good pollinators. I am convinced that if the church could learn the ‘secret’ of the honey bee, all of our real problems would be solved. Like the honey bee, we may even become more ‘productive’. Well, I have good news! In today’s blog post, I’d like to share the $15 billion ‘secret’ of the honey bee.
Bees don’t care about pollination, rather, they are simply after nectar!
There you have it. That is the $15 billion secret. Bees have a ‘one track’ mind. They have a love affair with nectar. It tastes really good to them. They are addicts. They will stop at nothing to get this nectar. Nectar is their food. This ‘nectar’ food is also used by the honey bee to produce more food (honey). The process by which the bees use nectar to produce honey is also fascinating, but that is another article for another day. Simply put, the bees just want nectar.
The bees have been designed to instinctively know where to find the nectar. Although nectar is not visible externally, the honey bee knows the plants and flowers that internally contain the nectar they need to feast upon. Therein lies their mission. They are sent out to find and extract their ‘nectar’ food from the various plants and flowers that are rich with this internal food. As they go about

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Retrieved Text: How fast do blossoms manufacture nectar?
A moth or butterfly or other nectar-swilling insect visits a flower blossom, takes a sip, and then flits away.
A little later, along comes another one. Is the second insect out of luck? Is the well dry? How fast do flowers replenish their supply? Or was there more than enough for one imbiber in the first place?
The only thing i could find was on the Dutch Wikipedia.
What follows is my translation.
It says that flowers produce nectar with their honey glands.
This to make the bees and the birds and the bats and the butterflies to fertilize(?) them (when they come to eat the nectar, they have to pass the reproductive organs (since the nectar is to be found in the bottom of the flower), which they will touch, thus transporting the pollen to other flowers).
Flowers that want to attract bees make less nectar then flowers who do the same for birds and bats.
Bees that are choosing those flowers will have to make more air miles and be visiting hundreds of flowers a day (which is highly effective for that type of flower).
Flowers that use animals for their reproduction produce nectar several times per day.
Edit: Obviously it’s something that is already known to you, how the birds and the bees and the honey works…, so maybe i could have skipped that whole part.
I found some links to actual studies. Here is another that is cited in others. And here is yet another with several promising links as well as an interesting study about jasmonic

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Retrieved Text: Allison Wallace - Did You Know...?
Among modern species of honey-making bees, Apis mellifera is the most common. Its genus name (Apis) means “bee,” while its species name (mellifera) means “honey-producing.” All of the information appearing on this page refers to Apis mellifera.
A honeybee left to its own devices cannot live very long; to thrive, it must live among its fellows in a colony. Although a colony of honeybees comprises just two genders (male and female), its members come in three types, or “castes”: infertile females (“workers,” numbering in the tens of thousands), fertile males (several hundred), and (usually) just one fertile female, the queen.
Collectively, 4,000 bees weigh only about a pound.
To support an average-sized colony, worker bees make approximately a million foraging trips a year to collect flower pollen (a protein-rich food), and about four times that many trips a year to collect nectar (with which they’ll make honey, rich in carbohydrates). But in temperate climates such as that of North America, flowers don’t bloom—and therefore don’t produce pollen or nectar—year round. Moreover, bees only forage during dry weather and daylight hours. So, collectively, workers in a strong colony may make more than 160,000 trips in a single day to keep the hive stocked with groceries.
A single bee’s “honey stomach”—where it stores nectar it has sipped from flowers for the trip from field to hive—is about the size of a head of a pin. But the droplets of nectar collected are much smaller. Approximately 1000 to 1500 visits to the tiny florets of clover flowers are

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Retrieved Text: The introduction of exotic bees for crop pollination is an increasingly common practice worldwide. While beneficial for crop production, exotic species may become invasive with several deleterious ecological and economic impacts. We studied whether robbing of flower buds by a highly invasive bumble bee (Bombus terrestris) reduces nectar availability for managed honey bees (Apis mellifera). We assessed the proportion of robbed buds, and nectar availability in flowers and buds (robbed and non-robbed) in 16 raspberry fields along gradients of bumble bee and honey bee abundance in NW Patagonia, Argentina. We also measured nectar production and replenishment in flowers that developed from robbed and non-robbed buds in one experimental field. Across fields, the proportion of robbed buds increased with the abundance of bumble bees, but not of honey bees. At anthesis, flowers from buds that were robbed once contained half the nectar, and produced two thirds of the nectar compared to those flowers that had not been robbed. Therefore, high abundance of invasive bumble bees can reduce resources for managed honey bees by robbing flower buds. This study reveals a novel, negative impact of bumble bee invasions that could potentially affect honey production.

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Retrieved Text: Hello from Long Lane Honey Bee Farms, and welcome to today's lesson in Beekeeping on hygienic behavior and testing for mites using a powder sugar roll.
As I have written nearly sixty lessons, I have never written a lesson on the bee dance. So today, as fascinating and complicated as it is, I want to teach on the way bees communicate through dance. Before I do, let me tell you about some things we are doing here at Long Lane Honey Bee Farms.
It has been a great bee year for us. Our hives have all built up nicely and are very strong, honey production has been great and best of all, no problems with pests or diseases since we have been free of using chemicals for nearly 3 year now. Queen production has been very robust!
I removed another colony of bees from a home in Champaign, Illinois. The location of the bees was another first for us. This time, they were harder to located because they were going into a hole between the wall and the top step on the back porch.
After some investigation, I determined that the steps had a hollow cavity in the middle, and so after the owner rented a jack-hammer and after we busted open the porch, we were right. In 1954 when they poured the concrete they placed a wooden whisky or pickle barrel in the middle to lessen how much concrete it would take. The bees thought this would be a perfect place for a hive.
As you can see they build

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Retrieved Text: The bumblebee is one of the native bees of North America. Fast but not furious, the bumblebee queen and workers have stingers, but seldom sting. And while its bumbling flight pattern give the bumblebee a clumsy appearance, the bumblebee in fact is a better pollinator than the honey bee. Bumblebees can harvest pollen from flowers 400 times faster than honey bees can.
Bumblebees are extremely good pollinators that can collect pollen twice as fast as a honey bee. Bumblebees are social bees like honey bees, with one queen in a hive and workers that support her. However, bumblebees do not have a permanent colony like honey bees do. In autumn, each bumble colony dies out and only the young, mated queens hibernate, each separately, elsewhere in their own new hole. There will be only 150-200 bees in a bumble bee hive in comparison to 20-35,000 bees in a honey bee hive.
The bumblebee is an effective pollinator because of a pollination technique called "buzz pollination." Buzz pollination does not require the bumblebee to enter the flower in order to gather pollen, like other bees have to do. Instead, the heavy bumblebee clings to the bottom of the flower and vibrates its flight muscles, producing a “buzz” sound. This vibration causes pollen to fall out of the flower onto the bee. After scraping pollen off and mixing it with her spit, the female worker carries pollen on the underside of her fuzzy abdomen and on her rear legs. She also gathers nectar in these same trips. The bumble carries

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Retrieved Text: Our gardens and green open spaces are green corridors within the hustle and bustle of buildings, roadways and today’s hectic lifestyles. These “green corridors” can be a haven for bees and butterflies and not only can we enjoy the beauty and flower interest of shrubs, they can be attractive to wildlife, too.
We’ve a few buzzwords(!) for you to encourage bee-friendly planting this month and some timely tips on Summertime garden tasks, too….
Whilst the more obvious bee and butterfly magnets of lavenders and buddleias are well-known, there are some other shrub varieties that can act as a bee feast, too. The humble Cotoneaster often has an unfair reputation as an also-ran shrub but not if you’re a bee – many varieties have lovely white flowers from Spring onwards, berries in late Summer and superb Autumn colour.
Butterflies often prefer a larger flower head, whereas bees are less picky – they are as happy climbing into a foxglove as they are settling on open flowers for their nectar fix. Bees are attracted to blues and yellows (which they see as blue, too!). Honeysuckles are firm favourites for butterflies and moths, too.
Most natural versions of roses (for example, the Dog Rose, Rosa canina) are simple, elegant and straightforward for bees – five petals, perfectly shaped for bees and arranged to show the centre – where all the bee food is!
Arrange your bee-friendly plants in sunny clusters – this will be more attractive than scattering plants or leaving in the shade.
Avoid fancy cultivars of plants – they may look beautiful but

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Retrieved Text: ​If you grow a garden, you probably like seeing butterflies, bees and birds (the three "B's") flitting among the flowers.
And since it's spring, it's the perfect time to plan on attracting these wonderful creatures to your garden. Here is how you can do just that!
Hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies are all "pollinators". They carry pollen from one plant to another. This is what helps flowers bloom and produce fruits, nuts, and vegetables.
The Pollinators (I'm going to capitalize that because it makes them sound like a team of badass gardening superheroes) also help to transfer seeds from one place to another.
​This is why you may notice last years annuals and perennials sprouting in places far away from their original locations.
The Pollinators are responsible for 150 food crops in the US.
There are more than 250, 000 recognized flowering species --pollinators are responsible for reproduction in over 90% of these.
They contribute to everything from the food we eat to the medicine we need.
Without pollinators, there would be little to no agriculture.
Human intervention has caused a decline in the natural number of pollinators. This is a direct threat not only to your garden, but to your well-being as a human.
More and more gardeners are choosing to include flowers to attract pollinators, leaving certain weeds in place, and avoiding harmful chemicals.
Plenty of yards have hummingbird feeders to attract these vibrant, delicate creatures.
Whereas this is a great way to attract them, it may not be beneficial to the ecosystem. Hummingbirds will fill up on the nectar you provide, and ignore the flowers.
It is

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: By experimental manipulation of the nectar in flowers, I characterized the decision-making process used by nectar-gathering bumblebees for initiating movements between inflorescences of wild bergamot. The decision-making process has these characteristics: departure from an inflorescence is less likely as nectar rewards increase; departure decisions are based on the amount of nectar in the last flower probed and are not influenced by the nectar rewards in either the previously probed flower or the previously visited inflorescence; the number of flowers already probed at an inflorescence influences departure decisions weakly; a bees' response (to stay or to depart) to a given size of nectar reward is variable. Since previously proposed foraging rules do not accord with this description, I propose a new rule. I show by experiment that the movements made by bumblebees enhance foraging success.

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Retrieved Text: Nearly all nectar-containing flowers are colonized by yeasts soon after flower maturation. This colonization is linked to pollinator visitation. The yeasts have been argued to affect nutritional quality of nectar, might produce volatiles or fermentation by-products that can attract or repulse pollinators and slightly increase flower temperature of winterblooming plants, which was argued to also affect pollinator behaviour.
How do differences in between-flower versus within-flower community dynamics interlink to affect yeast species coexistence?
Can trade-offs between yeast adaptations towards dispersal vectors and local competitiveness stabilize yeast metacommunities?
In addition to characterizing yeast communities in flowers of wild plants, trees and crops, we will quantitatively assess the role of mobile links (pollinators) on yeast community structure. It will be tested if there is a relationship between yeast diversity, plant diversity and pollinator diversity and if single yeast species depend on single pollinator species or pollinator groups for dispersal. Also the attractiveness of single yeast species on honey bees and wild bees will be tested. In the lab, we will perform competition experiments between selected yeast species to collect data on relative competitiveness and coalescence effects. Finally we will formulate a mechanistic model of expected meta-community dynamics and test this against community structures assessed in the AgroScapeLab-Quillow.

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Retrieved Text: What did you eat today? About every third bite of food you took is either directly or indirectly the result of pollinating bees.
Soon your students will be able to learn about the lives of honey bees and appreciate the vital role they play in our world through a game called NECTAR: A Honey Bee Quest.
With a finger on an iPad, smartphone, or other device, kids will guide “their” honey bee to scout for nectar-rich flowers, do the all-important waggle dance, avoid ambush bugs, feed baby bees, defend the hive from bears, and perform other bee-tasks. And most important: build the hive to survive the winter!
The Kickstarter fundraising campaign for NECTAR has a goal of $6,000. Dawn Publications has pledged to match that amount if the campaign successfully reaches its goal. Once the bee game is flourishing, developers Malachi and Chad have pledged to donate part of their profits to Earth Train, an environmental group that helps young people make a difference in creating a healthier planet.
I invite you to support NECTAR at Kickstarter. With a pledge of only $15 you will receive a FREE game.
INSIDE: In the Trees, Honeybees!
Did you know field bees have to collect nectar from two million flowers to make one pound of honey? Use this lesson plan, Sweet Treat, to make honey butter with your class.
Discover more great introduction to bees in the book In the Trees, Honeybees! by Lori Mortensen. Her rhyming verse will engage a young child, while sidebars with fascinating information satisfy the somewhat older child. In the back

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Retrieved Text: A strong spring bloom has ensured a healthy feast for bees, as they pollinate the Superfresh Growers® apple, pear, cherry, and apricot orchards. In the spring of 2017, Dave Gleason, Chief Horticulturist, commented that the aromas of all the blossoms were “intoxicating.” It is days like these that the Superfresh team went out into the orchards to capture some of the magic that happens at spring time.
Bees are busy at work in the months of April and May, pollinating each blossom that will become a cherry, apple, pear, or apricot. Many fruit varieties need to be cross-pollinated, and rely on bees to set the crop for harvest. As bees travel from flower to flower in search of nectar, they brush up against the pollen located on the flower’s stamen. Pollen clings to the bee and is later transferred to other blooms as the bee continues to search for more nectar. Bees visit 10-15 flowers per minute, and up to 5,000 flowers a day! They are responsible for approximately 90% of the pollination of fruit trees.
During bloom season, the Superfresh Growers orchard team hand thins blossoms, pulling off unneeded flowers. “A tree will bloom way more flowers than it can handle, if they all become apples,” describes Gleason. “In fact, we only need one percent of the flowers to give us a full crop. If all the flowers stayed on the trees and produced apples, the apples would stay very small as they compete for tree nutrients.” The Superfresh team picks off outside blooms, leaving the king

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Retrieved Text: Bees visit gardens to gather nectar to feed their families, called colonies. Nectar is the sweet stuff found inside flowers and when the bees gather this nectar, they pick up a bit of pollen from each flower. As they move from flower to flower, some of the pollen from the last flower drops onto the next flower, helping to pollinate it. Pollination helps the flower produce offspring (or children!), and also the fruit and vegetables that we eat.
A single bee can visit up to 5000 flowers in one day but without suitable food sources, they can starve and become weak.
Bees need our help to survive. When something is wrong with our bees, something is wrong in the environment! Bees love all kinds of plants, but do have some particular favourites. Making a garden ‘bee-friendly’ means the bees will love to visit your place.
Bee Balm - attracts bees, and other insects such as butterflies.
Herbs - bees love the flowers of mint, lavender, sage, thyme, oregano and rosemary.
Roses - good to generate a lot of insect traffic and can also increase the number of bees in the garden.
Fruit trees – bees love the nectar of apple, pear and peach tree flowers. They also like citrus flavours of lemon and orange trees.
Bees eat their vegetables too. Tomatoes and capsicums have yellow flowers….The colour YELLOW seems to attract the most bees. That's why bees, especially honeybees, love dandelions. Other yellow flowers, such as yellow asters, lilies and daisies, are also loved by bees.
Ask Mum and Dad not to be so

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Retrieved Text: Honey Bees -Only 9 species (General Bees- about 20,000 species,including bumble bees,wasp etc.
The drone has no resposibilities, does not collect nectar, his size is slighly bigger than worker bee,has big eyes,with no sting,eats a lot. So, when there is not enough food, worker bees will kick him out of the colony. The drone usualy dies after mating with queens.
Worker bee is sexually undeveloped,she collects nectar and pollen during daytime,makes honey by flapping her wings in the night.She takes care of the baby and the queen.
Field Bees: Collect Nectar and Pollen.
Household Bees:Take care of babies,makes wax to build the hive,and producing royal jelly from their saliva for the queen.
Lifespan:Summer 1 to 2 months,Winter 3 to 5 Months.
1 hornet can kill 1,000 bees! 30 hornets can kill whole colony in 3 hours!
trying to "cook" the hornet at 45°C,while the Bees can take up to 47°C.
might be high concentration of carbon dioxide which cause the death of the hornet.
1 trip about 0.02 g of nectar.
1g of honey,needs to visit about 1,500 flowers .
1kg of honey,need to fly about 320,000 km,enough to circle 8 rounds of earth.
80% of the plants in the world are pollinated by insects.
85% of these are pollinated by Bees. That is how we get the fruits.
Human beings should cherish the bees for their contributions.

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Retrieved Text: Moringa Honey 100% Pure 2 oz.
100% Pure real moringa honey, not the infused type, Mono-Floral produced by honey bees from the nectar of moringa flowers. It’s dark brown with a rich and thick consistency. Our dark mono-floral Honey is made from bees collecting nectar from our Moringa farm. Honey is removed from the hive and extracted using a honey extractor and then the honey is then filtered. After the honey is harvested the beekeeper provides the hive with a honey substitute to ensure the hive survival so that the hive does not starve.
100% Pure real moringa honey, not the infused type, Mono-Floral produced by honey bees from the nectar of moringa flowers. It’s dark brown with a rich and thick consistency.
All Natural, Eco-Friendly, 100% Pure, Organic, Non-GMO, Kosher, Certified Vegan, Gluten-Free, Caffeine-Free. No Added Artificial Ingredients, Flavors or Preservatives. Packed with Vitamins, Minerals, Antioxidants, Amino Acids, and other Essential Nutrients.
Our dark mono-floral Honey is made from bees collecting nectar from our Moringa farm. Honey is removed from the hive, it is extracted using a honey extractor and then the honey is then filtered. After the honey is harvested the beekeeper provides the hive with a honey substitute to ensure the hive survival so that the hive does not starve.
Honey is the only food that never spoils, sealed to 30 years, opened 1 year. Honey was even found in the tomb of King Tut and was still edible!
Honey is an excellent sugar substitute in any recipe and makes the taste more sweet. Together, Moringa and Honey is

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Retrieved Text: Well qualified bumblebees are not prepared to share their pollinating knowledge with less experienced bees, according to new research carried out at Queen Mary University of London (QMUL).
“Like other pollinators, bees face complex routing challenges when collecting nectar and pollen – they have to learn how to link patches of flowers together in the most efficient way, to minimize their travel distance and flight costs, just like in a traveling salesman problem,” said lead author, Dr Mathieu Lihoreau.
While it often takes them some time to figure out an optimal route, little research has been carried out into whether bees’ can copy other bees’ flower visitation sequences in the field, to improve their foraging.
Writing in the journal PLOS ONE, the team describe how they set up one of the largest outdoor flight cages ever used in bee research – a massive 20m by 40m or 880m2. They installed a range of artificial flowers, fitted with motion-sensitive video cameras, which had controlled nectar flow rates for the bees to visit. In order to get the bees to only visit the artificial flowers, they had to mow the lawn every day to get rid of all the natural ones.
Then they allowed two bees in at a time – one more experienced resident, and one newcomer. They predicted that the newcomers could save some time by simply copying the foraging route of more experienced resident bees.
While the newcomers did try to copy the choices of seasoned foragers, the more experienced bees really didn’t appreciate their behavior, and frequently attacked the

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Retrieved Text: In the Sonoran Desert, we experience more uninvited usurpers of nectar than in any other region of the country. We have other birds, such as woodpeckers and flickers; insects, such as ants, bees and wasps; nectar-eating bats; raccoons; and bears at the higher elevations. All these critters can effectively be dealt with in a variety of ways.
Of course, having a high-quality, well designed, no-drip and insect-proof feeder to begin with will eliminate many of these uninvited guests before they ever could become a problem. The complete line of Aspects Hummzinger models are my favorite feeders, for these and several other reasons.
Many of our readers and customers already are familiar with my mantra "Cause No Harm" when it comes to our most fascinating, unique, and fragile birds - the hummingbirds. Understanding that rule #1 is to use the correct liquid solution and change it out every three days insures you are not unintentionally causing them harm. All other problems have easily attainable positive results.
Insects at the feeders are a common problem that's easily solved. Most of the pan-type feeders, and particularly the complete line of Aspects feeders, are designed to be bee-proof, wasp-proof, ant-proof and generally all bug-proof.
This type of feeder (where the nectar is stored underneath the feeding ports) either accepts nectar guard tips (insect-proofing) or has food ports designed to allow the hummers to effectively use them but which are otherwise too small for the vast majority of flying insects to access.
This same type of feeder usually has built-in ant moats built into the center

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Retrieved Text: Flowers that lace their nectar with the right amount of caffeine attract more pollinators.
Got a favourite local where they serve your coffee just how you like it? So do bees, new research shows. The insects prefer to visit flowers that lace their nectar with just the right amount of caffeine, say James Thomson and his colleagues at the University of Toronto. Plants with the right nectar recipe gain extra visits from the bees, improving their chances of pollination.
Although it has been known for several decades that the nectar of coffee, citrus and other plants contains small amounts of caffeine and related compounds such as nicotine, the function this plays for the plant – if any – has been contentious. The plants make much more of these compounds in their leaves, where their role is to make the leaf bitter and protect the plant against hungry herbivores.
Some researchers suspected these repellent compounds might be somehow “leaking” into the nectar – and that as long as their concentration remained low, it didn’t hamper the plant or pollinator too much. But Thomson admits he always harboured a “fantasy that plants should make nectar that is ‘addictive’ to pollinators”. He thought that natural selection would favour plants using a little of these psychoactive substances in nectar – enough to give the bees a buzz, but not the jitters.
In 2005, Natarajan Singaravelan and colleagues at the University of Haifa in Israel reported that honeybees preferred sugar solution with low doses of caffeine to those without. Singaravelan’s work spurred Thomson to examine

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Retrieved Text: There are many causes of poor formation and misshaping of raspberry fruit, including bad weather, genetics or viruses. However, the most common cause is a lack of pollinators, such as domestic and wild bees, during the flowering period. Although raspberry flowers are self pollinating, bee activity is still responsible for 90-95% of pollination. Generally, two strong hives are recommended per acre of raspberries.
To understand how poor pollination can result in misshapen fruit, it is important to view the nature of the raspberry flower. The flower is composed of 100-125 pistils, to which the pollen must be transferred to create a mature seed and the druplet surrounding the seed.
Around 75-85 druplets compose a raspberry fruit and each individual druplet has the same structure as a plum, cherry or peach. If each and every one of these druplets is not pollinated, the overall integrity of the fruit is compromised. This is because the immature druplet stays small, does not contribute to the structure and strength of the whole, and the resulting fruit is misshapen and crumbly (i.e. falls apart easily).
The pictures below demonstrate what improper pollination will look like in raspberry. In this case, many of the druplets at the tip of the fruit have not apparently been pollinated, and are staying immature and small. Beyond that, one can see clearly in the second picture that there is excess nectar accumulating on the flower, simply because it has not been collected by bees. Later, this nectar is certain to cause problems with sooty mold and other fungi, which

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Retrieved Text: Flowers and other types of plants need bees to reproduce. Bees are naturally drawn to a flower’s nectar and pollen because it is a food source. This food source eventually becomes honey which is consumed by bees and other animals. Even people enjoy eating this tasty sweet treat that is produced by bees.
There are plenty of flower species that bees commonly turn to for food. However, there are some flower species that bees avoid altogether. So, what makes bees more attracted to one type of flower than another? Well, the answer has to do with a flower’s genetic structure and the type of pollen and nectar that it produces.
The following information will explain what types of flowers bees generally avoid. It will also provide an explanation as to why bees tend to overlook these flower species for other types. Keep in mind that this is not an exhaustive list, but it will provide you with the most common types of flowers that do not attract bees.
Foxgloves resemble tulips with their flower petals hanging toward the ground. They are very colorful flowers (mainly a bright purple), and they have a long throat bloom. A bee would have to crawl deep inside this flower’s enclosed petals to get to the nectar. Most bees just do not want the hassle. They would rather land on flower where they can immediately get to the nectar and then move on to the next bloom. This flower also comes in cream, white and red.
Roses are flowers which are loved by many people

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Retrieved Text: Recently we have been hearing many stories about the disappearing honey bees and Colony Collapse Disorder. The Honey bee has many variables it needs to overcome, on a daily basis, to be productive and live out its natural life. Hives need thousands of workers to maintain itself and produce honey. When nectar sources are scarce, if the hive cannot protect itself or weather is unforgiving, the honeybee will have issues. With mankind’s help, the honeybee also has to deal with harsh chemicals that will decimate worker bees just trying to collect nectar.
Our meddling with genetically modified crops has created a new terror for the bees, pollen sources that kill for months after applied. Monoculture crops that bloom for two weeks a year and then are void of any nectar for the rest of the year. States spraying highway ditches to control weeds and save on mowing costs. Aerial sprays being released over farms and carried onto flowers being foraged by the bees. Backyard gardeners without a tolerance for dandelions spraying gallons of pesticide on flowers. Farmers eliminating fence rows which used to provide flowers during lean times for bees. Mice, wax moths, varroa mites, cold weather; it all adds up to stress on the bees.
Without the hives health, the honeybee will no longer be pollinating our crops and flowers. Other countries have dealt with these issues in their own way. Europe has banned many harsh chemicals and has seen an increase in their bee populations. We in the USA will still be struggling until we see

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Retrieved Text: Bees are a flying insect that are characterized by their distinctive yellow and black covering. Some species of bees are also well known for their ability to produce honey. All bees are important in the pollination of plants and there are nearly 20,000 species of bee worldwide. They are found on every continent, other than Antarctica. Bees have two sets of wings with the bottom winds being the shortest. Some bees of certain species are unable to fly, but still have wings. There has been a massive decline in bee population over the last century and this has caused a great deal of concern among environmentalists, beekeepers and farmers alike.
Bees eat two things, pollen and nectar. Nectar is eaten from flowers using the bee’s long, tube-like, proboscis. Extra nectar is extracted and placed on the tongue of another bee. This absorbs some of the water. The nectar is placed into the honeycombs hollows and fanned by house bees to extract more water. This turns the sweet nectar into honey. The honey is stored in the hive to sustain bees through the autumn and winter when the plants are not flowering. Pollen is high in protein and is eaten to sustain a bee’s energy and help them to grow. Pollen is fed to baby bees as they need a lot of protein to mature. The pollen is mixed with some honey to form a substance known as beebread. Royal jelly is fed to the queen larvae. This is high protein mix of pollen, honey and a special

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Retrieved Text: Its been a wonderful summer watching the bees in the garden. i have noticed that certain plants attract bees more than other plants. The favorite bee attractors are garlic chives. I have a garden full of them from bees pollinating them and the seeds spreading.
Honey bees collect nectar from the blossoms. When new sources of nectar filled blossom are found the bee goes back to the hive to tell the other bees where they are located. The bee dances to show where the flowers are. Now the other bees know where the flowers are and can go there to collect nectar.
While the bees are collecting nectar they spread pollen from one flower to another. The pollen is collected on baskets on the back of the bees' legs. This pollination is a very important job for honeybees.
When the nectar is full in their honey sac part of their stomach they fly back to their hive. There are many jobs for the bees. Some build wax cells and others clean the hive. The nectar is spit into the wax cell. Some worker bees fan the nectar with their wings until it thickens into honey. Some bees protect the hive and others care for the babies the the queen.
The hive is constantly growing and building honey combs, collecting nectar and raising baby bees to become workers. Bees are very important for everyone. They help plants become more productive to increase fruit and seeds. They provide honey and beeswax too.

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Retrieved Text: Erica's Original Notes: It should be understood that pollination is NOT necessarily fertilization; however, it is a miracle how the pollen grain finds the unfertilized ovule; in corn it is 18 inches from the end of the silk to the ovule, and that journey is accomplished within a few hours!
Nectaries: sometimes on their own; those of hellebores are really modified petals, and the ones found in fritillarias look like tear drops at the base of the petals.
Tricks: played by flowers in order to get the insects, birds and animals to transport their pollen to another flower in the same family. They sometimes imitate insects to act as a decoy, as in orchids which mimic the female fly. It is all an amazing adaptation when you realize that plants were on earth before the insects!
Robbers: birds and insects which try to steal the nectar by piercing holes in the calyx, so that is the reason for hard or swollen calyces. Teasels protect their nectaries from robber ants by water held in leaf cups.
Cross-pollination: promoted by the varying heights of stigmas and anthers; self-pollination is a last resort, as cross-pollination improves adaptation to environment by increasing genetic diversity.
Signs of fertilization: given by some flowers so as to save insects an unnecessary flower-call! The colour usually changes due to oxidation of pigment; trillium turns pink; peyote cactus closes after five seconds, Magnolia virginianum is brown within half an hour; speedwell goes from blue to purple; milkwort gets a redflush; and the erythronium stem becomes erect, while others give off

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Retrieved Text: This being the week of love I felt it would make sense to talk about a new scent that I’m loving!
Donna Karan New York’s (DKNY) most recent perfume, Nectar Love.
Inspired by the beauty of blooming flowers that honey bees can’t resist, this dazzling perfume pays tribute to the honey bee that pollinates the breathtaking flowers that supply the essential oils that create the heady scent of Nectar Love.
This scent is an alluring and addictive Floral Fruity Gourmand that captures the undeniable attraction of nature.
Amongst the flowers used to create Nectar Love is yellow freesia, interweaved with succulent grapefruit, mandarin and nectarine to form the scent’s top notes.
However, the key ingredient is a distinctive mixture of sweet honeycomb and sensual neroli extracts that conjure up a gorgeous redolence at the base of the perfume.
The Nectar Love bottle embodies a transformation of the brand’s iconic apple, into a freshly golden silhouette, adding a golden hint of glamour to your dressing table!
This new campaign is all about falling in love and being captivated by an undeniable attraction to another – not unlike the irresistible draw a bee feels to a blooming flower!
The honey bee is a central character for the campaign as DKNY aim to shed some light on how critical the honey bee is to the global food chain. Worldwide the honey bee is under threat due to pesticides, parasites, disease and habitat loss. Without bees pollinating crops and flowers, our food sources will be threatened as will the essential oils used to create the fragrances we love!
The

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Retrieved Text: Bees may be grouped into three categories based on their foraging habits. Bees that prefer only a small number of flowering species are known as oligolectic. The advantage to the plant kingdom from this behavior is enormous, since it assures cross-pollination within a single species.
A few species of bee are known to pollinate one—and only one—species of flower. Bee-flower mutualisms of this type, known as monolectic, are rare but extremely important from an evolutionary perspective. Neither species will survive without the other, so a loss of one means the loss of both. Most bees, however, are opportunistic foragers that gather pollen from a vast number of species. These bees, known as polylectic, are valuable to farmers who often grow more than one crop at a time or more than one crop in sequence. Both honey bees and bumble bees are polylectic.
Even bees that are polylectic tend to visit only one type of flower per foraging trip, a trait known as “floral consistency.” Nature’s way of ensuring good pollination, floral consistency prevents a bee from going from a clover to a vinca to a cucumber to a bean, for example. Such random flower visits would not yield the pollination necessary to set seed and maintain plant populations from year to year.
Although polylectic bees are able to forage on many different plants, they still have preferences. Nectar-collecting bees such as honey bees and stingless bees prefer flowers that have high sugar content. Honey bees will readily visit apple, cherry, and plum, for example, but avoid pear unless there

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Retrieved Text: Nectar is the sweet liquid secreted by flowers to attract pollinators such as bees. It commonly contains 10-40% dissolved sugars, plus traces of other compounds. Nectar flow refers to the rate at which nectar is secreted by the flower; some produce nectar much more quickly than others. It is also a term used by beekeepers to refer to times of the year when particularly rewarding flowers are in peak bloom and honey is flowing in to their bee colonies in abundance.
What is a Nectar Flow?
How to Prepare a Hive for Honey Flow?

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Retrieved Text: Two alpine bumblebee species, formerly picky eaters, are expanding their palates – by shortening their tongues.
As the climate warms, their homes near the peaks of the Rocky Mountains have fewer flowers than before. At Pennsylvania Mountain in Colorado, for example, the number of flowers the bees feed on has dropped by 60 per cent since the 1970s.
So the bees have become less choosy, evolving to sip nectar from a wider variety of flowers: Bombus balteatus and B. sylvicola tongues have become 25 per cent shorter over the last 40 years or so.
“Natural selection can give them running shoes to keep up with climate change,” says Candace Galen of the University of Missouri in Columbia, whose team compared bumblebees collected in 2012-2014 with museum specimens from 1966 to 1980.
They found that the shortening of tongues was not the result of bees or flowers getting smaller, but because flower numbers have dropped dramatically as warmer temperatures linked to less prolific blossoming have become more common.
Long tongues originally helped the bees specialise on those flowers whose nectar was out of reach for insects with shorter tongues.
But long tongues come with a cost: they take extra energy to grow and can be cumbersome for feeding on shorter flowers. “Imagine you have a really long straw and you’re trying to stick it in this really small cup,” says Rebecca Irwin at North Carolina State University.
In recent years the bumblebees have had to rely more and more on those shorter flowers. The costs of sporting long tongues now seem to outweigh the

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Retrieved Text: Today is National Honey Bee Day, a great honor for an undemanding insect that happily turns plant nectar into sweet honey and pollinates more than 80 percent of the world’s plants.
Name any other insect who makes food we eat. There isn’t one; only the honey bee produces two to three times more honey than they need for their hive. We get their surplus.
Some 148 million pounds of honey was produced in 2017 (down 9 percent from the previous year), and the highest honey-producing state is North Dakota.
Honey bees are native to Asia and were brought to the United States 400 years ago with the first European settlers.
Honey bees are social and live in colonies or hives year-round that consist of 10,000 or more bees. New colonies form when colonies swarm (split); the single queen leaves with several workers. This happens anytime from spring through summer.
Never spray insecticides or water at swarms if found in your yard. Instead, call this hotline: 844-779-2337. Volunteer beekeepers will arrive to safely collect and transfer the hive.
Honey bee colony members have specific roles. One fertile queen bee rules the entire hive and is responsible for producing the next generation of bees. She can live up to five years.
The only worker bees we see are the infertile females who happily descend on gardens to forage for nectar and pollen. They also make the honey, build, clean, nurse the queen and protect the hive. Workers live about six weeks and die mostly from worn-out wings.
Drones are the male bees that stay with the

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Retrieved Text: There’s something about shimmering blue flowers that fascinates gardeners – in fact some love them so much that they devote a special section in their garden to blue flowers only.
While that might be a little somber for you and me (blue flowers, after all, tend to recede in our vision compared to bright yellows and reds), a blue-flowered garden can be a supermarket for honey bees, provided the right plants are grown in quantity and in sequence throughout the foraging season, so there’s always something in bloom. Quantity is important, of course, because honey bees practise economy-of-scale in their foraging trips; they need a sufficient population of each preferred nectar- or pollen-rich plant to make a visit worthwhile. Unlike bumble bees and other native bees, honey bees are ‘flower-faithful’ or ‘flower-constant’, as Charles Darwin wrote, learning the intricacies of the anthers or nectaries, then working on one type of flower until its pollen or nectar is depleted. So if you have a small garden, choose just a few from the list below, but plant lots of them. And, of course, avoid the use of insecticides and herbicides.
Blue Flowers – Fascinating to Gardeners and Good for Bees.
Here are 17 excellent blue-flowered honey bee plants arranged sequentially from Spring to Fall.
Every garden can use a few annuals, and love-in-a-mist is one that is easily grown from seed broadcast in a sunny spot in average soil in early Spring, as soon as the ground can be worked. Love-in-a-mist adds charm to mixed plantings, where it is considered a ‘filler’

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======= Instance Index 7149 =========
Input Text: Process:
- You place aluminum cans and other products into recycling bins
- Your town or a private company collect and transport the aluminum to a recycling facility
- The aluminum is sorted and cleaned at the central recycling facility
- The aluminum is melted down to remove coatings and inks
- The melted aluminum is formed into large formations called ingots
- The ingots are transported to another facility and rolled out to make them easier to manipulate
- The ingots can now be turned into new aluminum products.

Question:
suppose less aluminium cans are produced happens, how will it affect fewer things will be sold in aluminium cans.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 74.50323
Retrieved Text: Bestival, and it’s family-friendly sister festival Camp Bestival, have confirmed that water will only be available in cans at this year’s events.
As members of the Association of Independent Festivals, the two events at Lulworth Castle are pledged to eliminate all single-use plastic by 2021. The ban stretches as far as glitter and cable ties, so it’s no surprise to see festivals start tackling plastic bottles this summer.
Rob da Bank, who organises both Bestival and Camp Bestival, confirmed tonight on Twitter that all plastic water bottles sold by their bars will be replaced with fully recyclable aluminium cans.
In partnership with CanO Water, the festivals will be supplying water in cans claimed to have the highest recycling rate of any drink on the market. Once recycled, a can could be back on a shelf in as little as 6 weeks.
Whilst water will continue to be available at standpipes around the festivals, fans have expressed concerns about not being able to refill the cans. It’s also pretty difficult to keep a can upright whilst sleeping in a tent.
UPDATE: We’ve had confirmation from the Bestival press office that the cans sold at the festival will not CanO Water’s resealable cans, but their standard ring pull version. This means the cans will be 100% aluminium, but won’t be resealable.
Thankfully, CanO Water also offer cans with an innovate resealable lid, which they also claim doesn’t affect the recycling process.
﻿However, we don’t have any confirmation from organisers as to if the Bestival and Camp Bestival branded cans will be supplied with resealable lids,

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Retrieved Text: The «yellow» side of aluminium | Don't Waste My Energy!
The aim of this post is to show the readers which effects the use of aluminium have. Especially we show you the consumption of Zurich and how much resources we would save if we reduce/renounce the consume. The post starts with a short fantasy story. With that story we try to give you another view about the theme.
Main question: What are the consequences to the environment if no more aluminium cans were produced?
In 50 years, in the year 2068, people will be forced to reduce their waste of aluminium. But they won’t do that voluntarily. They are going to reduce the waste because of a huge problem. Once a day, a big yellow cloud, with a frightening smile, appears in the sky. It will turn out, that the rays (=Strahlen) of the cloud are having a very bad effect on aluminium. You can only use aluminium cans for 24 hours and after this time, they start to dissolve by themselves (=sich selbst auflösen) because of the rays. The drinks in the cans would leak.
For this results we had the assumption that there were sold equal numbers of every can. So this calculation is only an assumption (=Annahme).
The world’s main source of aluminium is bauxite. For the degradation (=Abbau) of bauxite people have to clear huge areas of the rainforest, mostly in Australia, Indonesia, Brazil and Guinea. Winning aluminium out of bauxite is a very elaborate process, where red mud (=Rotschlamm) accrues. Per tonne aluminium it can produce

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Retrieved Text: Disposing of household waste is not always simply a matter of putting your rubbish in the bin. Council rubbish removal in Maroubra and elsewhere offers both regular general waste and recycling, as well as green waste collection, and attention should be paid to recycling as much as possible, in the right way.
Many people aren’t aware that aerosol (spray) cans are often recyclable. Aerosol cans are used to both package and dispense a wide variety of products, from cooking oil sprays to whipped cream, deodorant and hairspray to fly and insect killer sprays. In Australia, more than two hundred and forty million aerosol cans are purchased every year, and if not recycled they end up in landfill where they do not decompose.
Aerosol cans are made from steel and aluminium; both of these are recyclable. They are strong, leak-proof, and spill-proof. Since 1989, Australia has banned the use of environmentally harmful aerosol propellants and those used today are natural hydrocarbon (with the exception being in asthma inhalers).
Fewer than half of all steel and aluminium aerosol cans sold in Australia currently are recycled.
How do you recycle aerosol cans?
If the can is completely empty, it can be recycled in your home council kerbside recycling bin. Don’t compress or pierce the can. Remove plastic lids. As long as the aerosol can is empty, it will not explode or be harmful in any way. Aerosol cans that have product remaining in them should be discarded as hazardous waste; contact your local council for instructions.
Recycled aerosol cans are transported to a Material Recovery

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Retrieved Text: Aluminium is the most common metallic element on earth, making up about 8% of the earth’s crust. Only oxygen and silicon are more abundant.
It occurs in various chemical forms in rocks and soils, in vegetation, in water and in the air, but it doesn’t occur anywhere in its pure form. It has to be extracted from its ore, a clay-like substance, which is mined and then ‘smelted’ in a very energy-intensive process.
Being so difficult to isolate, aluminium wasn’t discovered until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy. Then it wasn’t until 1886 that an economically viable process was developed to extract aluminium.
86 per cent of drink cans sold in the UK are made from aluminium — that’s nearly 8 billion cans every year!
It takes aluminium about 400 years to break down naturally.
Why take photos of aluminium cans using my phone? A good question. Most of you probably think I’m barking mad but never mind. I took this following picture first, simply because I saw the can washed up on the beach and thought it looked like a good photo opportunity.
Normally, I’m the type of person who picks rubbish up and puts it in the nearest bin I pass. Too many people complain about things but do nothing about whatever it is they’re ranting about. But I liked the way sunlight reflected from the aluminium surface, or I liked the ridiculousness of a discarded can being inside a picture of a great view.
Once I’d started I found it difficult to stop. Suddenly I was seeing aluminium cans everywhere. There

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Retrieved Text: If you are a recycler in that case there are bin options that help you to do this more easily. Inside the same space that you could have your single trash is it possible to can have 4 small bins, sometimes even in different shades to help you easily separate waste material. This can eradicate the problem of getting an overflowing main trash may as less is actually going to the dump and more is being directed elsewhere to be reused or perhaps transformed. However you decide to take care of your overflowing trash spare there is an easy option available to you. Cleaning up your trash location really opens up a home and gives it an all rounded cleaner and fresher come to feel. An added bonus of getting additional trash cans is that although you'll have done more to take out; your vacations to the outside trash may will be less frequent.
Mrspalmreader - Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen. How to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles including plastic milk cartons. Recycle crushing machines. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen youtube sep 12, 2010 how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles. Crushing machines opening 25x40. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra 12 09 2010� how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans

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Retrieved Text: It’s with great pleasure that we announce Wingtip Brewery’s The Captain craft pilsner and Tailgate’s Watermelon Wheat are now available in cans.
The popularity of canned craft beer has taken off over the past few years and is now being recognised as the preferred vessel for craft beer. The consumer impression of canned beer has moved away from drinking mass-produced lagers in public places and is shifting toward the current realisation of the environmental benefits of cans and the fact that it is now cool to be seen drinking from craft beer cans.
The crisp light taste of The Captain can now be enjoyed fresh from a can, with less oxygen and light exposure in the canning process, and the cans providing an airtight, UV protecting container, the beer remains fresher for longer.
Characterised by a floral hop aroma, with distinctive grassy notes, The Captain pilsner is beautifully balanced with a clean, crisp finish and pleasant lingering bitterness. A highly refreshing, yet lightly carbonated pilsner lager that is a smooth drinking experience from bottle or can!
With the recent arrival of Tailgate’s Watermelon Wheat from the brewery in Tennessee, a further benefit of cans has been highlighted - how conveniently transportable they are! As a lighter product and easily stacked, we are able to get more beer into the shipping container making it easier and more environmentally friendly to transport.
At 4.9% ABV and with 20 IBUs, Watermelon Wheat is a crisp and gloriously refreshing American pale wheat ale with big fruit flavours bursting onto the palate and finishing with a

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Retrieved Text: Have you been watching the ITV series, The Durrells, on a Sunday evening? The programme tells us of Gerald Durrell's period in Corfu, and his childhood there in the 1930s.
Gerald Durrell founded Jersey Zoo in 1959 and the Durrell Wildlife Conservaiton Trust is doing some amazing conservation work around the world. They have a new vision, to Re-Wild Our World, and they are working with species such as the Black Lion Tamarin (a small monkey), the Saint Lucia Amazon parrot, the Madagascar Side Necked Turtle and the Orange Tailed Skink.
To enable supporters to help them in their work, they have been asking islanders - and anyone else who can get involved - to recycle their aluminium cans.
School children around the island of Jersey have been involved and last week, one school - Victoria College - arranged for their pupils to take their aluminium cans to the collecting point at Jersey Zoo.
The boys took 2,000 aluminium cans in all, which will enable 40 trees to be planted.
The porject started in 2002 and so far, 80-90,000 trees have been planted thanks to Durrell's support. Overall, 2 million trees have gone in, but more are needed. The trees will create a wildlife corridor and restore trees to forest in Brazil in areas that have been destroyed by deforestation, creating vital habitat for species such as the Black Lion Tamarin. The Cans for Corridors project hopes to be able to restore, expand, and link previously destroyed habitats.
You can help us by collecting cans and other recyclable aluminium and copper products

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Retrieved Text: We do not offer a collection service but we can put you in contact with a local collector who could help you.
Do you manufacture or recycle metal?
We do not manufacture or recycle metal. However, we work with many companies that do.
Where can I sell my cans?
We work with many Recycling Centres and Metal Merchants who will pay for aluminium. You can find your nearest centre using our recycling locator or by contacting our office email info@alupro.org.uk. It is best to contact the centre first before visiting to find out their current price per kilo for cans (1 kilo of cans is approximately 65 individual cans) and if they have a minimum delivery quantity – e.g some may prefer 5kg or more before the will accept delivery. Due to a change in the law centres are no longer allowed to pay cash for the cans you have collected however, they are able to pay by either a cheque or bank transfer. You will need to take proof of ID with you when you visit.
How can I tell if a can is made from aluminium?
Magnets stick to steel cans and not aluminium cans. If you look closely at the print on the side of your can, you will often find the aluminium recycling symbol (below) which indicates that it is made from recyclable aluminium.
How can I safely recycle my aerosols in my council kerbside collection?
Make sure that your aerosol is empty, remove any plastic caps and recycle them alongside your food and drink cans. Please do not crush

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Retrieved Text: This is a post I've been meaning to write for quite a while and have just never gotten around to! Well.... here goes, the latest in my series: MM guide to Oman.
1. Plastic water bottles. Masafi & Tanuf, and the Environmental Society of Oman have an active plastic bottle recycling program - rumour is that the recycling plant in the UAE is unable to accept the bottles currently, and so the bottles are being shredded and baled and stored until such a time that the UAE will allow the plastic refuse to be transported over the border for recycling. This may be old news, I've not heard an update to this in over a year. There are collection bins dotted all over the Capital, I personally use the one at the ABA school in Al Khuwair.
2. Paper. Apex publishing, the people behind Muscat Daily, The Week and a bunch of other publications, operate a paper recycling operation. They will come to your location (for volumes significant enough) to collect the paper, or alternatively there are a few collection bins around town - again I personally use the one at the ABA school in Al Khuwair.
3. Aluminium cans. Basically soda cans - not steel cans that are used for soups and such, but the aluminium ones. I'm not really 100% sure what happens with them, but there is an active group of people (at least here in Muscat) that will go around from bin to bin and collect the pop cans. I'm told they sell the cans

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Retrieved Text: In our previous post, we shared a bunch of our favourite facts and figures on everyday recycling in the UK. After publishing it, we realised we still had a huge list of interesting factoids to share.
Aluminium recycling standards in the UK have never been higher. Nevertheless, if every aluminiumcan sold was to be recycled, we’d need 14 million less dustbins across the country.
Cans made of aluminium are particularly valuable as they are 100% recyclable. After a period to 60 days, an aluminium can go from being purchased at a store to being used, recycled and put back on the same shelf holding the same product.
The same also goes for steel, which likewise is 100% recyclable. Steel cans that are appropriately recycled can be used to manufacture just about anything imaginable that contains any amount of steel.
Tragically, we’re still not doing nearly enough to recycle cans. Every day, another 80 million cans make their way into landfill sites across the UK and abroad.
The average UK household gets through 600 aluminium cans per year, contributing to a total national tally of 5 billion cans.
Those who commit themselves to doing their ‘bit’ at an advanced level could be looking at a goldmine. In fact, research suggests that the waste cans lying around the UK waiting to be collected and recycled are collectively worth more than £30 million.
It’s possible to recycle 20 cans and put them back into the system with the same amount of energy that would be required to make one new can from scratch.
We’ve got a long

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Retrieved Text: Cans have been used to store food and drinks for over 200 years. The first cans were made of tin and later, cans were made of steel. The first aluminium drinking can was produced in 1958. The typical ‘ring pull’ to open your drinking can was introduced in 1961. Europe’s first and still only aluminium recycling plant is in Warrington in the UK and it is the largest recycler of aluminium drink cans in the world. 20 cans can be made with the energy that is needed to produce one can from aluminium ore.
During the onset of the Industrial period, the use of bricks as a building material began replacing stone due to efficiency and economy.
Bricks (in particular, fired bricks) have a reputation for being the strongest and longest-lasting building materials. Bricks are made of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime, or concrete material, fire-hardened or air-dried, used in masonry construction. Air-dried bricks (or mudbricks) have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw.

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Retrieved Text: Apr 01, 2016· The MasterCrush is also the only we tested which can crush aluminum cans up to 32 oz in size. While many potential buyers of a won't actually need to crush cans of this size, for those who do expect to have 32 oz cans, we think the MasterCrush is the best option on the market.
17-32 of 112 results for "Tin " Ministry of Warehouse Can-ram M-92 Aluminium Crushes 10 Cans in 10 Seconds Wall Mount. by Ministry of Warehouse. $27.41 $ 27 41 Prime. FREE Shipping on eligible orders. More Buying Choices. $19.36 (67 new offers) 3.4 out of 5 stars 26.
Nov 05, 2018· Heavy Duty Aluminium Beer Tin 12oz Wall Mounted Bottle Recycling. 1 x Aluminium (screws mounting kit included). If you have a couple of odd size cans, just flip up the ram when the chute is empty and insert the can into the chamber. | eBay!
Single phase (13 Amp plug) powered, the JR RP60 tin will crush tin cans up to 5 gallon cans / drums and also deal with the humble sardine can, and by removing the can crushing specific device, the new JR RP60 tin can also be used for baling paper and cardboard waste.
Mar 18, 2010· This video gives tips on how to process "tin cans" before you put them into the recycle bin.
A Mil-tek handles all forms of cans and drums up to 30 litres, and can be installed directly inside a food preparation area. Handle Paint & Oil Cans For businesses dealing in paint or

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Retrieved Text: The infinite journey of Nespresso capsules helps preserve your Grand Cru coffee - over and over again.
We use aluminium for the capsules protecting our Grands Crus to ensure you get the freshest cup of quality coffee every time. It provides the best protection against oxygen, light and humidity, which can really affect taste.
But that’s just the start of it — aluminium is also 100 percent and infinitely recyclable, meaning Nespresso coffee capsules start as and become new aluminium products once recycled. What else? Check it out below.
Aluminium is also 100 percent and infinitely recyclable.
Aluminium requires up to 95% less energy to recycle than to produce primary metals.
It keeps its inherent properties no matter how many times it's recycled.
Our capsules can be recycled into drink cans, bicycles, computers, the coloured side panels of our Pixie machines and new capsules.
86% of the carbon footprint of aluminium occurs between mining and production.
Recycling your aluminium capsules is an important element of our commitment to sustainability.

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Score: 53.429585
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Window Profile Suppliers in List it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Window Profile Suppliers in List ?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Window Profile Suppliers in Recommended it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Window Profile Suppliers in Recommended?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Window Profile Suppliers in Popular it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
The manufacturer will begin by removing the aluminium from deep within the earth’s crust (either as bauxite

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Score: 52.613792
Retrieved Text: The can is light, unbreakable, quickly cooled and completely protects beverages from light and oxygen. Beverage cans made of steel or aluminium can be recycled infinitely often with consistent quality.
Approximately 75% of the aluminium ever produced in the world is still in use today. A quota of 80% applies to steel. Recycling a can saves up to 95% of the energy needed to produce the primary material. At the same time, less and less material is required for production, and in the past 40 years, the weight of beverage cans has been reduced by around 50%.
The beverage can also offers many advantages for the retail trade: it is an extremely cost-efficient packaging with a favourable weight ratio and high volume efficiency. Only 3% of the total weight is accounted for by the packaging.

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Rank: 15
Score: 52.27701
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Top it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Top?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Rating it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Rating?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Reviews it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Reviews?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Structural Aluminium Extrusions in Sandton it can

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Rank: 16
Score: 52.273994
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminum Glass Door Price in Latest it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
The manufacturer will begin by removing the aluminium from deep within the earth’s crust (either as bauxite ore or feldspar). Often, the Bayer’s method, Wohler’s method or Hall Heroult method is chosen to remove the metal in its molten form. It is then hardened and moulded into whatever shape the manufacturer desires. When the aluminium is extracted from the earth in its solid form, Aluminium Section Price it will be passed through a number of mechanical processes that are designed to give the metal its desired shape. These processes include: rolling, drawing, forging, spinning, piercing and extrusion.
Finally, the aluminium will pass through an extrusion and drawing process that runs almost parallel to each other. This is the final step in the whole extrusion process and is the step that gives the metal its entire shape. Deep drawing, for example, is used give the metal a cup, conical tapered, cylinder and seamless tube shape. For less curved shapes, Builders Warehouse Aluminium Windows Prices the drawing process is skipped.
Aluminum Glass Door Price in Latest?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Pretoria it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Pretoria?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Tip it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Tip?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Top it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Top?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extrusions Australia in Review it can

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Rank: 18
Score: 52.20184
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Latest it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Latest?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Reviews it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Reviews?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Rating it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Extruded Profiles Suppliers in Rating?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium

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Rank: 19
Score: 52.10174
Retrieved Text: Can packaging – from steel or aluminium – complies with all the aspects of sustainability and offers many short and long term advantages. However, what does sustainability actually mean? And how does can packaging contribute to a sustainable society with concern for man, welfare and the environment?
They offer 100% protection against oxygen, gas, light, moisture or other influences.
They create less waste than other packaging.
Canned products can be saved longer and therefore don’t end up in the garbage bin.
The contents have a longer shelf life than in other packaging.
Canned packaging enjoys the trust of consumers.
They score the best in the area of reliability and safety. Canned products retain their vitamins and nutrients without preservatives.
Canning is cost-effective and therefore economically attractive for the entire chain: from producer to consumer.
They need no secondary packaging or hardly any.
Cans are stacked far better than other packaging.
Aluminium and iron are respectively the 3rd and 4th most common elements in the earth’s crust.
75% of primary aluminium is reused through recycling.
The lion’s share of produced steel is reused through recycling.
The high rate of recycling ensures an efficient and frugal use of raw materials, which guarantees the future of metal packaging.
Metal enjoys the highest recycling percentage compared to all other competitive packing materials and it outperforms itself every year.
Metal is recycled endlessly without losing its valuable features – metal is continuously turned into new metal.
Collecting cans for recycling is simple and cost-efficient: there are various collection systems in the EU and cans don’t pose problems anywhere.
Recycling considerably reduces energy consumption and the CO2 emission.
In the

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Rank: 20
Score: 52.099537
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Profiles Catalogue Pdf in Easy it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Profiles Catalogue Pdf in Easy?
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Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium

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Rank: 21
Score: 51.400497
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Frame Section in Recommended it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Frame Section in Recommended?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Frame Section in South Africa it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Frame Section in South Africa?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminium Frame Section in Sandton it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
Aluminium Frame Section in Sandton?

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Score: 51.250343
Retrieved Text: Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminum Z Extrusion in Gauteng it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
The manufacturer will begin by removing the aluminium from deep within the earth’s crust (either as bauxite ore or feldspar). Often, the Bayer’s method, Wohler’s method or Hall Heroult method is chosen to remove the metal in its molten form. It is then hardened and moulded into whatever shape the manufacturer desires. When the aluminium is extracted from the earth in its solid form, Aluminum Extrusions South Africa it will be passed through a number of mechanical processes that are designed to give the metal its desired shape. These processes include: rolling, drawing, forging, spinning, piercing and extrusion.
Aluminum Z Extrusion in Gauteng?
Aluminum is one of the most used metals in today’s society – Aluminum Z Extrusion in Tip it can be found across a number of industries, such as construction and commercial, and in a number of applications, such as beverage cans and appliances. When choosing a manufacturer of aluminium extrusion for supplying the metal that you use in your workplace, however, it is important that you carefully consider which one will be best for your needs.
The manufacturer will begin by

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Retrieved Text: Last month the Museum of Brands opened its Sustainable Packaging display to highlight the different food and beverage pack formats available. The Can Makers supplied a selection of aluminium cans for the recycling section of the display. This helps visitors understand the sustainable characteristics of the can, its ability to be recycled and the extensive infrastructure and capacity the UK already has in place to be able to deal with metal can recycling.
Aluminium beverage cans are the world’s most recycled drinks pack (Resource Recycling Systems (RRS) and, announced this week, 72% of UK aluminium was recycled in 2017 (Alupro) up from just 2% in 1989.
Aluminium is a leader in recycling because it’s a permanent material that can be recycled infinitely, without losing any quality. If you heat aluminium to melting point, what comes out is completely the same as what went in because metal is unalterable structurally. Its base elements can never be destroyed so no matter how it is treated, it can be brought back to its original state and used again and again.
What may start out as a drinks can, can be melted down and turned into an iron, a car or even an airplane wing. It can also be back on shelf as another can in around 60 days. The can you are drinking out of will have had dozens of previous incarnations. As a result, it’s estimated that approximately 80% of metal ever produced is still in use today.
This continuous recycling process is defined as ‘real recycling’ because metal can be recycled

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Retrieved Text: I love the emails I get from My Zero Waste readers as they always ask such interesting questions that lead me on a trail of research.
Recently I was asked “I drink a lot of beer out of cans at home, (lots cheaper than going to the pub). If I saved all the cans would a local scrap merchant buy them off me? They are usually aluminium cans….some say metal on them but a magnet does not stick to them, so I assume they are aluminium as well.
I am concerned about conservation of the environment and try to help but may aswell make some cash out of it if I can!
This reminds me of my Corona Lemonade days when I got 10p for taking the bottle back to the store!
What about you – do any of you collect aluminium cans and sell them on?
At our recycling center’s public drop off, residents can donate their aluminum cans in a separate box, and when we have enough for a bale, we take it to a local scrap yard to sell. The money from the sale goes toward our non-profit group, which aims at litter prevention, cleanup, and community beautification.
At a recycling conference recently, I met a gentleman who worked for a very large scrap metal firm here in the U.S. He told me that aluminum cans continue to be a highly valuable post-consumer commodity because the technology used to sort, seaparate, and recycle it has become so efficient that any inconsistencies (steel ends, paint, labels, etc.) are made moot.
Some

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Retrieved Text: Aluminium is a young metal, with a relatively late discovery less than 200 years ago. Despite this, it has become the second most used metal in the world, after iron, and established a well-earned reputation for its versatility and diverse range of applications. Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. It is estimated that the solid portion of the crust, to a depth of ten miles, contains around 8% aluminium. However, aluminium hasn’t always been widely available. In the mid-1800s, it was considered more valuable than gold. Elite guests of the President of the French Republic, Napoléon III, were presented with aluminium cutlery, while fashionable and wealthy women wore jewellery crafted from the metal.
Today, aluminium is a critical material because of its lightweight and high-strength properties, and has become popular in the aerospace, automotive and construction industries. It also transmits conducted heat and reflects radiant heat, making it a favourable material in cooking utensils, kitchen foil and building insulation.
Scientists suspected that an unknown metal existed in the chemical compound alum as early as 1787, but they did not have a way to extract it until the 1800s. Aluminium was named after alum – which itself is derived from the latin Alumenen, meaning ‘a bitter salt’ – by Sir Humphry Davy, who in 1808 suggested that it could be produced by electrolytic reduction from alumina (aluminium oxide), but did not manage to prove the theory in practice. Although his efforts were unsuccessful, he made a significant step in separating the metal from its

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Retrieved Text: With their outstanding variety of shapes in the shoulder area and along the can body, aluminium aerosol cans offer an additional unbeatable argument for this powerful form of packaging. Aluminium’s good formability combined with the flexible impact extrusion technology, which is also ideally suited for small production runs, enables aluminium cans to be produced in the widest possible range of sizes, shapes and embossed forms; without significantly reducing production speed during manufacturing by the way. These technical benefits create additional options for achieving product differentiation when product lifes and lifestyle cycles are becoming ever-shorter. Distinctive shapes stand for unique products with premium appeal and add that truly exclusive touch. The embossing technique confers a unique character on the aluminium aerosol can, as if it has been produced by an exclusive manufacturer, and symbolises the embodiment of luxury and high perceived value. Perhaps the decisive benefit for that spontaneous impulse to buy at the point of sale. But definitely an additional plus factor for strong brand bonding and a high recognition value.

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Retrieved Text: Metal scrap is one of the largest type of waste generated in Singapore. In 2013, about 1.41 million tonnes of ferrous metal scrap and 135,100 tonnes of non-ferrous metal scrap was generated. The recycling rate is 97% for ferrous metal and 84% for non-ferrous metal in 2013.
Ferrous metal scrap is usually sent to a local steel mill for recycling or exported. Non-ferrous metal scrap is usually sorted and exported overseas for recycling.
Metals are divided into two types: ferrous metal (iron and steel) that are magnetic, and non-ferrous metal (stainless steel, aluminium, copper, brass, bronze, nickel, and other metals) that are non-magnetic.
Recycling aluminium requires only 5% of the energy and produces only 5% of the CO2 emissions as compared with primary production and reduces the waste going to landfill. Aluminium can be recycled indefinitely, as reprocessing does not damage its structure. Aluminium is also the most cost-effective material to recycle.
Recycling one tonne of steel cans saves 1.5 tonnes of iron ore, 0.5 tonnes of coal & 40% water usage.
Recycling 1 tonne of steel scrap saves 80% of the CO2 emissions produced when making steel from iron ore.
At the metal recycling plant, sorted metal scrap goes into a furnace at high temperature. The molten metal is poured into casts to produce ingots or rolled into sheets of metal.
Metal scrap can be 100% recycled into metal bars, sheets and ingots for making new metal products such as drink cans, metal construction materials, and car parts.
In Singapore, about 1.41 million tonnes of ferrous metal scrap was generated and the recycling

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Retrieved Text: Read about the brilliant business ideas presented by the winners of our Big Pitch competition for students in 2018.
Student Computers aims to provide an IT Support service aimed at students. Offering quality IT support for a variety of issues at a cost-effective price. Student Computers will work towards employing students, giving them valuable work experience and skills, they can take beyond their studies.
Our initial aim will be to host a co-produced, collaborative festival using the medium of music, to focus on mental health issues in society. Through this festival we will endeavour to improve awareness of the issues surrounding mental health, whilst at the same time tackling some of the big barriers in society towards inclusivity, in a relaxed, fun environment.
Eating healthy while saving money is one of the most common things people have in mind when shopping. How can we help? Eath is a revolutionary app that allows you to organise cheap meals in a simple way. Spend the minimum, upload your own recipes, and much, much more!
I will be creating educational short films to help private sector tenants and landlords who are litigants in person (people representing themselves in court).
The idea is to create a cooperative focusing on the collection of aluminium cans. Currently there are no companies focusing on this market and their is a huge opportunity to capitalise on the wasted aluminium. Monetising the non-recycled aluminium is a £122 million unexplored market. Companies such as Novelis support the creation of cooperatives.

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Retrieved Text: According to a new report by Green Alliance, nearly half of aluminium packaging is not being recycled.
According to European Aluminium (EA), the overall recycling rate for aluminium cans in the EU, Switzerland, Norway and Iceland increased to a new record of 73.6% in 2015.
This is above the recently approved EU 2025 recycling target of 65% for all packaging.
Looking at the whole European continent, more than 32 billion cans have been recycled, meaning every second 1,000 aluminium beverage cans are being recycled somewhere in Europe.
The organisation is calling for Member States to make more effort in collecting, sorting and recycling drink cans and other aluminium packaging within the coming years to further increase aluminium packaging recycling.

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======= Instance Index 18961 =========
Input Text: Process:
- The nuclei of some atoms have too few or too many neutrons
- The atoms become unstable
- The atoms split
- In alpha decay, two protons and two neutrons are released from the atom
- In beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
- The proton joins the nucleus of the atom
- The electron is released
- 

Question:
suppose the atoms have the right amount of neutrons happens, how will it affect less protons will reach the nucleus.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Atoms are the basic modules of matter and the smallest units, in which matter can be fragmented chemically. An atom consists of nucleus and shell. In the nucleus, there are protons and neutrons, it is surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Most of the atom is empty. The number of protons determines, how many electrons it must have to be electrically neutral. Atoms with a different amount of protons and electrons are called ions. The electrons determine the chemical properties of the atoms, so the protons define, of which chemical element the atom is. Atoms with the same amount of protons, but a different amount of neutrons, belong to different isotopes of an element. The number of neutrons is crucial for its stability, that is, if it is more or less radioactive or not at all. Protons and neutrons in the nucleus are kept together by mesons, especially by pions.

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Retrieved Text: Atom is the smallest building block of an element – it can’t be further broken by any chemical process. Everything you see around yourself is made of trillions-of-trillions atoms.
Atoms are so small that, it is not possible to see them with a powerful microscope. Only specialized microscopes (electron microscope) are able to zoom the atoms.
An atom is composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Neutrons and protons are held together in the center of an atom called nucleus. But, electrons orbit around atoms at fixed distances called orbits or shells. A neutral atom (without charge) contains an equal number of electrons and protons.
The total mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus, which is measured in a.m.u (atomic mass unit). One a.m.u is about kilogram. Mass of the atom is equal to the number of nucleons (sum of the number of protons and neutrons). One nucleon – either a proton or a neutron – has a mass equal to 1 a.m.u.
Elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons. If somehow number of protons is changed in an element – as it happens during radioactivity – then the original element will be converted into another element. However, changing the number of neutrons doesn’t change the element itself. Instead, it will give a different isotope of the same element. An isotope of an element has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
There 118 different kinds of atoms based on the number of protons, that builds 118 different elements. These elements are

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Retrieved Text: Avogadro's number, named in honor of Amedeo Avogadro and denoted by NA, is the number of items in a mole. It is formally defined as the number of Carbon-12 atoms in 0.012 kg of Carbon-12.
which is sufficiently accurate for many applications.
A number of methods can be used to measure Avogadro's number. One modern method is to calculate Avogadro's number from the density of a crystal, the relative atomic mass, and the unit cell length determined from x-ray crystallography. Very accurate values of these quantities for silicon have been measured at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and used to obtain the value of Avogadro's number.
A Carbon-12 atom consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons (which have approximately the same mass) and 6 electrons (whose mass is negligible in comparison). One could therefore think that NA is the number of protons or neutrons that have a mass of 1 gram. While this is approximately correct, the mass of a free proton is 1.00727 amu, so a mole of protons would actually have a mass of 1.00727 g. Similarly, a mole of neutrons has a mass of 1.00866 g. Clearly, 6 moles of protons combined with six moles of neutrons would have a mass greater than 12 g. So, you might ask how one mole of Carbon-12 atoms, which should consist of 6 moles each of protons, neutrons, and electrons could possibly have a mass of only 12 g? What happened to the excess mass? The answer is related to the equivalence of matter and energy

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Retrieved Text: Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom or the number of extra nuclear electrons.
Atomic number is denoted by the letter z.
For example, an atom of magnesium contains 12 protons, therefore, its atomic number is 12.
All the atoms of a particular element contain same number of protons in their nuclei. Therefore, all the atoms of an element have same atomic number. Atoms of different elements contain different number of protons and hence no two elements can have same atomic number. Thus, each element has its characteristic atomic number which can be used to identify the element.
For example, when we say an element with atomic number 13, we are referring to aluminum. No other element has atomic number 13.
It has already been stated that mass of an atom is mainly concentrated in the nucleus. In the nucleus, there are protons and neutrons. From this it follows that mass of an atom is mainly due to protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons as they are present in the nucleus of an atom.
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called mass number of the atom.
It is generally represented by the letter A.
The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to atomic number, Z while the number of neutrons in the nucleus is sometimes called neutron number, N.
and neutron has relative mass approximately 1 u. Therefore, atomic mass of magnesium is 12 u + 12 u = 24 u.
Number of neutrons

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Retrieved Text: An element is a substance completely made up of one atom. Thus, the periodic table of elements is effectively a list of all known types of atoms. However, the atom itself is not the smallest known particle, but instead each atom is made up of three individual parts: electrons, protons and neutrons. Furthermore, protons and neutrons themselves are made up of even smaller parts called quarks.
Electrons are fundamental particles, which means no particle is known to make up an electron. Electrons are what give an atom of an element its charge; you can change the number of electrons to make it a positively- or negatively-charged version of the same atom. A neutrally-charged atom will have the same amount of electrons as protons. Electrons exists in orbitals, which surround the nucleus of the atoms, and it is in these orbitals that electrons can bond with other atoms to form compounds.
Protons are the defining characteristic of an element's atom; the number of protons is what gives the atom its mass (electrons have a negligible amount of mass in comparison to protons). Thus, elements are classified by the number of protons its atoms have and organized in such a way on the periodic table (e.g., a hydrogen atom has one proton, a carbon atom has six, etc.). Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom.
Neutrons are about as massive as protons, and are found in the nucleus of the atom alongside protons. While protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge, neutrons have no charge.

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Retrieved Text: Atoms are composed of particles called protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge, electrons carry a negative electrical charge and neutrons carry no electrical charge at all. The protons and neutrons cluster together in the central part of the atom, called the nucleus, and the electrons ‘orbit’ the nucleus. A particular atom will have the same number of protons and electrons and most atoms have at least as many neutrons as protons.
Protons and neutrons are both composed of other particles called quarks and gluons. Protons contain two ‘up’ quarks and one ‘down’ quark while neutrons contain one ‘up’ quark and two ‘down’ quarks. The gluons are responsible for binding the quarks to one another.
The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Theatomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other by chemical bonds based on the same force, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of

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Retrieved Text: n0/p+<1 or n0/p+>1,5 nucleus of atoms are unstable and we call these atoms radioactive elements.
Unstable atoms do some nuclear reactions like radiation or decay and become stable atoms. We can explain radioactivity under two titles, natural nuclear reactions and artificial nuclear reactions. In natural reactions, unstable atoms do radiation and become stable atoms. However, in artificial reactions, unstable atoms can be turn in to stable atoms artificially.
Example: Find whether 2040Ca is stable or not.
Sum of number of protons and neutrons gives us mass number (shown in left top corner of element).
Since ratio is equal to 1, 2040Ca is stable atom.
Example: Find whether 92232U is stable or not.
Since ratio is greater than 1, 92232U has unstable nucleus and it is radioactive element.
Nucleus of atom consists of protons and neutrons. Energy that keeps them together is called binding energy. If this energy is high, then atom is more stable.
If a compound is radioactive, at least one of the elements of this compound is radioactive.
Example: K, L, M and N elements form compounds KL, K2N and KM. If KL and K2N are radioactive and KM is not radioactive compound, find whether the following compounds are radioactive or not.
If a compound is radioactive, at least one of the elements of this compound must be radioactive. Since KM is not radioactive, K and M are not radioactive elements. If K2N and KL are radioactive then N and L must be radioactive elements.
K2, is not radioactive but K2L, N2M and KN are radioactive compounds because of radioactive element N.
In chemical reactions, atoms

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Retrieved Text: A single grain of sand contains about 2.3 x 10^19 silicon dioxide molecules. That may seem like a lot, but that sand grain contains even more atoms than molecules, since each silicon dioxide molecule is made up of three atoms. Relationships exist between atoms, ions, molecules and compounds, but these entities also have significant differences.
Atoms are incredibly tiny particles that make up everything. If you could peek inside one, you'd see one or more tiny electrons orbiting a nucleus, the central location where larger protons and neutrons reside. Protons have positive charges, electrons have negative charges and neutrons are electrically neutral. Atoms themselves are electrically neutral when they contain the same number of electrons and protons. Each proton and neutron in an atom consists of three smaller particles called quarks.
An ion differs from a regular atom because it contains an unequal number of electrons and protons. If an atom loses electrons, it acquires a positive charge. Gaining electrons creates a negatively charged atom. An ion has reactivity and chemical properties that differ from a neutral atom. A spectacular display of ionic activity occurs when the sun's ultraviolet light hits gas molecules in a comet's coma creating an ion tail.
Larger than an atom, a molecule is a group of bonded atoms. Atoms can combine in various ways to form molecules and compounds. An element, such as gold, is composed of molecules of only one type of atom, while compounds have different types of atoms. You can tell how many atoms of each kind exist in a molecule

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Retrieved Text: All pure substances are composed of atoms. The center of an atom is composed of much smaller parts called protons, which have a positive electrical charge, and neutrons that have no charge. The protons and neutrons bind together in the nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus are even smaller parts called electrons, which have a negative electrical charge. Most atoms have about the same number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
If we exert a force to pull a heavy object across the floor, we use energy and do work. If we move the object faster, we do the same amount of work, but we use more power. Power is the rate at which a task is performed. We measure power in a familiar unit called the watt. A 1000-watt microwave oven will cook food more quickly than a 500-watt model. It also uses more electrical energy. Another familiar power unit is horsepower (HP). A 50-HP tractor can plow a field much faster than a single horse.

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Retrieved Text: Everything in the world is made up of matter.
Matter is made up of small building blocks called atoms. The idea of all matter being made up of small building blocks that cannot be divided into smaller pieces dates back to a Greek philosopher named Democritus of Abdera who lived in 430 BC. He named the blocks ‘atomos’ which means indivisible. This is the origin of the word ‘atom’ that we use today. Even though some of Democritus’s ideas about how atoms were put together turned out to be incorrect he did start us thinking about matter being made up of smaller building blocks (extremely tiny particles) called atoms. In more recent times scientists have discovered that under extreme conditions atoms can be divided and split.
Tiny!!!!!!! Atoms are very very small. They are so tiny that a speck of dirt contains billions of them. Even the biggest atoms are less than a millionth of a millimeter in diameter. This means you cannot see them even with a microscope.
Is there more than one type of atom?
There are many different types of atoms (more than 100) and many of these atoms have been found naturally occurring on earth. There are approximately 90 atoms that have been found in the earth’s atmosphere, the earth’s crust and in the plants and animals that inhabit the earth.
Scientists have made other atoms in laboratories under very special conditions but these atoms are unstable so they disintegrate almost immediately.
What is the Atomic Model?
Because atoms are so very very small and we cannot possibly see

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Retrieved Text: The electronic structure of an atom plays the major role in its chemistry.
Elements consist of only one kind of atom and cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. Our planet is made up of some 90 elements. (Tiny amounts — sometimes only a few atoms — of additional elements have been made in nuclear physics laboratories, but they play no role in our story). Of these 90, only 25 or so are used to build living things. The table shows the 11 most prevalent elements in the lithosphere (the earth's crust) and in the human body.
For example, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen together represent less than 1% of the atoms found in the earth's crust but some 74% of the atoms in living matter.
one of the properties of life is to take up certain elements that are scarce in the nonliving world and concentrate them within living cells.
Some sea animals accumulate elements like vanadium and iodine within their cells to concentrations a thousand or more times as great as in the surrounding sea water. It has even been proposed that uranium be "mined" from the sea by extracting it from certain algae that can take up uranium from sea water and concentrate it within their cells.
There is still some uncertainty about the exact number of elements required by living things. Some elements, e.g., aluminum, are found in tiny amounts in living tissue, but whether they are playing an essential role or are simply an accidental acquisition (aluminum probably is) is sometimes difficult to determine.
Each element is made up

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Retrieved Text: An atom is the smallest part of an element composed of 3 sub-atomic particles ,protons,neutrons and electrons.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is called the atomic number ,Z.
An atom is electrically neutral, An atom contain the same anount of protons as electrons.
Isotopes- atoms of the same element with different masses and number of neutrons. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons.
Mass number, A- The combined number of protons and neutrons in an isotope of an element.
The electronic structure of the atom.
Electronic energy levels are like a ladder ,they are filled from the bottom up. The gap between the successive energy levels become less ,with increasing energy levels.
s-orbital = spherical shape with one orbital and 2 electrons.
Ionisation energy measures the ease with which electrons are lost in the formation of positive ions. An element has as many ionisation energies as there are electrons.
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove 1 electron from each atom in 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
Electrons are held in their shells by the attraction from the nucleus . The first electron lost will be from the highest occupied energy level. This electron experiences the least attraction from the nucleus.
Atomic radius- The greater the distance between teh nucleus and the outer electrons,the less the attractive force. Attraction falls rapidly with increasing distance and so this factor is very important and has a big effect.
Nucleur charge- The greater the number of protons

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Retrieved Text: An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines achemical element. An atom consists of a central nucleus that is usually surrounded by one or more electrons. Each electron is negatively charged. The nucleus is positively charged, and contains one or more relatively heavy particles known as protons and neutrons.
A proton is positively charged. The number of protons in the nucleus ofan atom is the atomic number for the chemical element. A proton has a rest mass, denoted mp, of approximately 1.673 x 10-27 kilogram (kg). A neutron is electrically neutral and has a rest mass, denoted mn, of approximately 1.675 x 10-27 kg. The mass of a proton or neutron increases when the particle attains extreme speed, for example in a cyclotron or linear accelerator.
An early model of the atom was developed by the physicist ErnestRutherford in 1912. He was the first to suggest that atoms are like miniature solar systems, except that the attractive force is not caused by gravity, but by opposing electrical charges. In the so-called Rutherford atom, electrons orbit the nucleus in circular paths. Niels Bohr revised Rutherford's theory in 1913. In the Bohr atom,the negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus at specific mediandistances. These distances are represented by spheres, called shells, surrounding the nucleus. Electrons can move from shell to shell. When an electron absorbs enough energy, it moves to a larger, or higher, shell. When it loses a certain amount of energy, it falls to a smaller, or lower, shell.
The total mass of an atom, including the protons,

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Retrieved Text: 1. What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?
2. Who was the first person to suggest the idea of atoms, in the fourth century B.C?
3. Which of the following is NOT a part of Dalton’s atomic theory?
a. All elements are composed of atoms.
b. All atoms of the same element are the same.
c. Atoms that combine do so in simple whole-number ratios.
d. Atoms are always in motion.
4. What particles form the nucleus of an atom?
5. Which of the following is correct concerning subatomic particles?
a. The proton was discovered by Thomson in 1880.
b. Cathode rays were found to be made of protons.
c. The neutron was discovered by Chadwick in 1932.
d. The electron was discovered by Goldstein in 1886.
e. Canal rays were found to be made of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
6. Dalton theorized that atoms are indivisible and that all atoms of an element are identical. We know that__________.
7. As a consequence of the discovery of the nucleus by Rutherford, which model of the atom is believed to be true?
8. The nucleus of an atom is ____________.
9. The atomic number of an element is the total number of which particles in the nucleus?
10. The mass number of an element is equal to __________.
11. The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom equals the _________.
12. Using the periodic table, determine the number of neutrons in oxygen-16.
13. What does the number 84 in the name krypton-84 represent?
14. What unit is used to measure average relative atomic mass?
15. All atoms of the same element have the same________.
16. Which of

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Retrieved Text: Atoms are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter. Atoms can join together to form molecules, which in turn form most of the objects around you.
Atoms are composed of particles called protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge, electrons carry a negative electrical charge and neutrons carry no electrical charge at all. The protons and neutrons cluster together in the central part of the atom, called the nucleus, and the electrons ‘orbit’ the nucleus.

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Retrieved Text: The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen gas undergoing fusion and giving off vast amounts of energy in the process.
Nuclear power plants are the source of about 20% of annual U.S. electricity generation.
Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases, liquids, and solids. Atoms themselves are made up of three particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core) containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge and electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons do not have an electrical charge. Enormous energy is present in the bonds that hold the nucleus together. This nuclear energy can be released when those bonds are broken. The bonds can be broken through nuclear fission, and this energy can be used to produce electricity.
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms. During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released when a uranium atom splits. These neutrons continue to collide with other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This process is called a nuclear chain reaction. This reaction is controlled in nuclear power plant reactors to produce a desired amount of heat.
Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, where atoms are combined or fused together to

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Retrieved Text: Fig. 1: In the standard but inaccurate cartoon of an atom, the nucleus is shown almost as big as the atom. It is true the nucleus is a loose cluster of protons and neutrons, but it is tiny compared to the atom.
The typical cartoon drawing of an atom (Figure 1) greatly exaggerates the size of the nucleus, but it does represent the nucleus more or less properly as a loosely combined cluster of protons and neutrons.
How do we know what a nucleus contains? These tiny objects are (and were, historically) simple to characterize because of three facts of nature.
(where the “≈” symbol means “is approximately equal to”).
where these equations are accurate to about 0.1%.
Unlike the previous equations, this equation is exact, with no corrections.
These equations are illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig. 2: Illustration of the equations in the text. Electrons appear as blue discs, protons and neutrons as red and white discs; they are not drawn to scale in the images of atoms at upper left. The pink discs represent nucleons.
Honestly, physicists of that time period were very lucky, from the scientific point of view, that things were so easy to figure out. The patterns of masses and charges are so simple that most lingering confusions were quickly eliminated once the neutron was discovered. If any one of the four facts of nature I listed hadn’t been true, then it might have taken a long time to work out what was going on inside atoms and their nuclei.
Fig. 3: If a wall is completel solid, no objects

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Retrieved Text: As a homeschooling mom, I think hands on activities make learning science so much more interesting and fun. I also think they help children to understand science in a more concrete way. Things like atoms and molecules are pretty hard for a young child to comprehend without something tangible to relate to. In this post, and in a series of posts that will follow, I want to share with you some ideas for teaching elementary and middle school aged children about chemistry.
Let’s start with atoms and molecules.
Atoms are tiny tiny particles that make up all matter. You can’t see them - in fact, they are so tiny that millions and millions of them can fit in the point of the very sharpest pencil. But eveything around us is made of millions and millions of atoms - our bodies, our homes, our pets, the trees, even the air we breathe! To help make this concept more concrete, take a look through a magnifying glass at an image in a book or a picture printed from your computer. This will work best with a magnifying glass that magnifies at 4X or higher.
What do you see? Can you see that the picture is made from many many tiny dots? When you look at the picture with just your eyes, you don’t see the dots, but the picture is really just a whole lot of tiny dots of color put together. Atoms are like this - only even smaller!
This is a fun activity for a group of children. You build

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Retrieved Text: ← What is nuclear chemistry?
Some atoms are fine the way they are. Carbon-12, for example, will hang around forever without doing anything weird. It’ll just be good old carbon-12 for as long as you care to look at it. Carbon-12 is said to be a stable nuclide, where the term “nuclide” refers to a particular atomic isotope.
Other atoms, however, act like your Uncle Jimmy. Just like your Uncle Jimmy, carbon-14 isn’t quite right. While carbon-14 will hang around for a good long while without doing anything weird, eventually it gets restless, ending up drunk and screaming on grandma’s grand piano. Wait, that one was actually Uncle Jimmy.
Anyway, radioactive nuclides such as carbon-14 are referred to as radionuclides because they’re radioactive. Any time you’ve got an atom with a nucleus that’s unstable for one reason or another, it will eventually fall apart via radioactive decay until it forms new atoms (called “daughter atoms”) that are stable.
Uncle Jimmy, on the other hand, usually just winds up back in therapy.
So, why are nuclei unstable in the first place?
The last time your Uncle Jimmy went to a bar, he and another guy were talking about what breed of dog is “best at messin’ up ‘them stealing folk'” when they’re trying to kidnap the pig. Unfortunately, while Uncle Jimmy favored a pit bull, that other guy thought that a Doberman would be better for the job. Eventually, Jimmy and the other guy got to the point where they wanted to punch each other, and Wayne The EMT had to break up

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Retrieved Text: 2.1 Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, and Atoms All matter, including mineral crystals, is made up of atoms, and all atoms are made up of three main particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.As summarized in Table 2.1, protons are positively charged, neutrons are uncharged and electrons are negatively charged.
The same number of protons and electrons exactly cancel one another in a neutral atom. Note: The picture shows a simple model of the carbon atom. It illustrates some basic information like the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. It also shows that the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons.
Each atom has an integer number of neutrons, but the periodic table gives a decimal value because it is a weighted average of the number of neutrons in the isotopes of each element. So, what you need to do is round the atomic weight to the nearest whole number to get a mass number for your calculations.

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Retrieved Text: Atoms make up everything in our world. The basic parts of an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons (Figure 1). Different atoms may have different numbers of each of these parts. An element is a substance that is made up of only atoms with the same number of protons. Elements with different numbers of neutrons are referred to as isotopes of that element. Elements are sometimes expressed with the one- or two-letter chemical symbol for that element. The atomic weight, shown as a superscript number, is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus and is used to identify the isotope of that element. Some isotopes of some elements are radioactive, including many naturally occurring elements. Radioactive isotopes, when taken as a whole for more than one element, are collectively referred to as radionuclides. All human-made radionuclides detected during this quarter are listed in this report. Common human-made radionuclides, along with their chemical symbol, are listed below.
Radioactive atoms are unstable and, in an effort to become stable, release energy. This release of energy comes from the release of particles or electromagnetic waves as the radioactive atom “decays,” or “disintegrates.” The three main types of radiation are alpha, beta, and gamma radiation (Figure 2). Alpha and beta radiation are particles emitted from an atom. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons (equal to the nucleus of a helium atom). Alpha particles do not travel very far (only centimeters in air) and are easily stopped. They will not penetrate paper or the outer

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Retrieved Text: Any attempt to understand Nature or the natural world has to understand atoms. In building my nature-based Theory of Balanceology, I had to take into consideration the atomic world. Atoms are those mysterious and extremely small particles having a typical diameter of 0.00000008 centimeters. It is impossible for me to perceive of something that size. The ubiquitous atom! Everything is made of atoms and atoms are mostly empty space. A void of space is the common denominator for all matter. A typical atom is 99.9999999 % empty space. Atomic solidification is an illusion because atoms are really empty space with infinitesimally small particles of matter moving in that space, and by definition that makes us humans mainly vacuous space. If we take an ultra-microscope and magnify, magnify, magnify an atom we discover little matter in this atomic micro world. Instead we will find more of a void of pulsating energy. Thus, atoms have sub-nuclear particles that are really energy. In 1938 Germany, an atom was split for the first time releasing 200,000,000 volts of pulsating electrical energy.
Democritus‘ vision of the uncuttable particle is wrong. For these incredibly small particles of empty space are indeed cuttable. Atoms have three elementary particles: 1.) a proton with a (+) electrical charge, 2.) an electron with a (-) electrical charge, and 3.) a neutron with no electrical charge. Atoms for the most part are empty space where electrons go around a nucleus of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is the core of an atom with protons and neutrons being packed

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Retrieved Text: "Feynman diagrams are used to describe the interactions between electrons and positrons. The interactions of electrons and positrons can resulting in absorbing a photon, emitting a photon, or a electron being annihilated by a positron."
"Lines in these diagrams represent particles. Every particle has to meet at an intersection that is called an interaction. You can't have a vertex with only squiggly lines (photons) with no particle lines flowing into or out from it."
"Feynman diagrams are how we can visualize particle physics, specifically the interactions of electrons, positrons, and photons. We read the diagrams left-to-right, as they are a representation of what happens over a certain amount of time."
"The Feynman diagrams are meant to indicate the path that the particles take through space. We interpret the x-axis as the direction of time and the y-axis as the space direction."
"A left-to-right arrow is an electron, the opposite is a positron and a wiggly line is a photon. the rest is very vague and I need more explanations on various cases and what they mean."
"Positrons point to the left, electrons point to the right. Gamma (squiggly line) are photons. A Feynman diagram should only contain connected pieces, and any diagram with arrows going into a gamma needs arrows coming out or else it isn't an accurate diagram."
"Honestly, there wasn't much I understood."
"Everything. I don't get Feynman diagrams."
"Why do we use Feynman diagrams? They just seem like squiggles a 3 year-old could draw, why is there not another way to represent these forces interacting?"
"Is an electron moving in the opposite

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Retrieved Text: Quantitative chemistry calculations online Help for problem solving in doing mole calculations using experiment data making predictions. This is found by adding the atomic masses of the atoms in each molecule. The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the isotope of that element.
According to this less common definition we will stick to the broader definition of molecule because it is more. What' s hard to justify is why it' s better to burden the " fighter" with a human occupant rather than using remote automated operation.
1 mole of molecules always contains Avogadro' s number of molecules. Symbol s atomic number 16 atomic mass 32.
Molar Mass of Molecules ( 8). This tutorial introduces atomic structure in chemistry. As the delta- V for a mission goes up the amount of propellant required goes up exponentially ( , looking at it another way: the amount of payload shrinks rge amounts of propellant are expensive but the higher the mass- ratio the higher the likelihood that the spacecraft will not be resuable.
Oxygen ( O 2) gas has the same chemical properties as liquid oxygen. Use the element name mass charge to.
The number of particles making up a mole is Avogadro' s number. Doc Brown' s Chemistry KS4 science GCSE/ IGCSE/ GCE- AS O Level Revision Notes.
A molecule is made up of 2 or more atoms chemically joined ( bonded) together. The atomic nucleus is the small dense region consisting of protons , neutrons at the center of an atom discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909

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Retrieved Text: What two subatomic particles are in the nucleus of an atom?
What charge do protons have?
What charge do neutrons have?
No charge, they are neutral.
What charge do electrons have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons, how many protons does it have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons how many neutrons does it have?
What charge to atoms have?
What happens when electrons are added to an atom?
It becomes a negative ion.
What happens when electrons are removed from an atom?
It become a positive ion.
How many types of atom do elements contain?
Why do Lithium and Rubidium react in similar ways?
Because they both have one electron in their outer shells. They are both in the same group also.
Because they have a complete outer shell (8), which means they are stable.
Why is argon used in filament bulbs?
Because argon has a full outer shell and so won't react with the hot tungsten in the filament.
What happens when different elements react with each other?
They form chemical bonds known as compounds.
a metal and a non-metal.
In ionic compounds do metals loose or gain electrons?
They loose electrons forming positive ions.
In ionic compounds do non-metals loose or gain electrons?
They gain electrons forming negative ions.
When atoms gain or loose electrons.
When a metalled a non-metal bond ionically do they share or give electrons?
Why are ionic bonds attracted to each other?
Because of the negative and positive ions.
When negative and positive ions are attracted to each other. They give electrons away in this process.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
what is the electronic arrangement of the first 3 shells?

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Retrieved Text: Hello, welcome to the second module of our introductory course on Subatomic Physics.
During this module, we'll deal with nuclear physics and its applications.
we will visit the Tokamak of the Swiss Institute of Technology in Lausanne.
And the Beznau Nuclear Power Plant which is the oldest one still in operation.
if your main interest is nuclear physics, you will be well-served.
just take your time to digest the contents without pressure.
In this first video, we will review what is known about the mass of nuclei.
The goals for you are the following.
To know the nomenclature of atomic nuclei and their periodic system.
And to be able to qualitatively describe the mass and binding energy of nuclei.
which is four orders of magnitude smaller than the size of the atom.
interactions between the project and the target.
Scattering experiments can also yield information about nuclear properties.
that holds together protons and neutrons inside the nucleus.
the first module and more extensively discussed in module number five.
The strong force binds together quarks inside hadrons by gluon exchange.
It does not permit quarks to leave the hadrons.
nucleons in particular, do not carry a net color charge.
Thus gluons cannot bind protons and neutrons to form a nucleus.
one side, to nuclei, and the nuclear force on the other side.
The electromagnetic force is responsible for holding atoms together.
rather easy to extrapolate to quantum distances.
quantitatively explains many phenomena of condensed matter physics.
the electromagnetic coupling constant, is a small number.
Alpha is about 1/137, which makes perturbative calculations feasible.
since it wins over the Coulomb repulsion between tightly-packed protons.
since it doesn't make itself felt outside the nuclear volume.
It

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Retrieved Text: which the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons.
Now, atoms that have a charge, that is not zero, are called ions.
of protons determines the identity of the element.
So for example, all atoms of sodium have 11 protons in the nucleus.
sodium, the symbol is Na, remember, is eleven.
follow this lecture and do some of the in-video excersises.
So, go ahead and pause the video to get out a periodic table if you need to do so.
the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons.
alkali metals, such as lithium, sodium, and potassium, tend to lose one electron.
They give those electrons up fairly easily.
number of protons does not equal the number of electrons.
electrons, and not 11, then its charge is +1.
protons than electrons, it is called a cation.
The cation is a species that has a positive charge.
There are some important points about ions that were repeating.
ion, it does so by gaining or losing electrons, not protons.
If the number of protons is changing, then the identity of the element would change.
it just changes into an ion.
The ions charge can be easily calculated.
It's the number of protons in the species minus the number of electrons.
Again, any time an atom has a positive charge its called a cation.
Sometimes its a collection of atoms that all together have a positive charge.
And we still call that a cation.
A cation is any species where there's more protons than electrons.
Cations are formed by the species losing electrons at some point in the past.
If an ion has a negative charge, then it's called

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Retrieved Text: nuclei initiated by irradiation with neutrons, accompanied by the release of radiation, heat and more neutrons. If carbon-14 is so short-lived in comparison to potassium-40 or uranium-235, why is it that in terms of the media, we mostly about carbon-14 and rarely the others? Using the common nuclear practice of calling the isotopes "parent" and "daughter we use P and D to indicate the associated numbers of atoms. Neodymium-143 106, rubidium-87, strontium-87 48, potassium-40, argon-40.28, carbon-14, nitrogen-14.0000057 (5730 yrs). When the number of neutrons is in balance with the number of protons (which does not necessarily means that the number of neutrons has to be exactly the same as the number of protons) then the atoms of a particular element is said. For example: a carbon-14 atom (the "parent emits radiation and transforms to a nitrogen-14 atom (the "daughter.
AP and SAT are registered trademarks of the College Board. Decay rates create debates.a radioactive carbon isotope known as carbon-14 (or 14 C this is why its technically known as radiocarbon dating or, sometimes, carbon-14 dating. Historically known datable points (Ptolemaic period in Egypt) permited researchers to verify the concept of radiocarbon dating.
When we age date a planet, we are actually just dating the age of the surface, not the whole planet. We thus have three different isotopes of carbon: Carbon-12 with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus, Carbon-13 with 6 protons and 7 neutrons in the nucleus, Carbon-14 with 6 protons and 8 neutrons in the nucleus. We have rocks from the Moon (brought back

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Retrieved Text: Will fit into container (any size or shape).
Particles have freedom of motion.
Can NOT be decomposed into a simpler substance.
A pure compound always contains constant proportions of the element's mass.
Transformed into chemically different Substance.
Dynamic process used to answer questions about our physical world.
Collect data (observing;experimenting) Goal: Find pattern.
How closely different (separate) measurements agree with one another.
Closeness of a SINGLE measurement (avrg.) of measurements to the TRUE value.
Answer should have the same amount of sig. figs as the smallest number in the equation.
example: g, ft, yd, . . .
Element- type of matter that has 1 kind of atom.
Compound- a type of matter composed of 2 or + elects chemically combined in fixed proportions.
Also measure their charge-to-mass ration.
Determined the charge of electrons.
X-rays used to generate electrons trapped by oil drops.
Adjustment of electrode charge to levitate drops allowed the calculation.
Mass is concentrated in the positively charged central nucleus.
Alpha particle is small, allowing them to pass right through the gold foil.
Experiment allowed to understand the composition of atomic nuclei.
Equal to that of electron's negative "unit" charge.
Nuclear particle with mass almost identical to the proton's.
Move in space around the nucleus.
Number of Protons in a Nucleus.
All atoms of a given element have one.
Appears as a subscription to the left of the atomic symbol.
the sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
Atoms whose Nuclei have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers.
Of the same element that have different mass numbers.
Fraction of a sample of atoms that is composed of a particular isotope.
Good heat ad electricity conductor.
In the PTE, separates metals from nonmetals.
Have both

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Retrieved Text: For example, looking at a series of layers in the side of a cliff, the younger layers will be on top of the older layers.
Or you can tell that certain parts of the Moon's surface are older than other parts by counting the number of craters per unit area.
The Physical Setting: Earth Science is related to the field of science called Earth Science.
To measure the passage of long periods of time, scientists take advantage of a regularity in certain unstable atoms.
In radioactive atoms the nucleus will spontaneously change into another type of nucleus.
This topic looks at minerals and rocks and helps us to understand the different properties needed to identify them.
We will focus on minerals and how they are the building blocks of rocks and we will show how we can no longer live without these resources.
The old surface will have many craters per area because it has been exposed to space for a long time. If you assume that the impact rate has been constant for the past several billion years, then the number of craters will be proportional to how long the surface is exposed.
However, the crater number relation must be calibrated against something with a known age.The atoms of an isotope of a given element have same number of protons AND neutrons in their nucleus.Different isotopes of a given element will have the same chemistry but behave differently in Radioactive isotopes will decay in a regular exponential way such that one-half of a given amount of parent material will decay to form daughter

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======= Instance Index 28005 =========
Input Text: Process:
- The nuclei of some atoms have too few or too many neutrons
- The atoms become unstable
- The atoms split
- In alpha decay, two protons and two neutrons are released from the atom
- In beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
- The proton joins the nucleus of the atom
- The electron is released
- 

Question:
suppose the nucleus is radioactive and unstable happens, how will it affect MORE radioactive decay occurring.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: This model simulates the spontaneous decay of a collection of radioactive nuclei. As they decay and become stable, the plot of the number that are still radioactive demonstrates the notion of "half-life".
At each time tick, each undecayed (light blue) nucleus has a certain chance of decaying. When a nucleus decays, it briefly flashes bright yellow (as if giving off radiation), then turns dark blue. Eventually, if you wait long enough, all of the nuclei will have decayed and the model will stop.
Set the initial number of nuclei (NUMBER-NUCLEI slider) and the likelihood of decay during each time interval (DECAY-CHANCE slider). Then push the SETUP button. Push the GO button to run the model.
The number of radioactive nuclei that remain is shown in the "Radioactive Nuclei" plot. Each time the number of nuclei is reduced by half, red and green lines appear on the plot to mark the place where each halfway mark was reached. The "Decay Rate" plot shows the number of decays that occur during each clock tick.
What is the shape of the decay curve (Radioactive Nuclei)? How is this affected by the initial conditions?
Why is the decay curve this shape? Is it the same as the decay curve shown in books?
The time between red lines is called the half-life. What is its physical meaning? Is it constant as the number of nuclei decreases? Is it affected by the initial number of nuclei or the decay-chance? Do you think it's a useful way to characterize a radioactive material?
How long does it take for all the

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Retrieved Text: Discuss the articles on lord kelvin's assumption of the form stable, hydrology, textbooks, beta and seek you are stable nuclear state. Bbc bitesize goes on to a radioactive decay rate of half-lives is radioactive decay is a radioactive nucleus. You. three way light switch hook up Scientists look at 4.5 billion. Get definitions. Scientific story begins, half-life of radioactive decay of radioactive decay you believe radiometric dating is generated by philip. I hope to use an unstable nucleus in rock formations gives insight into the creation science past. Using naturally or they could be split into calculating the earth? Geologists have access to radioactive. Another way to match the news all the news all these. There are three main types of the earth, measurements. R. Could you have access to radioactive dating on thesaurus. Earth. Also please explain further what radiometric dating is how long ago. Force between two general categories. Love-Hungry teenagers and they decay. After all these atoms, pp. Ever wonder what assumptions it is to define a game that the decay. And my clear opinion is more disciplines and seek you would be measured. Holmes'report concluded that plants and within. It's hot down there will be if energy were not added by, radionuclide, revolutionized the half-life of the past. Receive our publications definition of radiometric dating radiocalcium dating radiocalcium dating typically use radiometric dating. Carbon-14 with the rates of elements such as scientific instruments at this isotope, the half-life decay may be hard. Get definitions. This isotope. Yet few examples of a radionuclide,

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Retrieved Text: The loss of those neutrons is called radioactive decay. As a result, the unstable isotope undergoes alpha decay and splits into new elements. An example is yttrium oxide stabilized with radioactive thorium oxide. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 or greater. The radioactive isotope of carbon was used to develop carbon dating tool, which has made the dating of various relics possible.
} Now, we have the formula for the half-life of a substance. Stable isotopes are dependable tools for determining many facts about geological materials, such as their age and where they came from. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Carbon-14 decays over time, since it's unstable, like uranium. Once radionuclides are produced, they are packaged and safely shipped to users throughout the country, including hospitals, laboratories, universities and manufacturing plants. Cosmic radiation from the Sun and other stars is a source of background radiation on Earth. Older for example, pre-1970 watches and clocks used radium-226 as a source of light.
It's not something you need to worry about unless you are hauling a bunch of bananas across an international border. These effects can lead to dehydration due to severe vomiting and diarrhea. Radioactive element includes technetium, which has the most stable isotope and what is estimated as the longest half-life. Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear activities, such as weapons testing and nuclear

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Retrieved Text: n0/p+<1 or n0/p+>1,5 nucleus of atoms are unstable and we call these atoms radioactive elements.
Unstable atoms do some nuclear reactions like radiation or decay and become stable atoms. We can explain radioactivity under two titles, natural nuclear reactions and artificial nuclear reactions. In natural reactions, unstable atoms do radiation and become stable atoms. However, in artificial reactions, unstable atoms can be turn in to stable atoms artificially.
Example: Find whether 2040Ca is stable or not.
Sum of number of protons and neutrons gives us mass number (shown in left top corner of element).
Since ratio is equal to 1, 2040Ca is stable atom.
Example: Find whether 92232U is stable or not.
Since ratio is greater than 1, 92232U has unstable nucleus and it is radioactive element.
Nucleus of atom consists of protons and neutrons. Energy that keeps them together is called binding energy. If this energy is high, then atom is more stable.
If a compound is radioactive, at least one of the elements of this compound is radioactive.
Example: K, L, M and N elements form compounds KL, K2N and KM. If KL and K2N are radioactive and KM is not radioactive compound, find whether the following compounds are radioactive or not.
If a compound is radioactive, at least one of the elements of this compound must be radioactive. Since KM is not radioactive, K and M are not radioactive elements. If K2N and KL are radioactive then N and L must be radioactive elements.
K2, is not radioactive but K2L, N2M and KN are radioactive compounds because of radioactive element N.
In chemical reactions, atoms

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Retrieved Text: Nuclear Power is produced when a nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter nuclei. This releases enormous amounts of energy which in turn produces heat. In fact the Uranium, which is the most common element used to produce nuclear power today, has an energy content about 3 million times greater than that of fossil fuel. Consequently 1 gram of Uranium is equivalent to approximately 3 tonnes of coal. Nuclear reactors harness the heat which is produced from the energy released when the atom splits and convert it into electrical energy. Current Nuclear Power plants require the the use of the rare Uranium isotope U-235 and consequently only use one fiftith of the total energy content. Next generation reactors forecast to be available in 2020's will use all the energy in Uranium or the more abundant Thorium.
Nuclear reactors produce vast amounts of radioactive waste including large amounts of very long lived radioactive atoms. These radioactive particles are a product of the splitting of the atom. We are constantly exposed to low-level radioactivity from cosmic rays from outer space and naturally occurring radioactive isotopes which in general do not cause any harm. However at high levels of exposure there are numerous biological effects of radiation. These cause cell death, cancer induction and can cause genetic damage. The waste of nuclear reactors is highly radioactive and long lived, and as a consequence must be isolated from humans for around 100,000 years. The current concensus is that Nuclear Waste should be disposed in secure containers and placed deep

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Retrieved Text: X-Rays are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, and began to date materials inside, a more about carbon dating. Scientists were also used in a sentence: a method of radiometric dating example sentences in the equation to banish typos and forum discussions. Uranium-238, uranium mining, nuclear electricity generation, new york public radio. What is where history and uses the radioactive impurities were selectively. Fyre festival scammer billy mcfarland sentenced to use radiocarbon dates confirms their validity. Click Here the radioactive isotope geology is very out-of-date, definition: is carbon-14 dating, bc, the news in english. Radioactive dating gives an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy provides cleaner and radiometric dating to neptunium np. Using radiocarbon dating works is also included are some of a variety of the age, synonyms and began to date materials, a predictable rates. Consider more about radiation and radiation and half-lives. Radiometric dating can be used to neptunium np. Let glosbe search: is stable daughter elements.
Want to estimate how carbon-14 dating and half-lives. Victoria, in case the carbon-14 dating definition: one of fossils occur in a lot of each sentence. Geologists use the most important tools in regular sequences time at the news 6 hours. Relative dating method for dating techniques is a mineral sample, nuclear energy sources to spanish, and science. Learn about Read Full Article past 50000 years we can be used in regular sequences time scale. Using radiocarbon dating is unpredictable and their specific decay: click button to use lead-210 dating methods of the time t t0. Definition, bc, the news in consultation

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Retrieved Text: This is “Nuclear Reactions”, section 20.2 from the book Principles of General Chemistry (v. 1.0). For details on it (including licensing), click here.
For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page. You can browse or download additional books there. You may also download a PDF copy of this book (147 MB) or just this chapter (6 MB), suitable for printing or most e-readers, or a .zip file containing this book's HTML files (for use in a web browser offline).
To know the different kinds of radioactive decay.
To balance a nuclear reaction.
The two general kinds of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay reactions and nuclear transmutation reactions. In a nuclear decay reactionA nuclear reaction that occurs when an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements., also called radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements. The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed. In contrast, in a nuclear transmutation reactionA nuclear reaction in which a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nuleus to give a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material., a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material. As we shall see, nuclear decay reactions occur spontaneously under all conditions, but

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Retrieved Text: Mar 10, Radioactive decay of naturally occurring and human generated 14C An interactive introduction to radiocarbon dating via AMS at NOSAMS.
It has already been pointed out that each radioactive isotope has a specific half-life period. The radiations that it emits can be detected and measured.
Carbon dating is a variety of radioactive dating which is applicable only to matter which was A sensitivity of in the 14C/12C ratio has been achieved.
Radiocarbon dating is a method that provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that originated from living organisms. An age could be estimated by measuring the amount of carbon present in the sample and comparing this against an internationally used reference standard.
Radiocarbon dating has been one of the most significant discoveries in 20th of the radioactive or unstable carbon isotope 14 (14C), which is formed in the.
(EN) «There is a lot of other evidence that suggests to many that the Shroud is older than the radiocarbon dates allow and so further research is certainly needed.
Radiocarbon dating is achieved by two methods. The traditional "Beta-counting" method is based on the detection of radioactive decay of the radiocarbon (14C).
Update: In RSR learned of the earliest instance of this prediction that we can his August 17, YouTube video at in, Mark Armitage stated: "Our initial findings might suggest that soft tissue in dinosaur bone is the norm rather than the exception."- Original dinosaur and other soft tissue will be found largely independent of the claimed age of the fossil.
martindale's calculators on-line center archaeology, anthropology, paleoichnology - palaeoichnology - neoichnology, paleobiology

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Retrieved Text: Jun 16, · We outline the "fatal flaws" of radiometric dating. Download our mobile app here: #Genesis%20Apologetics.
There is, of course, one radiometric dating method that appears to overcome the . method to within seven years of the actual event.3 40Ar/39Ar Dating into the.
May 20, They use absolute dating methods, sometimes called numerical dating, Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with radiometric methods.
Carbon can be made to estimate the tree. Three reasons why radiometric dating and explain the age of humans and for which assemblages or events. Jeanna.
Jan 9, Radiometric dating is used to estimate the age of rocks and other objects based on the fixed decay rate of radioactive isotopes. Learn about half-life and how it is used in different dating methods, such as uranium-lead dating and radiocarbon dating, in this video lesson.
Radiometric dating method known as a variety of three main assumptions for the majority of some chemical elements in chronological order. 8 billion years old age calculator to accept radiometric methods of the unreliable here are unstable and half-life.
Radiocarbon Dating Method Radiocarbon dating, or carbon dating, is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60, years.
Jul 13, Radiometric dating involves dating rocks or other objects by measuring the extent to which different 3 Types of dating This method for rock dating is based on the decay of potassium into argon: until the rock solidifies.
These techniques can measure the passage of great lengths of time, such as some of

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Retrieved Text: Though he attributed them to ozone rather than to the X; further radionunclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions. 14 is used because the atmosphere contains a small percentage of carbon, radioactive dating examples range of the half, new Delhi: New Age International. A radioactive nuclide with a half, produced by bombardment of cosmic rays.
Most of those are only produced artificially, this is a very readable theological book about Genesis. Which accounts for this difference. Note that although these are radioactive dating examples, is constantly produced in Earth’s upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen. He published his observations concerning the radioactive dating examples that developed, and are classically considered stable. Written by a non, tests of the standard electroweak model in nuclear beta decay”.
ESR or TL – calculating the mass of carbon, each of the two types of beta decay acts to move a nucleus toward a ratio of neutrons and protons which has the least energy for the combination. Nuclear reactions change the composition of an atom’s nucleus, this new 13th edition is an annonces rencontre maroc casablanca resource for radioactive dating examples lovers, radioactive decay modes of an atomic nucleus. The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, and word geeks everywhere. This is true only of rest mass measurements — hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. An example is internal conversion, a sample of the substance is

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Retrieved Text: This definition begs the questions: What are ionizing radiation or particles? Alternative Titles: radioactive nuclide, radioisotope, radionuclide Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several species of the same with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting in the form of , , and. In , for example, -60 is extensively employed as a radiation source to arrest the development of. The radioactive elements listed below shows all the decay modes of Uranium. However, it has limitations of range. The alpha rays are absorbed in the detector, while the non-harmful gamma rays are able to escape.
The circle of darker metal in the center is americium-241; the surrounding casing is aluminium. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Provided there are not too many protons in the nucleus, other forces can hold the protons together. Retest again in five years. Just 25 parts per million 0. Unlike other naturally occurring radionuclides Pu gives off alpha, beta and gamma radiation. This will result in nuclear transformation.
Components of the radiation environment thatimpact the U. Because gross alpha radiation loses energy rapidly and within a short distance, it does not pass through skin. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo. Most of those are only produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. If your natural reaction would be to throw water on this, that

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Retrieved Text: How many times have you used an electronic device and the batteries died? Wouldn’t it be great if batteries could last for 10 or 15 years of normal use? Betavoltaics might be an answer to solving this problem of limited battery life. Get ready to get charged up about this “potential” game-changing technology.
Voltage is the energy carried by a charge. It can be measured as the difference in charge between two points of a circuit. Current, on the other hand, is a measurement of how much electricity passes a certain point on the circuit.
What is the difference between electrical power and electrical energy?
Electrical power is the rate of energy being provided at a specific instance, whereas electrical energy is the amount of power provided over time. Therefore two identical light bulbs would have the capacity to use energy at the same rate and therefore have the same "power" but one may only be on for ten seconds and another for ten hours, so the amount of "energy" used is different.
How do batteries provide electrical energy?
Batteries produce electricity from a chemical reaction. Inside the battery are a cathode and anode. The cathode is connected to the positive terminal, and the anode is connected to the negative terminal. A separator inside the battery keeps the cathode and anode from touching. When the battery is connected to a circuit, a chemical reaction takes place in both the cathode and the anode. The reaction in the anode releases electrons, and the reaction in the cathode accepts these electrons. To get

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Retrieved Text: During the course of a day, nearly everyone is exposed to low levels of radiation from both man-made and natural sources. Whether from x-rays, microwaves, or the sun, encountering radiation is unavoidable. Naturally occurring radioactive material, commonly known as NORM, includes all radioactive elements found organically in the environment.
While health risks from exposure to low levels of NORM are minimal, the extraction and production of oil, natural gas, or minerals can cause NORM to accumulate in hazardous concentrations.
NORM is produced during the natural decay process of uranium and thorium in the earth's crust. These elements and their decay chain products, known as daughter products, are unstable elements that emit radiation as they decay. Of the many radioactive isotopes produced during this process, the oil and gas industry generally measures only three: Radium 226, Radium 228, and Radon 222. These are the longest-lived elements in decay chains and can produce up to twenty radioactive daughters.
Radioactive isotopes will continue to decay until they become a stable isotope. In the case of radium, a non-radioactive form of lead is the final stable isotope.

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Retrieved Text: ← What is nuclear chemistry?
Some atoms are fine the way they are. Carbon-12, for example, will hang around forever without doing anything weird. It’ll just be good old carbon-12 for as long as you care to look at it. Carbon-12 is said to be a stable nuclide, where the term “nuclide” refers to a particular atomic isotope.
Other atoms, however, act like your Uncle Jimmy. Just like your Uncle Jimmy, carbon-14 isn’t quite right. While carbon-14 will hang around for a good long while without doing anything weird, eventually it gets restless, ending up drunk and screaming on grandma’s grand piano. Wait, that one was actually Uncle Jimmy.
Anyway, radioactive nuclides such as carbon-14 are referred to as radionuclides because they’re radioactive. Any time you’ve got an atom with a nucleus that’s unstable for one reason or another, it will eventually fall apart via radioactive decay until it forms new atoms (called “daughter atoms”) that are stable.
Uncle Jimmy, on the other hand, usually just winds up back in therapy.
So, why are nuclei unstable in the first place?
The last time your Uncle Jimmy went to a bar, he and another guy were talking about what breed of dog is “best at messin’ up ‘them stealing folk'” when they’re trying to kidnap the pig. Unfortunately, while Uncle Jimmy favored a pit bull, that other guy thought that a Doberman would be better for the job. Eventually, Jimmy and the other guy got to the point where they wanted to punch each other, and Wayne The EMT had to break up

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Retrieved Text: Strontium (chemical symbol Sr) is a silvery metal that rapidly turns yellowish in air. Naturally occurring strontium is not radioactive. The most common man-made radioactive form of strontium is strontium-90 (Sr-90). Strontium-90 is produced commercially through nuclear fission fissionThe splitting of an atomic nucleus into at least two other nuclei with the release of a relatively large amount of energy. Fissioning that occurs without any outside cause is called "spontaneous fission." for use in medicine and industry. It also is found in the environment from nuclear testing that occurred in the 1950s and 1960s as well in nuclear reactor waste.
Strontium-90 is widely dispersed in the environment and the food chain from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in the 1950s and 1960s. Radioactive decay Radioactive decayThe process in which an unstable (radioactive) nucleus emits radiation and changes to a more stable isotope or element. is the only way of decreasing the amount of Sr-90 in the environment. It has been slowly decaying since then, current levels from these tests are very low.
Plants or crops growing in or near contaminated soil may take up small amounts of Sr-90 from the soil. Animals may ingest Sr-90 when eating plants.
Everyone is exposed to small amounts of Sr-90, since it is widely dispersed in the environment and the food chain. Strontium-90 was widely dispersed in the 1950s and 1960s in fallout falloutRadioactive material in the air from a nuclear explosion that will cool into dust-like particles and fall to the ground. from the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
Strontium-90 is also found

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Retrieved Text: Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates.
It is the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and can be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including radioactive decay, either by emission of particles (usually electrons (beta decay), positrons or alpha particles) or by spontaneous fission, and electron capture.While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus decays is unpredictable, a collection of atoms of a radioactive nuclide decays exponentially at a rate described by a parameter known as the half-life, usually given in units of years when discussing dating techniques.After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in question will have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or decay product.In many cases, the daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a decay chain, eventually ending with the formation of a stable (nonradioactive) daughter nuclide; each step in such a chain is characterized by a distinct half-life.In these cases, usually the half-life of interest in radiometric dating is the longest one in the chain, which is the rate-limiting factor in the ultimate transformation of the radioactive nuclide into its stable daughter.

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Retrieved Text: Most atoms are stable. Some atoms are unstable. These unstable atoms will decay until they are stable. When they decay they give out radiation. Atoms that give out radiation are called radioactive or radioisotopes. Once they are stable they will stop decaying and no longer be radioactive.
Radioactive Decay is a random process. You predict how many decays there will be in a given time but you cannot predict which atom will decay next.
Find out more in the following sections.

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Retrieved Text: Explain how do they decay rates and specific to give. Explain how carbon-14 present starts to obtain a radioactive dating is a precise age of organic material. Relative dating for non-living things. An link dating. As rocks. A construction tool. Tree rings and scrutinized. Radioactive dating suggests that occur in context implies. A radioisotope dating definition: _____. All radioactive elements can even man-made materials. Geologists commonly use absolute dates of rocks from a naturally occurring radioactive dating to date. Historical documents: national and half life work to determine the ages of different methods work? Fission-Track dating carbon-14 dating to each radioactive isotope 14c, geologists commonly used and minerals using. K. Io/ kind of the age of risa blood volume determination of rocks and to date. Scientists use carbon, which radioactive dating methods do they decay in rocks by decaying over time to select an oversight in my area! You, radiation. Several radioactive dating. Certain elements have rocks. Radiometric dating is the stated vintages of carbon, based on the. Identify that occur in 1896 by faul is produced in the. It works for igneous rocks by decaying carbon-14 is based on the mekenna melvin dating carbon-containing compound in rocks by molecule by neutrons from living things. Radioactivity was discovered in this radioactivity can be used in nuclear decay of bygone civilizations, minoan ruins and scrutinized. Another interesting example of natural and metamorphic rocks and tombs of the age of natural clocks. Carbon, specific to estimate the ratio of radioactive minerals using. Southern has transformed our site uses

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Retrieved Text: Radioisotope Renography: Graphic tracing over a time period of radioactivity measured externally over the kidneys following intravenous injection of a radionuclide which is taken up and excreted by the kidneys.Technetium Tc 99m Mertiatide: A technetium diagnostic aid used in renal function determination.Iodohippuric Acid: An iodine-containing compound used in pyelography as a radiopaque medium. If labeled with radioiodine, it can be used for studies of renal function.Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate: A technetium imaging agent used in renal scintigraphy, computed tomography, lung ventilation imaging, gastrointestinal scintigraphy, and many other procedures which employ radionuclide imaging agents.Hydronephrosis: Abnormal enlargement or swelling of a KIDNEY due to dilation of the KIDNEY CALICES and the KIDNEY PELVIS. It is often associated with obstruction of the URETER or chronic kidney diseases that prevents normal drainage of urine into the URINARY BLADDER.Radioisotopes: Isotopes that exhibit radioactivity and undergo radioactive decay. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)Hypertension, Renovascular: Hypertension due to RENAL ARTERY OBSTRUCTION or compression.Zinc Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes of zinc that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Zn atoms with atomic weights 60-63, 65, 69, 71, and 72 are radioactive zinc isotopes.Ureteral Obstruction: Blockage in any part of the URETER causing obstruction of urine flow from the kidney to the URINARY BLADDER. The obstruction may be congenital, acquired, unilateral, bilateral, complete, partial, acute, or chronic. Depending on the degree and duration of the obstruction, clinical features vary greatly such as HYDRONEPHROSIS and obstructive nephropathy.Captopril: A potent and specific inhibitor of PEPTIDYL-DIPEPTIDASE A. It

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Retrieved Text: Dec 3, 2010 - 10 minUp to about 58,000 to 62,000 years (wikipedia "carbon dating") is the effective maximum of Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age determination that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-14). Carbon-14 be2 dating new zealand kaart Radioactive dating definition physics science Glencoe Physical Science with Earth Science, Florida Edition Section 2: Using .. and Answers Part 3 Pass the Test - Duration: 10:09. radioactive decay along a HOLT Physics Problem Workbook NAME _ DATE _ CLASS _ The Science of major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories . Mechanics Physics 111 Fall 2007 Radioactive Decay Problems Solutions 1.
The conventional definition of the selective mining unit (SMU) is the smallest volume The geologic time scale enables scientists to find relationships among the the Geological Timescale Current established physical theories are believed to Radioactive dating helped determine the absolute divisions in the time scale. Nov 27, 2012 Radiocarbon dating has transformed our understanding of the past 50000 years. Ethics + Religion · Health + Medicine · Politics + Society · Science + Technology This means its nucleus is so large that it is unstable. Radioactive decay can be used as a “clock” because it is unaffected by physical (e.g. dating blog ottawa Radioactive dating definition physics science The short answer is that the underlying physics behind radiocarbon dating was .. gauge of age than the customary method of carbon dating, the scientists said. Amoeba Sisters: Specialized Cells--Significance and Examples (9-min video) Editor radiometric dating

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Retrieved Text: Radioactivity is defined as the property possessed by some elements with spontaneously emitting alpha particles (a), beta particles (¡3), or sometimes gamma rays (y) by the disintegration of the nuclei of atoms. It is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it can not be stopped, and it has been taking place since the beginning of time. The process of unstable nuclei giving off energy to reach a stable condition is called radioactive decay. This process produces nuclear radiation, and the emitting isotopes are called ra-dionuclides (radio isotopes). All isotopes of elements with atomic numbers larger than 83 (Bismuth) are radioactive. A few elements with lower atomic numbers, such as potassium and rubidium, have naturally occurring isotopes that are also radioactive. The kind of ionizing radiation emitted, the amount of energy, and the period of time it takes to become stable differs for each radioactive isotope. The following three types of radiation can be emitted.

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Retrieved Text: In Physics, there is an inverse exponential relationship between the half-life and the radioactivity of a substance. There is a third more rare decay. Radiometric dating proves nothing about any form of evolution since it is itself unreliable in the sense that it is based on three unprovable assumptions, and has also been found to be unreliable in the field in various circumstances. The half-life of carbon-14 is only 5, 730 years so this method is mainly used for dating things from the last … 50,000 years. The other nine samples again gave much older dates but the authors decided they must be contaminated and discarded them.
What is the difference between relative dating and radioactive dating?
The common application of such posterior reasoning shows that radiometric dating has serious problems. A straight line is drawn through these points, representing the ratio of the parent:daughter, from which a date is calculated. Depending on sample, lab and method, accuracy might be as much as about ±60 years. Scientists measure the proportion of carbon-14 left in the organism to determine its age. Also, the would have greatly upset the carbon balance.
Unlike common carbon 12C , 14C is unstable and slowly decays, changing it back to nitrogen and releasing energy. See this page in: , , People who ask about carbon-14 14C dating usually want to know about the radiometric dating methods that are claimed to give millions and billions of years—carbon dating can only give thousands of years. Clearly, there are factors other than age responsible for the straight lines

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Retrieved Text: radiometric dating References in periodicals archive? Astronauts have brought back samples from some of these terrains, allowing researchers to use radiogenic dating to figure out when craters formed.
Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a way to find out how old something is. The method compares the amount of a naturally occurring.
Radiometric dating--the process of determining the age of rocks from the decay of their radioactive elements-. -has been in widespread use for over half a.
This is an informational tour in which students gain a basic understanding of geologic time, the evidence for events in Earth’s history, relative and absolute dating techniques, and the .
Radiometric dating is a method of determining the age of an artifact by assuming that on average decay rates have been constant (see below.
Download Dubious Radiogenic Pb Places U-Th-Pb Mineral Dating in Doubt PDF Perhaps the most popular and highly regarded radioisotopic dating method currently in use is the U-Th-Pb dating of grains of zircon (ZrSiO 4), baddeleyite (ZrO 2), titanite (CaTiSiO 5) and/or monazite (ThPO 4).
Dubious Radiogenic Pb Places U-Th-Pb Mineral Dating in Doubt Perhaps the most popular and highly regarded radioisotopic dating method currently in use is the U-Th-Pb dating of grains of zircon (ZrSiO4), baddeleyite (ZrO2), titanite (CaTiSiO5) and/or monazite.
Principles of Radiometric Dating. Radioactive decay is described in terms of the probability that a constituent particle of the nucleus of an atom.
PDF | The method of dating rocks and minerals is known as geochronology. Although in principle this term could be applied to estimation of.
Well over forty different radiometric

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Retrieved Text: Getting excited about excited states, or what Marie Curie has to do with experimental music.
In 2011, the need to understand radioactivity glared at us with more urgency than ever, in the face of the Fukushima disaster and continued debates about nuclear energy. In May, we took a more playful and artistic look at the issue with Lisa Redniss’s Radioactive, the beautiful cyanotype-illustrated story of Marie Curie’s life and legacy, and today we turn to another cross-disciplinary illuminator: The Radioactive Orchestra — a project aiming to explain radioactivity through music by inviting you to compose tunes with 3,175 of the most interesting radioactive isotopes in an effort to glean new understanding of what radiation really is.
It works like this: Melodies are created by simulating the decay of an atomic nucleus from an excited nuclear state down to its ground state. A single gamma photon is released for every step of the energy loss and, by representing the energy of the photon as the pitch of a note, the photon plays a note each time this happens. For an added touch of synesthesia, this is also visualized by a colorful ray coming out of the atomic nucleus. Because every isotope has a unique set of possible excited states and decay patterns, it also has a unique sonic fingerprint.
So go ahead, give it a whirl.

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Retrieved Text: Spontaneous fission, type of radioactive decay in which certain unstable nuclei of heavier elements split into two nearly equal fragments (nuclei of lighter elements) and liberate a large amount of energy. Spontaneous fission, discovered (1941) by the Russian physicists G.N. Flerov and K.A. Petrzhak in uranium-238, is observable in many nuclear species of mass number 230 or more. Among these nuclides, those with lower mass numbers generally have longer half-lives. Uranium-238 has a half-life of about 1016 years when it decays by spontaneous fission, whereas fermium-256 decays with a half-life of about three hours.
Nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission also are subject to alpha decay (emission from the nucleus of a helium nucleus). In uranium-238, alpha decay is about 2 million times more probable than is spontaneous fission, whereas in fermium-256, 3 percent of the nuclei undergo alpha decay and 97 percent undergo spontaneous fission.
The fission that occurs in nuclear reactors and explosive devices is induced by the neutron bombardment of certain types of nuclei.

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Retrieved Text: "Feynman diagrams are used to describe the interactions between electrons and positrons. The interactions of electrons and positrons can resulting in absorbing a photon, emitting a photon, or a electron being annihilated by a positron."
"Lines in these diagrams represent particles. Every particle has to meet at an intersection that is called an interaction. You can't have a vertex with only squiggly lines (photons) with no particle lines flowing into or out from it."
"Feynman diagrams are how we can visualize particle physics, specifically the interactions of electrons, positrons, and photons. We read the diagrams left-to-right, as they are a representation of what happens over a certain amount of time."
"The Feynman diagrams are meant to indicate the path that the particles take through space. We interpret the x-axis as the direction of time and the y-axis as the space direction."
"A left-to-right arrow is an electron, the opposite is a positron and a wiggly line is a photon. the rest is very vague and I need more explanations on various cases and what they mean."
"Positrons point to the left, electrons point to the right. Gamma (squiggly line) are photons. A Feynman diagram should only contain connected pieces, and any diagram with arrows going into a gamma needs arrows coming out or else it isn't an accurate diagram."
"Honestly, there wasn't much I understood."
"Everything. I don't get Feynman diagrams."
"Why do we use Feynman diagrams? They just seem like squiggles a 3 year-old could draw, why is there not another way to represent these forces interacting?"
"Is an electron moving in the opposite

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Retrieved Text: How do these dating techniques work? Basically, scientists take advantage of a natural process by which unstable radioactive “parent” isotopes decay into.
Carbon Dating and Radiometric Dating. How does Carbon Dating work? They measure how much Carbon it has left and count back in years back to when it had the amount of Carbon it would .
Radiometric dating works by measuring how much a radioactive material has decayed, and using its known decay rate to calculate when the material was solidified. There are a variety of ways of doing this; here is a common method. Note that Carbon Dating uses a different method that I .
Oct 4, Many accept radiometric dating methods as proof that the earth is We know that radioisotope dating does not always work because we can.
Radiometric dating or radioactive dating is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or . However, construction of an isochron does not require information on the original compositions, using merely the present ratios of the parent and.
Jan 9, Radiometric dating is used to estimate the age of rocks and other objects The methods work because radioactive elements are unstable, and they we do see additional methods of radiometric dating based on the decay of.
How does radiometric dating work a radiometric dating resource list tim thompson has collected male breast reduction in houston teen dating violence presentation for youth a large set of links to web pages that discuss radiometric how does radiometric dating work dating techniques and the age.
Dec 11, Radioactive dating works by measuring the

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Retrieved Text: This section gives a brief overview of radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine. Their use in the treatment, imaging, and/or diagnosis of diseases isexamined. We also provide a neat recap of nuclear chemistry and provide a derivation of key equations you need to know.
Radiopharmaceuticals are pharmaceuticals that contain a radioactive nuclide, sometimes referred to as radionuclides or radioisotopes. Radiopharmacology is the branch of pharmacology concerned with the study of radiopharmaceuticals.The field nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine involving the use of radiopharmaceuticals for the treatment, imaging, and diagnosis of diseases.Nuclear medicine is a specialised field that incorporates knowledge of medicine, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and nuclear physics and chemistry.
In nuclear imaging, the radiopharmaceutical is administered to the patient then the emitted radiation is typically detected through the use of external detectors. The majority of radiopharmaceuticals in clinical use are based on the γ-emitter, technetium-99m (99mTc). This radionuclide is useful in the imaging and functional studies of the skeletal system, blood, lungs, liver, and tumours. In the case of 99mTc, gamma detectors are used to detect the emitted radiation. The generated images are studied by specialists in nuclear medicine.The ideal diagnostic radiopharmaceutical for imaging must be relatively cheap and readily available, have desirable pharmacokinetic properties, must be a γ-emitter, and must have decent target specificity.
Compared to direct surgical visualisation, nuclear medical imaging is generally regarded as low-risk and non-invasive. Radiopharmaceuticals may be salts, organometallic complexes, or chelate complexes. Radionuclides may also be attached to macromolecules such as monoclonal antibodies. The key feature of radiopharmaceuticals is the radionuclide. This

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Retrieved Text: Does radioactive dating with isotopes of uranium and thorium provide an estimate of the beginning middle or end of the periods of earth's formation?
Split and merge into it. This method estimates the age of the oldest unmelted surface rocks on earth. Since the surface of earth probably melted many times as the planed formed, the earth shoul dbe older than these rocks.
Does radioactive dating with isotopes of uranium and thorium provide an estimate of the beginning middle or end of the period of Earth's formation Explain your answer? Method of dating very old rocks by means of the amount of common lead they contain. Common lead is any lead from a rock or mineral that contains a large amount of lead and a s … mall amount of the radioactive precursors of lead i.
By this method, the age of the Earth has been estimated to be c. This figure is in good agreement with the age of meteorites and the age of the Moon as determined independently.
Radiometric dating is used to date rocks like at the grand canyon to approximately see how old the earth is. Radiometric dating is the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and can be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
What is the radioactive gas produced from uranium and thorium? Radon gas is the radioactive gas produced from uranium and thorium. It forms from the radioactive decay of small amounts of uranium

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Retrieved Text: For example, looking at a series of layers in the side of a cliff, the younger layers will be on top of the older layers.
Or you can tell that certain parts of the Moon's surface are older than other parts by counting the number of craters per unit area.
The Physical Setting: Earth Science is related to the field of science called Earth Science.
To measure the passage of long periods of time, scientists take advantage of a regularity in certain unstable atoms.
In radioactive atoms the nucleus will spontaneously change into another type of nucleus.
This topic looks at minerals and rocks and helps us to understand the different properties needed to identify them.
We will focus on minerals and how they are the building blocks of rocks and we will show how we can no longer live without these resources.
The old surface will have many craters per area because it has been exposed to space for a long time. If you assume that the impact rate has been constant for the past several billion years, then the number of craters will be proportional to how long the surface is exposed.
However, the crater number relation must be calibrated against something with a known age.The atoms of an isotope of a given element have same number of protons AND neutrons in their nucleus.Different isotopes of a given element will have the same chemistry but behave differently in Radioactive isotopes will decay in a regular exponential way such that one-half of a given amount of parent material will decay to form daughter

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Input Text: Process:
- Chloroplasts in the leaf of the plant traps light from the sun
- The roots absorb water and minerals from the soil
- This combination of water and minerals flows from the stem into the leaf
- Carbon dioxide enters the leaf
- Light, water and minerals, and the carbon dioxide all mix together
- This mixture forms sugar (glucose) which is what the plant eats
- Oxygen goes out of the leaf through the stomata
- 

Question:
suppose Every breath I exhale carbon dioxide happens, how will it affect I breath and create more carbon dioxide.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: It's worth remembering that nutrients on their own do not create energy.
At a cellular level, our organelles create energy by combining nutrients with oxygen.
This fundamental, life-sustaining equation highlights the vital role that our lungs play in keeping us well.
It's at the very finest branches of tissue that line the base of our lungs where we accept oxygen from our environment and expel carbon dioxide.
In order for us to maintain our health and recover from any type of illness, we need a steady supply of oxygen entering our blood. We also need to continuously push carbon dioxide out of our circulation, as carbon dioxide competes with oxygen to be carried by hemoglobin throughout the circulatory system.
So what must we do to ensure optimal gas exchange within our lungs?
First, we need to be around fresh air. This means being outdoors often, and when we're indoors for long stretches at a time, we should crack open a couple of windows whenever possible. Or at the very least, ensure that the ventilation system that controls the air quality in our work and living spaces is functioning properly - this includes making sure that furnace filters are replaced regularly.
It also means that while we sleep, when the weather permits, we should crack open a window so that our lungs are exposed to a steady stream of fresh oxygen, and that the air in our sleeping area doesn't get dominated by carbon dioxide.
Second, we need to be mindful of how well we're breathing. Respiratory rate - the number of cycles of inhalation

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Retrieved Text: I get asked quite a lot about breathing. It is, of course, a key aspect of life as well as swimming. It is also one of the fundamental reasons people get very anxious with swimming. If you are nervous in the water, questioning how you will comfortably take air into your lungs with swallowing lots of water can create further anxiety.
Mastering a rhythmical and balanced breathing pattern will truly help you discover much greater pleasure in the water. You will also reap the full health benefits of the aquatic environment. Here are some of my breathing tips.
Never hold your breath. Here’s the science behind why. We as mammals and land dwelling animals breathe in oxygen. We use that essential oxygen for energy and we produce carbon dioxide as a by product. When we exhale, we get rid of that unwanted carbon dioxide. Holding our breath means we are storing carbon dioxide in our body tissues and blood and therefore our heart race increases as we try to purge it. Relaxed continuous breathing will keep you much calmer and less fatigued.
Focus on your out breath and allow your in breath to happen more naturally. A slow, gentle, calm out breath is good. You’ll find you breathe in more calmly, naturally, and you don’t gasp for air.
Breathing position changes depending on the stroke you are swimming. Your head position during front crawl is vital to a successful, relaxed breath. Lifting your head so your eyes face forwards should always be avoided. This creates pressure on the back of

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory system provides an exchange route for carbon dioxide and oxygen gas between the alveoli and in pulmonary capillary blood. The oxygen inhaled diffuses across alveoli walls into the blood where it mixes with hemoglobin in the blood and transported to the heart. After the blood circulation, the carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs for elimination inform of bicarbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the lungs through alveoli walls and is exhaled outside through the nose. Pressure of the two gases is monitored by peripheral chemoreceptors found in the carotid bodies and central chemoreceptors found in the medulla. Peripheral nervous system contains autonomic nervous system that affects the heart rate. Autonomic nervous system contains sympathetic nervous system that increases the heart rate while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases the heart rate. The purpose of this exercise is to see the effects of different type of breathing conditions on heart and blood pressure. I hypothesize that the heart rate and blood pressure tends to increase from the normal condition through hyperventilation to re-breathe condition.
At rest, the heart beats about 60 to 80 times a minute. The blood pressure rises with every rise of a heartbeat and relaxes when the heartbeat falls. For a normal and a healthy adult, the blood pressure is around 120/80 mm HG. Blood pressure that stays between 120-139/80-89 is considered pre-hypertension while that above 140/90 mm HG is usually considered as hypertension. In normal conditions during the experiment, the heart rate beats at 110/76 while the blood pressure

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Retrieved Text: When was the last time you actually took a moment and took a good breath?
Well that is the basic function of the lungs to exchange Oxygen with the carbon Dioxide.
But what does it do for our bodies?
When we breath properly and efficiently the results through the body are quite amazing.
The Blood through your body is hit with some refreshing Oxygen which then gets carried to all our organs to help them work better in production of healthy cells for our skin and healthy function from our brains to our toe nails.
Every cell in our body needs Oxygen.
YES! Consider that for a moment…so when was the last time you took a good breath for your body? All your cells are counting on it.
Breathing can be very helpful when it comes to anxiety or pain or anger. Let’s face it, we all are sometimes confronted with moments that challenge us, frighten us.
Take that conscious moment to take a deep breath filling the lungs with Oxygen and expelling on the exhale not only the Carbon Dioxide but also the fear, worry, stress.
So, let’s start today to take better notice of how and when we breath.
I think some of us might be surprised how often we hold our breath and starve ourselves of that life-force.
Different forms of exercise accentuate and concentrate on breathing; Yoga, Pilates and the like.
Funnily enough, I have shown many people during my career in fitness how to breath when different circumstances arise. Yeah, sometimes we need lessons in breathing as well.
If you are having trouble finding

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Retrieved Text: Occasionally, when we do Nadi Shodana (alternate nostril breathing) or other exercises where you hold the breath, it feels as though the need to breathe disappears. It’s as if you could continue holding the breath indefinitely. When this happens to me, I usually get a disturbing thought as to how long it is possible to hold the breath without a harmful lack of oxygen arising.
The only sure way of answering this question is to measure the content of oxygen in the arteries while holding the breath, and that is what we have done.
During the autumn of 1998, I carried out a series of interesting tests at the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm. One of these was done on the alternate nostril breathing, Nadi Shodana and is described in this article.
The subject was a male of normal build in his forties, with twenty years experience of yoga’s breathing exercises. During the test, he did five rounds of Nadi Shodana, where you inhale, hold the breath, and exhale, to the ratio of 1:4:2. That is to say 10 breaths in 15 minutes, which is relatively slow (a person at rest has approximately 16 breaths per minute).
If you want to take measurements of the blood that supplies the brain and other organs, an ordinary blood sample from a vein isn’t good enough. You must have access to the blood of an artery, an artery that leads the blood out to the organs of the body – the blood that has just been oxidised by passing through the lungs. An anaesthetist

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen being the prime mover of all life, breathing is the single most important physiological process. Here, we present some intriguing facts about the respiratory system, that will leave you with renewed respect for the beautiful machine which your body is.
Modern mammalian lungs evolved from the air-breathing organs, that developed in fish, about 400 million years ago.
In this limitless world, our throat is like a swinging door. The air comes in and goes out like someone passing through a swinging door. If you think, 'I breathe', the 'I' is extra. There is no you to say 'I'. What we call 'I' is just a swinging door which moves when we inhale and when we exhale. It just moves; that is all. When your mind is pure and calm enough to follow this movement, there is nothing: no 'I', no world, no mind nor body; just a swinging door.
Life is a ceaseless rhythmic symphony, played with the lead instruments being the breathing lungs and the thudding heart. As Shunryu Suzuki, the great Zen master said, we are all swinging doors, through which air enters, enriching the body with oxygen and leaves, cleansing it of carbon dioxide. Almost all life owes its existence to some form of air exchange mechanism, that filters out oxygen from the atmosphere, to power cellular energy-generating processes.
Our respiratory system is one of the most sophisticated biological mechanisms in nature, designed to enable the most important life process of aerobic cellular respiration, which helps our body produce energy, from food. It achieves this through

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Retrieved Text: In short, diffusion, involves molecules moving from higher concentration to lower concentration. This movement is known as the concentration gradient.
This happens with liquids and in gases. As gases are more difficult in an experiment to show children how diffusion works I will use this experiment which involves liquid, in this case water.
We will also experiment with temperatures in the experiment and talk about how temperature effects the rate of diffusion.
500ml of water to one large clear cup and 500ml of hot water to the other clear cup.
You will need a responsible adult present as you are dealing with hot water.
Now get your pipettes. Add 2ml of one colour to the centre of the top of your cold water.
The colder the water the better, so long as it is still in liquid state.
Now add 2ml of the second colour in the centre of the top of the hot water.
As I said, in this experiment we will look at how temperatures effect the rate of diffusion.
The diffusion of food colouring in hot and cold water showed us clearly how temperature effects the rate of diffusion, with the process being much faster in hot water than in cold water.
This is because heat provides energy and the energy from the heat makes the molecules up and makes the move faster so the diffusion process works quicker.
The cold can take a lot longer however it will eventually completely diffusion into the water, which is of lower concentration (as it has no food colouring in to start with) until the whole cup

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: facing the fire: Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
The House Committee on Energy and Commerce has developed what is arguably the broadest (non-tax-oriented) jurisdiction of any Congressional committee. Today, it maintains principal responsibility for legislative oversight relating to telecommunications, consumer protection, food and drug safety, public health, air quality and environmental health, the supply and delivery of energy, and interstate and foreign commerce in general. This jurisdiction extends over five Cabinet-level departments and seven independent agencies--from the Energy Department, Health and Human Services, the Transportation Department to the Federal Trade Commission, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal Communications Commission — and sundry quasi-governmental organizations.
Which is to say, this is a pretty powerful committee. They get to advance (or squelch) a lot of potentially important legislation. And Barton, as ranking member, is a powerful guy within this powerful committee. So it matter that he thinks crazy things, like that marathon runners could be considered a source of pollution. Yeah, didn't you read that article? It goes back to the EPA's decision that carbon dioxide can be considered a pollutant, and as such can be regulated. Barton thinks that people are point sources of carbon dioxide, and I guess because marathons are a large group of heavily exhaling people, Joe thinks that means a large source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The point Barton is trying, and failing, to make is that carbon dioxide is difficult to regulate because it is a naturally

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen is the most vital nutrient for our bodies. It is essential for the integrity of the brain, nerves, glands, and internal organs. We can do without food for weeks and without water for days, but without oxygen, we will die within a few minutes.
If the brain does not get proper supply of this essential nutrient, it will result in the degradation of all vital organs in the body. Oxygen is critical to our well being, and any effort to increase the supply of oxygen to our body and especially to the brain will pay you back immensely.
The alchemy of the breath is magnificent! With each inhale, we bring oxygen into the body and spark the transformation of nutrients into fuel. Each exhale purges the body of carbon dioxide, a toxic waste.
Pranayama (the mindful and deliberate practice of managing your breath) is used in yoga as a separate practice to help clear and cleanse your body and mind. It is also used in preparation for meditation, and in asana, the practice of postures, to help maximize the benefits of the practice and focus the mind.
In reality, the poses are just a validity test for your breath.
Known as the "complete" or "three-part" breath, Dirgha Pranayama teaches how to fill the three chambers of the lungs, beginning with the lower lungs, then moving up through the thoracic region and into the clavicular region.
Alchemical Benefits: Promotes proper diaphragmatic breathing, relaxes the mind and body, oxygenates the blood, and purges the lungs of residual carbon dioxide.
Sit with your spine erect

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Retrieved Text: With temperatures in the New York City area in the single digits and teens over the past few days, a stroll outside can feel like an adventure. One of the more noticeable things about walking outside on a chilly day is that we can see our breath. With every exhale, a small cloud billows from our mouth, wisps whirling, clustering, separating and then fading into the surrounding air.
From each living, breathing animal-being around us, cloudlets emanate with every breath, vaporous chiaroscuro intermingling with the exhales of passers by, as if engaging in a collective dance. Dogs on their outings and birds too display visible breath. Even the exhaust from cars and output from the tall chimney stacks on buildings become more visible, suggesting that in way they too are breathing, or that perhaps we living creatures have our own little engines. Indeed it is the oxygen we breathe in that fuels our bodies. We can live a month without food, a week without water, but only a few minutes without oxygen.
Seeing our breath on a cold day is a reminder of our reciprocity with the natural world around us. The air we take in is 21% oxygen (78% is nitrogen) because of plants, which intake carbon dioxide and mix it with sunshine to create sugar and breathe out oxygen. We are taught in meditation to focus on our breath. How much easier it is to focus on breath when it becomes visible. And how much it reminds us of this minute by minute bodily process --

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Home » Science Notes Posts » How Stuff Works » Why Do You See Your Breath When It’s Cold?
When it’s cold outside, you can see your breath because water vapor condenses into fog.
If you’re outside on a cold winter day or even if you breathe into the freezer, sometimes you can see your breath. Yet, sometimes it’s not all that chilly and see you puffs of vapor, while other times it’s downright frigid and you don’t see anything at all. What’s going on?
Exhaled air contains a lot of water. When you breathe into cold air, the water vapor condenses to form tiny water droplets and ice particles. Basically you look like a fire-breathing dragon because the outside air can’t absorb the extra humidity.
You can feel there is a lot of water in exhaled air if you breathe into your hand a few times. The surface of your skin will get slick with moisture. When it’s cold outside, air can’t hold very much moisture. This is why 100% humidity in the winter feels dry, yet 100% humidity in the summer feels like you’re practically soaking in water.
When you exhale into saturated cold air, the extra water from your lungs can’t be absorbed by the surrounding air, so it condenses into tiny water droplets or ice particles (depending on the temperature), forming a cloud you can see.
Even if it’s cold, if the air is dry, you may not be able to see your breath. You may be able to predict whether or not you can see a cloud

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Retrieved Text: The breath has power and there’s a rhythm and a flow to it. As a wellness professional and yoga instructor, I talk about the breath a lot and most of what I’ve learned about breathing has come from the word of God and confirmed through science. I believe that the breath unlocks the door to spiritual awareness, and God starts this process in the womb.
Did you know that mothers breathe for their babies while they are in the womb? During their time in the womb, babies practice breathing while their lungs are being developed in preparation for birth. That moment when all those in the room wait in anticipation for those strong lungs to let out a loud cry to indicate… LIFE!
When God formed man from the dust in Genesis 2:7, God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul. We move and live with a daily reminder of God’s presence every time we take a breath. His presence flows through us, giving life to our body, soul, and spirit. On a deeper level through prayer and meditation, we are able to not only cherish the gift of God’s breath on a physical level, but we are able to feel and sense His presence on a spiritual level as well. In John 4:24, we are reminded that God is Spirit, and those who worship Him must worship in spirit and truth. As God’s greatest creation, we are built for spiritual worship and that type of worship starts with a spiritual

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Retrieved Text: The Windsor FHT has a lung health program for asthma and COPD. Ask your health care provider for more information.
*NEW* Smoking cessation services will be offered at the WFHT beginning in August 2014. Ask any of our staff for a referral.
When we breath, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is the respiratory system’s method of getting oxygen to the blood. Air enters the body through the nose and mouth and travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and then into the lungs. Once in the lungs, the air is drawn into thin-walled sacs that are supplied with capillaries. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood takes place in these tiny sacs.
Lung disease are conditions that occur within the lungs. Common lung diseases include asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and lung cancer.
Free parking available for all Windsor Family Health Team patients. Please see reception for your pass.

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Retrieved Text: "Hi. My name is Bob, and I used to breath too much air."
Despite the fact that it contains more oxygen, Nitrox does not reduce most people's air consumption. Come to think of it, as we learned in our diving classes, we are consuming more oxygen at depth because it is delivered to us at a higher rate. How is it that we can be getting more oxygen but not feeling less need to breath?
Understanding this puzzle is the key to lowering your air consumption. The answer is in two parts. First, due to a peculiar wrinkle in how evolution has wired our bodies, the need to breath is triggered not by too little oxygen, but by too much carbon dioxide. If you have no exposure to carbon dioxide whatsoever, or if you can get rid of your carbon dioxide before it triggers the need, you will not feel a need to breath even when oxygen levels get dangerously low. Hyperventilating before free diving is really aimed at getting rid of carbon dioxide more then "hyper-oxygenating" the blood. It takes away the feeling of needing to breath without really expanding the true oxygen capacity available all that much. This is one reason it can cause you to black out without having felt the need to breath.
But how is carbon dioxide produced? Through stress, motion, and metabolism. Reduce any of those and we do better.
This idea of feeling a need to breath exposes the other half of the puzzle. That half is psychological or behavior based. The good

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: WHAT IS A BREATH TEST, AND WHY DO WE DO IT?
The urea breath test (UBT) is a test for diagnosing the presence of a bacteria, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) in the stomach. H. pylori causes inflammation, ulcers, and atrophy of the stomach. The test also may be used to demonstrate that H. pylori has been eliminated by treatment with antibiotics.
For the test, patients swallow a mixture containing urea made from an isotope of carbon. (Isotopes of carbon occur in minuscule amounts in nature, and can be measured with special testing machines.) If H. pylori is present in the stomach, the urea is broken up and turned into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is absorbed across the lining of the stomach and into the blood. It then travels in the blood to the lungs where it is excreted in the breath. Samples of exhaled breath are collected, and the isotopic carbon in the exhaled carbon dioxide is measured.

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Retrieved Text: I would like to invite you to start with some deep breathing exercises before you begin your workout session. Stand or sit with your eyes closed and take in a deep breath through your nose, hold it for one or two seconds and exhale through your mouth. Repeat this five times.
During this time you will feel your body relax and your shoulders drop, your mind will clear and your will be present for your session.
Deep breathing before you exercise sets the stage for controlled breathing during your workout. It relaxes you and makes you more conscious of your breathing.
Breathing in through your nose increases circulation, blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, slows the breathing rate and improves overall lung volumes.
Exhale through the mouth as you do the hard part (concentric) of the exercise = push, pull or lift.
Inhale through the nose as you complete the easier (eccentric) part of the exercise. Never be afraid to take a moment to reset and begin your breathing and repetitions again.
For those who find this hard it will develop with practice and become part of your weights session. Controlled breathing engages the abdominals, exercising the abs as you perform your weights sessions giving your body the extra support and better outcomes from your weights session.
For those who hold their breath during weights sessions a word of warning, holding your breath increases blood pressure and may even lead to feeling faint.

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Retrieved Text: For most of my childhood and adult life I have had asthma.
I came across the Buteyko Method over 10 yrs ago whilst studying naturopathy. I bought a book on the Buteyko method and every now and then I would attempt to practice the exercises and had some success…when I persevered!
Having spent the last 4 yrs in my Salt Therapy Clinic I have come across so many clients who struggle to breathe easily, because of asthma, nasal congestion, chronic cough, sleep apnoea or debilitating anxiety and panic attacks.
These clients come for a number of reasons. They are frustrated with treatments that are uncomfortable, or do not give lasting relief, or they are concerned with side-effects, or they crave a simple, natural and effective approach.
Whereas Salt Therapy is an extremely effective therapy I knew that the Buteyko method was another technique that could give them tools to change the way they breathe and improve their overall health.
In 2016 I had the opportunity to study with Patrick McKeown, an Irishman who studied under the late Konstantin Buteyko. I am now certified in the Buteyko Clinic Method to teach and am thrilled to share this wonderful technique with you through my business ‘Breathing Space’.
By taking control of our breathing we can influence our thoughts and feelings, our internal organs, such as the heart and brain, and our bodily functions such as digestion and the immune system.
There is nothing new about the importance of breathing. Just a few minutes of oxygen deprivation is enough to destroy the brain’s ability to process

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Retrieved Text: The primary function of the lungs is to allow the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the blood. While the inhaled oxygen-rich air is diffused into the blood, carbon dioxide from the blood is received by the lungs and exhaled. This function of the lungs may be affected by various conditions such as asthma and bronchitis, where the air passages become narrowed causing difficulty in breathing. Many tests are performed to evaluate lung function. One such test, diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide or DLCO, measures the diffusion capacity, the lungs’ ability to exchange gases with the bloodstream.
Several hours before the test, you are instructed to stop smoking, eating and taking any inhaled medications such as bronchodilators. To perform the test, you will inhale air that contains a small amount of a tracer gas (carbon monoxide). Inhalation is performed orally through a well-fitted mouthpiece, while your nostrils are clipped shut. The breath is then held for 10 seconds after which you are instructed to exhale rapidly. The exhaled air is tested to determine carbon monoxide levels, which indicates the amount of gas exchange. This is a quick test and is a safe procedure.
Diffusion capacity can measure whether lung function is worsening or improving with treatment. It may help diagnose various lung conditions such as pulmonary embolism, emphysema, pulmonary hypertension and lung hemorrhage.

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Retrieved Text: Central sleep apnea (CSA) is characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep due to a signal disruption from the central nervous system. Typically, the episodes last for 10-30 seconds (or longer) and can be intermittent in nature or happen in cycles throughout the night.
Sleep apnea describes a form of sleep disorder characterized by disordered breathing. There are two primary types of sleep apnea: Central and Obstructive.
CSA is associated with lower oxygen saturation levels, a condition called hypoxia or hypoxemia, which can lead to serious health complications.
There are several potential causes of Central Sleep Apnea. These include heart problems, brain disorders, medications, other substances, and idiopathic causes.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen levels should stay fairly constant when the body is at rest. Inhalation causes oxygen levels to increase and carbon dioxide levels to decrease, while exhalation does the opposite, causing carbon dioxide to increase and oxygen to decrease. Regular respirations allow the body to remove excess, harmful carbon dioxide from the lungs and bloodstream.
There are chemoreceptors in the body, which are governed by oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream. These chemoreceptors send signals to the brain to tell it when to open the throat and other breathing airways, as well as to move the muscles associated with respiratory efforts.
The body’s need for oxygen/carbon dioxide balance is so great that the brain will automatically signal respiration if either of the levels is out of balance.
In Central Sleep Apnea, however, the respiratory control centers in the brain are dysfunctional during sleep, so they fail to give the signal

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Retrieved Text: As the trees lose their leaves in a blaze of red, orange, and yellow and nature moves through a great exhalation in the transition from warm to cool weather, I have a confession to make: I love to exhale. Although I appreciate that inhales are both necessary and nourishing as they bring in the needed oxygen to cells to stay alive, I find exhaling immensely satisfying.
Exhales are purifying. When we exhale, we get rid of unnecessary gases, namely carbon dioxide, out of the blood and body.
Exhales are calming and always accessible. When you exhale, receptors in the aortic and carotoid sinuses stimulate a shift for your heart to beat more slowly. This means that if you take longer to exhale than inhale, the effect will be a slower heart rate. Exhaling more slowly than you inhale is a way—and one that is always available to you—to reduce fear and anxiety. Try inhaling for 3 counts and exhaling of 6 counts several times and see if you can feel the difference.
Exhalations are relaxing by nature. By contrast, inhalations can take place only as a result of muscular activity. The elasticity of the lungs keeps pulling them to a smaller size. This means that we can exhale simply by relaxing.
Science of Breath: A Practical Guide by Swami Rama, Rudolph Ballentine, and Alan Hymes.
Anatomy of Hatha Yoga by H. David Coulter.

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Retrieved Text: The body stores the excess protein or carbs in a person’s diet in form of Fat, specifically, as triglyceride molecules, which consist of just three kinds of atoms: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. For people to lose weight, their triglycerides must break up into building blocks, which happens in a process known as oxidation. Here comes the role of the oxygen to burn fat rapidly.
When a triglyceride is oxidized (or “burned up”), the process consumes many molecules of oxygen while producing carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) as waste products.
To burn 10 kilograms (22 lbs.) of fat, a person needs to inhale 29 kg (64 lbs.) of oxygen. And the chemical process of burning that fat will produce 28 kg (62 lbs.) of carbon dioxide and 11 kg (24 lbs.) of water, the researchers calculated.
During weight loss, 84 percent of the fat that is lost turns into carbon dioxide and leaves the body through the lungs, whereas the remaining 16 percent becomes water, according to medical journal BMJ.
By practicing various breathing techniques in yoga, people can learn how to exhale more carbon dioxide from the lungs and inhale enough oxygen to accelerate the process of oxidation of the fat.
The calculations also show the frightening power of, for example, a small muffin over an hour of exercise: At rest, a person who weighs 154 pounds (70 kg) exhales just 8.9 mg of carbon with each breath. Even after an entire day, if this person only sits, sleeps, and does light activities, he or she exhales about 200 grams

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Retrieved Text: In my last post, I talked about several ways that we can use the breath as a calming practice by stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system. Taking deep breaths was one method I briefly mentioned for accomplishing this.
A full yogic breath, also called a three-part breath or a diaphragmatic breath, is very effective at accomplishing this task. This breath includes a complete filling of the lungs on the inhale to maximize the oxygen available to the blood and a complete exhale to fully release all stale air, carbon dioxide, and toxins that are excreted via the breath.
The diaphragm is a muscle that is extends across the bottom of the rib cage and separates the thoracic (chest) cavity from the abdominal cavity. As the diaphragm contracts, the thoracic cavity expands giving our lungs more room for air and causing us to inhale. It also presses down into the abdominal cavity causing our abdominal organs to be pressed outward. As the diaphragm relaxes, the air is forced back out of the lungs as the size of the thoracic cavity decreases and the abdominal organs settle back into place. This rhythmic change in the size of the abdominal cavity leads to this type of breathing sometimes being called “belly breathing” even though the breath does not literally fill the belly.
This breath can be done is any position, but sometimes it is easiest for beginners to get a feel for this breath by performing it while lying down because it makes the fluctuations in the abdomen easier to feel. In whatever

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Retrieved Text: New research on evolving Midwest forests underscores the role that trees play in trapping carbon dioxide and how fragile this storage system is.
A team of biologists and foresters at Ohio State University, Indiana University and the University of Michigan say the aspen and birch that dominate forests of the northern Midwest are reaching the end of their lifespan.
But the researchers predict that the white pine, red oak and red maple trees growing in the forest understory and poised to take over will absorb even more carbon dioxide, the main ingredient in global warming.
"The forest will be more diverse and the canopy more complex, with a leaf distribution that can process light more efficiently," said Peter Curtis, chairman of evolution, ecology and organismal biology at Ohio State.
Curtis and his colleagues base the prediction on nearly 10 years of work at the University of Michigan Biological Station, near Pellston, Mich. The scientists recently described their findings in the journal BioScience.
Since 1999, sensors on a 150-foot tower above the forest have measured the carbon dioxide in nearly every breath the forest has taken. On the ground, the scientists verified the numbers by measuring wood and root growth, the number of leaves in the canopy and decomposition in the soil.
In daylight, trees feed through photosynthesis, taking carbon dioxide in through their leaves and emitting oxygen. In the dark and when leafless, trees feed through respiration, taking in oxygen and emitting carbon dioxide.
The station's 10,000-acre forest, similar to others across the 40,000 square miles of forest in the upper Midwest, takes

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Retrieved Text: Definition : Laboratory breath analyzers used to determine the carbon dioxide (CO2) content in a breath sample. These analyzers typically use chemical titration, infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography, or mass spectrometry. CO2 analyzers are used to aid in determining the patient's ventilatory, circulatory, and metabolic status.
Entry Terms : "Carbon Dioxide Analyzers"

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Retrieved Text: Here's what we know: humans are part of the food chain and the carbon cycle, we breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. When we exercise, our CO2 output increases.
So when Washington State Representative Ed Orcutt (R-Kalama) said last week in an email that the act of riding a bicycles "results in greater emissions of carbon dioxide from the rider," strictly speaking, he is correct (but also missing the point).
Any exercising athlete creates greater emissions of carbon dioxide than a resting couch potato.
Orcutt's thoughts on bicyclists' polluting power, however, seem to lead him to think that a tax on the sale of bicycles is a natural correlation. As related by Bike Portland by editor Jonathan Maus, a recent transportation tax package proposed by Democrats in the Washington legislature includes the bicycle sales tas.
Orcutt, Maus says, is "staunchly" opposed to taxes of any kind...except, reportedly, the bike sales tax in the legislation. That's because Orcutt erroneously thinks only cars pay for roads, cyclists are polluting, and thus polluting cyclists should pay their way.
"I am not a fan of the House Transportation tax proposal, nor of many tax proposals, but I have to admit I think there are valid reasons to tax bicycles. Think about this for a moment: Currently motorists are paying to use their cars on the roads while they are actually driving their cars. At the same time they are paying for bike lanes because there is no gas tax — or any transportation tax — generated by the act of riding on the roadways.

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Retrieved Text: Breathing, the lungs can discharge residual gas and other metabolites, inhale more oxygen to increase or improve organ function. Breathing deeply can make a person's chest and abdominal muscles can get more substantial movement, inhale more oxygen and exhale more carbon dioxide, our blood circulation can be strengthened.
Deep breathing not only promotes the body's oxygen exchange, it also slows down heart rate and reduces blood pressure. It can alter your emotional state and increase self-awareness. It can helps you regain control of your emotions and relieve anxiety.
Sit straight with your back against the chair, feet flat, with thighs parallel to the floor.
Inhale through your nose. As you inhale, expand the abdomen first, and then expand the chest to the greatest limit. Hold the breath for a few seconds.
Slowly exhale through the nose. Slowly contract the chest, and then the abdomen. Exhale as much air from the lungs as possible! The duration of exhalation should be longer than inhalation.
Do this at least 20 times a day. Keep the rhythm smooth and gentle, do not force yourself.

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Input Text: Process:
- Water in the clouds becomes very cold
- The cold water forms ice crystals
- The ice crystals grow by absorbing surrounding water droplets
- Form snowflakes
- The snowflakes fall to the ground.

Question:
suppose more water droplets adhere to the ice crystals happens, how will it affect the ice crystals form larger snowflakes.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The essential difference between a precipitation particle and a cloud particle is one of size. An average raindrop has a mass equivalent to about one million cloud droplets. Because of their large size, precipitation particles have significant falling speeds and are able to survive the fall from the cloud to the ground.
The transition from a cloud containing only cloud droplets to one containing a mixture of cloud droplets and precipitation particles involves two basically different steps: the formation of incipient precipitation elements directly from the vapour state and the subsequent growth of those elements through aggregation and collision with cloud droplets. The initial precipitation elements may be either ice crystals or chemical-solution droplets.
Development of precipitation through the growth of ice crystals depends on the fact that cloud droplets can freeze spontaneously at temperatures below about −40 °C, or −40 °F. (The reduction of cloud droplets to temperatures below the normal freezing point is termed supercooling.) Within supercooled clouds, ice crystals may form through sublimation of water vapour on certain atmospheric dust particles known as sublimation nuclei. In natural clouds, ice crystals form at temperatures colder than about −15 °C (+5 °F). The exact temperature of ice crystal formation depends largely on the physical-chemical nature of the sublimation nucleus.
Once ice crystals have formed within a supercooled cloud, they continue to grow as long as their temperature is colder than freezing. The rates of growth depend primarily upon the temperature and degree of vapour saturation of the ambient air. The crystals grow at the expense of the water

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Retrieved Text: Snow is formed high in the clouds from water vapor, which is water in the form of gas. If a cloud is cold enough, the water vapor freezes to form ice crystals. At temperatures between about −40 °F (−40 °C) and 32 °F (0 °C), water vapor crystallizes around bits of dust in the cloud. At lower temperatures, water vapor freezes directly into ice crystals.
The ice crystals can stay up in the clouds. Or, if they are heavy enough, they can fall to the ground. As they fall they can clump together with other ice crystals to form snowflakes. One snowflake can contain as many as 100 ice crystals. But some single ice crystals fall as snow, too.
The way that ice crystals join together gives every snowflake a unique design. Even so, most snowflakes have six points or six sides. They form seven basic shapes: stars, needles, dendrites (having branches), plates, columns, columns capped with plates, and irregular (damaged). What shape a snowflake takes depends on the temperature and the amount of moisture in the cloud.
Snow falls in many places that get cold weather, mainly during winter. At the North and South poles, snow covers Earth year-round. Near the Equator, snow falls only in the highest mountain regions.
Snow greatly affects climates and living things. A cover of snow on the ground helps to keep the air cold. This happens because snow reflects, or bounces back, most of the Sun’s heat. However, a snow cover can also protect small plants from the effects of severe cold. When

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Retrieved Text: Not all snowflakes look like six pointed stars. Many do, but there are also quite a few odd-looking crystals falling from the winter clouds. You will see them if you go out looking, but it helps if you know what to look for. On this page we examine a few examples from the snow crystal menagerie.
Ken Libbrecht's Field Guide to Snowflakes.
Click on the link to see the book on Amazon, including a look inside.
If you would like to learn more about snowflakes, and what kinds of crystals can be found, this is the book for you. It makes a great gift for anyone who enjoys the outdoors as well.
The chart on the right lists 35 snowflake types, which covers most of what you will find under your magnifier.
Exactly how many different kinds of snowflakes are there? There is no exact number; it depends on how many types you care to define. See the bottom of this page for more about that.
These are the most recognizable snow crystals, as you can see from the examples on the right. Their name comes from their star-shaped appearance, along with their branches and sidebranches ("dendrite" means tree-like). Stellar dendrites are also quite large and common, so they are readily spotted on your sleeve, especially if you are wearing a dark fabric. The best specimens usually appear when the weather is quite cold -- about -15 C, or +5 F.
Columnar snow crystals appear when the temperature is around -6 C (21 F), and they can be quite common. They are small

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Retrieved Text: The first snowfall of the year is always exciting, isn’t it? You love crunching through the snow, making a snowman and hefting snowballs at your brother. By March, though, you’re probably tired of the snow and ready for spring. Have you ever wondered how snow is made, though?
Snow occurs when water vapors in the air freeze before they can turn into water. This happens when the temperature in the clouds is very cold. Snowflakes are made up of crystals of ice that have formed around bits of dirt in the air. The snowflakes start out very small and grow. Each snowflake is different and might contain up to 200 crystals.
How is snow made? Snow occurs when water vapors in the air freeze before they can turn into water. This happens when the temperature in the clouds is very cold.
Blizzards bring snow, strong winds and cold temperatures. They can last for several days.
A blizzard happens when cold air sits near the Earth’s surface, while warm air sits above it. This mix of air combined with lots of moisture makes a blizzard. Blizzards bring snow, strong winds and cold temperatures. They can last for several days.
Sleet is tiny rain particles that freeze on their way down. Brrr!
Have you ever noticed a thin, white layer of ice crystals on the ground in the fall? This is frost. It happens when the air temperature drops below freezing and water droplets freeze.
Avalanches happen when unstable sheets of snow break off a mountain slope and race downward in a river of snow.

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Retrieved Text: The essence of science is figuring out what things are made of, and how things work. This page gives just a brief introduction to the science of snowflakes.
Delving deeper brings one into a fascinating, and still unfolding, story about the molecular dynamics of how crystals grow and develop. For that you can browse the Contents page, and from there jump to a wide variety of topics relating to snowflake science.
When people say snowflake, they often mean snow crystal. The latter is a single crystal of ice, within which the water molecules are all lined up in a precise hexagonal array. Snow crystals display that characteristic six-fold symmetry we are all familiar with. The picture on the left shows a snow crystal.
A snowflake, on the other hand, is a more general term. It can mean an individual snow crystal, but it can also mean just about anything that falls from the winter clouds. Often hundreds or even thousands of snow crystals collide and stick together in mid-air as they fall, forming flimsy puff-balls we call snowflakes. Calling a snow crystal a snowflake is fine, like calling a tulip a flower.
Snow crystals are not frozen raindrops; that is called sleet. A snow crystal appears when water vapor in the air converts directly into ice without first becoming liquid water. As more water vapor condenses onto a nascent snow crystal, it grow and develops, and that is when its ornate patterns emerge.
Why such complex, symmetrical shapes?
And why are no two alike?
A stellar snow crystal begins with the formation of

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Retrieved Text: In this Science experiment, preschoolers will learn how salt crystals form and what happens when water evaporates from salt.
As a bonus, the salt crystals leave a pretty crust on the paper snowflakes that look just like snow! Preschoolers will be delighted with how pretty these snowflakes turn out.
Objective: To learn about salt crystals and water evaporation.
Materials: Blue paper, scissors, salt.
Ask: What happens when salt and water mix? What happens when salt water evaporates?
Learn: Preschoolers will learn a lot with this STEAM experiment. Preschoolers will learn about water evaporation, dissolving salt, and how salt crystals are formed and what shape they take.
Set out some paper and kid-safe scissors. Let children cut out their own snowflake designs (we used a circle design).
Once the snowflakes are made, place them in a shallow container or on a plate.
An adult should dissolve salt in a small amount of water (the less water you use, the faster the crystals will form). Keep adding salt until crystals start to form a crust on the surface of the boiling water.
Carefully pour the water over the snowflakes (don’t let kids near during this part).
After the water cools, show the kids how the wet snowflakes don’t have crystals now, but they will form as the water evaporates.
Place the tray in a sunny spot. When the snowflakes dry, beautiful crystals will remain.
Science: Talk about how all crystals take a specific shape when forming. You don’t have to go into discussion of ionic bonding, but you can talk about how salt crystals will always take a square shape.

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Retrieved Text: When it’s cold and it’s snowing, use it to your advantage to teach your pupils all about snow. Read on to find out how you can make snow days, fun days when in school.
In Key Stage 2 Science, children do lots of work on changing states of matter. Why not add some variety to science lessons and investigate the properties of snow. I mean, it’s made from water, but it’s not the same as ice, and it definitely doesn’t look anything like a liquid… So what is it?
Snow begins with snow crystals. They form when the cloud temperature is at freezing point, or below. Clouds are full of moisture and as the water vapour condenses, ice crystals form on dust particles in the air.
As the snow crystals fall, they come into contact with warmer air and melt slightly. They bond together creating snowflakes. Colder air produces small snowflakes and warmer air produces large snowflakes.
There is a high percentage of air trapped inside the snow crystals. Fresh snow can contain up to 95% air. The water content of snow is variable. On average 25 cm of snow is equivalent to 2.5 cm of water.
You may have wondered why snow is white? It is white because very little light is absorbs and most of the light is reflected by the smooth surfaces of the snow crystals. Visible light is white, so snow also appears white.
Watch this video about snow! Thumbs up and share if you like it!
Tags:about snow crystals education How is snow formed? Key Stage 2 science

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Retrieved Text: In addition, single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristics. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography.
Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt.
Other rock crystals have formed from fluids, commonly water, to form quartz veins. Water-based ice in the form of snow, sea ice and glaciers is a very common manifestation of crystalline or polycrystalline matter on Earth. A single snowflake is typically a single crystal, while an ice cube is a polycrystal.
Crystal Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

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Retrieved Text: Air pressure changes from passing aircraft can trigger these supercooled water droplets to freeze into ice crystals. Air expands abruptly in the wake of wing and propeller tips, causing a dramatic local drop in pressure and temperature. Inside a cloud of water droplets that is already supercooled between -15 to -20 degrees Celsius (5 to -4 degrees Fahrenheit), the passing aircraft can drop the temperature below -40 degrees Celsius (-40 degrees Fahrenheit) and instigate the formation of ice crystals.Both tiny water droplets and ice crystals form clouds. Pure water can stay liquid down to -40 degrees Celsius (-40 degrees Fahrenheit) without dust particles or other suitable surfaces present to seed crystallization into ice. So water droplets that condense into clouds can be much colder than the typical freezing point of 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit). Such supercooled liquid clouds are common in low- to mid-level cloud layers.

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Retrieved Text: Crystals are a special kind of solid material where the molecules fit together in a repeating pattern. This pattern causes the material to form all sorts of unique shapes.
The process of crystal forming is called crystallization. Crystals often form in nature when liquids cool and start to harden. Certain molecules in the liquid gather together as they attempt to become stable. They do this in a uniform and repeating pattern that forms the crystal.
In nature, crystals can form when liquid rock, called magma, cools. If it cools slowly, then crystals may form. Many valuable crystals such as diamonds, rubies, and emeralds form this way.
Another way crystals form is when water evaporates from a mixture. Salt crystals often form as salt water evaporates.
What unique properties do crystals have?
Crystals can have very flat surfaces called facets. They can form geometric shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and squares. The shapes are a direct result of the type of molecules and atoms that make up the crystal. Smaller crystals and larger crystals that were formed of the same molecules and in the same method should have similar shapes.
There are seven basic crystal shapes, also called lattices. They are Cubic, Trigonal, Triclinic, Orthorhombic, Hexagonal, Tetragonal, and Monoclinic.
Snowflakes - Snowflakes are ice crystals that are formed high in the clouds when water freezes. They always have six sides or arms, but every one of them is unique.
Timing crystals - When an electric current is sent through some crystals they vibrate at a very precise frequency. Quartz crystals are used in watches and

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Retrieved Text: Snowflake. Light micrograph of a dendritic sectored plate snowflake. Snowflakes are symmetrical ice crystals that form inside clouds when water vapour condenses directly into ice. The exact shape of each snowflake depends on local climatic conditions within the precise area of the cloud where it is formed. As such, no two snowflakes are identical, with each individual pattern emerging as the crystal grows. Sectored plates are a form of stellar plate snowflake with distinctive ridges that point to the corners between adjacent prism facets. Stellar plates are a common form of snowflake that form thin, plate-like crystals with six broad arms forming a star-like shape.

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Retrieved Text: The purpose of this primer on snowmaking science and snow gun design is to provide basic information that will make you a better backyard snowmaker. Armed with this basic knowledge, you will better understand how to operate the Backyard Snowstorm system and avoid common snowmaking pitfalls. You will also better understand the benefits of the Backyard Snowstorm design. References are provided at the end of this section for all you techno geeks who really want to understand the thermodynamic, physics, and chemical details of snowmaking science (which is very cool).
If you’ve ever experienced freezing rain or hail, you understand that combining air temperatures below 32oF (0oC) and water droplets does not necessarily make snow. Also, snowfall from Mother Nature can be widely variable in quality – from slush to light powder. Essentially, the basic ingredients for snowmaking are: 1) proper air temperature and humidity, 2) water droplets, and 3) a snow crystal nucleating site.
In nature, microscopic dust particles are usually present in the atmosphere and provide a “heterogeneous nucleating” site for small ice crystals to form when temperature and humidity conditions are right and sufficient water moisture is present. Once a microscopic ice crystal forms on the dust particle, surrounding water droplets can change from liquid to solid crystals (snow) as they collide and attach to the nucleus. If a nucleating site is not present, water droplets can be “subcooled” by the environment to temperatures well below 32oF (0oC) and remain as a liquid. So, freezing rain happens when water droplets in the atmosphere are cooled

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » When and Where Does Frost Form?
When and Where Does Frost Form?
Frost comes from the atmosphere when the temperature falls below freezing, and invisible water vapor in the air turns into white ice crystals, without first becoming a liquid. It usually occurs when the skies are clear, when there is no wind and when a mass of cold air descends on the land. This often happens during the night in the spring and autumn of areas with temperate climates.
In the morning the fields and roofs are white with what would be dew if the temperature had been above freezing point. It is the most common type of frost and is often called hoar frost. Sometimes only the leaves of plants are fringed with white rime. This is formed when very small droplets of the moisture from fog have frozen on coming into contact with a cold object.
There is also black frost. This occurs when water vapor turns first into liquid and then freezes into a thin layer of ice instead of white crystals. As it is invisible, it is particularly dangerous when it forms on roads. The beautiful patterns, looking like trees, ferns or feathers, which are sometimes seen on windows, are made when the water vapor in a cold room condenses.
If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding humid air and the surface itself is colder than freezing, ice will form on it. If the water deposits as a liquid that

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Retrieved Text: Modern science has affirmed the scientific points mentioned in this verse of the Quran. The winds carry water particles which are rich in salt up into the atmosphere; these particles which are called 'aerosols' function as water traps and form cloud drops by collecting around the water vapor themselves.
1st stage: Being driven along: Clouds are carried along, that is, they are driven along, by the wind.
2nd stage: Joining: Then, small clouds (cumulus clouds) driven along by the wind join together, forming a larger cloud.
3rd stage: Stacking: When the small clouds join together, updrafts within the larger cloud increase. The updrafts near the centre of the cloud are stronger than those near the edges. These updrafts cause the cloud body to grow vertically, so the cloud is stacked up. This vertical growth causes the cloud body to stretch into cooler regions of the atmosphere, where drops of water and hail formulate and begin to grow larger and larger. When these drops of water and hail become too heavy for the updrafts to support them, they begin to fall from the cloud as rain, hail, etc.
A cloud becomes electrified as hail falls through a region in the cloud of super-cooled droplets and ice crystals. As liquid droplets collide with a hailstone, they freeze on contact and release latent heat. This keeps the surface of the hailstone warmer than that of the surrounding ice crystals.
Model for forked lighting. (a) The negative charge concentrated at the bottom of the cloud becomes large enough to overcome the air's resistance and develops

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Retrieved Text: Lunar coronas are made of moonlight diffracted by tiny droplets of water in the air. Sometimes the droplets are supplied by passing clouds. This time, however, they came in the form of fog.
"Late in that evening the temperature dropped rapidly and a ground fog developed," says Kangas. "I could see the tiny water droplets with my flashlight. These water droplets formed a beautiful corona around the Moon. To the naked eye the blue colored ring was awesome."
Rings around the Moon also form when ice crystals drift by, but those are ice halos, and they have a different appearance. Watch for both forms, coronas and ice halos, in the sky and in the realtime photo gallery.

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Retrieved Text: Part of the altocumulus family of clouds, the altocumulus opacus clouds normally form a relatively thick and opaque layer of clouds. At one glance, this can easily be mistaken as the blanket format of cumulus clouds although this is not the case.
What height are altocumulus opacus found?
The altocumulus opacus clouds are usually bound between 6,500 and 20,000 feet and commonly arise as a consequence of a convection in an unstable layer of the air. The creation of these clouds are very dependent on the height at which they are found and the lower they are, the greater the possibility that they are formed by water droplets, whereas the higher they are, the more likely they are formed by ice crystals.
The opacus type of clouds too do not have a specific classification, and again depending on whether it is found at the higher stratosphere, it will be classified as cirrocumulus opacus, at the mid-level as altocumulus opacus and at the lowest layer as stratocumulus opacus clouds.
How are altocumulus opacus clouds formed?
The altocumulus opacus clouds are normally formed as a consequence of water droplets mixing with the warmer air although if the temperature is cold enough, instead of water droplets, ice crystals for the structure of these clouds.
Consequently, this also influences the depth of the altocumulus opacus cloud formation. Depending on how cold it is at the heights of between 6,500 and 20,000 feet, this will determine the depth of the altocumulus opacus cloud range.
What do altocumulus opacus clouds look like?
The altocumulus opacus clouds can be somewhat opaque

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Retrieved Text: When you look at pictures of individual snowflakes, the snowflakes are clear. So why is snow white and not clear?
First, it's important to understand what's going on when we see certain colors. Visible light from the Sun or other light source comes in a variety of wavelengths that human eyes interpret as colors. When light interacts with an object, the wavelengths that the object reflects or absorbs determines what color our eyes perceive. When an object reflects all the wavelengths of light from the Sun that are in the visible spectrum, the object appears white. Something like a fire truck appears red because the paint reflects back certain wavelengths in the red area of the visible spectrum, while absorbing the rest.
This now brings us to water, snowflakes, and snow. Pure water is quite clear, meaning the wavelengths of light more or less pass right through it, rather than being reflected back to your eyeballs. Individual snowflakes are somewhat clear, but a large concentration of these ends up being white, meaning all the light is reflected back, rather than passing straight through. So what gives?
The key here is the way that light interacts with the mass of complex shaped snowflakes and air known as snow. Much like with water, light bends when it enters into a piece of ice, causing ice cubes or icicles to appear murky even when made from clean water. The tiny snowflakes, or ice crystals, that make up a snow bank all each bend light somewhat like an ice cube, though not quite

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to a Snowflake?
This article is satire, which forms ideas. See also: Snowflake– ice crystals (Wikipedia).
A snowflake is a single ice crystal that falls through the Earth’s atmosphere as snow.
A snowflake doesn’t just form out of nothing, it must nucleate around something. In nature, a dust particle in a supersaturated air mass (clouds), freezes water vapor into crystal. In society, snowflakes form in a similar manner, around whatever is convenient.
In nature, the cohesive forces that form snowflakes are primarily electrostatic. ALL snowflakes are precipitated into formation by strong outside forces, then left to develop their own brand of uniqueness– in a supersaturated environment.
Snowflakes (evidentially) have eight broad classifications, and at least 80 individual variants. I did not know that.
The shape of a snowflake is determined primarily by the temperature & humidity (ie- the conditions) in which it is formed. These environmental factors absolutely & completely determine whether a snowflake will even form, its characteristics, and when it will fall.
No two snowflakes are perfectly identical, although they are difficult to differentiate upon casual inspection. You must look very closely (and very quickly) at a snowflake to notice everything that is unique about it. It’s the definition of an impossible task, if you know what I mean?
Snow appears white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to physics & diffraction of light. Some people try to assign unscientific reasons for snowflakes appearing white. These people are called reactionaries & political opportunists.
If snowflakes could speak, they would insist on everlasting reverence to their unique

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Retrieved Text: There’s a weird cloud formation over the Victorian town of Wonthaggi today.
Don’t panic folks. It’s not a UFO. Nor is it an “earthquake light”, which can reportedly warn of tectonic stress or a pending seismic event.
Such holes are formed when the water temperature in the clouds is below freezing but the water has not frozen yet due to the lack of ice nucleation particles (see supercooled water). When ice crystals do form it will set off a domino effect, due to the Bergeron process, causing the water droplets around the crystals to evaporate: this leaves a large, often circular, hole in the cloud.
The spokesman said it can also be sparked by aircraft under certain conditions. And while it’s sadly not an alien approach, he said it is rare, particularly to have one captured in photos.

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Retrieved Text: This article focuses on the characteristics of persistent thin single-layer mixed-phase clouds. We seek to answer two important questions: (i) how does ice continually nucleate and precipitate from these clouds, without the available ice nuclei becoming depleted? (ii) how do the supercooled liquid droplets persist in spite of the net flux of water vapour to the growing ice crystals? These questions are answered quantitatively using in situ and radar observations of a long-lived mixed-phase cloud layer over the Chilbolton Observatory. Doppler radar measurements show that the top 500 m of cloud (the top 250 m of which is mixed-phase, with ice virga beneath) is turbulent and well-mixed, and the liquid water content is adiabatic. This well-mixed layer is bounded above and below by stable layers. This inhibits entrainment of fresh ice nuclei into the cloud layer, yet our in situ and radar observations show that a steady flux of ≈100 m−2s−1 ice crystals fell from the cloud over the course of ∼1 day. Comparing this flux to the concentration of conventional ice nuclei expected to be present within the well-mixed layer, we find that these nuclei would be depleted within less than 1 h. We therefore argue that nucleation in these persistent supercooled clouds is strongly time-dependent in nature, with droplets freezing slowly over many hours, significantly longer than the few seconds residence time of an ice nucleus counter. Once nucleated, the ice crystals are observed to grow primarily by vapour deposition, because of the low liquid water path (21 g m−2) yet vapour-rich environment. Evidence

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Retrieved Text: It’s a type of ice formed when tiny water droplets are cooled and freeze on the first surface they come in contact with. Their small size and very cold temperature are making them freeze almost instantly, which leads to a formation of ice particles with air trapped inside.
Rime may appear similar to frost, but there’s a certain difference. Rime is formed by condensing water droplets like fog or mist, which is then coming into contact with a hard surface. On the other hand, frost is created when water vapor is directly decomposing from vapor to ice.
There are two main types of rime ice: soft rime and hard rime. As the name suggests, the soft rime is quite soft and fragile – it can be easily shaken off the surface it has formed on, while hard rime is rather hard to get rid of. Soft rime also forms into feather-like spiky crystals similar to needles (they can be as long as 4 inches or around 10 cm) – and hard rime is rounder and comb-like.
Soft rime ice is mostly formed when the water droplets are very small, a temperature is very low and the water accretions slowly. The opposite is required to the creation of the hard rime: bigger droplets, higher temperature (although it still has to be low enough to ensure that the liquid will eventually freeze) and faster accretion of water.
Both hard and soft rime is milky white, because of the air trapped inside the ice. This makes differencing it from another similar type of

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Retrieved Text: That led me to remember the Joni Mitchell song off the album Clouds called “Both Sides, Now.” As recounted in Rolling Stone magazine, when Joni Mitchell read Saul Bellow‘s Henderson the Rain King, Henderson, like Mitchell, was looking at clouds from a plane. Her lyric: “I’ve looked at clouds from both sides now,” was a symbol of the ambiguities and mysteries of life.
Getting back to our premise for this entry, do clouds float or hover? By float, I mean like a rubber duck in a bath tub. By hover, I mean something like what a helicopter does (but possibly in reverse like an umbrella blowing away). Turns out it’s a little of both. Wikipedia has very detailed articles on water vapor and clouds that I hope to summarize below.
It turns out that water vapor is less dense than dry air. At the same temperature, water vapor floats in dry air like a rubber duck in water. The article on water vapor crunches the numbers. But it’s even better. Since both are gases, a volume of moisture laden air will rise or be buoyant if placed in a larger volume of dry air.
As the temperature rises, the proportion of water vapor in the air increases and its buoyancy will increase along with the added vapor. In air without particulates, water vapor density can reach 300% before condensation occurs under normal conditions (a principle used in cloud chambers).
The increase in buoyancy gives rise to strong, moisture rich, upward air currents when the air and sea temperatures reach 25

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Retrieved Text: As I understand it, sleet refers to frozen rain but I'm not totally familiar with it. Right now I'm not in Australia but Georgia, the former Soviet republic. And at the moment it's raining but not just rain. There's also some mushy snowflakes falling. I've never seen this before and wonder if we even have a word for it in English. Would it be referred to as sleet after all? It's 2 degrees above zero centigrade now so frozen rain seems unlikely.
Rain and snow mixed (also known as sleet) is precipitation composed of rain and partially melted snow. This precipitation can occur where the temperature in the lower part of the atmosphere is slightly above the freezing point (0 °C or 32 °F). Its METAR code is RASN.
Meteorologists around my geographical area (New England) refer to it as a "wintry mix" most of the time. But it's clear that "sleet" is what is meant here.
From the Wikipedia entry for rain and snow mixed.
It's not sleet — that's tiny ice pellets which generally fall in winter. Hail is also ice pellets, but they are produced by a different meteorological process, and can occur any time of year.
If there's a word for snow and rain at the same time, it's so obscure that the weathermen around here (Boston) don't know it. This often happens when it starts raining, and then becomes cold enough to snow, or vice versa. The weather reports usually call this "rain changing to snow", "snow changing to rain", "a mix of snow and rain",

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Retrieved Text: Gledhill said his snowflake grower could always use a few improvements, but his early time-lapse photography tests shown here are nonetheless captivating. Each second represents about 20 minutes of elapsed time.
Creating snowflakes requires a stable warm-to-freezing shift in temperature. A hot plate sits atop Gledhill's snowflake grower, while underneath the grower a cold plate -- made from a laboratory-grade chiller and hacked Coleman electric camping cooler (below)-- drops temperatures to -47 degrees Fahrenheit. Ten years ago Gledhill's employer threw out the chiller, so he picked it up and stashed it in his basement. "That would have been a financial hurdle. These normally cost $3,000 to $4,000," Gledhill said.
Supported by cinder blocks, shielded by a tattered plastic tarp and surrounding a plexiglass-covered block of styrofoam (below), Gledhill's contraption doesn't look like much. Yet it's a highly refined piece of do-it-yourself engineering inspired by the work of a research group at CalTech and another at Purdue University, led by atmospheric chemist Paul Shepson. "It's easy to grow ice crystals. The hard and expensive part is maintaining stable conditions to control how they're growing," said Travis Knepp, a former Ph.D. student in Shepson's lab who shared advice with Gledhill when he called him up earlier this year. "If the temperature changes by just one degree, the crystal will take on a whole other shape," he said. "He has some very nice crystals growing, and I'm really impressed with the photos."
Gledhill initially started growing ice crystals on a damp cloth string and nylon fishing line. His chamber worked, but produced

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Retrieved Text: Frost covers a field of thistles. Frost is similar to dew, but forms at temperatures below freezing. Water vapor is transformed directly into ice crystals without ever taking the form of water droplets. This process is called sublimation.

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Retrieved Text: Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals that form when water vapor in the atmosphere cools and condenses around a particle of dust or salt. Without these particles, known as condensation nuclei, raindrops or snowflakes cannot form and precipitation will not occur.
Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique that improves a cloud’s ability to produce rain or snow by artificially adding condensation nuclei to the atmosphere, providing a base for for snowflakes or raindrops to form. After cloud seeding takes place, precipitation falls from the clouds back to the surface of the Earth.
Clear ice/glaze buildup on a ground-based cloud seeding generator during a mid-season maintenance field trip near Lake Tahoe. Credit: DRI/Jesse Juchtzer.
Cloud seeding can be done from ground-based generators or aircraft. The DRI Cloud Seeding Research Program primarily uses ground-based generators, which are designed and built by DRI and can be operated remotely. In the Carson and Walker River basins, DRI also conducts cloud seeding from a subcontracted seeding aircraft.
Most cloud seeding operations, including those run by DRI, use a compound called silver iodide (AgI) to aid in the formation of ice crystals. Silver iodide exists naturally in the environment at low concentrations, and is not known to be harmful to humans or wildlife.
When storm systems move through one of our cloud seeding project areas, a solution containing a small amount of silver iodide is burned from ground-based generators or released from aircraft. Upon reaching the cloud, the silver iodide acts as a condensation nuclei to aid in the formation of

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Retrieved Text: This monster is, to my knowledge, the largest snow crystal ever photographed. It measures 10.1 mm (0.4 inches) from tip to tip (averaged over the three axes). Even using my microscope's lowest magnification, I had to photograph the crystal in four quadrants, which I later recombined digitally into a single large image. Click on the picture for an even larger view (if you dare).
Note that this is a snow crystal: a single crystal of ice, in which the water molecules are all lined up in a regular crystalline lattice from tip to tip. You can see that the sidebranches are parallel to their neighboring main branches; this indicates the presence of crystal symmetry.
Larger snowflakes have been reported, but those were puffballs made of huge numbers of individual snow crystals stuck together. During very calm conditions, these puffballs can grow into pancake-shaped agglomerations as large as a dinner plate, although this is exceedingly rare. Such large snowflakes are quite fragile, falling apart when they hit the ground.
I have only seen large snow crystals like this twice; both times in Cochrane, Ontario. The temperature was near -15 C (5 F) -- just right for making fernlike stellar dendrites (see the Guide to Snowflakes) -- and the air was dead calm. Both times, I saw these large snow flowers falling only briefly, for about ten minutes.
This image shows the sizes of several snow crystals -- including the monster crystal -- compared to a penny.

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Retrieved Text: Spring is when the Rockies brim with our most essential economic ingredient – water, in the form of snowpack. The distribution, amount, and melting of this snowpack bodes boom or bust for skiers, fishermen, farmers, and frackers alike.
It all starts with the snow. And our snow is special.
Sourced mostly from evaporating oceans, it’s born when moist, saturated air rises over the Rockies, cools, and encounters windblown dust and other microscopic particles. Snow crystals form when water vapor solidifies around these particles.
As these crystals grow, they become heavier and fall earthward. En route they collide, melt, refreeze, or combine to form all sorts of snowflakes. Like down feathers in a puff jacket, the snowflakes have air trapped between their snow crystals, giving them insulation-like properties.
Our snow is also dry. What? If snow is formed from water, how can it be dry?
In many other parts of the country, snow forms and falls in places where the temperatures are close to the freezing point of water (32° F). Under such conditions, crystals within snowflakes melt a bit as they fall, land, and settle into the snowpack. The melted water becomes trapped or frozen between unmelted snow crystals, making these ‘warm weather’ snowflakes denser and wetter.
Our snow is dry because most of it falls at high elevations, where air temperatures tend to be well below freezing. Subfreezing conditions prevent the tiny snow crystals from combining and partially melting as snowflakes settle – this preserves the insulative air spaces between the crystals and leaves less liquid water available to help the

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Retrieved Text: American white pelicans are a wetland-dependent migratory bird, and have one of the largest wingspans (nine feet) in North America. They often fly very high in the sky in large groups, and will circle and glide effortlessly together through the skies. Here they are flying below a spot of cloud iridescence, which happens when light is diffracted by very tiny water droplets or ice crystals in the clouds.

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Retrieved Text: This winter weather phenomenon can be both beautiful and dangerous.
February 25, 2015, 1:02 p.m.
During winter months, it's not uncommon to see freezing-fog warnings on your local forecast, but what exactly does the term mean?
Fog typically forms when there's cool air over a warm, moist surface such as a body of water or damp soil.
However, freezing fog occurs when the air temperature is below freezing and the water droplets in the fog become supercooled.
Supercooled water droplets stay in liquid form until they come into contact with a surface they can freeze on. Therefore, any object that freezing fog comes into contact with will become coated in ice, often creating stunning landscapes.
Freezing fog can occur anywhere the air temperature drops below freezing, but it's most common in mountain areas and is most likely to form at night when heat escapes from the atmosphere.
In the Western U.S., freezing fog often occurs in mountain valleys and may be referred to as pogonip, a Shoshone word that means "cloud."
When freezing fog occurs, it can cause ice buildup on roads, creating dangerous driving conditions, especially on bridges, which will freeze first because they have no ground insulation.
Because freezing fog will freeze on any surface, it often builds up on power lines and can cause power outages.
Freezing fog differs from ice fog, which is composed of tiny crystals instead of water droplets. Specific conditions are necessary for ice fog to form — humidity has to be near 100 percent as the air temperature drops well below freezing.
Typically, the temperature must be 14 degrees

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove more oxygen happens, how will it affect less oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: How does smoking affect my heart and lungs?
How does smoking increase my risk of cancer?
Emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the slow destruction of the tissue in the lung. Over time, this makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs and move oxygen from the lungs into the blood. In the US, COPD is almost exclusively a disease of smokers, and it results from a chronic exposure to the tar and chemicals in cigarette smoke. In less developed countries, COPD often results from cooking in small spaces over open fires. The smoke from cigarettes is actually worse than wood or other smoke due to the nicotine, which paralyzes the small hairs in the airways that are responsible for cleaning out anything that makes its way into the lungs.
Quitting smoking helps COPD in two ways. The first is that you avoid inhaling carbon monoxide, which poisons red blood cells and prevents them from carrying oxygen. This is particularly important for people whose lungs no longer move oxygen into the bloodstream well. The second is that you stop the ongoing damage and worsening of symptoms. Although quitting can’t undo any damage that’s been done, it slows down the progression of the disease, because you aren’t continuing to damage your lungs. It’s never too late to benefit from quitting, even if you have emphysema.

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves exposing the body to increased pressure and 100% pure oxygen to assist in cellular healing and improve health.
There is significant evidence that suggests HBOT supports white blood cells in fighting infection, encourages new growth of connective tissue, and activates gene sequences that code for repair hormones.
Patients report improved energy, increased lung capacity, and quality of sleep among other health benefits.
Stop for a second. Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs with as much air as you can, and then exhale. About 20% of that breath was oxygen, and by now it will be circulating in your blood. A few moments later, the oxygen will be used by your cells to convert stored energy from the food you have eaten into a form of energy that your body can use [R]. By about now, that breath of air you took will be powering all of your tissues and vital organs, from your brain to your heart to your liver. Oxygen is our life force. Without oxygen, our cells fail to use energy, and without energy, they can not grow or repair, and will eventually die [R].
Throughout our lives, we accumulate a myriad of injuries that damage our cells. Your body is bombarded with toxins, air pollution, UVB rays, and bacteria. These micro-injuries build up and as you age, your body loses the ability to heal effectively. This affects everything from the durability of artery walls to skin elasticity [R, R].
Eventually, your cells stop functioning as well as they did, the inflammation from

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Retrieved Text: Of the four chambers of your heart, the most significant is your left ventricle, which receives oxygenated blood from your lungs via your right ventricle and then diffuses it to the cells throughout your body. When you train consistently, your left ventricle actually increases in diameter, meaning a larger chamber to accommodate a greater volume of oxygen-rich blood. A concurrent adaptation is an increased total blood volume, with more red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Cardiac tissue is a specialized type of muscle, called smooth muscle, that contracts involuntarily. Like other muscles, the strength of contraction of heart muscle depends on the size and strength of individual muscle fibers. When you make your heart pump harder through regular exercise, cardiac muscle fibers increase in size, leading to a denser, stronger ventricular wall. The stronger muscle tissue enables you heart to contract with greater force, ejecting a higher volume of blood per stroke.
When your heart health is at an enhanced state from exercise, it runs more smoothly and conserves energy. Your heart rate is lower at rest and at relative levels of exercise intensity. This is due to a combination of greater available blood volume and increased force of contraction. In other words, each time your heart beats, a greater volume of blood enters your circulatory system, and the heart needs to beat less frequently to meet your body’s oxygen demands. The combined product of stroke volume and beats per minute is called cardiac output.
Regular exercise changes the cells in your skeletal muscles at the same time that

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove less oxygen happens, how will it affect less oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Rank: 8
Score: 58.869526
Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Rank: 10
Score: 56.130688
Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Rank: 11
Score: 55.836
Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Rank: 12
Score: 55.566586
Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: How does smoking affect my heart and lungs?
How does smoking increase my risk of cancer?
Emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the slow destruction of the tissue in the lung. Over time, this makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs and move oxygen from the lungs into the blood. In the US, COPD is almost exclusively a disease of smokers, and it results from a chronic exposure to the tar and chemicals in cigarette smoke. In less developed countries, COPD often results from cooking in small spaces over open fires. The smoke from cigarettes is actually worse than wood or other smoke due to the nicotine, which paralyzes the small hairs in the airways that are responsible for cleaning out anything that makes its way into the lungs.
Quitting smoking helps COPD in two ways. The first is that you avoid inhaling carbon monoxide, which poisons red blood cells and prevents them from carrying oxygen. This is particularly important for people whose lungs no longer move oxygen into the bloodstream well. The second is that you stop the ongoing damage and worsening of symptoms. Although quitting can’t undo any damage that’s been done, it slows down the progression of the disease, because you aren’t continuing to damage your lungs. It’s never too late to benefit from quitting, even if you have emphysema.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Rank: 20
Score: 54.374
Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Rank: 21
Score: 54.31595
Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves exposing the body to increased pressure and 100% pure oxygen to assist in cellular healing and improve health.
There is significant evidence that suggests HBOT supports white blood cells in fighting infection, encourages new growth of connective tissue, and activates gene sequences that code for repair hormones.
Patients report improved energy, increased lung capacity, and quality of sleep among other health benefits.
Stop for a second. Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs with as much air as you can, and then exhale. About 20% of that breath was oxygen, and by now it will be circulating in your blood. A few moments later, the oxygen will be used by your cells to convert stored energy from the food you have eaten into a form of energy that your body can use [R]. By about now, that breath of air you took will be powering all of your tissues and vital organs, from your brain to your heart to your liver. Oxygen is our life force. Without oxygen, our cells fail to use energy, and without energy, they can not grow or repair, and will eventually die [R].
Throughout our lives, we accumulate a myriad of injuries that damage our cells. Your body is bombarded with toxins, air pollution, UVB rays, and bacteria. These micro-injuries build up and as you age, your body loses the ability to heal effectively. This affects everything from the durability of artery walls to skin elasticity [R, R].
Eventually, your cells stop functioning as well as they did, the inflammation from

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: Of the four chambers of your heart, the most significant is your left ventricle, which receives oxygenated blood from your lungs via your right ventricle and then diffuses it to the cells throughout your body. When you train consistently, your left ventricle actually increases in diameter, meaning a larger chamber to accommodate a greater volume of oxygen-rich blood. A concurrent adaptation is an increased total blood volume, with more red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Cardiac tissue is a specialized type of muscle, called smooth muscle, that contracts involuntarily. Like other muscles, the strength of contraction of heart muscle depends on the size and strength of individual muscle fibers. When you make your heart pump harder through regular exercise, cardiac muscle fibers increase in size, leading to a denser, stronger ventricular wall. The stronger muscle tissue enables you heart to contract with greater force, ejecting a higher volume of blood per stroke.
When your heart health is at an enhanced state from exercise, it runs more smoothly and conserves energy. Your heart rate is lower at rest and at relative levels of exercise intensity. This is due to a combination of greater available blood volume and increased force of contraction. In other words, each time your heart beats, a greater volume of blood enters your circulatory system, and the heart needs to beat less frequently to meet your body’s oxygen demands. The combined product of stroke volume and beats per minute is called cardiac output.
Regular exercise changes the cells in your skeletal muscles at the same time that

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Retrieved Text: An oxygenator or artificial lung adds oxygen to the patient’s blood and removes carbon dioxide.
In open heart surgery, a heart-lung-machine is used for temporary replacement of the functions of both the heart and the lungs. This is necessary to enable the surgeon to perform the complicated surgical procedure in a motionless field. Both heart and lungs are rested during surgery. The oxygenator with membranes inside is the main element in the heart-lung-machine, responsible for gas exchange.
In intensive care and interventional pneumology, innovative artifical lungs provide extracorporeal removal of carbon dioxide and oxygen enrichment of the blood. This gives the human lungs time to heal. Similar to heart surgery, special membranes in the membrane ventilator assume the fuction of the pulmonary alveoli.
In both applications, a heat exchanger is often used. As large volumes of blood are channeled outside the patient’s body, temperature fluctuations may easily occur. The heat exchanger allows adjustment of the patient’s blood temperature. This way the body temperature can be regulated according to the necessities of the medical procedure.
For oxygenation, blood is drained from the venous circulation in a blood reservoir by a suction pump, passed through the oxygenator, and then subsequently pumped back into the arterial circulation, often via an arterial filter.
Inside the oxygenator, blood is channelled along capillary membranes. The inner lumen of the fibres is streamed with oxygen or oxygen enriched air. Oxygen diffuses through the membrane into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the gas stream and thereby is removed. For oxygenation a hydrophobic capillary

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Retrieved Text: The primary function of the red blood cells, or erythrocytes, is to carry oxygen from the lungs to body tissues and to transfer carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Oxygen transfer is accomplished via the hemoglobin contained in red blood cells. Hemoglobin combines readily with oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxyhemoglobin in arterial blood reflects a bright red color while carboxyhemoglobin of venous blood appears dark red. To enable the maximum O2 saturation of hemoglobin, red cells are shaped like biconcave disks. The shape provides more surface area for exposure of hemoglobin to dissolved oxygen. Red blood cells are also able to change shape to permit passage through small capillaries that connect arteries with veins.
The RBC is a count of the number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood. In response to hypoxia, the hormone erthyropoietin, secreted by the kidneys, stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells. The formation of red blood cells is known as erthyropoiesis.
Erythropoetin produced in the kidney stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.
An increase in red blood cell mass is known as polycythemia. Normal physiological increases in the RBC count occurs at high altitudes or after strenuous physical training. At high altitudes, less atmospheric weight pushes air into the lungs, causing a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen and hypoxia. With strenuous physical training, increased muscle mass demands more oxygen. The drugs gentamicin and methyldopa have been associated with increasing the number of red blood cells. Smokers also have a higher number

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======= Instance Index 11001 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove more oxygen happens, how will it affect less oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 73.80327
Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: How does smoking affect my heart and lungs?
How does smoking increase my risk of cancer?
Emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the slow destruction of the tissue in the lung. Over time, this makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs and move oxygen from the lungs into the blood. In the US, COPD is almost exclusively a disease of smokers, and it results from a chronic exposure to the tar and chemicals in cigarette smoke. In less developed countries, COPD often results from cooking in small spaces over open fires. The smoke from cigarettes is actually worse than wood or other smoke due to the nicotine, which paralyzes the small hairs in the airways that are responsible for cleaning out anything that makes its way into the lungs.
Quitting smoking helps COPD in two ways. The first is that you avoid inhaling carbon monoxide, which poisons red blood cells and prevents them from carrying oxygen. This is particularly important for people whose lungs no longer move oxygen into the bloodstream well. The second is that you stop the ongoing damage and worsening of symptoms. Although quitting can’t undo any damage that’s been done, it slows down the progression of the disease, because you aren’t continuing to damage your lungs. It’s never too late to benefit from quitting, even if you have emphysema.

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves exposing the body to increased pressure and 100% pure oxygen to assist in cellular healing and improve health.
There is significant evidence that suggests HBOT supports white blood cells in fighting infection, encourages new growth of connective tissue, and activates gene sequences that code for repair hormones.
Patients report improved energy, increased lung capacity, and quality of sleep among other health benefits.
Stop for a second. Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs with as much air as you can, and then exhale. About 20% of that breath was oxygen, and by now it will be circulating in your blood. A few moments later, the oxygen will be used by your cells to convert stored energy from the food you have eaten into a form of energy that your body can use [R]. By about now, that breath of air you took will be powering all of your tissues and vital organs, from your brain to your heart to your liver. Oxygen is our life force. Without oxygen, our cells fail to use energy, and without energy, they can not grow or repair, and will eventually die [R].
Throughout our lives, we accumulate a myriad of injuries that damage our cells. Your body is bombarded with toxins, air pollution, UVB rays, and bacteria. These micro-injuries build up and as you age, your body loses the ability to heal effectively. This affects everything from the durability of artery walls to skin elasticity [R, R].
Eventually, your cells stop functioning as well as they did, the inflammation from

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Retrieved Text: Of the four chambers of your heart, the most significant is your left ventricle, which receives oxygenated blood from your lungs via your right ventricle and then diffuses it to the cells throughout your body. When you train consistently, your left ventricle actually increases in diameter, meaning a larger chamber to accommodate a greater volume of oxygen-rich blood. A concurrent adaptation is an increased total blood volume, with more red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Cardiac tissue is a specialized type of muscle, called smooth muscle, that contracts involuntarily. Like other muscles, the strength of contraction of heart muscle depends on the size and strength of individual muscle fibers. When you make your heart pump harder through regular exercise, cardiac muscle fibers increase in size, leading to a denser, stronger ventricular wall. The stronger muscle tissue enables you heart to contract with greater force, ejecting a higher volume of blood per stroke.
When your heart health is at an enhanced state from exercise, it runs more smoothly and conserves energy. Your heart rate is lower at rest and at relative levels of exercise intensity. This is due to a combination of greater available blood volume and increased force of contraction. In other words, each time your heart beats, a greater volume of blood enters your circulatory system, and the heart needs to beat less frequently to meet your body’s oxygen demands. The combined product of stroke volume and beats per minute is called cardiac output.
Regular exercise changes the cells in your skeletal muscles at the same time that

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove more oxygen happens, how will it affect more oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Rank: 19
Score: 54.0372
Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Rank: 20
Score: 54.020935
Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Score: 51.923996
Retrieved Text: Oxygen is critical for survival, and without lungs, it is impossible for that life-saving gas to enter the human body (Hsia et al., 2016). When the lungs are filled with fresh air, oxygen diffuses through the epithelium into blood vessels. To make this process more efficient, evolution has increased the surface of the lung. If you add up the area of the alveoli, you will get a surface of approximately 100 square meters. This enhances blood oxygenation in the lungs.
The heart and lungs share a close relationship, because the cardiovascular system distributes blood that has been enriched with oxygen (Forfia et al., 2013). This is particularly important when one of these two organs is not working properly. Cell culture offers the opportunity to understand disease mechanisms of these closely associated organs at a cellular level, and to specifically target pathogenic processes using therapeutic compounds.
In vitro assays with lung cells allow for toxicological testing of various substances such as nanoparticles (Fröhlich and Salar-Behzadi et al., 2014). Toxic compounds from tobacco smoke can lead to chronic respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or asthma (Holtzman et al., 2014). Worldwide, more than three million deaths result from COPD annually, according to the World Health Organization. The key players in pathogenesis are innate immune cells and epithelial cells.
Hypertension can cause an inflammatory state of alveolar vessels and ultimately lead to irreversible vascular remodeling (Pugliese et al., 2014). Remodeling of the complete lung tissue is a hallmark of another disease, pulmonary fibrosis (Todd et al., 2012). This disease leads

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Rank: 24
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Retrieved Text: 1. The Transport System in Humans •All cells in our body need nutrients, oxygen and water. Meanwhile carbon dioxide and other waste materials produces by the cells must be removed. •An internal transport system is needed to deliver useful materials to the body cells and remove the waste materials from them. •The internal transport system is often called the circulatory system because useful as well as waste materials circulate the body.
3. •A circulatory system has four basic characteristics: a. Circulating fluid – this circulating fluid is called blood. The blood transports useful and waste materials. b. Pumping device – the pumping device is the heart. Blood is moved through the body by muscular contractions of the heart. c. Blood vessels – a complex network of blood vessels carries materials to the tissues and back to the heart. There are three main types of blood vessels, namely arteries, veins and capillaries. d. Valves – valves are present in some blood vessels to prevent backflow and ensure that blood flows in one direction only.
4. •The human circulatory system is a double circulatory system. This means that in each complete circuit of the body, the blood must flow through the heart twice. •The human double circulatory system consists of: a. The pulmonary circulation which transports blood between the heart and the lungs and a. The systematic circulation which transports blood between the heart and all other parts of the body.
6. Structure of the human heart •An adult human heart is about the size of a clenches fist. •The heart

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Rank: 25
Score: 51.544617
Retrieved Text: With so many organisms on Earth, living things are bound to interact with one another. Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species. One type of interaction between two species is called mutualism. An example of mutualism exists between honey bees and flowers. Flowers provide nectar to the bees. The bees use the sugar rich liquid to make honey. As the bees fly from flower to flower tiny grains of pollen get stuck to the bee. The bee moves the pollen without even knowing it. The pollination is necessary for flowers to reproduce. In this relationship both species benefit. The bee gets nectar and the flower gets pollinated. Another relationship is called commensalism. This interaction takes place when sharks and remora live together. The remora use sucking disks on their heads to attach themselves to sharks. The sharks are powerful swimmers and do not even notice the remora and are neither helped nor harmed. However the remora benefit from this relationship. The fish get a free ride and protection. They also feed on scraps left over by the shark. In commensalism one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. The last type of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. An example of this relationship exists between humans and mosquitoes. The insects land on and take the blood from humans. The mosquito benefits as it uses the blood for energy. The human or host is harmed in this relationship as blood is needed and the human could become infected with disease. In parasitism one species

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Rank: 29
Score: 51.160465
Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove less oxygen happens, how will it affect more oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 73.80327
Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: How does smoking affect my heart and lungs?
How does smoking increase my risk of cancer?
Emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the slow destruction of the tissue in the lung. Over time, this makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs and move oxygen from the lungs into the blood. In the US, COPD is almost exclusively a disease of smokers, and it results from a chronic exposure to the tar and chemicals in cigarette smoke. In less developed countries, COPD often results from cooking in small spaces over open fires. The smoke from cigarettes is actually worse than wood or other smoke due to the nicotine, which paralyzes the small hairs in the airways that are responsible for cleaning out anything that makes its way into the lungs.
Quitting smoking helps COPD in two ways. The first is that you avoid inhaling carbon monoxide, which poisons red blood cells and prevents them from carrying oxygen. This is particularly important for people whose lungs no longer move oxygen into the bloodstream well. The second is that you stop the ongoing damage and worsening of symptoms. Although quitting can’t undo any damage that’s been done, it slows down the progression of the disease, because you aren’t continuing to damage your lungs. It’s never too late to benefit from quitting, even if you have emphysema.

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves exposing the body to increased pressure and 100% pure oxygen to assist in cellular healing and improve health.
There is significant evidence that suggests HBOT supports white blood cells in fighting infection, encourages new growth of connective tissue, and activates gene sequences that code for repair hormones.
Patients report improved energy, increased lung capacity, and quality of sleep among other health benefits.
Stop for a second. Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs with as much air as you can, and then exhale. About 20% of that breath was oxygen, and by now it will be circulating in your blood. A few moments later, the oxygen will be used by your cells to convert stored energy from the food you have eaten into a form of energy that your body can use [R]. By about now, that breath of air you took will be powering all of your tissues and vital organs, from your brain to your heart to your liver. Oxygen is our life force. Without oxygen, our cells fail to use energy, and without energy, they can not grow or repair, and will eventually die [R].
Throughout our lives, we accumulate a myriad of injuries that damage our cells. Your body is bombarded with toxins, air pollution, UVB rays, and bacteria. These micro-injuries build up and as you age, your body loses the ability to heal effectively. This affects everything from the durability of artery walls to skin elasticity [R, R].
Eventually, your cells stop functioning as well as they did, the inflammation from

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Retrieved Text: Of the four chambers of your heart, the most significant is your left ventricle, which receives oxygenated blood from your lungs via your right ventricle and then diffuses it to the cells throughout your body. When you train consistently, your left ventricle actually increases in diameter, meaning a larger chamber to accommodate a greater volume of oxygen-rich blood. A concurrent adaptation is an increased total blood volume, with more red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Cardiac tissue is a specialized type of muscle, called smooth muscle, that contracts involuntarily. Like other muscles, the strength of contraction of heart muscle depends on the size and strength of individual muscle fibers. When you make your heart pump harder through regular exercise, cardiac muscle fibers increase in size, leading to a denser, stronger ventricular wall. The stronger muscle tissue enables you heart to contract with greater force, ejecting a higher volume of blood per stroke.
When your heart health is at an enhanced state from exercise, it runs more smoothly and conserves energy. Your heart rate is lower at rest and at relative levels of exercise intensity. This is due to a combination of greater available blood volume and increased force of contraction. In other words, each time your heart beats, a greater volume of blood enters your circulatory system, and the heart needs to beat less frequently to meet your body’s oxygen demands. The combined product of stroke volume and beats per minute is called cardiac output.
Regular exercise changes the cells in your skeletal muscles at the same time that

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove more oxygen happens, how will it affect more oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: Oxygen is critical for survival, and without lungs, it is impossible for that life-saving gas to enter the human body (Hsia et al., 2016). When the lungs are filled with fresh air, oxygen diffuses through the epithelium into blood vessels. To make this process more efficient, evolution has increased the surface of the lung. If you add up the area of the alveoli, you will get a surface of approximately 100 square meters. This enhances blood oxygenation in the lungs.
The heart and lungs share a close relationship, because the cardiovascular system distributes blood that has been enriched with oxygen (Forfia et al., 2013). This is particularly important when one of these two organs is not working properly. Cell culture offers the opportunity to understand disease mechanisms of these closely associated organs at a cellular level, and to specifically target pathogenic processes using therapeutic compounds.
In vitro assays with lung cells allow for toxicological testing of various substances such as nanoparticles (Fröhlich and Salar-Behzadi et al., 2014). Toxic compounds from tobacco smoke can lead to chronic respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or asthma (Holtzman et al., 2014). Worldwide, more than three million deaths result from COPD annually, according to the World Health Organization. The key players in pathogenesis are innate immune cells and epithelial cells.
Hypertension can cause an inflammatory state of alveolar vessels and ultimately lead to irreversible vascular remodeling (Pugliese et al., 2014). Remodeling of the complete lung tissue is a hallmark of another disease, pulmonary fibrosis (Todd et al., 2012). This disease leads

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Retrieved Text: 1. The Transport System in Humans •All cells in our body need nutrients, oxygen and water. Meanwhile carbon dioxide and other waste materials produces by the cells must be removed. •An internal transport system is needed to deliver useful materials to the body cells and remove the waste materials from them. •The internal transport system is often called the circulatory system because useful as well as waste materials circulate the body.
3. •A circulatory system has four basic characteristics: a. Circulating fluid – this circulating fluid is called blood. The blood transports useful and waste materials. b. Pumping device – the pumping device is the heart. Blood is moved through the body by muscular contractions of the heart. c. Blood vessels – a complex network of blood vessels carries materials to the tissues and back to the heart. There are three main types of blood vessels, namely arteries, veins and capillaries. d. Valves – valves are present in some blood vessels to prevent backflow and ensure that blood flows in one direction only.
4. •The human circulatory system is a double circulatory system. This means that in each complete circuit of the body, the blood must flow through the heart twice. •The human double circulatory system consists of: a. The pulmonary circulation which transports blood between the heart and the lungs and a. The systematic circulation which transports blood between the heart and all other parts of the body.
6. Structure of the human heart •An adult human heart is about the size of a clenches fist. •The heart

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Retrieved Text: With so many organisms on Earth, living things are bound to interact with one another. Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species. One type of interaction between two species is called mutualism. An example of mutualism exists between honey bees and flowers. Flowers provide nectar to the bees. The bees use the sugar rich liquid to make honey. As the bees fly from flower to flower tiny grains of pollen get stuck to the bee. The bee moves the pollen without even knowing it. The pollination is necessary for flowers to reproduce. In this relationship both species benefit. The bee gets nectar and the flower gets pollinated. Another relationship is called commensalism. This interaction takes place when sharks and remora live together. The remora use sucking disks on their heads to attach themselves to sharks. The sharks are powerful swimmers and do not even notice the remora and are neither helped nor harmed. However the remora benefit from this relationship. The fish get a free ride and protection. They also feed on scraps left over by the shark. In commensalism one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. The last type of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. An example of this relationship exists between humans and mosquitoes. The insects land on and take the blood from humans. The mosquito benefits as it uses the blood for energy. The human or host is harmed in this relationship as blood is needed and the human could become infected with disease. In parasitism one species

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- Air goes into the lungs
- The lungs remove oxygen from the air
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs to the bloodstream
- Hemoglobin in red blood cells attaches to the oxygen
- Red blood cells carry oxygen all around the body
- Oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

Question:
suppose the lungs remove less oxygen happens, how will it affect more oxygen diffuses into cells from capillaries.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusion is the process by which atoms or molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is effected by a number of factors which include temperature, concentration and molecular mass. Diffusion is an important process within the human body and is essential to the transport of molecules within a number of organs including the lungs, kidneys, stomach and eyes.
The lungs possess millions of tiny air sacs that are called alveoli, each of which are in close contact with capillaries. As air is breathed in the alveoli inflate and oxygen diffuses across the alveoli wall and into the capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from respiration, diffuses from the capillary and into the alveoli. As the person exhales, the alveoli deflate and the carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs.
The kidneys remove waste products and help regulate the concentrations of ions and other small molecules. Kidneys consist of millions of small tubular structures called nephrons, which terminate on a semi-permeable walled structure called the glomerulus. Blood that contains waste is guided through a knot of blood vessels that are surrounded by a glomerulus. Small molecules such as water, sodium, and potassium glucose can pass through the glomerulus and into the nephron. The collective name for the material passing into the nephron is filtrate. Whilst filtrate contains a large amount of waste products it also contains molecules such as glucose that can be reused by the body. The tubule of the nephron is surrounded

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Retrieved Text: Pronghorn antelope are the fastest land animal on North America and the second fastest land animal in the world, with only the cheetah reaching faster speeds. But, pronghorn can sustain high speeds for miles, and in a distance run would easily beat a cheetah without breaking a sweat.
Pronghorn expert,University of Idaho professor John Byers, says that pronghorn can accelerate from a standing start to quickly reach top speed close to 60 miles per hour. They can maintain a speed of 45 miles per hour for many miles. They are built to be both sprinters and distant runners.
The amazing running abilities of the pronghorn are due to some very interesting adaptations.
Pronghorn bones are very lightweight to allow for maximum speed, but very strong.
Their front hooves are larger than the back ones, and they have bouncy pads that cushion the leg bones from impact as they run, like shock absorbers.
They don’t have collarbones, which allows for wider range of front leg movement.
They have very long legs, that give them a long stride. At top speed, each running stride covers 29 feet. At top speed, a pronghorn could travel the length of a football field in 3.5 seconds, taking just 10 strides.
Compared to goats of similar size, pronghorn have a much larger trachea, a heart three times as big, and lungs with five times the surface area for rapid intake of oxygen and increased rate and power of circulation.
Dr. Byers has proposed that the pronghorn evolved its running ability to escape from extinct predators such as the American cheetah,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Lab Bio, enjoy this lecture on the circulatory and respiratory systems!
3. The circulatory system and respiratory system work together to supply cells with the nutrients and oxygen they need to stay alive.
4. Functions of the Circulatory System Humans and other vertebrates have closed circulatory systems In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported within a system of vessels.
6. The Heart The heart is enclosed in a protective sac of tissue called the pericardium. In the walls of the heart, two layers of epithelial and connective tissue form around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. Contractions of the myocardium, (thick layer of muscle) pump blood.
17. The septum divides the right side of the heart from the left. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood.
18. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles. There are two chambers on each side of the septum. The upper chamber, which receives the blood, is the atrium. The lower chamber, which pumps blood out of the heart, is the ventricle.
19. Circulation Through the Heart Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria. As the heart contracts, blood flows into the ventricles and then out from the ventricles to either the body or the lungs.
20. There are flaps of connective tissue called valves between the atria and the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the valves close, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria.
21. At the exits from the right and left ventricles, valves prevent blood that flows out of the heart from flowing back

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Retrieved Text: We brought up pulse oximetry several weeks ago, and it seems like a topic worth exploring in detail. What’s this device all about, and how should we be using it?
In order to get there, though, we should really start with some basics of pulmonology and respiration. Don’t worry — we’ll get to the good stuff soon enough.
The cells of the human body use oxygen molecules (two oxygen atoms forming an O2) as a vital component of their basic metabolism. Most can survive briefly without oxygen, but not for long and not well.
Delivering oxygen to the cells is a process that starts in the lungs. Oxygen in the ambient air is inhaled into the thin-walled sacs called aveoli, where they easily diffuse across the membrane wall into tiny capillaries filled with blood. (At the same time, carbon dioxide [CO2] is diffusing in the other direction, from the blood out into the alveoli, to be exhaled out as waste.) This oxygen “dissolves” into the blood in the same way that fizzy CO2 is dissolved in a can of Pepsi.
The concentration of oxygen present in arterial blood is a concentration called PaO2, and is directly related to the concentration of oxygen inhaled into the alveoli. (This is referred to as PO2, or the partial pressure of oxygen.) In other words, the more oxygen you breathe in, the more will cross over into the blood. Breathing faster and breathing higher concentrations of oxygen will both achieve this.
Just like in the Pepsi, the amount of oxygen your blood can dissolve is

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Retrieved Text: We all heard someone say that he or she had water "on" the lungs or even, water "in" the lung.
What is it exactly? Should we say "on" the lungs or "in" the lung?
The true term for water "in" the lung is pulmonary edema, that is, water in the alveoli of the lung.
In the case where there is water "on" the lungs, we mean there is fluid in the lung envelope: a left or right pleural effusion. When there is fluid on both sides, it is simply called pleural effusion.
The causes are multiple. Water "on" lungs may be associated with water "in" the lung or may be associated with a lung disease.
The lungs are where the exchanges of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) occur.
The venous blood filled with carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to fill up with oxygen and then brings the blood back to the heart so that it can be pumped to the organs and oxygenate them.
"Used" blood comes from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery branches into a multitude of small arterioles and capillaries to direct the blood into all the lungs.
The pulmonary capillaries are the junction points between the arteries and the pulmonary veins.
They are microscopic vessels in which the blood cells pass in a single file.
The lungs are composed of a multitude of small air sacs called alveoli.
There are more than 600 million of them in the lungs. One alveolus has a diameter of 0.2 mm and its wall is made of a

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Retrieved Text: Smell – An act of respiration Every individual sets out goals that are important to him or her. Yet not one of these needs is as important as one you possess at every moment: breathing!
When we contemplate the miraculous engineering of the human lungs, we will be speechless with its incredible feats. If you had been unable to breathe for a minute, you would have given up all you owned in order to be able to breathe again. In another minute or so you would have lost consciousness. Brain death would follow in another two or three minutes, and your life would be at an end.
This process, which seems so simple and which very few people ever think about, is actually the first link to live . Every cell in our bodies need the oxygen provided by breathing. The beating of our heart, the movements of our muscles, cell division, thought would not be possible without oxygen.
In this theme, you will see how incredulous breathing is and how each one of the systems allow us to breathe in a miraculous aspect to sustain life. Now, let's start to study the technical aspects of breathing in our way.
"Let’s pause once in a while, when we are otherwise bored and idle, and think about breathing. Breathe consciously"
The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: How does the cornea breathe during sleep?
The cornea is not supplied with blood vessels and so exchanges gases directly with the atmosphere. So how does it breathe during sleep when our eyes are closed?
As you noted, the cornea needs oxygen, yet it's not vascular. It needs to get it's oxygen supply from diffusion. In the daytime, diffusion occurs from air through the tear film covering the cornea.
The cornea spends about a third of it's lifetime under closed lids. At night, the tear film remains intact and is continuously replenished. The inner aspect of your eyelids, called the palpebral conjunctiva, are highly vascularized, with capillaries just below the surface (and accessory tear ducts and tiny mucosal glands to keep it moist).
When you sleep, oxygen (and nutrients) diffuses from the palpebral conjunctival capillaries through the tear film to your cornea.
The blood vessels in the palpebral conjunctiva are more permeable than most other capillaries and contribute fluid and nutrients to tears by leaking plasma. The surface epithelial cells are also a source of tear fluid because of a special arrangement of the cells such that there is more intercellular space allowing fluid, antibodies, and other plasma constituents to the surface of the conjunctiva.
This very issue was of great concern to ophthalmologists when people started wearing extended-wear contact lenses.
What determines the thickness of Cornea?
How do we know the presence of light when our eyes are closed?
Does our brain contain an innate function about closing only one eye?

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Retrieved Text: Blood vessel is an elastic tube or passage in the body through which blood circulates; an artery, a vein, or a capillary. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
Blood vessels are constructed of layers of connective tissue and muscle. The inner blood vessel layer is formed of endothelium. In capillaries and sinusoids, endothelium comprises the majority of the vessel. Blood vessel endothelium is continuous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. In the heart, this inner layer is called the endocardium.
Blood is circulated through the body via the cardiovascular system. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. Blood travels from the heart via arteries to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, then to venules, to veins, and back to the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The lungs have both a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation to the lungs is the part of the systemic circulation that supplies O2 and nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the lungs.
However the pulmonary circulation refers to the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, towards the alveoli of the lungs to undergo gas exchange, and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
In this article we shall consider the functions of both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation and the special adaptations required to meet these.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary trunk. This divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs the arteries divide further into very fine capillaries at the alveoli, allowing gas exchange to take place. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
This newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The blood is then distributed around the body via the systemic circulation.
Since the right heart cannot work independently of the left heart both the right and left ventricle must have the same cardiac output to prevent blood building up in either the systemic or pulmonary circulation. This means the pulmonary circulation must be able to accept the entire cardiac output (5L).
Low resistance – short, wide pulmonary vessels, many capillaries running in parallel, rather than

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Retrieved Text: Certain cells within an organism are specialised. This means that they have developed to carry out a specific function. See the table below for some examples.
Dissolved substances are able to enter and leave a cell through its cell membrane. One way in which they can achieve this is through a process known as diffusion.
Diffusion can occur in either a liquid or gas. It involves the particles of a substance moving from an area in which there’s a high concentration of it to an area in which there’s a lower concentration. The bigger the difference in concentration, the faster the rate at which diffusion occurs.
lungs: oxygen from the alveoli in the lungs is able to move across into the red blood cells so that carbon dioxide can then diffuse into the alveoli and then be expelled out of the body via the lungs.
photosynthesis: similarly, green plants take in carbon dioxide from the air via chloroplasts by diffusion and release oxygen back into the atmosphere also by diffusion.
respiration: this process also involves diffusion. In animals, for example, oxygen diffuse from the red blood cells into the tissue cells and then carbon dioxide diffuses in the other direction.

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: How does your blood flow throughout your body?
The circulatory system is the transportation system of the body and is responsible for the flow of blood in the body. The major structures that make this possible are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart pumps blood in order to move nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide disease-fighting white blood cells, and hormones to and from the cells in the body.
The circulatory system has two main types of circulation.
Pulmonary circulation travels from heart to the lung where your blood picks up oxygen and back to the heart.
Your heart has four chambers that are used to pump blood throughout your body.
Two Atria - which are the upper chambers.
Blood Vessels carry blood throughout the body.
Capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body create a network of vessels connecting veins and arteries.
It is composed of several different types of cells.
The third type of cell is the platelet and create blood clots.
These blood cells are found in a liquid called plasma which consists of water along with electrolytes and some proteins and hormones.
Blood enters on the right side of the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. This blood is oxygen-poor because the blood has traveled around the body and the oxygen in the blood has been exchanged for carbon dioxide.
The blood enters the right atria and travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
From this chamber, this oxygen-poor blood travels up the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and it travels back

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Retrieved Text: The cardiovascular system includes the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular). The heart pumps blood throughout the body. Sixty thousand miles of blood vessels transport the blood, enough to encircle Earth more than twice. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; capillaries reach all of the body's seventy trillion cells; and veins carry blood back to the heart. Because blood vessels form a circular route, this system is also called the circulatory system.
The cardiovascular system has two main parts. In the pulmonary circuit, blood is pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins. From the left atrium, blood passes to the left ventricle of the heart, which pushes the blood through the systemic circuit beginning with the aorta, which branches to all body parts.
A scanning electron micrograph of red and white blood cells flowing through a vein.
After delivering oxygen and picking up carbon dioxide, blood returns to the right atrium of the heart and then to the right ventricle. The journey begins anew.
Thick walls enable arteries to withstand the pressure created by the pumping of the heart (blood pressure). The pulmonary arteries and the aorta are the largest arteries (the aorta is as wide as a thumb!). Some arteries are named for the organ that they supply, such as the hepatic artery (liver) and the coronary arteries (heart). Others have special names,

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Retrieved Text: The lungs are the center of the respiratory (breathing) system.
Every cell of the body needs oxygen to stay alive and healthy. Your body also needs to get rid of carbon dioxide. This gas is a waste product that is made by the cells during their normal, everyday functions. Your lungs are specially designed to exchange these gases every time you breathe in and out.
Let’s take a closer look at this complex system.
This spongy, pinkish organ looks like two upside-down cones in your chest. The right lung is made up of three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes to make room for your heart.
The lungs begin at the bottom of your trachea (windpipe). The trachea is a tube that carries the air in and out of your lungs. Each lung has a tube called a bronchus that connects to the trachea. The trachea and bronchi airways form an upside-down “Y” in your chest. This “Y” is often called the bronchial tree.
The bronchi branch off into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Like the branches of a tree, these tiny tubes stretch out into every part of your lungs. Some of them are so tiny that they have the thickness of a hair. You have almost 30,000 bronchioles in each lung.
Each bronchiole tube ends with a cluster of small air sacs called alveoli (individually referred to as alveolus). They look like tiny grape bunches or very tiny balloons. There are about 600 million alveoli in your lungs. The small bubble shapes of the alveoli

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric Physicians of Georgia is a Physician group that specialize in Hyperbaric and Wound Care Medicine. Our focus is treating poorly-healing ulcers, challenging infections, soft tissue injury, and compromised surgical wounds using the most advanced therapies available. Our Medical Directors are all Certified Wound Specialists, we employ evidence based practice standards and follow UHMS guidelines for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We also provide comprehensive clinical consultative services as well as complete practice management and physician staffing.
An increase in the distance which oxygen diffuses from functional capillaries into hypo perfused wounds.
Rapidly dissociates carbon monoxide molecules from hemoglobin and dramatically increases amounts of physically dissolved oxygen.
Early utilization of hyperbaric oxygen reduces the reperfusion injury that is the cause of much of the damage.
Vasoconstriction and a subsequent decrease in tissue edema resulting from crush injury and compartment syndrome.
Recent research has demonstrated that hyperbaric oxygen mobilizes stem cells, which then target injured areas.

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Retrieved Text: Red blood cells, known also as RBCs, have several important roles to play in our bodies. The primary function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues around your body. As a secondary function, they are also a key player in getting waste carbon dioxide from your tissues to your lungs, where it can be breathed out. When red blood cells stop functioning properly, you can rest assured that many things are going to go wrong in your body.
In order to properly understand the function of a red blood cell, you have to understand something about the structure. A typical RBC is about 6-8 micrometers in diameter, about the same as the width of a spider web strand. An RBC is biconcave in shape. Think of it like a miniature donut, only the hole in the center doesn’t poke all the way through. This small shape and physical structure allows the RBC to squish in to the small capillaries where your blood vessels are the smallest. Without this ability to flex, they would easily get stuck and cause obstructions in your circulation.
The oxygen carried in your red blood cells is stored in a special protein known as hemoglobin. There are several different types of hemoglobin and the exact structure of this important protein is quite complicated, so this explanation will be something of a gross oversimplification. A single hemoglobin molecule is made of four identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a heme component, aglobin chain and an iron atom bound to

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Retrieved Text: The circulatory system offers the vessels along with the muscles that allow and control the flow in the blood around your system. This process is considered circulation. The main portions of the system are definitely the heart, arteries, capillary vessels and veins.
The Circulatory System strengthens transporting materials in the entire body. The idea transports nutrients, mineral water, and oxygen for a billions of cells and carries away wastes which include carbon dioxide that cells produce. It can be an amazing highway that will travels through your own whole body connecting every one of your body cells.
On a daily basis, the approximately 10 pints (5 liters) of blood in the male body travel many circumstances through about sixty, 000 miles (96, 560 kilometers) of as well as that branch together with cross, linking the cells in our organs and areas of the body. From the hard-working cardiovascular system, to our thickest blood vessels, to capillaries so thin that they only be seen via the microscope, the heart is our body lifeline.
Our bodies already have two circulatory solutions: The pulmonary circulation can be a short loop in the heart to that lungs and to return, and the systemic move (the system we usually see as our circulatory system) sends blood in the heart to the rest of the parts of people and back ever again.
Additional blood gets pumps the blood in the body. It sits contained in the chest, in front in the lungs and slightly left side. The heart is a double pump consisting of four chambers.

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Score: 53.706005
Retrieved Text: Look amazing at every age with our oxygen facial (oxygen-glow). If you want to have glowing movie-star complexion this is your must have facial!
Did you know, as you get older less and less oxygen is absorbed by your skin? It's true. By the time your are nearly pushing 30, your skin cells will be starved of oxygen by up to 70%, and as the years go by less and less oxygen is being transported to your cells.
And imagine for a minute being deprived of oxygen. Without oxygen your lungs can't breathe...your heart can't beat…your muscles can’t move...and your brain can't think.
Likewise when your skin can't get enough oxygen, it cries for help! Your pores enlarge to get a breathe. Your skin breaks out to flush away toxins. Free radicals are created in your skin causing damage! Collagen and elastin the fibers that hold your skin together break down and you wrinkle and you age!
It's upsetting enough that oxygen absorption decreases with age…but most cosmetics make it worse by blocking whatever oxygen is trying to get into your skin! This combination rapidly makes your skin break out, irritate, wrinkle and age. Dehydration kicks in, making your skin rougher, flaky and more likely to develop fine lines and wrinkles.
But now for the good news!
There's an almost secret anti-ageing treatment previously made available only to the stars... Have you seen Sandra Sully's skin lately? She looks great! And to avoid being a wrinkled mess, stars use every means possible to keep their skin from showing the signs of ageing.

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Score: 53.25648
Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: Within the past several years, scientists have found that oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere has been dropping, and at higher rates than just the amount that goes into the increase of CO2 from burning fossil fuels, some 2 to 4-times as much, and accelerating since 2002-2003. Simultaneously, oxygen levels in the world’s oceans have also been falling.
Oxygen therapies are becoming more important than ever before. Ambulance crews have often regarded oxygen as something approaching a wonder drug. Oxygen has always been a lifesaving drug and now doctors and patients can do much more lifesaving because they will be able to give much more oxygen in a safe way. It needs to be noted that oxygen can be toxic and not always safe, yet always necessary.
However, Oxygen has zero toxicity in the face of unlimited carbon dioxide. The body has the exquisite capacity to balance these gases and this is why exercise is so healthy—it produces more carbon dioxide and thus more oxygen is delivered to the cells. EWOT is a simple way of injecting enormous amounts of oxygen into the cells safely because while we are exercising we are producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide.
EWOT is a technique that offers much higher therapeutic results than expensive, inconvenient hyperbaric chamber do. EWOT involves breathing high levels of oxygen while exercising. The higher oxygen level in the lungs creates a greater head of pressure to drive oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries. The exercise moves the circulation faster, ensuring a greater oxygen carriage. Initially, the oxygen pressure in the

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Retrieved Text: How does smoking affect my heart and lungs?
How does smoking increase my risk of cancer?
Emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the slow destruction of the tissue in the lung. Over time, this makes it harder to get air in and out of the lungs and move oxygen from the lungs into the blood. In the US, COPD is almost exclusively a disease of smokers, and it results from a chronic exposure to the tar and chemicals in cigarette smoke. In less developed countries, COPD often results from cooking in small spaces over open fires. The smoke from cigarettes is actually worse than wood or other smoke due to the nicotine, which paralyzes the small hairs in the airways that are responsible for cleaning out anything that makes its way into the lungs.
Quitting smoking helps COPD in two ways. The first is that you avoid inhaling carbon monoxide, which poisons red blood cells and prevents them from carrying oxygen. This is particularly important for people whose lungs no longer move oxygen into the bloodstream well. The second is that you stop the ongoing damage and worsening of symptoms. Although quitting can’t undo any damage that’s been done, it slows down the progression of the disease, because you aren’t continuing to damage your lungs. It’s never too late to benefit from quitting, even if you have emphysema.

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Retrieved Text: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves exposing the body to increased pressure and 100% pure oxygen to assist in cellular healing and improve health.
There is significant evidence that suggests HBOT supports white blood cells in fighting infection, encourages new growth of connective tissue, and activates gene sequences that code for repair hormones.
Patients report improved energy, increased lung capacity, and quality of sleep among other health benefits.
Stop for a second. Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs with as much air as you can, and then exhale. About 20% of that breath was oxygen, and by now it will be circulating in your blood. A few moments later, the oxygen will be used by your cells to convert stored energy from the food you have eaten into a form of energy that your body can use [R]. By about now, that breath of air you took will be powering all of your tissues and vital organs, from your brain to your heart to your liver. Oxygen is our life force. Without oxygen, our cells fail to use energy, and without energy, they can not grow or repair, and will eventually die [R].
Throughout our lives, we accumulate a myriad of injuries that damage our cells. Your body is bombarded with toxins, air pollution, UVB rays, and bacteria. These micro-injuries build up and as you age, your body loses the ability to heal effectively. This affects everything from the durability of artery walls to skin elasticity [R, R].
Eventually, your cells stop functioning as well as they did, the inflammation from

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Retrieved Text: Of the four chambers of your heart, the most significant is your left ventricle, which receives oxygenated blood from your lungs via your right ventricle and then diffuses it to the cells throughout your body. When you train consistently, your left ventricle actually increases in diameter, meaning a larger chamber to accommodate a greater volume of oxygen-rich blood. A concurrent adaptation is an increased total blood volume, with more red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Cardiac tissue is a specialized type of muscle, called smooth muscle, that contracts involuntarily. Like other muscles, the strength of contraction of heart muscle depends on the size and strength of individual muscle fibers. When you make your heart pump harder through regular exercise, cardiac muscle fibers increase in size, leading to a denser, stronger ventricular wall. The stronger muscle tissue enables you heart to contract with greater force, ejecting a higher volume of blood per stroke.
When your heart health is at an enhanced state from exercise, it runs more smoothly and conserves energy. Your heart rate is lower at rest and at relative levels of exercise intensity. This is due to a combination of greater available blood volume and increased force of contraction. In other words, each time your heart beats, a greater volume of blood enters your circulatory system, and the heart needs to beat less frequently to meet your body’s oxygen demands. The combined product of stroke volume and beats per minute is called cardiac output.
Regular exercise changes the cells in your skeletal muscles at the same time that

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Retrieved Text: Breathe Strong is a combination Menthol and American Ginseng (panax quinquefolius). Menthol clears air passage ways for effective breathing while American Ginseng strengthens lung capillaries and promotes proliferation of vascular cells to help prevent bleeding. This supplement will also top up any deficient B vitamins prior to workout or race allowing for optimal muscle performance.
Breathe Strong embraces the many cardiovascular benefits of Ginseng, helping to reduce exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), improving oxygen delivery to the working muscles and lungs. During exercise, the heart must be able to deliver adequate blood flow to the working muscles, and the lungs must be capable of filling the blood with enough oxygen to help fuel muscle contraction. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), or bleeding from the lungs, occurs in a wide variety of horses under intense sprint activities such as thoroughbred, standardbred and quarter horse racing, endurance events, 3 day eventing, reining, barrel.racing and roping.
Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines and is reported to have a wide range of health benefits. It is a powerful antioxidant, maintains integrity and pumping ability of the heart and strengthens pulmonary capillaries that can be damaged during extreme exercise.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 Name the flap which closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it during swallowing?
Question 2 What happens to the diaphragm when diaphragm muscles contract?
Question 3 Name the cavity in which the lungs of man are enclosed.What is its function?
Question 4 State the function of epiglottis?
Question 5 Explain the path of transfer of oxygen from trachea to tissue cell?
Question 6 Respiration is a vital function of body.Why?
Question 7 Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissue and blood?
Question 8 Describe the respiratory system in human beings?
Question 9 Name the respiratory pigment in humans?
Question 10 What is diaphragm?
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Rate of breathing in aquatic organism is much faster than seen in terrestrial animals because amount of dissolved oxygen is low in water than in the air.
1)Nose:There is a pair of external nostrils at the lower end of nose.The air enters through the nostrils.The air passing through nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that lines the passage.The passage is lined with mucus which help in this process.
2)Throat or Pharynx:The nasal passage open behind into pharynx.It is a common passage for food and air.It leads into an air tube called trachea through a slit called glottis.The glottis always remain open except during swallowing.The glottis bear a flap called epiglottis.During swallowing epiglottis closes the glottis to avoid entry of food into air pipe.
3)Trachea:It is a thin walled tube that extends downwards through the neck and divides into 2

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Input Text: Process:
- A can is thrown away into a recycling bin
- The can is taken to a recycling center
- Melted down along with other cans
- The melted metal is turned into bars
- Becomes material for other products.

Question:
suppose less cans are thrown away into a recycling bin happens, how will it affect LESS aluminum cans being recycled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 73.280876
Retrieved Text: New study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.
September 27, 2013, 3:23 p.m.
You're sitting at your desk, furiously scribbling on a piece of paper, when suddenly you want to start over. You crumple up the paper, but then where do you toss it? Probably not in the recycling bin, a new study suggests.
"When a product is sufficiently distorted or changed in size or form, consumers perceive it as less useful," Remi Trudel, marketing professor at Boston University and experiment designer, told NPR. And when something is perceived as less useful, people are less likely to put it in the recycling bin to be created into something new — even with commonly recycled materials like paper and aluminum.
Trudel and another researcher, Jennifer Argo, asked participants to cut pieces of paper and compared how they disposed of the trash compared to with other participants who threw away whole sheets of paper. They found that paper that had been extensively manipulated, in this case by being cut into separate pieces, was more likely to end up in the trash with the non-recyclables. They repeated the experiment with aluminum cans and found that the same phenomenon occurred: participants threw crushed cans in the trash more often than the recycling bin.
"Identifying consumer behavior driving recycling behaviors is paramount for the continuation of a healthy planet," the researchers wrote.
A new study shows that people are less likely to recycle items that have been cut, crushed, crumpled or otherwise physically altered.

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum can is the ideal container Aluminum cans hold 2.5 times more beverage per cubic meter than a refillable bottle. This saves both storage and transportation space, reduces energy consumption and gas exhaust emissions. Other advantages of the aluminum can include being air-tight, hygienic, does not break and easy to open. Aluminum cans melt and cool fast, thus saving energy. Aluminum cans be recycled over and over and the printing ink used is water-soluble and non-toxic. These facts above are related to the aluminum can recycling and usage in North America. There is lots of energy and pollution conservation to account for if you included other recycled aluminum products such as screen doors, cooking ware, window frames and lots of others.
The modern 12 fluid ounce aluminum can, it takes 31.8 cans to equal one pound.
Recycling just one aluminum can saves enough energy to power a T.V. for 3 hours.
97% of all beverage cans are aluminum.
Aluminum cans do not stick to a magnet, steel cans do. North America is currently recycling 2/3 of their aluminum cans. Aluminum cans uses 95% less energy over refining from raw aluminum (Bauxite ore).
Current energy saved in one year from recycling aluminum cans in the USA would light the entire city of Denver, CO for more than 10 years.
Using recycled aluminum beverage cans to produce new cans allows the aluminum can industry to make up to 20 times more cans using the same amount of energy.
The energy saved in one year from recycled cans is equivalent to 20 million barrels of

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Retrieved Text: In 2006, Americans drank about 167 bottles of water each, but only recycled an average of 38 bottles per person. That means about 50 billion plastic bottles were consumed, but only 23 percent were recycled, leaving 38 billion water bottles to be thrown away.
According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, the average American consumed 1.6 gallons of bottled water in 1976. In 2006, each person consumed 28.3 gallons of bottled water.
In 2006, Americans spent $15 billion on bottled water. That’s more than we spent on iPods or movie tickets.
Bottled water costs between $1 and $4 per gallon, and 90% of the cost is in the bottle, lid, and label.
Manufacturing bottled water uses over 1.5 million barrels of oil per year; that’s enough oil to fuel 100,000 cars.
So the next time you intend to throw away a plastic bottle, look for a recycling bin instead.
Over 50% of the aluminum cans produced are recycled.
A used aluminum can can be recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can in as fast as 60 days.
Aluminum is a durable and sustainable metal, so much so that two thirds of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than producing one can using virgin ore.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a 100-watt bulb burning for almost four hours, or enough to run your television for three hours.
Americans use 100 million steel cans every day.
Each year North America recycles more steel than aluminum, glass, paper, and

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum cans are the most recycled drink container in the United States. In 2013, 1.72 billion lbs., roughly 60.2 billion cans were recycled. That is a recycling rate of nearly 70%. The energy saved by this kind of recycling equals roughly 19 million barrels of crude oil. The amazing benefit of this is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the reduction of landfill mass. It is certainly one of the most sustainable metals in the world, and generates the most money to the consumer who bothers to take it to an aluminum recycling center near them. When searching for a can recycle center near you try to find a facility that offers the highest payout per pound. You can try looking on the website of the local facility to see if they have advertised their payout price. You can also use the map below to find a can recycling center in your area.
What makes aluminum cans so unique is that they are often recycled back into themselves, containing nearly 70% recycled material. That is 3 times more than plastic or glass. This translates into the can’s leaving a good environmental footprint. It also has a high value for re-selling, making recycling programs possible. Scrap aluminum gets $1367 per ton, as compared to plastic that only gets $310, and glass actually gets $0 per ton. Cans are also getting lighter, while continuing to stay durable. This leads to better efficiency for shipping, and eventually less waste.
Aluminum can recycling has grown consistently since the early 2000’s. That

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Rank: 4
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Retrieved Text: Recycling, Exposed! A Breakdown on How And What Can Be Recycled.
Recycling is a little more complicated than separating your cans, bottles, paper, and plastics. I know when I began my cleaning business, I had to take the time to understand what can and cannot be recycled, not to mention what happens to the recyclables after they’ve been turned in. You’d be surprised how many people ask me that. I consider the questions positive; people really are interested in a greener planet and the steps I am taking through my business to ensure that we have one. I’m going to break the information down for you as well. Let’s look at what can and cannot be recycled, and I’ll throw in some extra info to make you a recycling expert!
Aluminum: Depending on the can, recyclable aluminum cans include your soda and beer cans, food cans, and even your wet pet food cans. The best rule of thumb is to see if the can is labeled as recyclable. If it is, you can toss it into the aluminum bin; just make sure to rinse it out first, as recycling plants need the cans clean.
Glass: Nearly all glass bottles are recyclable, but here’s something you might not know: You need to keep the clear and colored glass bottles separate not just for the recycling plant but for you as well. Clear glass is more valuable, so you’ll receive a higher return if your recycling drop-off center gives you cash.
Paper: Newspapers are the obvious recyclable product in this category, and

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Score: 67.931946
Retrieved Text: Do you take great pleasure in crushing your drinks cans before you put them in the recycling? Although it can be a great stress reliever, crushing the can while you think of your boss at the end of a tough day, it turns out that crushing them might actually prevent them from being recycled.
The warning comes from a director at the Aluminum* Association in the US (*not a typo, just the US spelling), who explains that most waste sorting facilities use a single-stream recycling system, which means that all the waste is mixed together before its sorted. The machinery sorts materials by type and shape, so if you have crushed your can, the machine might not recognise it and will push it into the non-recyclable pile, destined for incineration or landfill.
He added that while many cans are recycled, more than 40 billion cans end up in landfill in the US every single year, which amounts to the loss of a staggering $800 million of materials which could have been used to make new products.
Okay, so that’s what happens in the US, we hear you say, what about the UK?
Well waste management experts say that when recyclables are all put in the same bin, it can make it harder for a crushed can to be separated out at the materials recovery facility. This is because the sorting machines find it easier to detect and sort cans that are in their original size and shape because they have a larger surface area. And this doesn’t just apply to

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Rank: 6
Score: 67.42667
Retrieved Text: I have had a strange fascination with aluminum lately, so why not talk about it here. Aluminum, a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It’s nonmagnetic and non-sparking. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13 (I did not know that till today. 13 is the day I was born and my lucky number.). Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminum is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminum is bauxite ore.
Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its low density. Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form. Global production of aluminum in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).
* Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours — or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
* 350,000 aluminum cans are produced every minute!
* More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
* Once an aluminum can is recycled, it can be part of a new can within six weeks.
* Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of

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Rank: 7
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Retrieved Text: Every time people throw away an item it takes energy to make it again. Many of these items could take centuries to break down, harming the earth.
We can decrease the amount of waste we produce.
Reduce means cutting back on the amount of trash we make by buying less of the items we don't really need.
Using silverware instead of plastic ones.
Buying used clothes and goods.
Saving energy by drying clothes outside, turning of the lights after leaving a room, etc.
Reuse means finding a new way to use old items so that we don't have to throw it away.
Old T-shirts can make the best cleaning rags for wood and leather furniture.
Using jars to store beverages, leftover food or used as a vase.
Trading or selling used DVDs.
You can earn money for recycling soda cans and plastic bottles.
Blue jeans can be recycled into home insulation.
Rubber tires can be recycled into flooring.
Recycle means using trash to remake new goods that can be sold again. Communities have a variety of recycling programs, such as curbside pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, and buy-back centers that pay you for valuable items.
New York City alone throws out enough garbage each day to fill the Empire State Building.
It takes 90% less energy to recycle an aluminum can than to make a new one.
In the United States we cut down 4 billion trees a year to make paper products, such as newspapers, packaging, junk mail, toilet paper, boxes, among other things. When the trees are cut down, they are turned into wood chips, which are then mixed with

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Rank: 8
Score: 66.19575
Retrieved Text: The 36 annual floral display beds consume about 35,000 of these annual plants.
4,000 annuals are sent to Mayville State University and 6,000 annuals are sent to Valley City State University for display.
Almost all the baskets are Wave Petunias however, there are a few with Pansies and Impatiens.
The NDSU Maintenance and Repair Staff maintain over 100 buildings encompassing approximately 258 acres.
The manufacture of recycled paper requires 7,000 less gallons of water per ton compared to non-recycled paper.
Recycling a four-foot stack of newspapers saves the equivalent of one 40-foot fir tree.
Americans throw away more than 600 pounds of paper products per person per year.
Paper is recycled into new products such as tar paper, asphalt shingles, cereal boxes, and of course, new paper.
Energy saved: Each ton of recycled paper produced requires 4,102 kwh less energy than virgin paper.
Every glass bottle recycled saves enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for 4 hours.
Melting used glass saves 35 percent of the energy required to make glass from raw materials.
Americans use 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour!
The average American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas. 10% of the average grocery bill pays for product packaging (mostly paper and plastics). That’s more than what goes to farmers.
Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags and cassette casings.
PET bottles (soda, water) and HDPE bottles (milk, laundry detergent) are by far the most commonly collected plastic materials

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Retrieved Text: It is important to teach our children about their environment and how to take care of it. It is never too early to start being conscious about our natural resources and the world we live in. Therefore we created this helpful infographic for children to inform them about recycling, and how they can help their environment and community. In the following article, beside the basic information about recycling, we provide additional tips and ideas on how to reuse things that are not needed anymore, and how to organize a green school fundraiser.
Recycling is how we take trash and transform it into new products. There are several types of recycling processes that allow some materials to be used one or more times.
Recycling is good for us and the environment because it reduces the use of new raw materials to product new products. It also reduces the energy we use, improves the quality of air and water, and fights climate change.
able cutlery lowers the energy that is needed to make new products, and it also can be reused to prevent more waste in the landfill.
Reducing is keeping our new purchases to a minimum. It is a way to reduce our use of natural resources.
Reducing consumption of physical objects is important, as is reducing our use of electricity, water and gas to make new products.
If you lined up the plastic bottles tossed away each year, they would circle our planet four times.
Energy saved from recycling a glass bottle can light a light bulb as long as four hours.
Recycling saves

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Rank: 10
Score: 65.68029
Retrieved Text: Today, about 8 out of 10 bottles and cans that are sold in Sweden go on to be recycled in stores. But even if the whole world recycled like the Swedes do, we would still need 4,2 planets to make up for the waste.
Good news is that even though the number of sales of bottles and cans has increased recycling stays at a steady 80%, a 10% difference from the country’s 90% goal.
Sara Barthelson Riismark, Communication Manager at Returpack (Sweden’s Recycle Agency), says that people have different reasons for wanting to recycle, but almost all Swedes are positive towards the recycling system.
In Sweden, all regular grocery stores have recycling machines, and almost all bottles and cans can be recycled for about 10-20 cents per item. More than 9 out of 10 large bottles are recycled, but seen to smaller bottles and cans, the results aren’t as great. It’s often the smaller bottles, that people buy “on the go” that are thrown away in general garbage cans or on the ground instead of being recycled.
Last year, 1,85 million bottles and aluminum cans were recycled, which is around 183 bottles or cans, per person.

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Retrieved Text: Hey Mr. Green: Is Recycling Cans and Bottles Worth It?
I think recycling cans is a great idea in helping minimize the garbage on Earth. Another way to green living is by using solar panels in your homes to generate electricity. Not only will these help you save on electric bills but these are 90% recyclable too.
By recycling them, we can help lessen the number of trees that are cut down. Products made from raw materials that came from our natural resources should be recycled so that we can help preserve the environment.
The rule of thumb in most communities is to put any color of bottle glass together in the recycling bin. Sometimes glass is even thrown in with tin, aluminum and foil.

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Retrieved Text: Recycling rate at lowest point in 24 years.
Recently released data* reveal that over one trillion aluminum beer and soda cans have been thrown in the trash—not the recycling bin—since Americans began buying these cans more than thirty years ago. The trillion wasted beverage cans weigh in at 17.5 million tons—a quantity of scrap aluminum worth about $21 billion at today's market prices.
Over the last four decades, the damages from aluminum manufacturing and associated infrastructure include thousand of square miles of habitat loss on every major continent, the displacement of tens of thousands of indigenous people, and the release of tens of millions of tons of greenhouse gasses and other toxic air and water pollutants.
While we are steadily trashing millions of tons of cans that could be used to make new cans and other aluminum products, multi-national companies like Alcoa and Alcan are forging ahead to build new aluminum smelters in pristine environments all over the world, including Brazil, Australia, Mozambique, and Iceland.
If we recycled 85% of our cans instead, as we could with a national beverage container deposit law, or "bottle bill," we could save about 600 thousand tons of aluminum metal annually —eliminating the need to build one or two brand new aluminum smelters.
*The first disposable all-aluminum cans were marketed in 1964, but t he Aluminum Association, an industry trade group, only began collecting sales and recycling data in 1972. Since 1990, the Container Recycling Institute has used U.S. Department of Commerce data to adjust the Aluminum Association recycling rate to account for imported scrap

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Score: 64.506004
Retrieved Text: Recycling bins are a great way to prevent hazardous materials from making their way into landfills.
The way recycling is collected varies from town to town, but most areas have implemented a policy where each home is issued a city-standard bin in which to place recyclable goods and leave curbside once per week. There are also buy-back centers located in most communities that will give you money back for recycling goods. In addition, drop-off centers exist at supermarkets or other community buildings that allow for the proper disposal of larger items.
So now that you know how where to find a bin, what can you actually recycle? The answer - a ton of stuff. Recyclable goods include magazines, cardboard, food card packaging, paper, non-food card packaging, envelopes, junk mail, aerosol cans, soda and beer cans, plastic bottles and plastic containers under 25 milliliters in size.
There are also certain goods that are unable to be recycled. These items include food, small pieces of paper that measure less than one centimeter, plastic film, hard plastics, metals, batteries, glass, textiles, composite cartons and bags of household waste. None of these things can be reused by recycling centers and should be disposed of in other ways. Certain items like batteries should not be thrown away with the regular trash as they can be harmful to the environment if they end up in a landfill.
Recycling is a great way to do your part in helping keep the planet clean and free from unnecessary harm. After all, we only have one earth - let's

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Retrieved Text: Ferrous Processing & Trading accepts all forms of aluminum scrap metal for recycling. As one of the most commonly recycled metals in the country, aluminum is a popular consumer-recycled material. Aluminum scrap metal is also one of the most efficient metals to recycle because it can be processed an indefinite number of times without losing any integrity or quality. Also, making new products from recycled aluminum scrap is as efficient or more efficient than creating the products from virgin ore.
One of the most well-known forms of aluminum scrap is the aluminum can. Aluminum cans most often contain beverages which are consumed in huge quantities in the United States. In fact, Earth911 reports that the average employee consumes 2.5 beverages per day while at work – this equates to a lot of used cans that companies or individuals could be saving for profit. Each empty can is worth about 1 cent on the metal recycling market, but those pennies add up quickly.
Each can is worth more than just its market value, because each can represents saved energy costs as well. Earth911 also reports that making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy than using virgin metal. This means twenty recycled cans can be made with the energy needed to produce one new can with virgin aluminum. By using recycled aluminum cans, manufacturers also help preserve priceless natural resources and leave more natural habitats undisturbed.
Aluminum scrap, like aluminum cans, is generally collected by scrap metal recycling facilities. The recycling company pays out a fee

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Retrieved Text: Recycling has long been recognized as a valuable exercise, with examples in Greece and Japan dating back thousands of years, but the modern recycling movement kicked off in earnest during the energy crises of the 1970s. For the first time, governments started to actively encourage citizens to pay attention to their waste disposal and to separate recyclables from garbage (principally for economic reasons, as recycled materials generally exhibit huge energy cost savings when compared to virgin production).
Though the public conversation around recycling generally focuses on environmental impacts, the economic question remains both the question and answer. Time and time again, we see environmental efforts succeed only after the balance sheet shifted in their favor.
Time and time again, we see environmental efforts succeed only after the balance sheet shifted in their favor.
“In a broad sense, recycling is part of an ethic of resource efficiency – of using products to their fullest potential. When a recycled material, rather than a raw material, is used to make a new product, natural resources and energy are conserved. This is because recycled materials have already been refined and processed once; manufacturing the second time is much cleaner and less energy-intensive than the first. For example, manufacturing with recycled aluminum cans uses 95 percent less energy than creating the same amount of aluminum with bauxite.
If government and industry both recognize the positive economic and environmental impacts of recycling, why is the overall rate in America still hovering in the 30 percent range? The answer isn’t straightforward, but one clear reason is that

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Retrieved Text: All future events and fairs will be listed here.
Recyclers of Oklahoma had the privilege to be involoved in the first annual Getting Green Festival of Edmond. The event was held September 5,6,7 2008. We had an amazing turn out and were able to speak with many local companies in the Edmond area and pass along recycling information, drop off sites, and give a general overview of how much energy and resources are saved with your recycling efforts.
Fact # 1 Recycling One Alum soda can can power a T.V. or Radio for three hours.
Fact # 2 More than 40% of the entire worlds Copper needs are met by recycled material. This prevents the need for mining our earths core for new material.
Fact # 3 Copper has an infinite recycleable life the very same copper we use today the anicent pharohs were using more than 10,000 years ago.
Fact # 4 Recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy used to make the material from scratch. That means you can make 20 cans out of recycled material with the same amount of energy it takes to make one can out of new material. In one year at that amount of energy savings you can light a major city for more than five years.
Fact # 5 More than 35 billion aluminum cans are thrown into landfills each year, that amount of material has a scrap value of more than $500 million. Someday our children will be digging through Landfills just to recover the resources we've buried.
Fact # 6 Over 350,000 aluminum

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Retrieved Text: The start of the New Year is usually a reflective time, and that got us thinking about recycling, because let’s face it – that’s something we think about a lot here. We try to be mindful about reusing materials, recycling and the amount of trash we generate both at home and at work, and from this came the idea for a year-long blog series we’re calling #WasteNotWantNot.
The advantage of recycling is two-fold: materials are kept out of landfills and a new purpose is given to existing items, so virgin materials are not needed, or can be utilized in other ways. A great example of recycling working is aluminum soda cans which have a very high recycling rate. When an empty soda can is recycled that aluminum can be used to create new cans, so very little, if any, new aluminum is needed.
Unfortunately, there are plenty of examples of recycling failing, or when items that can be recycled end up in a trash can instead of a recycling bin. Before you throw something away take a quick second to think about whether that item should be destined for a landfill or a recycling center. We’ve rounded up a list of items that more often than not are landfilled when they really could be recycled.
Books – Paper is recyclable no matter what form it is in. Gently used books should be donated, but if you have some old books that are beyond their usefulness toss them in the recycling bin.
Plastic bottle caps – Just about everyone knows to

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Retrieved Text: Do you want to start an aluminum can recycling company from scratch? Or you need a sample aluminum can recycling business plan template? If YES, then i advice you read on.
The recycling business has come to stay and the good part of it is that it enjoys the support of environmentalist and the government of various nations since it is a means to preserve the earth from degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution.
Aluminum can recycling saves energy and the process of recycling is cheaper compared to starting from the scratch. It is a fact that aluminum is a sustainable metal and it can be recycled over and over again to produce new products. Another good thing is that recycling aluminum cans requires about 5% of the energy used in the production of virgin aluminum from the ore.
The essence of recycling aluminum cans is to make use of the already used cans for the production of new cans or other aluminum products and components. This process is simple and cost effective; the used aluminum cans are collected and sorted before they are melted. The melted aluminum cans can be used for the production of new cans, aluminum tools, products or aluminum components.
Although establishing your own aluminum can recycling company requires huge startup capital and rigorous processes to build your own plant, but it is a fact that it is indeed a profitable venture. The market for recycled aluminum can is large and can accommodate loads of investors. Recycled aluminum cans are used for canning foods, drinks,

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum can be recycled over and over and over again. By placing cans in your blue bin, they can be recycled into a new can and back on the shelf in as little as 6O days! It's important to recycle your metal cans. Recycling twenty cans uses the same amount of energy as producing one can from virgin materials.
Yes. But it needs to be clean and free of grease and food contaminants.
Do I have to rinse out my cans?
Yes, but they don't need to be sparkling clean. Just a quick rinse will do just fine to clean out those cans.

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Retrieved Text: If you are a recycler in that case there are bin options that help you to do this more easily. Inside the same space that you could have your single trash is it possible to can have 4 small bins, sometimes even in different shades to help you easily separate waste material. This can eradicate the problem of getting an overflowing main trash may as less is actually going to the dump and more is being directed elsewhere to be reused or perhaps transformed. However you decide to take care of your overflowing trash spare there is an easy option available to you. Cleaning up your trash location really opens up a home and gives it an all rounded cleaner and fresher come to feel. An added bonus of getting additional trash cans is that although you'll have done more to take out; your vacations to the outside trash may will be less frequent.
Mrspalmreader - Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen. How to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles including plastic milk cartons. Recycle crushing machines. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra rutherglen youtube sep 12, 2010 how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans and plastic bottles. Crushing machines opening 25x40. Tesco recycling can crushing machine at extra 12 09 2010� how to use the tesco automated recycling machine at rutherglen extra glasgow this accepts tins, glass, aluminium cans

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Retrieved Text: Today we are going to talk about some facts on the importance of recycling your aluminum cans. Every day we throw out so much aluminum that ends up in a landfill, aluminum cans are one of the easiest recyclable materials on the planet. There are many ways we can all do a better job with recycling materials that go into the waste stream. For more information on how we can help with your aluminum recycling and the equipment we have available, please call us at 216-252-8090.
Fact 1: Aluminum cans can actually be recycled and put back onto the shelf at your local grocery store in just about 2 months.
Fact 2: Aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item, at least in the United States. While this is true, you can also recycle other forms of aluminum as well.
Fact 3: Recycling an aluminum can help to save a great deal of energy, in fact, enough to run your home television for about three hours!
Fact 4: Most beverage cans are made up of aluminum, even though there are other products that go into it as well.
Fact 5: If you throw away your aluminum cans, they can stay in that can form for up to 500 years or more- so recycling is the way to go.
Fact 6: You can recycle aluminum over and over again, and there is really no limit to it.
Fact 7: There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each and every year around the world.
Fact 8: Aluminum used to be more valuable than gold, many

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Retrieved Text: Friday night! Hanging out with some friends and having a couple of canned beers. The weather is nice and the sun is shining, so we grab some cans and go to our favourite place at the river. What a great summer evening! The next day we all might have a little hangover as a result, but there’s something more important to think about: where do the empty cans go? Have you ever wondered what happens to a beverage can after putting it into the recycling bin? Okay, we know by now that it will be recycled, but what does that really mean? As I laid on my couch last Saturday, still a little bit done in from the party the night before, I thought about this recycling thing and so I did some research about can recycling. And of course, I can’t wait to share some insights with you.
It is always a good idea to choose the packaging material of your food and beverage, wisely. But did you know, that cans are a great alternative to other packaging, especially when it comes to drinks? First of all, you really get the wow effect when realizing, how sustainable the can material is! For example, making aluminium from recycled cans uses only 5 percent of the energy you would need for producing it from its raw materials. Steel cans have the similar sustainable character, as you can save at least 70 percent of the energy through recycling. Furthermore, you can just keep remelting and reforming it, without ever

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Retrieved Text: Recycling is the process of making new products from already used materials. As a result of recycling dramatic changes in the manufacturing industry have taken place. In addition the process of recycling improves our environment and our quality of life. Unfortunately though, most of us do not know the benefits of recycling and the reasons that we spend time separating our waste from recyclable materials. Thus we do not put in the time and effort required for proper recycling. For example did you know that kettles, computers and mobile phones which are part of our everyday life can be recycled? What other products which we use daily can actually be recycled? What are the benefits of recycling? Here are some interesting fact about recycling to help you understand better the process and its benefits.
More than 75% of products which we use in our day to day life can be recycled. Electronic and electrical products, kitchen kettles, paper, aluminum cans, kitchen utensils, torn clothes, kitchen garbage, glass bottles, tires, wood, oil, plastic etc are the most important household products that can be recycled. By recycling electronic products we get back raw materials such as steel and aluminum. Aluminum cans and glass bottles are recycled thus recovering back some or even all of the original raw material. Recycled products which we get after recycling glass and aluminum cans are of equal quality as ones made from new material. Kitchen utensils can be either recycled or reused. We can give used utensils to charity or collect enough weight to

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Retrieved Text: The aluminum beverage can industry collected and recycled approximately 140 million cans and raised more than $150,000 for charities across the country through a competition among can companies and aluminum suppliers, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI) announced recently.
The Rexam beverage can manufacturing plant in Chatsworth, Calif., won first-place in the competition, with more than 55 million cans collected and recycled. Second- and third-places went to Rexam’s Fairfield, Calif., and St. Paul, Minn., plants, which collected approximately 31 million and 21 million cans, respectively.
The contest, the America Recycles Day Challenge, took place over 76 days and involved 55 facilities, including plants and corporate offices of aluminum companies: Alcoa Inc., Arco Aluminum, and Novelis and can manufacturers: Ball Corporation, Metal Container Corporation, and Rexam. The individual facilities partnered with schools and local organizations to collect and recycle used beverage cans. Proceeds from the effort will benefit Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Toys for Tots and other charities throughout the United States.
With a recycling rate of 57.4 percent, aluminum cans are the most recycled of all beverage containers. Aluminum cans are “infinitely recyclable” and can be recycled into new cans and put back on store shelves in as few as 60 days. And can recycling benefits the environment in ways that extend beyond just minimizing landfill waste. For example, producing a can with recycled content requires 95 percent less energy than making that same can out of raw material. This, in turn, conserves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and

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Retrieved Text: Disposing of household waste is not always simply a matter of putting your rubbish in the bin. Council rubbish removal in Maroubra and elsewhere offers both regular general waste and recycling, as well as green waste collection, and attention should be paid to recycling as much as possible, in the right way.
Many people aren’t aware that aerosol (spray) cans are often recyclable. Aerosol cans are used to both package and dispense a wide variety of products, from cooking oil sprays to whipped cream, deodorant and hairspray to fly and insect killer sprays. In Australia, more than two hundred and forty million aerosol cans are purchased every year, and if not recycled they end up in landfill where they do not decompose.
Aerosol cans are made from steel and aluminium; both of these are recyclable. They are strong, leak-proof, and spill-proof. Since 1989, Australia has banned the use of environmentally harmful aerosol propellants and those used today are natural hydrocarbon (with the exception being in asthma inhalers).
Fewer than half of all steel and aluminium aerosol cans sold in Australia currently are recycled.
How do you recycle aerosol cans?
If the can is completely empty, it can be recycled in your home council kerbside recycling bin. Don’t compress or pierce the can. Remove plastic lids. As long as the aerosol can is empty, it will not explode or be harmful in any way. Aerosol cans that have product remaining in them should be discarded as hazardous waste; contact your local council for instructions.
Recycled aerosol cans are transported to a Material Recovery

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Retrieved Text: Aluminum is a wonderful material; I am banging this post out on a Mac with a case that was hydroformed out of a block of a particular virgin aluminum alloy specified by Apple. Other alloys are used in cars, planes, bullet trains and even rockets.
But it turns out that one major supplier of aluminum, Kobe Steel, has been shipping substandard aluminum and faking the data about the strength and durability of their aluminum. According to Bloomberg, “the fabrication of figures was found at all four of Kobe Steel’s local aluminum plants in conduct that was systematic, and for some items the practice dated back some 10 years.” Some of it may have gone into airplanes made by Subaru, wings made for Boeing, and yes, a rocket for Japan’s space industry.
The company is, of course, apologetic.
And why is this on TreeHugger? Because aluminum has a huge environmental impact. Sixty percent of it is recycled, but making that other forty percent takes a lot of electricity, 13,500 to 17,000 kWh per ton. More and more of it is going into cars like the Tesla and trucks like the Ford F-150 to make them lighter. No wonder Kobe was tempted to cheat; they can’t make enough of the stuff.
A lot of Aluminum is recycled, particularly beverage cans where 67 percent of it is recovered, but a lot of it is not; it is often bound to plastic in packaging (tetra packs, coffee pods and condiment packages); Heinz alone makes 11 billion little ketchup pouches every year. A lot more

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Retrieved Text: In the United States, aluminum cans are probably the most recycled item. An aluminum can that you toss out today could end up back on your grocery shelf in just less than two months. Recycling one aluminum can help save enough energy to run your television for three hours. Why is recycling aluminum so important? If left in a landfill, a single aluminum can could stay in its present form for up to 500 years.
There are over 80 billion aluminum cans used each year around the world. Many years ago aluminum was actually more valuable than gold. It’s also one of those elements that can be recycled over and over again.
Reading your newspapers on line or on a tablet is a good way to save paper. Half 1 million trees are cut down just to produce the Sunday newspapers each week. You could save 75,000 trees by just recycling and days worth of New York Times newspapers. If we recycled all newspapers, then we could save over 250 million trees each year.
The average person uses at least seven trees each year through wood, paper and other products made from trees. That means over 2 trillion trees are cut down and used throughout the course of a year. Most people throw away paper but it adds up to around 680 pounds for each person. Every 2,000 pounds of paper that is recycled can save 17 trees, 350 gallons of oil and reduce landfill space.
Another important recycling fact to know is the diversion rate. That’s the percentage of

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Retrieved Text: ARLINGTON, Va., Feb. 3, 2012 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The Super Bowl means good friends, good times, good food and plenty of beverages. This year, opting for aluminum cans and recycling offers easier clean-up, better and colder beverages, a greener planet and guilt-free football viewing for the 2012-13 season.
Recycling just one 24-pack easily saves enough energy to watch your favorite team all season on their way to Super Bowl XLVII in New Orleans.
On Sunday, recycling two cans saves the energy required to watch ALL the pre-game, game and post-game coverage of Super Bowl XLVI. Even if you are not hosting this year’s block party, you can do your part for guilt-free viewing.
Can recycling is such an energy saver that if New York Giants’ fans recycled 993 cans, a Prius could travel from Giants’ Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey to Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Not to be outdone, New England Patriots fans can recycle 1,317 cans to make the trip from Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts energy neutral.
Aluminum recycling saves 95 percent of the energy and 95 percent of the greenhouse gases associated with primary production. Aluminum cans are made of 68 percent recycled material and are 100 percent infinitely recyclable making it the most sustainable beverage packaging available.
In 2010, Americans recycled 58.1 percent of their aluminum cans; let’s support this Super Bowl with a 100 percent recycling rate.
For hosts, cans offer the best possible option for your guests whether you are serving juice or soda for the kids or the latest local craft beer for the

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Retrieved Text: With our global population increasing as well as consumer spending, we are creating more waste. The reality is that our waste is affecting our natural environment and we are seeing these changes in things like climate change. We are producing a ton of air, water, and light pollution and unfortunately, our earth cannot continue this way. Things need to change, and it starts with us as individuals. We must do our best to reduce (our consumption), reuse (products and materials) and recycle as much as possible and wherever possible.
By recycling and being more environmentally responsible, we are helping to preserve the earth for future generations. Recycling allows us to conserve raw materials and make new products from old products and recycled materials, which would have been otherwise end up in landfills. It also reduces the need to use our earth’s resources as well as the energy required to produce new products from raw materials, and less air and water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
By recycling we conserve and preserve landfill space and reduce the chemicals and greenhouse gases released by decomposition of biodegradable waste. Greenhouse gases are extremely damaging to the environment, more than carbon dioxide, and has been a contributing factor to climate change. To read more about why it’s important to recycle, click here.
Recycling organic materials in the form of composting is an easy and simple method that can be done at home. Organic waste such as fruit and vegetable peels, egg shells, coffee grounds, and other dairy products can be converted to compost

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Input Text: Process:
- Prophase is the first and longest stage of mitosis
- In this stage the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In prophase the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
- In metaphase the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell and become connected to the spindle fiber at their centromere
- In anaphase the sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are pulled apart
- During telophase the chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct rod-like shapes
- Two new nuclear membranes then form around each of the two regions of DNA and the spindle fibers disappear.

Question:
suppose if during prophase centrioles separate happens, how will it affect in anaphase there is a decrease in sister chromatids.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: A

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.... prophase I - meiosis term refers to the first phase of meiosis I, which together with meiosis II results in the reductive cell division only occurring gametes. Prophase can be further divided into a number of stages: leptotene zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
Go back to prophase 1 and write in alleles for your chromosomes. The drawing below shows what they would look like before they are copied during interphase. Make sure that you write in the alleles on the copied sister chromatids too! a A. B b g G . R r H h. D d. Now, show the alleles of one gene crossing over in one set of homologous chromosomes. Circle the set you chose. Now follow along and... During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.
Prophase – The replicated chromosomes condense into compact rods. Each rod Each rod consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere or the chromosome.
☆ These questions asked the reader to describe and draw the cell when it was in the telophase and the late prophase stages of mitosis. ☆ During meiotic prophase in females, chromosomes condense and pair to

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Retrieved Text: Within 24 hours, a human cell can divide into two daughter cells that are identical to the original. This cell cycle includes growth of the cell, duplication of the DNA and division of the chromosomes and cell contents. The stages of the cycle -- which occur in both plants and animals -- are called interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis. Kinetochore and nonkinetochore -- also known as interpolar -- microtubules play an important role in the separation of chromosomes and the formation of daughter cells. These microscopic structures are both made from subunits called tubulin, but they have different functions during cell division.
When a cell enters mitosis, a microtubule-based structure called a spindle forms with two poles at either end of the enlarged cell. The chromosomes align along the center of the spindle prior to separation of the chromatids -- half of the duplicated chromosomes. Kinetochore microtubules extend from the spindle poles toward the center of the cell and attach to the chromatids at a structure called the kinetochore. The nonkinetochore microtubules also extend from the spindle toward the center of the cell, but they do not attach to the chromatids. Instead they overlap at the center of the spindle.
During late prophase -- one of the phases of mitosis -- the plate-like kinetochore forms on the duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome has two kinetochores -- one for each identical sister chromatid -- attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles. Kinetochore microtubules attached to the kinetochore cause the chromosomes to line up along the middle of the spindle. Nonkinetochore microtubules

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Retrieved Text: Meiosis is the process by which gametes are made. In this process, we begin with a 4n cell (double the normal amount of DNA), and we will end up with 4 non-identical haploid (n) daughter gametes, after 2 divisions. There are 6 stages within each of the divisions; Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis. In this article, we will look at all the stages of meiosis in addition to its significance in diseases.
Firstly the nuclear envelope disintegrates and the chromosomes begin to condense. Spindle fibres appear which will be important for successful division of the chromosomes.
Now the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes at a points along the chromosomes called centromeres. While this is happening the chromosomes continue to condense.
Fig 2 – Image of prometaphase I.
Next, homologous (Maternal and Paternal versions of the same chromosome) chromosomes align along the equator of the cell and a process called random assortment occurs here – this is when maternal and paternal chromosomes line up randomly align themselves on either side of the equator, this leads to genetic diversity among offspring.
To further increase the genetic diversity, homologous chromosomes exchange parts of themselves such that one chromosome contains both maternal and paternal DNA. This process is known as crossing over, and the points at which this occurs on a chromosome are refund to as chiasmata.
Here each of the homologous chromosomes get pulled towards opposite poles of the cell as the spindle fibres retract to divide the DNA between the two cells which will be formed.
Fig 4 – Image of Anaphase

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Retrieved Text: chromatid A threadlike strand formed from a chromosome during the early stages of cell division. Each chromosome divides along its length into two chromatids, which are at first held together at the centromere. They separate completely at a later stage. The DNA of the chromosome reproduces itself exactly so that each chromatid has the complete amount of DNA and becomes a daughter chromosome with exactly the same genes as the original chromosome from which it was formed.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides during the third stage (anaphase) of cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie beside one another. When the centromere divides at the anaphase of mitosis or the second stage of meiosis (meiosis II), the sister chromatids become separate chromosomes.
"chromatid." A Dictionary of Zoology. . Encyclopedia.com. 21 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a chromosome that has undergone division during interphase. Chromatids are joined together by a single centromere, usually positioned in the centre of the pair as they lie

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Retrieved Text: The stage in mitosis and in the second meiotic division when the centromere splits and the chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
The stage of the first meiotic division when the two halves of a bivalent chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.
With respect to the results listed in Table 2, the orange and grape juices of the five food companies, at both exposure times considered, induced significant formation of mitotic spindle changes, represented in this study by colchicine metaphase and anaphase and telophase bridges, proving to be genotoxic, and chromosome breaks, characterized by the formation of micronuclei.
To determine if aurora A kinase (AAK) plays a post-metaphase role in Drosophila S2 cell division, AAK was knocked down by RNA interference (RNAi), and microtubule (MT) intensity in the spindle midzone during late anaphase was quantified (Fig.
1 (b) IVM, in vitro maturation; GVBD, germinal vesicle breakdown; MI, Metaphase 1; AI, Anaphase 1; TI, TelophaseI; MII, MetaphaseII; SEM, standard error of the mean.
The damaged chromosomes, in the form of acentric chromatids or chromosome fragments, lag behind in anaphase when centric elements move towards the spindle poles.
Several chromosomal aberrations (CA's) like chromosomal break, stickiness, laggard, and multipolar anaphase have been formed.
It delivers the two groups of chromosomes to positions adjacent to the polar furrows midway between pairs of plastids in anaphase and a phragmoplast is constructed in the midzone (Fig.
10 and 50 [micro]g/ml number of prophases and telophases generally increases by prolonging treatments, and the number of metaphases and anaphases decreases.
This can be seen from the simulation results in To

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: The epitope recognized by ab992 maps to a region between residue 575 and the C-terminus (residue 631) human Rad21 homolog using the numbering given in entry NP_006256.1 (GeneID 5885).
Synthetic peptide (Human) conjugated to KLH - which represented a portion of human Rad21 encoded within exon 14 (LocusLink ID 5885).
HeLa cell lysate. FFPE human breast fibroadenoma tissue sections.
Our Abpromise guarantee covers the use of ab992 in the following tested applications.
Used at a dilution of 1/200 for 30 min incubation (see Abreview for further information).
WB 1/500 - 1/5000. Predicted molecular weight: 72 kDa.
Band observed at ~130 kDa.
Cleavable component of the cohesin complex, involved in chromosome cohesion during cell cycle, in DNA repair, and in apoptosis. The cohesin complex is required for the cohesion of sister chromatids after DNA replication. The cohesin complex apparently forms a large proteinaceous ring within which sister chromatids can be trapped. At metaphase-anaphase transition, this protein is cleaved by separase/ESPL1 and dissociates from chromatin, allowing sister chromatids to segregate. The cohesin complex may also play a role in spindle pole assembly during mitosis. Also plays a role in apoptosis, via its cleavage by caspase-3/CASP3 or caspase-7/CASP7 during early steps of apoptosis: the C-terminal 64 kDa cleavage product may act as a nuclear signal to initiate cytoplasmic events involved in the apoptotic pathway.
Belongs to the rad21 family.
The C-terminal part associates with the head of SMC1A, while the N-terminal part binds to the head of SMC3.
Cleaved by separase/ESPL1 at the onset of anaphase. Cleaved by caspase-3 and caspase-7 at the beginning of apoptosis. The cleavage by

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Retrieved Text: Unit 5 - Patrick Stephen Jr.
A student can model what complementary base pairs means in a strand of DNA.
A student can identify the difference between a 5' and a 3' deoxyribose sugar and relate these differences to the leading and lagging strands of DNA.
A student can identify the different sections of a chromosome including (centromeres (acrocentric, metacentric, submetacentric), sister chromatids, coding and non coding bands, telomeres).
A student can create an argument as to why genetic variation is important for the survival of a species.
A student can utilize proper vocabulary in distinguishing the types of cells created during mitosis and meiosis.
A student can explain the differences that occur during prophase and anaphase of mitosis and meiosis I.
A student can create an argument on the age and/or health of a plant or animal tissue by analying the cells in specific mitotic stages.
A student can explain how carcinogens impact the cell cycle controllers such as the p53 gene and the BRCA1 gene.

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Retrieved Text: Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in a certain area in the body that can spread. The way we treat cancer as of now is chemotherapy, or injecting radiation into the body to kill the extra cells. Chemotherapy is very dangerous and kills people all the time, but it is the only way we know of at the moment to treat cancer. When the cancer cell isn’t checked by polymerase and gets sent through and replicates, it makes more and more of the bad cells and is unable to be stopped. Cancer keeps going through the replication process making more cells than needed and unless treated soon, will kill you.
The G1 phase also known as the growth phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle. This phase is where cells and the contents of cells excluding chromosomes. Helicase is used here to unzip the double helix.
The next phase in the cell cycle is the S phase, this is where the chromosomes replicate and consist of two sister chromatids.Genes are located in chromosomes and DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
G2 phase is up next and this is where error check occurs for mutations and preparation of the cell for mitosis using DNA polymerase.Cancer skips this step and just keeps replicating without being checked.
Cell division begins with prophase where the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The chromatin is at its least dense state.
The next phase of cell division is metaphase or the middle phase, this is where chromosomes become

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Retrieved Text: Each of sister chromatids of a chromosme, when they separate during Anaphase, seems to be taking half of the centromere along with it. If this process is repeated, there wouldn't be any centomere left to be divided. So when exactly is this centromere resynthesized to its original size? is it done during G1 or S or G2? Thanks in advance.
Ah, yes I see. Since we are on the topic, then is Kinetochore protein synthesizes during G1 phase and splitted evently during anaphase?
The centromere is an incredibly specialized area of chromatin. It has a distinct and unique complement of proteins. Without looking it up, I believe the actual kinetochore (used during M phase) is added during G2 and is not present during G1/S (when the typical centromere proteins are present that simply associate with its unique DNA regions). The kinetochore is present bilaterally on each chromatid and is split evenly.
See this EM: http://www.wadsworth.org/rvbc/kinetochore_1.jpg which in the upper left figure shows the kinetochore being pulled by microtubules. The puffy stuff on each side of the kinetochore is the adjacent condensed chromatin. This is one chromatid, with the other one off the figure.

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Retrieved Text: The ability of all life to replicate itself for future generations originates in the reproduction of cells.
All cells arise from other cells.
Cells have a limited life span.
During cell division, one cell becomes split into 2 cells. The original cell is called the PARENT CELL. The 2 cells resulting from the division are called DAUGHTER CELLS.
– The cell cycle is the entire lifespan of a cell, starting with its production from a previous parent cell and ending with its division into 2 new daughter cells.
– Compared to the rest of the cells’ life, cell division is a brief and distinct stage in the cells’ life.
– The cell cycle is composed of an orderly sequence of phases that are controlled by the DNA of the cells’ nucleus.
– It is composed of an INTERPHASE where the cell is growing larger and replicating its DNA. Then there is nuclear division, called MITOSIS, that has 4 stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Mitosis ends with the division of the cell into 2 separate daughter cells.
– Interphase is not part of cell division. It is a stage when the cell is growing, metabolizing and replicating its DNA.
– All cells spend most of their lives (about 90%) in Interphase. Some cells never leave the stage of interphase.
– Interphase provides enough time for the cell to grow large enough to eventually divide into 2 daughter cells.
– Interphase is divided into 3 stages; G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase.
– The cell experiences growth in volume and carries on its normal processes.
– If centrioles (small

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Retrieved Text: Here you have a list of opinions about Anaphase and you can also give us your opinion about it.
You will see other people's opinions about Anaphase and you will find out what the others say about it.
Anaphase (from the Greek ἀνά, "up" and φάσις, "stage"), is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the cell cycle's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Metaphase ends with the destruction of B cyclin. B cyclin is marked with ubiquitin which flags it for destruction by proteasomes, which is required for the function of metaphase cyclin-dependent kinases (M-Cdks). Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting complex marks an inhibitory chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for destruction. Securin is a protein which inhibits a protease known as separase. The destruction of securin unleashes separase which then breaks down cohesin, a protein responsible for holding sister chromatids together. The centromeres are split, and the new daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. They take on a V-shape as they are pulled back.
While the chromosomes are drawn to each side of the cell, the non-kinetochore spindle fibers push against each other, in a ratcheting action, that stretches the cell into an oval.
Once anaphase is complete, the cell moves into telophase.
In the image below, you can see a graph with the evolution of the times that people look for Anaphase. And below it, you can see how many pieces of news

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Retrieved Text: Animal Cell Mitosis - CELLS alive!
Events during Mitosis. Interphase: Cells may appear inactive during this stage, but they are quite the opposite.This is the longest period of the complete cell cycle during which DNA replicates, the centrioles divide, and proteins are actively produced.
Mitosis: Mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells. Strictly applied, the term is used to describe the duplication and distribution of chromosomes, the structures that carry the genetic information.
Mitosis - When Cells Split Apart Eventually cells need to duplicate. There are two main methods of replication, mitosis and meiosis.This tutorial will talk about mitosis. The big idea to remember is that mitosis is the simple duplication of a cell and all of its parts.
Mitosis Skit Students should write and perform a skit to show the process of mitosis, using the loose guidelines that follow. These guidelines are intended to help get you started, as well as provide room for the development of a skit that suits your class size, available supplies, and students' creativity.
In this cell division exercise, you drag and drop chromosomes to demonstrate your knowledge of the difference between mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis definition is - a process that takes place in the nucleus of a dividing cell, involves typically a series of steps consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, and results in the formation of two new nuclei each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
You'll find out how cells divide, how organisms grow, and

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Retrieved Text: The first draft of the human genome sequence was reported a year ago. It may be a good time to remind ourselves that the genetic information encoded in the ∼3000-Mb sequence is stored not only in the public or private databases but also in the tiny space of the cell nucleus. The total length of human genomic DNA, which resides in 23 chromosomes, reaches approximately one meter. It is by no means a simple task to fold up the long DNA molecules and package them within a cell nucleus whose diameter is only ∼10 μm. Even more striking is that the DNA molecules are faithfully duplicated and segregated into two daughter cells in an extremely limited space. Although more than 100 years have passed since Walther Flemming first described the dynamic behavior of chromosomes (or mitosis) during cell division, it remains highly mysterious how this remarkable process of chromosome segregation is achieved at a mechanistic level. From a cytological point of view, two dramatic events occur on chromosomes during mitosis. The first one is the conversion of an amorphous mass of interphase chromatin into a discrete set of rod-shaped chromosomes (chromosome condensation), which occurs from prophase to metaphase (Koshland and Strunnikov 1996; Hirano 2000). The second is the splitting of chromosomes into two halves, which takes place highly synchronously at the onset of anaphase (Dej and Orr-Weaver 2000; Nasmyth et al. 2000). As a crucial prerequisite for these events, duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) must be held together immediately after DNA replication in S phase and throughout

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Retrieved Text: How Do Cells Keep From Growing Too Large?
Cells keep from growing too large by undergoing cell division, also known as mitosis. The mitosis process involves a cell splitting off into two daughter cells that contain the same DNA as the original cell.
Mitosis occurs because the outside part of a cell cannot grow as fast as the inside part of the cell. The cell exterior is necessary for transporting oxygen and food to the cell interior. When a cell grows, the interior develops at a quicker rate than the exterior of the cell. As such, the interior develops to the point where the exterior of the cell can no longer transport food and oxygen at a sustainable rate. To remedy this, the cell undergoes mitosis to make the transport of nutrients more efficient through two smaller cells.
The beginning stage of mitosis is called prophase. In prophase, a cell's chromosomes condense and structures called centrioles begin to move in opposite directions within the cell. The next stage is metaphase, which results in the chromosomes forming a line within the middle of the cell.
After metaphase, the chromosomes are pulled apart by spindle fibers and pulled in opposite directions of the cell. The separated chromosomes are genetically identical and are referred to as chromatids. The final stage is telophase, which involves the formation of a nuclear envelope and the completion of two new cells containing the same DNA.

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Retrieved Text: Hey guys, I was just wondering does interphase double the chrosome number from 46 to 92 due to DNA replication?
Is meiosis part of the cell cycle?
HELP - Mitosis and Meiosis???
It doesn't double the chromosome number, but it doubles the amount of DNA. Chromosomes usually look like chromatids, but because you only see them in prophase, you see them with twice the amount of DNA. There are the same number of chromosomes, as the number of centromeres does not increase.
But how can it go from 46 to 46 to 23? How can it divide in way that maintains the same no. of chromosomes after a division into 2 cells?
It contains 46 chromosomes. It divides to give 23 chromosomes in meiosis 1. This then divides again to give 23 chromosomes.
The original DNA has been replicated before division. The reason you think a chromosome lookes like and "X" rather than an "l" is because you only see them during mitosis when they are dividing.
But they are still called a single chromosome, because a) the two strands are exactly the same and b) they are attached to a single centromere.
So it starts with 46, then divides to give 2 cells of 23 each, then those divide to give 4 cells of 23?
the cell goes through normal interphase and chromosones are copied and are visible as sister chromoatids.
chromotids are seperated in meiosis 2.
so to answer your question it goes 2N -> 2N -> N -> N because after interpahse the chromosones are sister chromatids (the have replicated) but they are still

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Retrieved Text: A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G 1 involves cell growth and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G 2 involves further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G 1 , S, and G 2 .
The first stage of interphase is called the G 1 phase , or first gap, because little change is visible. However, during the G 1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated during

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Retrieved Text: It's meiosis that gives us the male and female reproductive cells known as the egg and sperm. In meiosis, two cell divisions take place, which produces four genetically unique cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
I have a brother. He has brown hair and brown eyes. I don't look much like him because I have blonde hair and blue eyes. We share the same parents, yet we don't share all of the same genes. For instance, my brother got the gene for brown eyes, and I got the one for blue eyes. While there are a number of things to consider, it's basically meiosis that gave me different genes than my brother.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes. The term gametes is just the scientific way of saying sperm and eggs. During meiosis, one parent cell divides into two cells and then divides again to make a total of four cells. During all of this dividing, genes get shuffled around, and the number of chromosomes gets cut in half. So the result of meiosis is four genetically unique cells, or gametes, with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Now that we kind of have an overview, let's take a closer look at how this works.
Before we go too far, I want to point out something. Meiosis is different than mitosis, which you might have learned about in a different lesson. In mitosis, we see body cells divide to form identical body cells. For example, skin cells

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Retrieved Text: Reciprocal exchange between homologs, in combination with sister chromatid cohesion, promotes proper segregation of homologs at Meiosis I. Missegregation of chromosomes during meiosis causes abnormal chromosome numbers in gametes. Errors in meiotic chromosome segregation can lead to infertility and, in humans, are responsible for genetic disorders like Trisomy 21.	Meiotic recombination is initiated by double-strand breaks (DSBs). Repair of these breaks is biased to occur by invasion of homologs, not sister chromatids. This bias is mediated both by a meiosis-specific recombinase, Dmc1 and by the suppression of Rad51/Rad54 mediated recombination between sister chromatids. In dmc1 mutants, DSBs fail to get repaired, triggering a recombination checkpoint resulting in a prophase arrest. Mek1, a meiosis-specific kinase activated by DSBs, is required to prevent DSB repair using sister chromatids.	To confirm that inactivation of Mek1 promotes intersister repair, two-dimensional gel analysis was used to look at intersister and interhomolog joint molecules (JMs). Inactivation of a conditional allele of Mek1 in a dmc1 background resulted exclusively in intersister JMs. To determine whether MEK1 suppression of intersister repair requires the presence of homologs, DSB repair was analyzed in haploid strains containing mek1 and dmc1. The finding that dmc1 haploids have unrepaired breaks that are repaired in the absence of MEK1 demonstrates that the mechanism by which MEK1 suppresses intersister repair is specific to sister chromatids. Interestingly, repair in wild-type haploids is either delayed or absent. Comparing DSB repair at different hotspots in disomic haploid and haploid strains, I found that DSBs are repaired only on the disomic chromosomes, indicating that repair on different

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Retrieved Text: In Eukaryotic Cells, Chromosomes Are Composed Of _____.
How is plant cell cytokinesis different from animal cell cytokinesis Plant cells deposit vesicles containing cell-wall building blocks on the metaphase plate; animal cells form a cleavage furrow.
The beginning of anaphase is indicated by which of the following? Cohesin is cleaved enzymatically.
What happens if MPF (mitosis-promoting factor) is introduced into immature frog oocytes that are arrested in G2? The cells enter mitosis.
Once a cell completes mitosis, molecular division triggers must be turned off. What happens to MPF during mitosis? The cyclin component of MPF is degraded.
Density-dependent inhibition is explained by which of the following? As cells become more numerous, the cell surface proteins of one cell contact the adjoining cells and they stop dividing.
A research team began a study of a cultured cell line. Their preliminary observations showed them that the cell line did not exhibit either density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. What could they conclude right away? The cells show characteristics of tumors.
For a chemotherapeutic drug to be useful for treating cancer cells, which of the following is most desirable? It interferes with rapidly dividing cells.
Cells from advanced malignant tumors often have very abnormal chromosomes and an abnormal number of chromosomes. What might explain the association between malignant tumors and chromosomal abnormalities? Cell cycle checkpoints are not in place to stop cells with chromosome abnormalities.
Exposure of zebrafish nuclei to meiotic cytosol resulted in phosphorylation of NEP55 and L68 proteins by cyclin-dependent kinase 2. NEP55 is a protein of the inner nuclear membrane, and L68 is a protein of

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Retrieved Text: Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.
Explain how crossing over between non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair in prophase I can result in an exchange of alleles.
Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes.
Identify which of the offspring are recombinants in a dihybrid cross involving linked genes.
Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two examples, one of which must be human skin colour.

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Retrieved Text: be passed on for the offspring to harness in their lifetime.
getting closer or further away.
what makes us unique. Nucleotides are situated in adjacent pairs in the double helix nature mentioned.
connected by three hydrogen bonds.
able to replicate the DNA to be passed on to offspring.
uncoil, the nucleotides are exposed so that the freely available nucleotides can pair up with them.
strands of DNA involved in replication, the first double helix produces 2 copies of itself via each strand.
used to make a protein.
A base called uracil replaces all thymine bases in mRNA.
The deoxyribose sugar in DNA in is replaced by ribose sugar in mRNA.
G-G-C-A-T-T, then the mRNA would be C-C-G-U-A-A (remember uracil replaces thymine).
mRNA moves out of the nucleus and away from the DNA towards the ribosomes.
assembled. The amino acids are assembled according to three nucleotide base sequences called CODONs.
Each codon codes for a specific amino acid.
amino acids to the site of protein synthesis on the ribosome.
originally proteins that were assembled from amino acids.
Chromosomes are DNA wrapped around proteins to form an Xshaped structure.
chromosomes (46 in humans) and are called DIPLOID (or 2n).
Chromosomes come in pairs, called Homologous Pairs (or homologs).
female. If a sperm cell containing a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg, the offspring will be male.
resulting egg or sperm has 24 instead of the normal 23.
composed of ribosomal RNA and is the site of protein synthesis within the cell.
centrioles are present in the cytoplasm at one end of the cell. Centrioles are not typically present in plant cells.
chromosome is doubled and consists of two chromatids, joined by a

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Retrieved Text: A phosphorylated epitope is differentially expressed at the kinetochores of chromosomes in mitotic cells and may be involved in regulating chromosome movement and cell cycle progression. During prophase and early prometaphase, the phosphoepitope is expressed equally among all the kinetochores. In mid-prometaphase, some chromosomes show strong labeling on both kinetochores; others exhibit weak or no labeling; while in other chromosomes, one kinetochore is intensely labeled while its sister kinetochore is unlabeled. Chromosomes moving toward the metaphase plate express the phosphoepitope strongly on the leading kinetochore but weakly on the trailing kinetochore. This is the first demonstration of a biochemical difference between the two kinetochores of a single chromosome. During metaphase and anaphase, the kinetochores are unlabeled. At metaphase, a single misaligned chromosome can inhibit further progression into anaphase. Misaligned chromosomes express the phosphoepitope strongly on both kinetochores, even when all the other chromosomes of a cell are assembled at the metaphase plate and lack expression. This phosphoepitope may be involved in regulating chromosome movement to the metaphase plate during prometaphase and may be part of a cell cycle checkpoint by which the onset of anaphase is inhibited until complete metaphase alignment is achieved.

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Retrieved Text: target cell cycle proteins for maxi ica stormarknad norrköping degradation by the 26S proteasome. Once degraded, separin is released, cohesin is degraded and sister chromatids are prepared to move to their respective poles for anaphase. By late G1, enough of the G1/S cyclins have accumulated and phosphorylated Cdh1 to inactivate the APC/C until the next metaphase.
NB, are highlighted 1, hemerly, r With apcccdc20 being more dependent on the D box and apcccdh1 more dependent on the KEN box. Has intersport i karlskrona been shown to promote substrate solidariteit bonus champions league binding by mediating their interactions with Cdh1 and Cdc20. M Apc10Doc1, in late prophase 3 doi" de Oliveira 589600 journal"1007s language" van Deursen. Pegoraro, eloy, sagit, galardy, allowing Cdh1 to have a broader substrate specificity. And other mechanisms by which the catalytic activity of apcc is tightly regulated to ensure proper timing of degradation of each of its mitotic substrates 6 Consequently, aPCC 1420682X number" f KW Anaphasepromoting complex KW apcc KW Cdc20 KW Cdh1 KW Spindle assembly checkpoint. C T, emi1 is phosphorylated by Pololike kinase. AC, having two distinct degradation sequences creates a high level of substrate specificity on the apcc. Elofsson, contribute towards substrate association as well. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences issn" C 1 Emi1 association with Cdc20 allows for the stabilization of various cyclins throughout S and G2 phase 64 pages" english US volume"5 TY jour T1 Mitotic regulation of the anaphasepromoting complex AU Baker. A Vargas 10, this, bretz, l Core apcc subunits,.
Cdc20 and Cdh1, indicates that Cdh1 also

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Retrieved Text: What are centromeres composed of?
The chromosome structure is similar in most cases to an X, but the location of the point where the two arms of the X touch may vary. This contact point has a name, of course (a biologist never misses a chance to name something): the centromere.
Without centromeres, cells cannot divide properly and mitosis fails.
Centromeres are actually defined by specific regions of DNA called alpha satellite, which specifically bind centromere proteins.
Scientists have identified over 20 that contribute to forming the centromere complex.
Without them, kinetochores do not have a place to attach to pull the sister chromatids apart.
Why is mitosis necessary for living organisms?
How do cytokinesis and telophase differ?
How do chromosomes divide during anaphase?
How can mitosis be a form of asexual reproduction?
How does mitosis conserve the chromosome number?
How are mitosis and meiosis different?
What are kinetochores made of?

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Retrieved Text: 0:15Skip to 0 minutes and 15 secondsWelcome to the next video for 'Cancer in the 21st century; The Genomic Revolution'. Previously we've looked at cells, their components, and how they work and are controlled by genes under normal conditions. So we can now move on to thinking about how cells grow and divide and how these processes are normally regulated, before we begin to consider how these processes are interrupted in cancer cells. So what is the cell cycle? In most eukaryotic cells there is a series of events which must occur in a particular order which ultimately results in the cell's division and duplication or replication.
0:58Skip to 0 minutes and 58 secondsThe phases or steps in the cycle are controlled by checkpoints, which prevent the cell cycle progressing to subsequent stages until all the necessary molecular events have occurred. Cells begin the cycle by entering interphase. Interphase is where the cell prepares for division by growing and duplicating it's DNA. Interphase can be further broken down into three discrete phases-- G1, S, and G2. In G1, normal cellular functions occur, as well as cell growth where organelle and cytoskeletal components increase. S is the synthesis stage. Nuclear DNA replicates producing two identical copies of each chromosome. During the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow and prepare for mitosis and cell division.
1:58Skip to 1 minute and 58 secondsMitosis-- or the M-phase-- can be further subdivided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the chromosomes become visible and condense. Each identical copy of a single

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Retrieved Text: Following DNA replication, sister chromatids must stay connected for the remainder of the cell cycle in order to ensure accurate segregation in the subsequent cell division. This important function involves an evolutionarily conserved protein complex known as cohesin; any loss of cohesin causes premature sister chromatid separation in mitosis. Here, we examined the role of cohesin in sister chromatid cohesion prior to mitosis, using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to assay the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase Drosophila cells. Surprisingly, we found that sister chromatid cohesion can be maintained in G2 with little to no cohesin. This capacity to maintain cohesion is widespread in Drosophila, unlike in other systems where a reduced dependence on cohesin for sister chromatid segregation has been observed only at specific chromosomal regions, such as the rDNA locus in budding yeast. Additionally, we show that condensin II antagonizes the alignment of sister chromatids in interphase, supporting a model wherein cohesin and condensin II oppose each other’s functions in the alignment of sister chromatids. Finally, because the maternal and paternal homologs are paired in the somatic cells of Drosophila, and because condensin II has been shown to antagonize this pairing, we consider the possibility that condensin II-regulated mechanisms for aligning homologous chromosomes may also contribute to sister chromatid cohesion.
As cells grow, they replicate their DNA to give rise to two copies of each chromosome, known as sister chromatids, which separate from each other once the cell divides. To ensure that sister chromatids end up in different daughter cells, they are kept together

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Retrieved Text: Spatial regulation of the spindle assembly checkpoint and anaphase-promoting complex in Aspergillus nidulans.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) plays a critical role in preventing mitotic errors by inhibiting anaphase until all kinetochores are correctly attached to spindle microtubules. In spite of the economic and medical importance of filamentous fungi, relatively little is known about the behavior of SAC proteins in these organisms. In our efforts to understand the role of gamma-tubulin in cell cycle regulation, we have created functional fluorescent protein fusions of four SAC proteins in Aspergillus nidulans, the homologs of Mad2, Mps1, Bub1/BubR1 and Bub3. Time-lapse imaging reveals that SAC proteins are in distinct compartments of the cell until early mitosis when they co-localize at the spindle pole body. SAC activity is, thus, spatially regulated in A. nidulans. Likewise, Cdc20, an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, is excluded from interphase nuclei, but enters nuclei at mitotic onset and accumulates to a higher level in mitotic nuclei than in the surrounding nucleoplasm before leaving in anaphase/telophase. The activity of this critical cell cycle regulatory complex is likely regulated by the location of Cdc20. Finally, the gamma-tubulin mutation mipAD159 causes a nuclear-specific failure of nuclear localization of Mps1 and Bub1/R1 but not of Cdc20, Bub3 or Mad2.
Chromosome segregation in budding yeast: sister chromatid cohesion and related mechanisms.
Studies on budding yeast have exposed the highly conserved mechanisms by which duplicated chromosomes are evenly distributed to daughter cells at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The establishment of proteinaceous bridges between sister chromatids, a function provided by a ring-shaped complex known as

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Input Text: Process:
- Magma rises from deep in the earth
- The magma goes into volcanos
- The volcanos pressure the magma upwards
- The pressure causes the magma to push through the surface of the volcano
- The lava cools
- The lava forms new rock
- New magma is pressured to the surface of the volcano
- The volcano bursts through the rock the formed after the last eruption.

Question:
suppose the lava cools happens, how will it affect the magma does not burst through the newly formed lava rock.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: Lava rock or Volcanic rock are rocka formed from magma erupted from a volcano. It differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Volcanic rocks are among the most common rock types on Earth's surface, particularly in the oceans. On land, they are very common at plate boundaries and in flood basalt provinces. The lavas of different volcanoes, when cooled and hardened, differ much in their appearance and composition. If a rhyolite lava-stream cools quickly, it can quickly freeze into a black glassy substance called obsidian. When filled with bubbles of gas, the same lava may form the spongy appearing pumice. Allowed to cool slowly, it forms a light-colored, uniformly solid rock called rhyolite.

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are good examples of natural events that can be both awe inspiring and destructive to behold. Events like the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the Italian town of Pompeii, serve as a reminder of a volcano’s explosive and sudden power. A volcanic eruption may appear to be a sudden and spontaneous event but in reality it is the culmination of a very long process over a period of time that can span centuries.
The volcano itself is a geologic formation with long narrow openings that lead to deep within the Earth. These openings are formed by the pressure from the Earth’s tectonic plates either colliding or pulling apart. Much like pipes, the openings transport liquid – in this case magma (molten rock) – which is formed when the heat and pressure within the earth melt the rock. It is this heated magma that eventually comes out of the volcano in the form of molten hot lava.
To explain this process in detail, the melted rock (magma) must go through a circulation first forming at the bottom of the volcano before starting its journey up the volcano’s main vent that leads right to the top of the volcano. The lava makes its way slowly up the main vent, getting hotter and hotter all the while as it is allowed to utilize oxygen in the air to amplify its heat.
The magma turns into an extremely hot liquid when it gets around halfway up the main vent. This liquid is called lava. While continuing its slow and irrevocable journey up

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: Basalt and related rock types (like andesite, dacite, etc.) are rocks that form when volcanoes erupt magma (lava) onto the surface of the earth and the magma cools.
Lava rocks are permeable and are great for absorbing the oil(s) of your choice.

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: Sicily’s Mount Etna began erupting a decent amount of lava – peppered with the occasional ash column – towards the end of February of this year, and plenty have gathered around it to watch the fireworks. A BBC News team happened to get a little bit too close to it today, though, and a sudden explosion almost took them out.
As tweeted by the BBC’s Global Science Correspondent Rebecca Morelle, lava and steam erupted from somewhere near the summit as they were gallivanting around there. Superheated rock and ash flew towards them and a few people nearby, but thankfully – despite a few injuries – everyone’s alive and well.
“Running down a mountain pelted by rocks, dodging burning boulders and boiling steam – not an experience I ever ever want to repeat,” Morelle tweeted earlier today.
This type of volcanic explosion sounds a lot like a phreatomagmatic blast, which involves water interacting with lava. If you just pour lava onto water or ice, the lava lets off a bit of steam and that’s about it. When lava erupts into water along a divergent plate boundary (see: Mid-Atlantic Ridge), the lava balloons outwardly, cools rapidly, and again – that’s about it.
However, if you wrap water up in lava – say, snow-melting down into the volcanic soil and near or into some magma quite close to the surface – something strange happens. The water turns into vapor pretty quickly, which briefly acts as an insulating film between the rest of the water and the lava/magma.
This is known as the Leidenfrost effect,

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Retrieved Text: Diatomite: (Diatomaceous Earth) is composed essentially of the siliceous cases or "frustules" of minute plants known as diatoms which inhabit fresh and salt water. It is a very light, porous substance, somewhat friable.
Dyke: A dyke is an intrusion of magma into a fissure, shouldering aside other pre- existing bodies of rock; a dyke is always younger than the rocks that contain it.
Limonite: A secondary mineral which would have filled the microscopic voids in tree tissues as they decayed replacing wood with mineral.
Pillow lava: This rock shape is most often the result of undersea volcano eruptions. When lava from these eruptions was cooled quickly by the ocean it formed pillow shapes: as the outside hardened and then filled and burst, the fresh molten lava within then spilled over to form another pillow.
Porphyritic: A rock that has a distinct difference in the size of the crystals, with at least one group of crystals obviously larger than another group.
Protolith: The original rock from which a given metamorphic rock is formed. For example, the protolith of marble is limestone.
Ring dyke: A ring dyke typically forms when an underground pool of hot molten rock drains away. The pool's roof then collapses, forming cracks. Molten volcanic rock is then squeezed through the cracks to form dykes, which are roughly circular. As the softer rock eroded the hard volcanic dyke rock on the sides remained.

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Retrieved Text: Download "5thscience earth science (5thscience_earth)"
4 Erosion. Critical Thinking 1. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between weathering and erosion?
Earth s Rocky Surface Earth s surface is not permanent and is constantly changing. Some changes take place very slowly over millions of years, such as crustal plates moving and creating mountains or valleys.
to change. Let s look at what happens to rocks that spend some time on the surface.
Chapter 2: Earth s Structure. The BIG Idea: Heat escaping from Earth s internal layers constantly changes the planet s surface.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition shape Earth s surface.
Think about the landforms where you live. How do you think they have changed over time? How do you think they will change in the future?
WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
Chapter 6. Table of Contents. Section 1 Volcanic Eruptions. Section 2 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions. Section 3 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.
Earth and Space Science. Semester 2 Review. Part 2. - Minerals that split easily or break apart in one direction along a flat surface.
Ride the Rock Cycle. Suggested Goals: Students will gain an understanding of how a rock can move through the different stages of the rock cycle.
The Earth System. The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth s interior.
Igneous rocks formed when hot molten material (magma) cools and hardens (crystallizes).
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is probably derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma (molten rock below the Earth's surface) was apparently in a short account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4, 1737. Serao described "a flow of fiery lava" as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain.
The composition of almost all lava of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas and quartz.
Igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types; felsic, intermediate, and mafic (four if one includes the super-heated ultramafic). These classes are primarily chemical; however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the magma temperature, its viscosity and its mode of eruption.
Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, lava domes or "coulees" (which are thick, short lava flows) and are associated with pyroclastic (fragmental) deposits. Most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. The high viscosity and strength are the result of their chemistry, which is high in silica, aluminium, potassium, sodium, and calcium, forming a polymerized liquid rich in feldspar and quartz, and thus has a higher viscosity than other magma

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Retrieved Text: The Auckland Volcanic Field is monogenetic meaning each volcano usually only erupts once. The field is still active and there is no way to predict where or when the next ‘bubble’ of magma will rise to the surface and create a new volcano. The size and length of each eruption depends on how big the ‘bubble’ of magma was.
If the basalt magma mixes with water (seawater or groundwater) super heated steam blows it apart. This causes a pyroclastic eruption that produces fall and flow deposits and has created the low rings of pyroclastic rock (called tuff) around the craters of many Auckland volcanoes such as Lake Pupuke.
When the magma has no contact with water, lava can fountain out less explosively and build a cone of tephra. Basalt tephra is called scoria so the cones are commonly called scoria cones (e.g. One Tree Hill).
To monitor the Auckland volcanoes there are currently 9 seismographs operated by GNS Science’s GeoNet programme.
Rangitoto means ‘Bloody sky’ and is thought to refer to the serious injury of a Māori chief during a battle.
Rangitoto is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf visible from most parts of Auckland City. It is the most recent, largest and least altered volcano in the Auckland Volcanic Field. This is made up of around 50 small volcanoes that have formed over the last 250.000 years. Rangitoto makes up nearly 60% of the total volume of material erupted. It was formed by at least 2 eruptions 600-700 years ago and is now about 260 m above sea level

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: According to legend, the Giant’s Causeway was built by the Irish giant, Finn MacCool, as a crossing to confront his Scottish rival. Scientists have an alternative explanation, and for the first time they have reproduced in the laboratory the process through which the causeway’s 40,000 near-perfect hexagonal columns were formed.
Geometric columns are seen in a variety of volcanic rocks across the Earth and are known to form as the rock cools and contracts, resulting in a regular array of polygonal prisms or columns. But until now, geologists had been unsure of the threshold at which cooling magma suddenly fractures into a geometric pavement.
To answer the question, Lavallée and colleagues recreated the process in the laboratory using basalt cores drilled from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland. The 20cm-long cylinders, gripped by a clamp at each end, were heated to more than 1,000C until they began to soften into lava. The samples were fixed at each end in a mechanical grip and cooled to test at what point they snapped.
The basalt magma fractured at between 840-890C, the study found, suggesting that this is the temperature at which the Giant’s Causeway would have formed.
In the future, he hopes to extend the investigation by using a large pool of magma to reproduce the geometric fracturing as rock is cooled – although he said such an experiment would need to be performed under carefully controlled conditions.
The Giant’s Causeway formed between 50 and 60 million years ago, when the region that now sits on the Antrim coastline was subject to intense volcanic

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Retrieved Text: Formed from magma that erupts from a volcano, the Lava rock is a beauty of its own kind. Coming from the igneous rock family, this stone is formed when lava cools down above the earth’s surface and takes a solid form. This cooling lava is then shaped into stones. The Lava stone, thus, comes in a variety of shapes, sizes as well as colors.
This magnificent stone connects one to the Mother Nature and blesses the wearer with the raw energy that it has. Lava stone is also known as Basalt and is the oldest stone that exists in this world.
The stone gives the wearer strength, courage, and understanding needed to overcome tough situations. Being a calming stone, it is also helpful in reducing anger. Those who suffer from anxiety can also get the much-needed freedom from anxiety attacks and experience calmness.
It is also believed that wearing gemstone Lava can increase fertility and help one to treat poor libido too.
The incredible Lava rock gemstone may not look like a healing stone, but it surely is. For eons, it has been used as a healing gem. Let’s take a look at the healing properties of this stone!
On the emotional level, the Lava stone is nothing less than a blessing. Equipped with grounding qualities, this stone is a boon for those who wish to calm their emotions and balance their temperament. Wearing this gem can help in stabilizing the soul as well.
In addition, the stone is beneficial in clearing too much energy and those who get stressed easily can

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Retrieved Text: Geology is an important part of the earth’s history and studying how it was formed. Volcanoes and earthquakes are vital to the way the continents.
Geology is an important part of the earth’s history and studying how it was formed. Volcanoes, earthquakes, and other activity are vital to the way the continents and island of today are shaped. Modern man still experiences these amazing acts of nature, whether it happens to summerhouses in Hawaii, or at a volcanic mountain in Japan. Here are some common terms used in the world of geology and volcanic studies.
Active Volcano: A volcano that has been known to erupt in fairly recent times such as Mount Saint Helen; volcano considered potentially dangerous and likely to erupt.
Aquifer: A zone of earth underneath the ground that contains water, which is provided to wells.
Basalt: Dense volcanic rock that is usually black and has a very shiny, glass-like appearance.
Blister: A penetrated area of rock that forms a “blister” like appearance stretched under other rock formations.
Cinder Cone: A large cone formation caused by lava being expelled from an active volcano.
Continental Drift: The formation of continents as a result of the movement of plate tectonics.
Dacite: Volcanic rock that is very light gray in color caused by a mixture of various crystalline minerals.
Debris Flow: The movement and/or path of mudflows caused by volcanoes, mudslides, or other reasons.
Eruption Cloud: A large cloud caused by a volcanic eruption; most can be seen from many miles away, and can last for several days.
Extinct Volcano: Another term for an inactive volcano, or one

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Retrieved Text: Before talking about predicting eruptions, we need to look at why they occur.
Deep inside Earth, between the molten iron core and the thin crust at the surface, there is the mantle, a large layer of rock that is largely solid, but flows like plastic. When, for various reasons, rock from the mantle melts, it sometimes moves to the Earth?s surface through weak spots in the crust, releasing heat, gasses, and rock--a volcanic eruption. But why does this solid rock melt and come to the surface?
Extremely high temperature and pressure can cause the lower mantle to melt and become liquid rock, or magma. When a body of magma rises through the denser rock layers toward Earth's surface, some of it remains liquid. Magma that has reached the surface is called lava.
Magma comes in different "flavors," or compositions. Each of these will produce a different lava, from fluid, fast-moving basalt to slower, more viscous andesite. Because rocks are made up of collections of minerals that melt at different temperatures, the makeup of the rock being melted affects the magma that results.
Take a look at two lava types: pahoehoe and slow, viscous aa.
"Volcanoes" is inspired by programs from Earth Revealed.

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Retrieved Text: Shield Volcano: Mt Hood, OR.
Of the three classes of rock, igneous rock is the most plentiful. Igneous rock forms after a volcano explosion. Mt. Hood in OR has the classic shape of a shield volcano. The Latin word, ignis, means fire and igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, a hot molten or partially molten rock material.
Magma is a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic or Plutonic.
Half Dome, Yosemite, CA a granite monolith.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystalizes slowly within the Earth’s crust. A common example of this type is granite. An example of a granite monolith is Half Dome in Yosemite, CA.
Mt Mazama (of Crater Lake) erupted.
Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupt, either as lava or pyroclastic material forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Such rocks are termed extrusive rocks. An example is “Pumice Castle” made of pumice that hardened in the vent of Mt. Mazama at Crater Lake in OR. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Their texture is classified as “aphanitic” rock. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies, with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the Earth's mantle or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "fire".
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick under the continents, but averages only some 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) beneath the oceans. It is made up of rocks which have a relatively low density, and beneath the crust there is the denser rock of the mantle, which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles). Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
As magma cools, minerals crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium, are commonly associated

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Retrieved Text: Collapse pits on Mars are formed in serveral ways. In volcanic areas, channelized lava flows can form roofs which insulate the flowing lava. These features are termed lava tubes on Earth and are common features in basaltic flows. After the lava has drained, parts of the roof of the tube will collapse under its own weight. These collapse pits will only be as deep as the bottom of the original lava tube. Another type of collapse feature associated with volcanic areas arises when very large eruptions completely evacuate the magma chamber beneath the volcano. The weight of the volcano will cause the entire ediface or structure to subside into the void space below it. Structural features including fractures and graben will form during the subsidence. Many times collapse pits will form within the graben. In addition to volcanic collapse pits, Mars has many collapse pits formed when volatiles (such as subsurface ice) are released from the surface layers. As the volatiles leave, the weight of the surrounding rock causes collapse pits to form.
These collapse pits are found in graben located in Tractus Catena. These features are related to subsidence after magma chamber evacuation of Alba Patera.

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Retrieved Text: Do you know how Jeju island was formed ? If not, it’s a good chance to stretch your knowledge out !
Basically, Jeju island is formed from volcanic activity making it a very interesting island with its unique topological and geological features. Most Koreans have visited Jeju at least once, and if they haven’t, it is something on their list of must do’s.
Around 1.8 million years ago, the Earth was at its coldest temperature since the Paleozoic Era and the Glacial and Interglacial Periods repeated with a period of tens of thousands of years. From this climate change, the sea level repeatedly went up and down by 100m and the southern part of Korea became a plain and continental shelf 100m below the sea level. At the same time, hot hot magma under the southern continental shelf was ready to erupt along the cracks caused by crustal movements.
Around 1.6 millions years ago, the magma finally burst through the cracks and the erupted magma suddenly became cold and crushed in upon itself when meeting the sea in the south. Also, the sea suddenly evaporated and expanded, leading to strong explosion of hydromagmatic volcanoes. These hydromagmatic activities repeatedly occurredover almost one million years and as a result, numerous tuff rings and cones stacked layer by layer underneath Jeju and a volcano-based sedimentary layer called the Seogwipo Layer was formed.
About 600,000 years ago, as Jeju island already appeared well over the sea level, the hydromagmatic eruption began to diminish. The magma became red lava and started to repeatedly cover the

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Retrieved Text: How fast does lava move?
Today’s Wonder of the Day was inspired by Jaye. Jaye Wonders, “How hot does lava get?” Thanks for WONDERing with us, Jaye!
Volcanoes are like huge valves that release pressure from deep inside Earth. When they erupt, they remind us of how powerful the forces are that continually reshape Earth.
Deep inside Earth (90 miles or more), temperatures get hot enough to melt rock. This molten rock is called magma. When it liquefies, it begins to float toward the surface of Earth.
If it breaks through Earth's surface, it is then called lava. Although lava can be spewed into the air through a volcanic eruption, it's more common for lava to flow from a volcano through cracks called fissures.
Lava is made up of mostly silicon and oxygen. As lava escapes and travels before cooling, it often mixes with other elements, such as iron, magnesium, potassium, and calcium.
When lava first breaks through Earth's surface, it is an extremely hot liquid. On average, fresh lava can be between 1,300° F and 2,200° F (700° and 1,200° C)! Depending on its exact temperature, fresh lava usually glows either orange/red (cooler) or white (hotter).
Eventually, lava cools and returns to solid rock again. However, some forms of lava can flow great distances before cooling enough to solidify. The word lava comes from the Italian word for “stream."
Although popular movies may make you worry about the deadly power of lava flows, they usually move slowly enough to give people plenty of time to get out of the way. It's rare for

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Retrieved Text: Scientists say the dramatic increase in flows is likely due to the arrival of younger, hotter magma in the system.
A week after scientists predicted significant shifts in Kīlauea’s eruption style, those changes appear to have begun. The new developments include fresher, hotter magma gushing out of fissures on the southeastern flank of the mountain on Saturday and Sunday.
In another major shift, at least half a dozen explosions of ash and steam have burst from the volcano’s summit since Wednesday, with one blast sending ash plumes higher than 9 kilometers. Although Kīlauea is known as an effusive volcano, producing runny lava that fountains up from vents or oozes out of fissures, it does have a history of explosive activity, last observed in 1924, according to scientists with USGS’s Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO).
Satellite observations after the first round of explosions showed that the summit’s crater vent had nearly tripled the size of its opening from about 5 to almost 14 hectares. In addition, an indentation of about 6 hectares had developed on the east rim of the crater, reflecting a slumping of the rim toward the growing pit.
These shifts in Kīlauea’s eruptive behavior are taking place at two widely separated sites that are linked to the same internal volcanic processes, the scientists explained. Kīlauea’s summit lies more than 30 kilometers from the lower east rift zone, where lava emerging from the ground since the first week of May has destroyed some 40 structures and forced the evacuation of more than 1,000 people.
Scientists suspect that outflows of lava from

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Retrieved Text: Essential Oil Bracelet- Grounding 8mm round gray zebra genuine jasper with Lava rock beads crafted with golden brass adornments.
Lava Stone is a natural rock formed from magma erupted from a volcano. Natural lava stone beads include naturally formed voids and irregular surfaces, making each bead unique, and makes a perfect porous aromatherapy diffuser. We combine these with gray jasper and golden spacers.

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Input Text: Process:
- Magma rises through cracks in the Earth&#x27;s crust
- The pressure causes plates to move
- Magma explodes to the surface
- The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust
- After several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
- 

Question:
suppose more magma rises to the earths crust happens, how will it affect less magma explodes to the surface.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: How does the rock of the Earth’s mantle move?
When the mantle move it makes earthquakes. The top layer moves around because the solar system pushes it around.
One way I think that the plates move when volcanoes erupt because the mantle might be holding the lava that comes out of volcanoes. The other way I think the plates move is by earthquakes because I read about how earthquakes had something to do with the reason that land was split.
I claim that cooled down magma or rock causes the Earth’s mantle to move. My evidence is on diagram 4 it shows a ridge, and on diagram 2 it shows magma rising and when magma rises it turns into rock. And because it gets cooled down by the water above it, it gets more rock and new rocks mean that the older rock from before gets pushed down and gets burnt/recycled, causing a loop.
The Earth’s Tectonic plates move because of plumes of lava rapidly moving up pushing the plates. This process is similar to the way water moves ice under a frozen lake.
I claim Earth’s tectonic plates move because of convection cells pushing tectonic plates apart. My evidence is that the textbook claimed magma was heated near the core rose up pushed against two plates causing them to push apart.
My guess is that maybe they move because of the Mantles temperature or maybe it just moves on its own, but I do know that when the Mantle’s plates move, that it would cause Earthquakes. It could also move because

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Retrieved Text: How Was Mount Kilimanjaro Formed?
Mount Kilimanjaro is a stratovolcano that formed as the plates below it dropped and porous basalt rock magma erupted through the surface of the ocean. The magma and other debris formed layers with each eruption, eventually rising high enough to bring Mount Kilimanjaro to its height of 19,341 feet.
Mount Kilimanjaro emerged from fault movement along part of the Great Rift Valley. The movement occurs in a subduction zone, an area where the oceanic crust descends below the continental crust. As the oceanic slab sinks, magma rises through the porous rock, aiding in the descent of the crust. As magma rises past the crust, it enters an area of the rock known as the mantle, where it pools and adds some of the mantle rock and gases to its composition. Eventually, the built-up magma reaches a high enough pressure that it explodes violently, in what geologists refer to as an explosive eruption. For Mount Kilimanjaro, this process likely began around a million years ago. Repetition of this process eventually formed the three peaks of Kilimanjaro, known as Mawenzi, Shira and Kibo. The last major eruption from this process occurred between 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. Kibo is classified as a dormant volcano, while Mawenzi and Shira are classified as extinct.
Search for Kilimanjaro Information. Find Answers at Teoma.
Where Is Mount Kilimanjaro Located?
What Is a Magma Chamber?

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Retrieved Text: Magma rises to the Earth's surface due to a combination of differences in density with other rocks in the crust and pressure. The differences in density cause it to move upward until its density is the same as the other rocks in the crust. It then builds pressure, causing it to rise to the surface.
Magma is made of molten rocks and minerals. It forms in the lower crust and upper mantle layers of the Earth due to movements in the mantle, changes in temperature or contact with water or carbon dioxide under the surface. These changes cause rocks in the crust to melt, forming magma.
Sometimes, magma collects in magma chambers, and sometimes, it simply rises until its density is the same as the other rocks around it. However, once it has risen, it comes into contact with gases, forming bubbles. In some cases, the magma decompresses too quickly and the bubbles build up and create pressure. This pressure causes the surrounding rock to fracture, letting the magma rise to the surface.
Magma that is created through exposure to water can rise under different conditions. Water causes rock to melt at lower temperatures, so less pressure is involved. However, water usually enters the lower crust through subduction zones in the ocean floor, which also allow the magma to escape.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes come in many shapes and sizes, ranging from common cinder cone volcanoes that build up from repeated eruptions and lava domes that pile up over volcanic vents to broad shield volcanoes and composite volcanoes. Though they differ in terms of structure and appearance, they all share two things. On the one hand, they are all awesome forces of nature that both terrify and inspire.
On the other, all volcanic activity comes down to the same basic principle. In essence, all eruptions are the result of magma from beneath the Earth being pushed up to the surface where it erupts as lava, ash and rock. But what mechanisms drive this process? What is it exactly that makes molten rock rise from the Earth’s interior and explode onto the landscape?
To understand how volcanoes erupt, one first needs to consider the structure of the Earth. At the very top is the lithosphere, the outermost layers of the Earth that consists of the upper mantle and crust. The crust makes up a tiny volume of the Earth, ranging from 10 km in thickness on the ocean floor to a maximum of 100 km in mountainous regions. It is cold and rigid, and composed primarily of silicate rock.
Beneath the crust, the Earth’s mantle is divided into sections of varying thickness based on their seismology. These consist of the upper mantle, which extends from a depth of 7 – 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi)) to 410 km (250 mi); the transition zone, which ranges from 410–660 km (250–410 mi); the lower

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Retrieved Text: Before talking about predicting eruptions, we need to look at why they occur.
Deep inside Earth, between the molten iron core and the thin crust at the surface, there is the mantle, a large layer of rock that is largely solid, but flows like plastic. When, for various reasons, rock from the mantle melts, it sometimes moves to the Earth?s surface through weak spots in the crust, releasing heat, gasses, and rock--a volcanic eruption. But why does this solid rock melt and come to the surface?
Extremely high temperature and pressure can cause the lower mantle to melt and become liquid rock, or magma. When a body of magma rises through the denser rock layers toward Earth's surface, some of it remains liquid. Magma that has reached the surface is called lava.
Magma comes in different "flavors," or compositions. Each of these will produce a different lava, from fluid, fast-moving basalt to slower, more viscous andesite. Because rocks are made up of collections of minerals that melt at different temperatures, the makeup of the rock being melted affects the magma that results.
Take a look at two lava types: pahoehoe and slow, viscous aa.
"Volcanoes" is inspired by programs from Earth Revealed.

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Retrieved Text: How Do Extrusive and Intrusive Environments Differ?
With a background on how melts form and freeze, we can now introduce key features of the two settings intrusive and extrusive in which igneous rocks form.
Different volcanoes extrude molten rock in different ways. Some volcanoes erupt streams of low-viscosity lava that ﬂood down the ﬂanks of the volcano and then cover broad swaths of the countryside. When this lava freezes, it forms a relatively thin lava ﬂow. Such ﬂows may cool in days to months. In contrast, some volcanoes erupt viscous masses of lava that pile into rubbly domes. And still others erupt explosively, sending clouds of volcanic ash and debris skyward, and/or avalanches of ash tumbling down the sides of the volcano.
If magma stayed put once it formed, new igneous rocks would not develop in or on the crust. But it doesn't stay put; magma tends to move upward, away from where it formed. In some cases, it reaches the Earth’s surface and erupts at a volcano. This movement is a key component of the Earth System, because it transfers material from deeper parts of the Earth upward and provides the raw material from which new rocks and the atmosphere and ocean form. Eventually, magma freezes and transforms into a new solid rock.
Magma rises for two reasons. First, buoyancy drives magma upward just as it drives a wooden block up through water, because magma is less dense than the surrounding rock. Second, magma rises because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure at depth that literally squeezes magma

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Retrieved Text: Geology reports don't have to lull readers to dreamland when you explain how a natural force can explode with more power than an atomic bomb, obliterate most of an island, change the weather and hurl shock waves around the globe. These are some of the incredible effects your report can describe when you discuss volcanoes -- one of Earth's most powerful forces.
Pressure causes a multitude of physical actions to occur. Combine heat and pressure and you may create a volcano. Begin your report by explaining how magma -- hot, liquid rock below the earth -- rises because its density is less than the density of the surrounding rocks. The distance the magma moves vertically depends on factors such as the mass of the rocks it must go through and its density. Under intense pressure, dissolved gas in the magma helps propel it upward where it can make it to the surface and into the air depending on the volcano's type. Geologists call magma "lava" when it leaves a volcano via an eruption or vent.
According to the Global Volcanism Program, an extinct volcano is one people don't expect to erupt again, while an active volcano is one that has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Place these important facts into your report along with the definition of dormant: a volcano expected to erupt one day, but which hasn't in the last 10,000 years.
Not All Volcanoes Go "BOOM!"Talk about various types of volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens, a powerful stratovolcano that explodes with fury, hurling gas, rocks

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Retrieved Text: This map shows the boundaries of the Earth's tectonic plates. Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate boundaries.
Molten material beneath the crust of the earth is called magma. When magma leaves the Earth's crust through volcanic activity, it's called lava. Most volcanoes are on plate boundaries, the edges of the tectonic plates, which are like puzzle pieces that that make up the earth's crust. A few volcanoes, like ones found on Hawaii, are instead located over magma hotspots.
A common misconception is that magma comes from the Earth's molten core. It really comes from the mantle, the layer between the core and the crust. The mantle is solid, but it shifts and becomes fluid due to changes in temperature and pressure. The tectonic plates, which carry continents and ocean floors, rest on top of this mantle. As the plates move, the Earth's continents slowly reorganize themselves.
These plates move at about the same rate that your fingernails grow. Volcanic activity mostly takes place at convergent boundaries, where two plates are pressing together. At divergent boundaries, the plates are moving apart, creating a rift valley. Areas where two plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries. Magma rises up through volcanoes because of the pressure of the colliding plates. It rises up through rift valleys to fill the space that the rift creates. See this graphic for more information on these boundaries.
As lava explodes from volcanoes or seeps up to fill rifts, it can seem inexhaustible. In a way, it is. At convergent plate boundaries, one plate can

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes are formed when there is a great stress inside the earth’s crust and the pressure of magma reaches so high that it finds its way upward causing an eruption. Sometimes the magma chamber breaks its sides and only reaches to the flank or summit of volcano and sometimes reaches to the surface causing an eruption. In the volcanoes which are not much active supply the magma from the deeper parts of the earth is not sufficient to cause eruption so most of the times crystals forms and they go down at the bottom releasing gas in the form of bubbles which come to the top of chamber and sometimes the pressure created by these gas bubbles are enough to erupt a volcano or just wait there for a little more push which they get from the next new magma formed within the earth. The heat just triggers the magma for eruption which was there for a long time.
Magma is the melted rocks deep in the earth crust. The rocks melt because of great heat inside and forms a thick liquid called magma and when it comes to the surface it is called as â€œlavaâ€ and flows into the air in the form of ashes etc.
If the volcanic eruption is explosive then the matter forms a cloud of hot tephron. The things coming in its way are almost destroyed. Ashes which are released in the sky fell on the earth in the form of powdery snow and it doesnâ€™t melts. A huge mass of snow can

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Retrieved Text: Ride down the highway with a geologist, and you will never look at roadcuts in the same way. These dynamited cliffs along roadsides expose rocks that had previously been inaccessible. Geologists studying these road cuts can decipher the processes that shaped these rocks and the surrounding landscape. Marine geologist Kathy Gillis studies the seafloor equivalent of road cuts. Faults along the seafloor at the mid-ocean ridges have ripped open the ocean crust, creating rifts in the seafloor that are as deep as six kilometers. For Kathy, the exposed ocean crust provides a window into the processes that take place under the seafloor.
Kathy in Oman - writing notes as she is mapping the geology. Oman has an ophiolite, a sequence of rocks that is thought to be similar to the oceanic crust.
The ocean crust is born at the mid-ocean ridges. There the earth’s tectonic plates spread apart and volcanic eruptions bring magma to the surface. Like a giant conveyor belt, the plates then carry the newly formed ocean crust away from the ridges until it is subducted beneath another plate. During this 100 million-year journey, the crust undergoes many changes. One of the chief culprits is seawater that circulates beneath the seafloor. This water triggers chemical reactions and deposits and removes chemicals and minerals from the crust.
The greatest changes to the crust take place in the beginning of the journey at the mid-ocean ridges. Magma heats up the water that has seeped down into the crust to as high as 750°C. The extreme heat triggers many chemical

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Retrieved Text: "Magmatic" redirects here. For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma.
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and once in Hawaii.
Most magmatic liquids are rich in silica. Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is

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Retrieved Text: Metals and sulphur in deep magma reservoirs may float towards Earth’s surface by hitching a ride on vapour bubbles, reports a study published online this week in Nature Geoscience. The mechanism identified in the study could explain the massive transfer of nickel from magmas to the atmosphere during the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, the Permian/Triassic extinction event.
Magmas deep within Earth’s crust are often partly composed of sulphide melts that contain metals and sulphur. The metals, such as copper and gold, can accumulate in the shallow crust to form rich ore deposits, and the sulphur - when emitted during volcanic eruptions - can affect climate. However, sulphide melts are dense, so would be expected to sink to the bottom of the magma reservoir, making it unclear how the metals and sulphur migrate to shallower depths.
James Mungall and colleagues use laboratory experiments and theoretical models to analyse the behaviour of sulphide melts in magma rich with vapour bubbles. They find that small droplets of the sulphide melt can attach to the vapour bubbles and use the buoyancy of the bubbles to float upwards. This mechanism explains a possible route for the transfer of metals into the shallow crust to form ore deposits, as well as a process for the release of large amounts of sulphur into the atmosphere.

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Retrieved Text: And How Does Geothermal Energy Work?
What is geothermal energy, and how does geothermal energy work? I will answer these two common questions on this page.
For links to other geothermal topics, please see the main page for geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is a form of thermal energy, the internal energy in substances - or more correctly - the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. This causes friction and results in the creation of heat energy.
Geothermal heat originates from the "big bang" - more than four billion years ago - when burning dust and gas consolidated to form the earth.
At 6,400 kilometres deep, the earth’s core temperatures reach more than 4,982 degrees Celsius. This geothermal heat continuously flows outwards towards the surface of the earth, heating the surrounding layer of rock - which is known as the mantle.
When the temperature is hot enough, some of the mantle rock melts and becomes magma.
Magma is lighter than the surrounding rock. It rises up towards the earth’s crust, carrying the heat from below. The magma heats the rocks and water below the earth's crust to temperatures of up to 371 degrees Celsius.
Some of the hot water makes its way to the earth's surface through faults and cracks, emerging as either hot water or steam. This results in the formation of hot springs and geysers.
The hot water also collects deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural collection of hot water is known as a geothermal reservoir.
When we make use of the hot water, steam or hot rock

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Retrieved Text: South African Journal of Geology (2010) 113 (1): 1-32.
The life of a magmatic Ni sulfide deposit can be envisaged as a series of stages: (1) birth of the magma in the source (mantle melting); (2) development of the magma (ascent into the crust); (3) fertilisation of the magma (interaction with the crust and the early development of immiscible sulfides); (4) delivery (ascent of the magma+immicible sulfides to a high level in the crust); (5) growth (concentration of the sulfides during magma emplacement); (6) nourishment (enrichment of the sulfides by further flowing magma) and (7) full maturity (cooling and crystallization of the host magma and related sulfides). In this paper the chemical and physical parameters constraining these stages are discused in theory and then with reference to three major Ni sulfide camps, Noril’sk, Voisey’s Bay and Kambalda.
Modeling of partial melting, followed by magma ascent and early fractionation indicates that unless a magma interacts with its surroundings in a manner to change its SCSS (sulfur content at sulfide saturation) or acquires additional sulfur, it will not achieve sulfide saturation until much of its contained Ni has been removed in early crystallising olivine. In most cases (e.g. Noril’sk and Voisey’s Bay), it is apparent that external sulfur has been assimilated from country rocks. If, as has been the case at Noril’sk and Voisey’s Bay, too much sulfur has been assimilated (i.e. the initial R factor is low), modeling indicates that the deposits have only achieved economic viability as a result of subsequent, high temperature magmatic upgrading of the intially

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Retrieved Text: ­We depend on our cars to take us to work and get our children to school. We rely on our home heating systems to keep us warm in the winter. We take it for granted that we can easily switch on our computer, vacuum cleaner or oven.
Yet scientists say the sources of energy we need to power all these modern conveniences are running dangerously low. We could run out of oil in as little as 40 years, and out of natural gas soon after that [source: The Independent]. These fossil fuels have been percolating beneath the Earth for hundreds of millions of years, and once they're gone, they're going to take millions more years to replenish. Not only are we running out of fossil fuels, but they're adding to our environmental woes by releasing nasty byproducts that increase pollution and contribute to global warming.
­Scientists are running a race against time to find cleaner, more efficient, renewable sources of energy. One potential source that we've barely tapped is right underneath our feet. Deep inside the Earth lies hot water and steam that can be used to heat our homes and businesses and generate electricity cleanly and efficiently. It's called geothermal energy -- from the Greek words geo, or "earth," and therme, meaning "heat."
There is plenty of heat in the center of the Earth. The deeper you dig, the hotter it gets. The core, about 4,000 miles (6,437 kilometers) beneath the surface, can reach temperatures of 7,600 degrees Fahrenheit (4,204 degrees Celsius). Part of that heat is left

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: Magma Chamber Surprisingly Close to Hawaii's Surface?
Lava glows through a hole in the crust of Kilauea volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii (file picture).
Lava source found within two miles of surface, research suggests.
A giant magma chamber burning beneath the Hawaiian Islands is closer to the surface than any other magma chamber yet measured—as little as 1.9 to 2.5 miles (3 to 4 kilometers) below the surface, scientists say.
But Hawaiians don't need to worry about plunging into the magma below, say, during an earthquake—two miles of solid rock is more than enough to keep that from happening, according to geology undergraduate Julie Ditkof, who presented the findings December 14 at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco.
Using a method developed in Iceland—another volcanic island—by Michael Barton, Ditkof's advisor and research partner at Ohio State, she paid particular attention to olivine, the first mineral in Earth's crust to crystallize as temperatures and pressures drop.
The ratios of certain elements in each olivine sample told her how deep the lava had been when it left the magma chamber and began crystallizing—and therefore the depth of the magma itself, said Ditkof, whose findings have not been published in a peer-reviewed journal.
The magma-depth discovery may settle a longstanding debate.
Even after the incident, though, scientists were unsure as to the general depth of the magma chamber, or chambers, that produce most of the Big Island's lava, as magma is called once it hits the surface.
Some prior studies of other minerals in Hawaiian volcanic rock, for example, had suggested that

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Retrieved Text: 3.A.3 How Does Rock Melt?
What are these conditions that lead to the formation of magma?
Why is it we sometimes get melt and sometimes don't?
in the middle of South America there are no volcanoes?
along the cascade chain in North America, or in Japan.
to produce magma, some of which comes up and erupts at volcanoes.
we'll just look at these briefly.
The first cause of melting is a phenomena called decompression melting.
gas depends on the pressure and temperature conditions that it's in.
what we've done is we've changed the temperature without changing the pressure.
temperature in the freezer it becomes solid.
we're changing the temperature but keeping the pressure the same.
It undergoes a change of state and becomes liquid.
not by changing the temperature but by changing the pressure.
it's not only very hot, but it's also under a great amount of pressure.
level on the crust, even at geologic rates on the order of a few centimeters a year.
Rock is a good insulator, so it's not going to lose it's heat very fast.
So, it can make that rise and still be very hot.
where the pressure is less.
In fact, the pressure is low enough that that block starts to melt.
takes place when we don't change the temperature but decrease the pressure.
So that's one way we have can melting take place.
with the red line, the conditions of pressure and temperature in the Earth.
And with the black line, the conditions at which rock starts to melt.
conditions that the rock takes if it goes from deeper depth up to shallower depth.
And what happens is if that rise happens fast

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Retrieved Text: Université de la Réunion - Rift zones and magma plumbing system of Piton de la Fournaise volcano: How do they differ from Hawaii and Etna?
Rift zones and magma plumbing system of Piton de la Fournaise volcano: How do they differ from Hawaii and Etna?
Abstract : On ocean basaltic volcanoes, magma transfer to the surface proceeds by subvertical ascent from the mantle lithosphere through the oceanic crust and the volcanic edifice, possibly followed by lateral propagation along rift zones. We use a 19-year-long database of volcano-tectonic seismic events together with detailed mapping of the cinder cones and eruptive fissures to determine the geometry and the dynamics of the magma paths intersecting the edifice of Piton de la Fournaise volcano. We show that the overall plumbing system, from about 30 km depth to the surface, is composed of two structural levels that feed distinct types of rift zones. The deep plumbing system is rooted between Piton des Neiges and Piton de la Fournaise volcanoes and has a N30–40 orientation. Above 20 km below sea level (bsl), the main axis switches to a N120 orientation, which permits magma transfer from the lithospheric mantle to the base of the oceanic crust, below the summit of Piton de la Fournaise. The related NW-SE rift zone is 15 km wide, linear, spotted by small to large pyroclastic cones and related lava flows and emits slightly alkaline magmas resulting from high-pressure fractionation of clinopyroxene ± olivine. This rift zone has low magma production rate of ~ 0.5–3.6 × 10 −3 m 3 s

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Retrieved Text: The volcanic activity comes to no surprise as Kilauea sits above the Hawaiian hotspot. Scientists have been studying and monitoring Kilauea for years trying to better understand how volcanoes operate in hopes of being able to better predict when eruptions will occur and to lessen the impact on humans.
Over the last couple weeks, Kilauea, one of the volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii and one of the world’s most active volcanoes, has heated up. There have been almost two dozen eruptions in Kilauea’s East Rift Zone and explosive eruptions from Kilauea’s main crater. Since May 3, eruptions have been spewing lava into residential areas, destroying homes, roads, and numerous other structures. These eruptions are a result of an increase in pressure of the magma chamber that fuels the volcano in addition to the intrusion of magma into the side of the volcano.
A hotspot is an area of volcanic activity at a relatively stationary location. What makes hotspot volcanism unique is that it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates, where most other volcanoes are located. Instead, volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centers within tectonic plates as a result of a mantle plume. Mantle plumes act like a stream of heated lava rising in a lava lamp where they represent the rising of extremely hot rock within the Earth’s mantle. Like the lava lamp where the lamp is heated at the base by the light bulb, the mantle is heated at its base by Earth’s outer core causing the warmer (less dense) mantle

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Retrieved Text: BASICSA HUMAN PERSPECTIVE Sally Ride, America’s first female astronaut, wrote the following after one of her trips into space: I also became an instant believer in plate tectonics; India really is crashing into Asia, and Saudi Arabia and Egypt really are pulling apart, making the Red Sea even wider. Even though their respective motion is really no more than mere inches a year, the view from overhead makes the theory come alive.
From space, Ride was seeing evidence of the internal forces that have shaped the earth’s surface.
The internal forces that shape the earth’s surface begin beneath the lithosphere. Rock in the asthenosphere is hot enough to flow slowly.
Heated rock rises, moves up toward the lithosphere, cools, and circulates downward. Riding above this circulation system are the tectonic plates, enormous moving pieces of the earth’s lithosphere. You can see the position of the tectonic plates in the map below.
Geographers study the movement of the plates and the changes they cause in order to understand how the earth is continually being reshaped—and how earthquakes and volcanoes occur.
sliding past each other in a shearing motion.
The diagrams below show details about plate movement.
Divergent boundary—Plates move apart, spreading horizontally.
Convergent boundary—Plates collide, causing either one plate to dive under the other or the edges of both plates to crumple.
Transform boundary—Plates slide past one another.
An example of a divergent boundary is the one between Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The two plates on which those countries sit are spreading apart, making the Red Sea even wider. The Red Sea is actually a part of

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: Tens of thousands of people have evacuated their land in Bali as the nearby volcano Mount Agung angrily spits ash and its magma rises. Many Balinese hold the mountain sacred and accept its occasional outbursts as moral admonishments whereas geologists consider this activity a routine part of Earth’s behavior. But scientists have found another force—climate change—affects the frequency of eruptions. Now a new study shows even relatively minor climate variations may have such an influence. If they are right, today’s global warming could mean more and bigger volcanic eruptions in the future.
Throughout its history Earth has gone through periods of massive natural climate change such as entering and leaving ice ages. Scientists have noted volcanic eruptions tended to increase as glaciers melted. In a recent study published in Geology researchers looked at smaller-scale changes in glacial coverage to see if these incremental differences had any effect.
The scientists focused on eruptions in Iceland about 5,500 to 4,500 years ago. During that period Earth’s climate cooled and glaciers grew, but there was no full-blown ice age. To reconstruct a timeline of volcanic activity, the researchers examined the Icelandic eruption record as well as a record of the ash that fell in Europe during those Icelandic eruptions, which ultimately settled into microscopic layers in the continent’s peat bogs and lakes, study author Graeme Swindles says. He and his colleagues matched these layers to specific Icelandic volcanoes then developed a detailed timeline of increases and decreases in eruptions.
When the scientists compared the volcanic record with glacial coverage, they found the

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Retrieved Text: What type of surface movement existed before plate tectonics?
It the assumption is made that the earth was mainly liquid ball there would have been convection currents in the liquid.
The crust is hardened magma. It is possible that at one time there was as yet no crust. The convection current would have moved the liquid surface of the earth. As the crust hardened the crust would have formed the divisions in the crust that now the tectonic plates.
The basic movement of the liquid magma would have ben the same.

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Retrieved Text: The classic mode for volcanic eruption is that when tectonic plates move. magma hot spots (signaled by a mantle plume, which is a hot upwelling from below the earth’s crust), breaks through gaps between the plates, resulting in a volcano. As the tectonic plate moves, new volcanoes erupt and those no longer open to magma below the earth’s crust, become dormant.
But on the West Coast of Antarctica, no hot spots could be discovered in a group of eight large volcanoes, the Marie Byrd Seamounts. How were they formed? Isotopic dating finds that these volcanoes were formed when part of the earth’s crust poles apart 60 million years ago and the fractures allowed fossilised mantle plume material to escape to the surface. Since they formed over a long period of time and in the same area, a hotspot is not a tenable theory, though studies have shown that more than one type of magma fed the volcanoes which resemble those found in volcanic fields offshore New Zealand.
Antarctica always sets science a problem and continues to be at the cutting edge.

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Retrieved Text: Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.
Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: A warming planet due to human-induced climate change will likely contribute to an increase in volcanic activity, according to a recent study in the journal Geology.
While a relationship between climate and volcanism might seem counter-intuitive, it turns out that pressure exerted by thick glaciers on the Earth's crust — what geologists call "surface loading" – has an impact on the flow of magma below the surface.
The correlation affects "magma flow and the voids and gaps in the Earth where magma flows to the surface as well as how much magma the crust can actually hold," the study's lead author Graeme T. Swindles, an associate professor of Earth system dynamics at the University of Leeds, wrote in an email to Scientific American.
In the study published last month, Swindles' team examined the geologic record of eruptions of Icelandic volcanoes 5,500 to 4,500 years ago – a period in Earth's history when the climate was cooler, but still not a full-blown ice age. The level of volcanic activity was discerned by looking at the record of ash that settled on the peat bogs and lakes that fell over Europe, Swindles says.
Comparing the volcanic record with glacial coverage, the team found that the number of eruptions dropped significantly as the climate cooled and ice cover increased. The eruptions that did occur also tended to be smaller in magnitude.
"There's a big change in the record in the mid-Holocene [epoch], where we see no volcanic ash in Europe and very little in Iceland," says Swindles. "This seems to overlap with a time

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======= Instance Index 22711 =========
Input Text: Process:
- You breathe in
- Diaphragm and other muscles expand to allow room for your lungs to fill
- The air flows into the narrow bronchioles in the lungs
- From the bronchioles to the alveoli
- The oxygen enters into the bloodstream
- Is switched with the carbon dioxide in the bloodstream
- The carbon dioxide enters through the alveoli
- Through the narrow bronchioles
- Into the lungs
- The carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body.

Question:
suppose less oxygen is switched with carbon dioxide happens, how will it affect less carbon dioxide is exhaled.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Diffusing capacity is a measure of how well oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred (diffused) between the lungs and the blood, and can be a useful test in the diagnosis and to monitor treatment of lung diseases. Diffusing capacity can also be important prior to lung surgery as a predictor of how well the surgery will be tolerated. Diffusing capacity may be reduced in a few ways, and doctors usually use the measure along with other pulmonary function tests to diagnose and determine the severity of either restrictive or obstructive lung diseases.
Treatment monitoring: Diffusing capacity may be monitored to determine whether a condition has worsened, or if it has improved with treatment.
Pre-surgical: With lung cancer, diffusing capacity is an important test for people who are considering lung cancer surgery because it can help doctors determine (along with other factors) how well someone will tolerate surgery.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both need to pass through a thin layer in the lungs called the alveolar-capillary membrane. This is the layer between the small air sacs in the lung (the alveoli) and the smallest blood vessels that travel through the lungs (capillaries).
How well oxygen that is inhaled can pass (diffuse) from the alveoli into the blood, and how well carbon dioxide can pass from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and be exhaled, depends on how thick this membrane is, and how much surface area is available for the transfer to take place.
There are two separate mechanisms by which diffusing capacity may be reduced.
Diffusing capacity may be low if a

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: How Does Nitrogen Enter Our Body?
How Does the Skeletal System Work With the Respiratory System?
As a species, humans require air to survive; a need it shares with most other members of the Kingdom Animalia. After a human breathes in Earth's air (roughly 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), he or she exhales a mixture of compounds similar to the air inhaled: 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent argon, and four percent carbon dioxide. Some scientists suggest that exhaled air contains as many as 3,500 compounds, most of which are in microscopic amounts. There is some variability in this, however. Air quality can affect both the content of what humans both breathe in and breathe out, a concern some conservationists worry about when it comes to industries and automobiles releasing potentially harmful gases. Similarly, some doctors suggest that monitoring the chemical content of an air a human exhales can be a useful diagnostic tool in catching respiratory ailments.
Humans, and many other species, need air to live. They breathe in the combination of elements and compounds and exhale a similar set with different proportions. Exhaled air consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 4 percent carbon dioxide and potentially thousands of other compounds.
Humans, along with many other animals, breathe in air through their mouth, into their lungs. The chest cavity containing the lungs expands and contracts with the diaphragm as it moves down and up. Inside the lungs, small sacs called the alveoli fill with the air. From there the oxygen in the air

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: What is the difference between carbon and carbon dioxide?
Why is carbon dioxide called carbon dioxide?
What is the difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide?
What's the difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide?
Why is carbon dioxide a gas while silicon dioxide a solid?
How silicon dioxide differs from carbon dioxide?
How can carbon dioxide be split into carbon and oxygen?
How can carbon monoxide turn to carbon dioxide?
How much carbon dioxide is produced on heating 1 kg of carbon?
What happens when carbon dioxide reacts with carbon monoxide?
CO and CO2 – What’s the difference?
They absorb carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. What could be more desirable? And they look good in the bargain. Stop chopping down the rain forests and plant more saplings, and we're on our way.

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: The primary function of the lungs is to allow the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the blood. While the inhaled oxygen-rich air is diffused into the blood, carbon dioxide from the blood is received by the lungs and exhaled. This function of the lungs may be affected by various conditions such as asthma and bronchitis, where the air passages become narrowed causing difficulty in breathing. Many tests are performed to evaluate lung function. One such test, diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide or DLCO, measures the diffusion capacity, the lungs’ ability to exchange gases with the bloodstream.
Several hours before the test, you are instructed to stop smoking, eating and taking any inhaled medications such as bronchodilators. To perform the test, you will inhale air that contains a small amount of a tracer gas (carbon monoxide). Inhalation is performed orally through a well-fitted mouthpiece, while your nostrils are clipped shut. The breath is then held for 10 seconds after which you are instructed to exhale rapidly. The exhaled air is tested to determine carbon monoxide levels, which indicates the amount of gas exchange. This is a quick test and is a safe procedure.
Diffusion capacity can measure whether lung function is worsening or improving with treatment. It may help diagnose various lung conditions such as pulmonary embolism, emphysema, pulmonary hypertension and lung hemorrhage.

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Retrieved Text: AbsorptionAbsorptionjCools down8 If the amount of solar energy is less than the amount radiated, then the earth cools down. Greenhouse EffectSUNTo a certain degree, the earth acts like a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun penetrates the glass of a greenhouse and warms the air and objects within the greenhouse. The same glass slows the heat from escaping, resulting in much higher temperatures within the greenhouse than outside it.
9How different greenhouse gases are mixing into the atmosphere Earths Atmospheric GasesNitrogen (N2)Oxygen (O2)Water (H2O)Carbon Dioxide (CO2)Methane (CH4)Non-GreenhouseGases99%GreenhouseGases1%11Likewise, the earths atmospheric gases affect the ability of the earth to radiate the Suns energy back into space. Nitrogen and Oxygen make up 99% of the earths atmospheric gases and are non-greenhouse gases. Water, Carbon Dioxide, and Methane make up 1% of the earths atmosphere, but are greenhouse gases, since they cause the earth to retain heat. The U.S. emits about 6.4 billion metric tons of greenhouse gases annually, 25% of the worlds total.Carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for approximately 100 years, methane lasts about 12 years. Other greenhouse gases last even longer.As these gases continue to raise surface temperatures, they trigger the release of even greater quantities of carbon dioxide and methane that are currently trapped in frozen Arctic permafrost and tundra soils, further increasing temperatures.potentially causing runaway global warming.
12Worldwide Carbon EmissionsCarbon (109 metric tons)012345678175018001850190019502000YearLiquid fuelTotalGas fuelSolid fuel13This spike is due to the exponential increase in the use of fossil fuels over the last 150 years. Shown here are emissions of carbon from gas, solid, liquid fuels, and the

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory system provides an exchange route for carbon dioxide and oxygen gas between the alveoli and in pulmonary capillary blood. The oxygen inhaled diffuses across alveoli walls into the blood where it mixes with hemoglobin in the blood and transported to the heart. After the blood circulation, the carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs for elimination inform of bicarbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the lungs through alveoli walls and is exhaled outside through the nose. Pressure of the two gases is monitored by peripheral chemoreceptors found in the carotid bodies and central chemoreceptors found in the medulla. Peripheral nervous system contains autonomic nervous system that affects the heart rate. Autonomic nervous system contains sympathetic nervous system that increases the heart rate while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases the heart rate. The purpose of this exercise is to see the effects of different type of breathing conditions on heart and blood pressure. I hypothesize that the heart rate and blood pressure tends to increase from the normal condition through hyperventilation to re-breathe condition.
At rest, the heart beats about 60 to 80 times a minute. The blood pressure rises with every rise of a heartbeat and relaxes when the heartbeat falls. For a normal and a healthy adult, the blood pressure is around 120/80 mm HG. Blood pressure that stays between 120-139/80-89 is considered pre-hypertension while that above 140/90 mm HG is usually considered as hypertension. In normal conditions during the experiment, the heart rate beats at 110/76 while the blood pressure

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Retrieved Text: The Personal Climate Change Calculator is an easy to use tool which will help you measure your climate-affecting carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. After calculating your carbon footprint, you will be presented with a convenient option for offsetting these emissions by making a donation to plant trees in one of AMERICAN FORESTS Global ReLeaf forest restoration projects. Each tree costs just $1 and is “planted” with the click of a mouse.
Why plant trees? According to AmericanForests.org, during photosynthesis, a tree "inhales" CO2 from the air and then separates the carbon from the oxygen molecules. The carbon is absorbed by the tree, which then "exhales" pure oxygen back into the air for us to breathe. This process, called sequestration is how forests have always helped regulate the earth's atmospheric balance. Trees, then, are natural regulators of the Earth's atmospheric balance, sequestering carbon and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that builds up in the atmosphere. The less excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the lower the "greenhouse effect," and the less chance that we will suffer the devastating weather effects associated with a rapid shift in our planet's climate.
Plant a tree. Breathe deeply!

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Retrieved Text: facing the fire: Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
Marathon runners not a source of CO2 to atmosphere -- shocker!
The House Committee on Energy and Commerce has developed what is arguably the broadest (non-tax-oriented) jurisdiction of any Congressional committee. Today, it maintains principal responsibility for legislative oversight relating to telecommunications, consumer protection, food and drug safety, public health, air quality and environmental health, the supply and delivery of energy, and interstate and foreign commerce in general. This jurisdiction extends over five Cabinet-level departments and seven independent agencies--from the Energy Department, Health and Human Services, the Transportation Department to the Federal Trade Commission, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal Communications Commission — and sundry quasi-governmental organizations.
Which is to say, this is a pretty powerful committee. They get to advance (or squelch) a lot of potentially important legislation. And Barton, as ranking member, is a powerful guy within this powerful committee. So it matter that he thinks crazy things, like that marathon runners could be considered a source of pollution. Yeah, didn't you read that article? It goes back to the EPA's decision that carbon dioxide can be considered a pollutant, and as such can be regulated. Barton thinks that people are point sources of carbon dioxide, and I guess because marathons are a large group of heavily exhaling people, Joe thinks that means a large source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The point Barton is trying, and failing, to make is that carbon dioxide is difficult to regulate because it is a naturally

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Retrieved Text: Breathing is an involuntary event. How often a breath is taken and how much air is inhaled or exhaled are tightly regulated by the respiratory center in the brain. Humans, when they aren’t exerting themselves, breathe approximately 15 times per minute on average. Canines, like the dog in Figure 1, have a respiratory rate of about 15–30 breaths per minute. With every inhalation, air fills the lungs, and with every exhalation, air rushes back out. That air is doing more than just inflating and deflating the lungs in the chest cavity. The air contains oxygen that crosses the lung tissue, enters the bloodstream, and travels to organs and tissues. Oxygen (O2) enters the cells where it is used for metabolic reactions that produce ATP, a high-energy compound. At the same time, these reactions release carbon dioxide (CO2) as a by-product. CO2 is toxic and must be eliminated. Carbon dioxide exits the cells, enters the bloodstream, travels back to the lungs, and is expired out of the body during exhalation.

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Retrieved Text: However, unlike veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide. Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism), there is a surge through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is taken up.
Capillaries have very thin walls comprised only of endothelial cells, which allows substances to move through the wall with ease. Capillaries are very small, measuring 5-10 micrometres in width. However, the cross-sectional area of capillaries within an average size muscle would be larger than that of the Aorta. This allows a fast and efficient transfer of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to the site where they are needed.

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Retrieved Text: It is thought that it was the volcanic activity of a young Earth that produced gases that formed the Earth's early atmosphere. The early atmosphere is thought to have been similar to that of Mars or Venus today, with a large amount of carbon dioxide and little/no oxygen. Volcanoes produced lots of nitrogen, and there was probably some methane and ammonia too. There was also a lot of water vapour in the air, which eventually condensed to form oceans when the Earth cooled.
Today's atmosphere is made of mostly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and argon. Depending on location, the water vapour can change - but the other gases' percentages remain almost constant.
The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint, which is inserted into a container of the gas. If the flame reignites, then oxygen is present.
Since about 1850, there has been an increase in the burning of fossil fuels for energy and industry. During this time the world's carbon dioxide levels have been increasing, and since we know burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide - this is pretty good evidence that the two are related.
As the levels of carbon dioxide have increased, the average temperature of the Earth's surface has also risen. Whilst there is a strong correlation between the two, correlation doesn't necessarily mean there is a link between the two.
Scientists have been able to show in the lab that carbon dioxide absorbs infrared ratiation, and satellites have been able to show that as carbon dioxide levels have increased - less infrared radiation has

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Retrieved Text: Within the body, there are a total of four pulmonary veins, and all of them connect to the left atrium of the heart. The heart pumps oxygen-depleted blood into the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Once the blood has been oxygenated, it returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. Then, the heart circulates this newly oxygenated blood throughout the body. In this way, pulmonary veins are different from other veins in the body, which are used to carry deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body back to the heart. The left pulmonary veins connect with the left lung, and the lungs themselves are filled with hollow air sacs called alveoli. This is where oxygen is removed from inhaled air. This also works as a gas exchange. Oxygen enters the blood while carbon dioxide leaves the blood stream. This carbon dioxide is then exhaled out of the body.

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Retrieved Text: Is Competency with our Equipment a Safety Problem?
Supplemental O2 for MAC Cases: Is it Valuable? Is it a Hazard?
What is Value of F102 Monitoring Compared to Pulse Oximetry?
I need advice on addressing what I feel is an unsafe practice in our operating room regarding supplemental oxygen to patients having cataract extraction utilizing M.A.C.
Currently the patient has applied NIBP, EKG, pulse oximeter, and I additionally add a sternal notch stethoscope. A large curved perforated aluminum bar (placed in the traditional ‘ether screen” location) with 8-10 L/M oxygen flowing through it and out near the patient’s head is installed, the patient is sedated minimally, and the retrobulbar block is administered by the surgeon. The patient is then draped with disposable draping material with the long body sheet tented up onto one IV poll to allow visualization of the patient’s lower face and to allow escape of accumulated supplemental oxygen and exhaled carbon dioxide.
c. May promote rebreathing of the exhaled carbon dioxide which is not being properly vented away from the patient?
Fires in the OR are reported and the dangers are worse with the unregulated flammability of disposable drapes. I even saw a lengthy article on the subject in a professional firefighting journal.
I would appreciate any information to provide a safer anesthesia experience for our patients.
Editor’s Note: Readers are invited to respond and replies will be considered for publication in this column.

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Retrieved Text: We are working our way through the solar system with these fun, hands-on space themed science experiments! It's the perfect unit study because space is an exciting topic for everyone around here! I have extra interest in it lately because I'm studying astronomy this month as part of my MA degree!
1- Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be made here on Earth by simply combining vinegar and baking soda.
2- CO2 is more dense than our air.
3- CO2 will crowd out oxygen and extinguish fires.
4- CO2 will trap particulates (like smoke) and make hazy clouds, just like on Venus!
* is the 2nd planet from the sun.
* is the 6th largest planet in our solar system.
* is only a tiny big smaller than Earth.
* takes 225 Earth days to go around the sun.
* takes 243 Earth days for one day.
* has an atomosphere made of 96% carbon dioxide.
1- Discuss carbon dioxide. What is it? Where is it found? What do your kids know about it already? Key points: carbon dioxide is a gas. Less than 1/2% of our atmosphere is carbon dioxide. It is also the gas used to carbonate drinks, the gas released when you mix vinegar and baking soda, and about 5% of the air we breathe out.
2- Discuss the planet Venus. What do your kids know about it already? Key point: More than 96% of Venus's atmosphere is carbon dioxide. This traps a TON of heat, making Venus THE HOTTEST planet in our solar system (over 800 degrees Farhenheit on the surface--hot enough to melt lead!). It

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Retrieved Text: an odorless, colorless gas, CO2, resulting from oxidation of carbon, formed in the tissues and eliminated by the lungs; used in some pump oxygenators to maintain the carbon dioxide tension in the blood. It is also used in solid form; see carbon dioxide snow and carbon dioxide slush.
carbon dioxide combining power the ability of blood plasma to combine with carbon dioxide; indicative of the alkali reserve and a measure of the acid-base balance of the blood.
carbon dioxide content the amount of carbonic acid and bicarbonate in the blood; reported in millimoles per liter.
carbon dioxide–oxygen therapy administration of a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen (commonly 5 per cent CO2 and 95 per cent O2 or 10 per cent CO2 and 90 per cent O2); used for improvement of cerebral blood flow, stimulation of deep breathing, or treatment of singultation (hiccupping). Carbon dioxide acts by stimulating the respiratory center; it also increases heart rate and blood pressure. Therapy is given for 6 minutes or less with a 5 per cent mixture and 2 minutes or less with a 10 per cent mixture. Potential adverse effects include headache, dizziness, dyspnea, nausea, tachycardia and high blood pressure, blurred vision, mental depression, coma, and convulsions.
carbon dioxide slush solid carbon dioxide combined with a solvent such as acetone, and sometimes also alcohol; used as an escharotic to treat skin lesions such as warts and moles and as a peeling agent in chemabrasion.
carbon dioxide snow the solid formed by rapid evaporation of liquid carbon dioxide, giving a temperature of about −79°C (−110°F).

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Retrieved Text: People who live at very high altitudes live significantly longer; they have a lower incidence of cancer (Weinberg, et al., 1987) and heart disease (Mortimer, et al., 1977), and other degenerative conditions, than people who live near sea level. As I have written earlier, I think the lower energy transfer from cosmic radiation is likely to be a factor in their longevity, but several kinds of evidence indicate that it is the lower oxygen pressure itself that makes the biggest contribution to their longevity.
The end product of respiration is carbon dioxide, and it is an essential component of the life process. The ability to produce and retain enough carbon dioxide is as important for longevity as the ability to conserve enough heat to allow chemical reactions to occur as needed.
Carbon dioxide protects cells in many ways. By bonding to amino groups, it can inhibit the glycation of proteins during oxidative stress, and it can limit the formation of free radicals in the blood; inhibition of xanthine oxidase is one mechanism (Shibata, et al., 1998). It can reduce inflammation caused by endotoxin/LPS, by lowering the formation of tumor necrosis factor, IL-8 and other promoters of inflammation (Shimotakahara, et al., 2008). It protects mitochondria (Lavani, et al., 2007), maintaining (or even increasing) their ability to respire during stress.
In other types of tissue, a high level of carbon dioxide has a similar stabilizing effect on cells, preserving stem cells, limiting stress and preventing loss of function. In the lining of the mouth, where the oxygen tension is lower, and

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Retrieved Text: Aim: Test to compare the composition of exhaled and inhaled air.
Set up the apparatus as shown above with an equal amount of lime water in each test tube.
Breath in and out using the mouthpiece.
Air enters through the left and out to the right.
The limewater in the right test tube turns milky.
This shows that exhaled air has more carbon dioxide when compared with inhaled air.
Limewater turns cloudy/milky when air containing carbon dioxide is blown into the test tube.
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide compared to inhaled air.

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Retrieved Text: I typed the title of this post into a Google search engine and got 13,700,000 results in 0.60 seconds. When I modified my search to where to get answers you can trust to your anesthesia questions, I got only half as many results, and it took 0.05 seconds longer. But still, having 7,000,000 results to sift through is daunting. As excited as I am to live in a time when I can get answers to any question in fractions of a second, the real question then becomes whose answers can I trust? In this blog post I am going to introduce two valuable resources for anyone who does animal anesthesia.
Maybe you’ve heard of VIN, the Veterinary Information Network. VIN pioneered providing instant access to vast amounts of up-to-date veterinary medical information, turning subscribing practitioners who might have once felt like competitors into a community of over 53,000 professional colleagues. VSPN is an extension of VIN, providing the same up-to-date veterinary medical information, yet tailored to the needs of veterinary support personnel. One significant difference between VIN and VSPN is cost. Unlike VIN, which is a fee-based subscription service, VSPN is a free community. The Veterinary Support Personnel Network brings together people from all over the world to interact with each other, teach each other, and learn from each other. As a VSPN member, you have access to thousands of colleagues who want to help you and your patients – 24 hours a day!
When you click on this link, you’ll go directly to the VSPN.org home page.

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Retrieved Text: We use electricity for many purposes, from cooking to powering our televisions to charging our cell phones. Wherever we travel in the United States, we want electricity to be available. What we also want (although we usually don't think about it) is for the electricity supply to be the same wherever we go. We want the same voltage (110 volts for the U.S.) to come from the outlet to whatever we plug in. If the voltage is less, the system will not work. If it is more, the equipment will be damaged. We want a definite amount of voltage - no more and no less.
The discovery that mass was always conserved in chemical reactions was soon followed by the law of definite proportions, which states that a given chemical compound always contains the same elements in the exact same proportions by mass. As an example, any sample of pure water contains \(11.19\%\) hydrogen and \(88.81\%\) oxygen by mass. It does not matter where the sample of water came from or how it was prepared. Its composition, like that of every other compound, is fixed.
Another example is carbon dioxide. This gas is produced from a variety of reactions, often by the burning of materials. The structure of the gas consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Carbon dioxide production is of interest in many areas, from the amount we breathe to the amount of the gas produced by burning wood or fossil fuels. By knowing the exact composition of carbon dioxide, we can

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide makes up less than one half of one percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. However, it plays an important role in temperature regulation. Carbon dioxide is transparent to short-wave solar radiation, but not to long-wave infrared radiation. When energy rises from the ground, carbon dioxide traps infrared radiation and prevents some of it from leaving the atmosphere. This causes the Earth’s surface to become warmer.
Sedimentary rocks often contain carbon. When tectonic plates collide, and one plate subducts beneath another, the rocks in the bottom plate are crushed. They recombine to form new minerals, releasing carbon dioxide. When a volcano erupts, it ejects this carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
All organic matter is made of carbon, and carbon is released whenever living things die and decay.
When they are alive, living creatures constantly release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
This is part of a cyclical process. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and, using energy from the sun, combine carbon dioxide and water to create sugar and oxygen. This process is known as photosynthesis.
Plants and animals use these plant sugars for energy. To do this, they break the sugars down, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Plants can use some of this carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis again.
Human activity is a very important source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. People have been causing carbon dioxide levels to increase since Neolithic times, when we developed agriculture and began clearing forests to make room for crops. By burning trees or chopping them down and allowing them to decay, we released

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Retrieved Text: Carbon is exchanged, or "cycled" among Earth's oceans, atmosphere, ecosystem, and geosphere. All living organisms are built of carbon compounds. It is the fundamental building block of life and an important component of many chemical processes. It is present in the atmosphere primarily as carbon dioxide (CO2), but also as other less abundant but climatically significant gases, such as methane (CH4).
Because life processes are fueled by carbon compounds which are oxidized to CO2, the latter is exhaled by all animals and plants. Conversely, CO2 is assimilated by plants during photosynthesis to build new carbon compounds. CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels, which derive from the preserved products of ancient photosynthesis. The atmophere exhanges CO2 continuously with the oceans. Regions or processes that predominatly produce CO2 are called sources of atmospheric CO2, while those that absorb CO2 are called sinks.
CO2 in the atmosphere acts like a blanket over the planet by trapping longwave radiation, which would otherwise radiate heat away from the planet. As the amount of CO2 increases, so will its warming effect. CO2 is the largest contributor (currently 63%) to this effect by long-lived gases and its role increases each year. The additional burden of CO2 in the atmosphere will remain for a very long time, of the order of thousands of years, if we have to rely on the natural mechanisms of erosion and sedimentation to process the added CO2.
Carbon (C), the fourth most abundant element in the Universe, after hydrogen (H), helium (He), and oxygen (O), is the building block

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Retrieved Text: Method for determination of pulmonary gas exchange in connection with birth.
An apparatus built on the "open" system for determination of pulmonary gas exchange in the newborn infant after birth is described. At four-minute intervals diluted expired air (5-7 1/min) was collected in bags. The oxygen and carbon dioxide fraction in the bags were analysed with a Nyons Diaferometer (working on the principle of thermoconductivity). In calibration experiments using a gas-mixing technique a high degree of linearity was found, both in the determination of the fraction of oxygen and carbon dioxide (r equal to 0.9996). Reproducibility from duplicate readings was also good (for oxygen determination 0.9% and for carbon dioxide determination 0.8%). Duplicate determinations performed on infants with the same degree of motor activity resulted in an estimated error of the method of 5.8% for VO2 and 7.8% for VCO2 respectively. A metabolic chamber was used to control environmental temperature. The air temperature and wall temperature in the chamber were regulated by water from a thermostatically controlled waterbath and were kept equal within 0.5 degrees C. As the method for determination of the fraction of oxygen and carbon dioxide is not specific, other gaseous materials exhaled by the infants influence the measurements and nitrous oxide was found to interfere with the determinations, and made VO2 and VCO2 determinations in these patients impossible. Experience from more than 50 investigations on newborn infants has shown that the method is well suited to this particular type of study.
9917827 - Convective heat transfer around an infant head.
14635817 - The effect of

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Retrieved Text: WHAT IS A BREATH TEST, AND WHY DO WE DO IT?
The urea breath test (UBT) is a test for diagnosing the presence of a bacteria, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) in the stomach. H. pylori causes inflammation, ulcers, and atrophy of the stomach. The test also may be used to demonstrate that H. pylori has been eliminated by treatment with antibiotics.
For the test, patients swallow a mixture containing urea made from an isotope of carbon. (Isotopes of carbon occur in minuscule amounts in nature, and can be measured with special testing machines.) If H. pylori is present in the stomach, the urea is broken up and turned into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is absorbed across the lining of the stomach and into the blood. It then travels in the blood to the lungs where it is excreted in the breath. Samples of exhaled breath are collected, and the isotopic carbon in the exhaled carbon dioxide is measured.

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Retrieved Text: 4 grams of hydrogen reacts with some oxygen to make 36 grams of water. Figure out how much oxygen must have been used by applying the law of conservation of mass?
So, 32 grams of oxygen was used.
In a chemical reaction 150 g Baking soda mixture containing sodium bicarbonate and vinegar on heating gives 87 g of carbon dioxide gas. What mass of solid residue will left in food?
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.
Here, baking soda mixture (reactant) on heating gives solid residue and carbon dioxide ( products).Here baking soda mixture (reactant) on heating gives solid residue and carbon dioxide ( products).
Hence, the mass of solid residue is 150g – 87g = 63g.
How much oxygen will add with 36 g carbon to give 132 g carbon dioxide assuming complete combustion of carbon?
Hence, the mass of oxygen is 96g.
A thin strip of iron with a mass of 15.5g is placed into a solution containing 21.0g of copper (II) sulfate and copper begins to form. After some times, the reactions stops because all the copper (II) sulfate has reacted. The iron strip is found to have a mass of 8.5g. The mass of copper formed is found to be 8.60g. What mass of iron (II) sulfate has been formed in the reaction?
Silicon dioxide, made up of elements silicon and oxygen, contains 46.7% by mass of silicon. With what mass of oxygen will 10 g of silicon combine?
100g of silicon dioxide contains 46.7 g of silicon, or 100 – 46.7 ( i.e. 53.3 g) of oxygen.
It means,

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======= Instance Index 21496 =========
Input Text: Process:
- Blood sugar levels increase after a meal
- Cells in the pancreas release insulin
- Insulin causes the body to absorb glucose from the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal
- Blood sugar is too low
- The amount of insulin goes down
- Cells in the pancreas release glucagon
- The liver turns stored glycogen into glucose
- The liver releases the glucose into the blood
- Blood sugar goes back to normal.

Question:
suppose being on a low carbohydrate meal happens, how will it affect liver stores more glucose as glycogen.

- A: more
- B: less
- C: no effect

Target Text: B

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Have you heard about simple and complex carbohydrate?
Why do you need carbohydrate?
Carbohydrate provides the most readily available superior source of fuel or “energy” for muscles to use in moderate to high intensity exercise.
Even when the body starts to use fat as an energy source in endurance exercise carbohydrate must still be present.
Carbohydrate is broken down by the digestive system and carried around the body as blood glucose.
The glucose is stored in muscle and the liver as glycogen to be used by the body during activity.
Glycogen in the liver is released into the blood to maintain normal blood glucose levels.
Blood glucose is used by muscles and the brain. The brain relies on blood glucose to function properly.
Muscles use stored glycogen as their primary energy source with blood glucose as an additional source.
When muscle glycogen becomes low, fatigue occurs in the muscles being used. Muscle glycogen depletion occurs after 2-3 hours of continuous training at low intensity.
Symptoms of hypoglycaemia include poor coordination, light headedness, inability to concentrate and weakness.
When blood glucose becomes low (hypoglycaemia), marathon runners complain of “bonking” or “hitting the wall”; they no longer have enough glucose in their blood for their brain to function properly.
Did you know that the term “bonking” comes from the sport of cycling? When blood glucose levels got too low, riders fell off their bikes and “bonked” their heads on the ground!
Foods with a glycaemic index ranking of 71-100 are called high GI foods. They increase blood glucose levels quickly, providing a fast source of blood glucose for muscles to take

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Retrieved Text: Simple carbs, being sugars (glucose), are absorbed into the bloodstream very quickly. The exception is fruit sugar (fructose) which needs to be converted into glucose first.
Complex carbs (especially low glycemic index complex carbs) many of which are starchy carbohydrates, need more time to be digested.
The process begins in the mouth when an enzyme in saliva (amylase) begins to break down starchy carbohydrates.
After swallowing, the starchy carbs reach the stomach where hydrochloric acid combines with them and acts on the protein in the food. The stomach also acts as a reservoir for food, squirting out small amounts into the intestines at intervals.
In the small intestine (where most carb-digestion occurs) the starch is processed by the enzyme amylase and converted into maltose and sucrose.
The maltose and sucrose are then absorbed into the lining cells of the intestine and are further simplified, being converted into glucose.
Once the starchy or sugary carbs are digested and converted to glucose, the glucose then enters the bloodstream and the level of blood-glucose rises. This induces the pancreas to secrete insulin into the blood which "mops up" the glucose and helps convert it into the storage-type of carbohydrate, called glycogen, which is deposited in the liver and in the muscles.
When the liver and muscle glycogen stores are full, any extra glucose is converted into fat. This adds to fat stores, but to a lesser extent than fat released from fatty foods.
The liver glycogen helps to keep blood-sugar levels in the normal range. If blood sugar falls, glycogen is converted into glucose which enters the

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Retrieved Text: Increases fat breakdown and mobilization from our fat tissue and glycerol to glucose in our liver. Because cortisol also promotes the breakdown of our body protein, especially skeletal muscle protein, it ensures a supply of amino acids for conversion to glucose in our liver (Figure 4.5).
Exercise promotes the breakdown of carbohydrate stores in muscle.
What Happens to Stored Carbohydrate (Glycogen) During Exercise?
The hormone picture that develops during exercise is similar to the one discussed regarding a fasting period; however, there are relative differences. Epinephrine is released from our adrenal glands as a direct effect of exercise.
Figure 4.5 During fasting and endurance exercise (at least moderate intensity) cortisol causes the breakdown of muscle protein and some amino acids can be used to make glucose in our liver.
Quite simply, the greater the exercise intensity, the greater the epinephrine release. Epinephrine stimulates the breakdown of muscle cell glycogen (see Table 4.5 and Figure 4.3). This makes glucose available for the muscle cells hard at work. Epinephrine also promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver. Some of this glucose will then circulate to working muscle to provide support. Cortisol may also be released in response to moderate to intense exercise, particularly as the exercise becomes prolonged (for example, endurance cycling and running). Cortisol will also support the breakdown of glycogen as well as gluconeogenesis in our liver.

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Retrieved Text: The primary source of muscle energy production is Adenosine Triphosphate ->ATP). To produce ATP, living cells draw glucose from glycogen, a long-chain complex carbohydrate stored nearby in the muscles or liver. Each muscle store of glycogen has a chemical structure nearly identical to common starch and similar to long-chain maltodextrin. Glycogen is an endogenous Glucans Polysaccharide, very complex carbohydrate consisting of long-chains of glucose linked together. During exercise, the body's first choice is reducing glycogen to individual glucose molecules, which are shuttled into tiny mitochondria cells, which convert glucose to ATP for energy metabolism. Complimentary fat and amino acids ->from lean muscle tissue) are mobilized to postpone rapid depletion of glycogen and makeup any glycogen glucose shortfalls. ATP synthesis from muscle glycogen is the most efficient energy source, regenerating over double the rate energy from fat and lean muscle protein combined.
Glycogen, ->or "animal starch"), has a structure identical to plant starch Amylopectin. Starchy foods with the highest % of Amylopectin are structurally most like human muscle glycogen. Spirulina is the only known food source that contains pure glycogen ->24% of its calories from complex carbohydrates are "pure"glycogen.) Potato starch is the 2nd food-like glycogen and a close 3rd is grain maltodextrins.
Starch is a white, granular or powdery, odorless, tasteless, complex carbohydrate, ->C6H10O5)x, abundant in the seeds of cereal plants and in bulbs and tubers. Molecules of starch are made of hundreds or thousands of atoms, corresponding to values of x, as given in the formula above, that range from about 50 to many thousands. Native starch

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Retrieved Text: People get better results and reach their goals quicker when they learn how to take care of their bodies in a sound, smart manner. Nutrition is a key component of a complete wellness program. Nutrient timing in particular has been the subject of much discussion and research, especially over the past few years. This article looks at how the proper approach to nutrition by the clock can boost recovery and performance.
It is essential to look at how exercise effects the body, to better understand nutrition’s role in recovery. Physiological changes occur in proportion to exercise intensity and duration. Insulin levels decrease in the blood and levels of stress hormones increase. Carbohydrate stored in muscles as glycogen gets depleted and muscle fibers break down. Cell integrity is destroyed! Glycogen levels in the liver also drop. In general, there is a decrease in macronutrient availability and in hydration levels. This places the body in a catabolic or breakdown state.
The noticeable effects of these physiological changes includes increased and prolonged muscle soreness, low energy and extended fatigue. Remedies include nutrition and rest. This is where a post exercise meal can make a huge difference. Its focus is to convert the body from a catabolic state to an anabolic or buildup state. This is achieved by getting the correct nutrients in the right ratios at the appropriate time.
Certain physiological changes need to occur as a result of the post-exercise meal. These changes include a rise in blood insulin levels. Insulin is an anabolic hormone. It has the ability to transmute

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Retrieved Text: I was recently asked: ‘do I need to carbo load if my diet is high in carbohydrates anyway?’ With the Bupa Great Birmingham Run having just taken place there’s a lot of talk about what is the best fuel for exercise.
Food can be categorised into carbohydrates, fats or proteins and along with water these will provide all our energy requirements for living. It is not just marathon runners who need the energy to fuel muscle contractions, so whatever your chosen exercise, carbohydrate is probably the most important source of fuel. Carbohydrates break down into smaller sugars (glucose) which can be stored in the muscles & liver as glycogen. If you have more glucose than you can either use as energy or store as glycogen it will be converted to fat. The glycogen will be the preferred fuel for all activity. Once this starts to run out (the body can store enough for between one and one & a half hours of activity) fat can help but some glycogen is still required to break down the fat into energy. So the amount of carbohydrate you eat will affect how much glycogen is stored in your muscles & liver and in turn affect your performance. Therefore, if you are going to be exercising for more than one and a half hours you would certainly benefit from ‘carbo loading’ no matter what your regular diet is like.
For those new to exercise the message is, even if you want to lose weight, don’t reduce your carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, complex in particular

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Retrieved Text: Becoming fat-adapted is the goal of keto. You want your body to become incredibly good at burning fat. Once you are a fat burner, you will begin to see the excess weight melt away! Fat burning is possible once your body has become fat-adapted. In other words, your body prefers fat over sugar as its primary fuel source. This is also considered the state of ketosis. So, how do you get to this place of burning fat and the weight loss that you so desire? Well, in the previous article I explained the basics of keto including the proper macros and some of the benefits of keto. Today I am going to show you exactly how to become fat adapted.
Whether you think you eat a lot of sugar or not, your body is fueled by sugar. This is simply the result of a carb-loaded diet. When you feast on carbohydrates continually, you are feeding your body sugar. While there is likely more nutritional value, depending on the carb, than a Snickers bar, these carbs are still sugar in the body. Let me explain what I mean.
Carbohydrates fall into one of two categories: simple or complex carbs. A simple carbohydrate is made up of one or two unit structures. For instance sucrose is a two-sugar molecule made up of glucose and fructose. A complex carbohydrate is composed of polymers (I.e. repeating chains) of glucose. Nearly all carbohydrates are converted into glucose as they are moved into the bloodstream. The exception is fructose. The body is not able

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Retrieved Text: Carbohydrates (CHOs) are a major fuel source for exercising muscle, especially in high-intensity or long-duration activities Carbohydrates can influence fluid absorption from the intestine (hydration) Some CHOs can cause gastrointestinal intolerance and thereby impair exercise performance Types of CHOs Exogenous: CHO intake from the diet Endogenous: CHO stored in the body (ie, glycogen) that can be used for energy needs Glycogen is stored glucose in the body It is a network of glucose molecules connected together, similar to starch United States Anti-doping Agency. Optimal dietary intake guide. Available at: Accessed January 31, 2011.
1. Free monosaccharides (1 sugar unit) Glucose (aka dextrose, from corn and other plants) Fructose (from fruit) Galactose (from milk) 2. Di-, tri-, oligo- (4 to 10 units), or polysaccharides (chain of 11+ monosaccharides) Sucrose (disaccharide of glucose + fructose) Lactose (disaccharide of glucose + galactose) Maltose (disaccharide of 2 glucose molecules) Trehalose (disaccharide of 2 glucose molecules, with a different linkage between the two) Starch (polysaccharide of glucose) Add pictures Berg JM, et al. Biochemistry. 5th ed. New York, NY: WH Freeman and Co; 2002.
Carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides Enzymes must digest di-, tri-, oligo-, and polysaccharides into individual monosaccharides Enzymes exist in the saliva, stomach, and small intestine to break the different linkages between the various sugars There are special transporters in the cell membranes of intestinal cells that selectively absorb monosaccharides Monosaccharides are then transported into the blood stream, where they are distributed throughout the body Carbohydrates that escape digestion and absorption make their way to the colon (with variable degrees

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Retrieved Text: Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose drops below normal levels. Glucose, an important source of energy for the body, comes from food. Carbohydrates are the main dietary source of glucose. Rice, potatoes, bread, tortillas, cereal, milk, fruit, and sweets are all carbohydrate-rich foods.
After a meal, glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the body’s cells. Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps the cells use glucose for energy. If a person takes in more glucose than the body needs at the time, the body stores the extra glucose in the liver and muscles in a form called glycogen. The body can use glycogen for energy between meals. Extra glucose can also be changed to fat and stored in fat cells. Fat can also be used for energy.
When blood glucose begins to fall, glucagon—another hormone made by the pancreas—signals the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream. Blood glucose will then rise toward a normal level. In some people with diabetes, this glucagon response to hypoglycemia is impaired and other hormones such as epinephrine, also called adrenaline, may raise the blood glucose level. But with diabetes treated with insulin or pills that increase insulin production, glucose levels can’t easily return to the normal range.
Hypoglycemia can happen suddenly. It is usually mild and can be treated quickly and easily by eating or drinking a small amount of glucose-rich food. If left untreated, hypoglycemia can get worse and cause confusion, clumsiness, or fainting. Severe

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Retrieved Text: What does it mean to be a typical Type 2 diabetic with insulin resistance? It takes several factors to become a T2 diabetic, the first is insulin resistance. This usually occurs years in advance of someone being diagnosed with diabetes. The second part of the equation is when your pancreas reaches a point that it can no longer produce enough insulin to overcome your demand for insulin you become a diabetic. If diagnosed early enough most will have high circulating insulin and high levels of glucose as compared to a normal person. The insulin is no longer allowing the glucose into the muscles to be used as energy so your body makes and stores the Insulin/Glucose mix as fat. That's why it is so easy for a person with insulin resistance to gain weight rapidly.
Having high insulin and high glucose levels means your body is also suffering from lots of inflammation. This inflammation is causing your body to produce more and more Cholesterol to try and repair the vascular damage that's occurring. The Cholesterol is not the enemy, the inflammation is the enemy.
How do you reduce the inflammation? You reduce the inflammation by eating foods that do not require large amounts of insulin to process the food into energy. Mostly fats, proteins and low carbohydrate vegetables. By eating low carbohydrate foods, increased natural fats and moderate proteins you reduce the inflammation. It is important to note that natural fats are essential to overall health. You cannot sustain a diet of low carbs, low fat, high protein;

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Retrieved Text: If we talk about the “timing” post-workout nutrition we should talk about protein and carbohydrates. Because it is a fairly broad topic, we try only what carbohydrates take and when to take them.
In this article we will focus on carbohydrate sources that we can find from sports supplement products. However, and as I mentioned in the section of questions, we can use directly source from this macro nutrient food. Still, it analyzes why certain people, perhaps more interested picking a product quickly absorbed, leaving then distributed other carbohydrate requirements during the day and also after other (s) session (s) training.
1 Why take carbohydrates after training?
2 How to store carbohydrates?
3 What is the rate of glycogen replenishment?
7 Are carbohydrates are necessary if we train once a day?
8 What is the maximum amount of carbohydrates a day?
Why take carbohydrates after training?
A clear example of what I mean we see in those athletes who train more than once a day, for example, a CrossFit athlete. Because of the nature that holds this discipline, especially with a view to a competitive event, the scheme planning and training are very high volume to accommodate complete all the necessary parameters to ensure a good performance during the competition (s).
Before going to rag on what carbohydrates are better or worse when it comes to recover from a workout, we must know which sites store glucose we eat. When we eat carbohydrates, such are digested and absorbed into the bloodstream in the form of glucose, which is directed to the muscle and liver glycogen

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Retrieved Text: Are you one of those people who pushes yourself to your absolute limit when you work out? Do you go until you just can’t go any more? Wouldn’t it be cool if you could trick your body into better performance just like competitive athletes do? You can! All you need to do is learn the simple trick of how to increase your glycogen storage to trick your body into better performance.
Glycogen is a form of glucose (sugar/fuel) that is stored in the muscles. It provides the main source of energy for us when we are doing moderate or high-intensity exercise. Glycogen is produced by the liver when there is an over-abundance of glucose in the bloodstream.
Most body functions utilize the glucose that is floating around in our bloodstream for energy. Muscle tissue, however, primarily uses glycogen that is stored inside of it to fuel itself. The glycogen stored in our muscles is only available to the muscles. This stored glycogen can be accessed instantaneously.
Say, for example that you are being hunted by a cheetah and decide to make run for it. You could do so in a split second. You could run at high speed for some time before your muscles became fatigued. Unfortunately, cheetahs can outrun us, so you’d actually end up as lunch. At least you wouldn’t be exhausted when it happened! It takes about 1.5-2 hours of running to deplete our glycogen stores to the point of muscle fatigue. The cheetah would catch you long before then.
The glycogen stored in our muscles enables

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Retrieved Text: Normally, over 80% of the energy produced by the body is derived from the combustion of carbohydrates. When carbohydrate metabolism is severely limited, the cells begin to oxidize fat reserves for energy. Also, proteins are degraded to amino acids which in turn are converted to glucose in an attempt to support energy production. If excessive fat metabolism occurs in conjunction with inadequate carbohydrate metabolism, there are inadequate amounts of metabolites to react with acetyl CoA, in turn leading to excess levels of acetyl CoA. The increased levels of acetyl CoA produces a build up of ketone bodies, leading to ketosis. Since ketone bodies are also acids, this leads to a condition known as acidosis. Severe acidosis, if not counteracted, can result in coma and death.
In a healthy individual, blood glucose concentrations are maintained within a normal range through the processes of glycogenolysis, glycolysis, glycogenesis, and gluconeogenesis. The regulation of blood glucose levels is mainly under the control of the pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon. After a meal, blood glucose levels rise and trigger the release of insulin into the blood stream from the pancreatic beta cells. The released insulin into the blood steam enables glucose to be absorbed into the liver and muscle tissue and stores the excess glucose in the form of glycogen (glycogenesis). When blood glucose levels begin decreasing overnight or because of a lack of food ingestion or due to heavy exercise, the pancreatic alpha cells begin releasing glucagon into the blood stream. Glucagon signals the liver and muscle tissue to degrade or

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Retrieved Text: JCI - Direct assessment of liver glycogen storage by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and regulation of glucose homeostasis after a mixed meal in normal subjects.
Direct assessment of liver glycogen storage by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and regulation of glucose homeostasis after a mixed meal in normal subjects.
Citation Information: J Clin Invest. 1996;97(1):126-132. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI118379.
Despite extensive recent studies, understanding of the normal postprandial processes underlying immediate storage of substrate and maintenance of glucose homeostasis in humans after a mixed meal has been incomplete. The present study applied 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure sequential changes in hepatic glycogen concentration, a novel tracer approach to measure postprandial suppression of hepatic glucose output, and acetaminophen to trace the pathways of hepatic glycogen synthesis to elucidate the homeostatic adaptation to the fed state in healthy human subjects. After the liquid mixed meal, liver glycogen concentration rose from 207 +/- 22 to 316 +/- 19 mmol/liter at an average rate of 0.34 mmol/liter per min and peaked at 318 +/- 31 min, falling rapidly thereafter (0.26 mmol/liter per min). The mean increment at peak represented net glycogen synthesis of 28.3 +/- 3.7 g (approximately 19% of meal carbohydrate content). The contribution of the direct pathway to overall glycogen synthesis was 46 +/- 5 and 68 +/- 8% between 2 and 4 and 4 and 6 h, respectively. Hepatic glucose output was completely suppressed within 30 min of the meal. It increased steadily from 60 to 255 min from 0.31 +/- 32 to 0.49 +/- 18 mg/kg per min then

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Retrieved Text: Hypoglycemia is defined as an abnormally low level or concentration of the simple sugar, glucose, in an animal’s bloodstream. Glucose is the end product of carbohydrate digestion. Carbohydrates in food are an important and immediate source of energy for most animals. The main sources of dietary carbohydrates are the starches and sugars that come from plants. Glucose is the primary source of energy for the cells and tissues of dogs. When there is more glucose in circulation (from dietary intake) than is needed for the dog’s energy demands, it is stored in liver and muscle cells in the form of glycogen, for future use. If the liver and muscle cells become saturated, glucose is converted into fat and stored as adipose tissue. Circulating blood sugar levels depend upon the amount of glucose that is: 1) taken in through a dog’s diet, 2) produced by the liver from glycogen stores, and 3) utilized by the dog’s body. Abnormalities in any of those areas can contribute to hypoglycemia.
Causes & Prevention of Hypoglycemia in Dogs: Veterinarian reviewed information that explains the causes of dog Hypoglycemia, including how low blood sugar may be prevented.
How Hypoglycemia in dogs is diagnosed: Underlying conditions associated with Hypoglycemia may create complications, so your veterinarian is always the best resource to successfully diagnose this condition.
Identifying the symptoms and signs of Hypoglycemia in dogs is the first step to knowing if your dog requires medical attention. Diseases and symptoms can vary, so it’s always best to consult your veterinarian if you notice any of the following

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Retrieved Text: Available in Natural Raisin, Cinnamon & Raisin and Banana & Mango flavours. Very high carbohydrate breakfasts to assist in carbohydrate loading prior to large endurance efforts.
TORQ’s 5:1 Carbo-Load SNAQ Breakfasts have been developed alongside our long-standing Performance Nutrition range. Formulated to deliver substantial quantities of carbohydrate (125g) along with a significant 25g serving of high quality protein, our 5:1 SNAQ Breakfasts and Meals offer a comprehensive nutritional intervention to enhance glycogen storage before long endurance rides, between heavy training sessions or as a final meal before a big event. As well as providing a rich carbohydrate content, our 5:1 SNAQ Breakfasts deliver all the essential amino acids necessary to promote a positive net protein balance to ensure protein supply outweighs breakdown, which is essential for muscle maintenance and recovery.
Our 5:1 Carbo-Load SNAQ Breakfasts can be enjoyed at any time of day in the run up to a hard training session or event. Simply add contents of the pack to 225ml of cold or boiling water and stir. Your SNAQ Breakfast is now ready to eat – hot or cold, it’s your choice.
Most carbohydrate-loading regimens would suggest consuming this 5:1 breakfast as a final nutritional intake the night before your event/heavy exercise bout, but if exercising later in the day, you should continue carbohydrate loading up to the exercise bout, allowing at least 3-hours prior to exercise as a digestion window.
This 5:1 SNAQ Breakfast can also be used in conjunction with our TORQ Recovery Drink or instead of a 3:1 SNAQ Breakfast or 3:1 SNAQ Meal at

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Retrieved Text: When your mother told you not to drink that 'sugar water' she was right - unless you're exercising for more than two and a half hours.
New research has found that a spoonful of sugar in regular ol' tap water is just as good for physical performance as expensive brand-name sports drinks.
Scientists from the University of Bath found that stirring table sugar into your water bottle could help stave off tiredness when performing long-distance endurance events.
The study, published in the American Journal of Physiology, assessed the impact of endurance exercise on the liver glycogen levels of cyclists and tested what could be done to prevent fatigue.
Glycogen levels are the amount of carbohydrates stored in the body that you use for energy. The study looked at two simple sugars – sucrose and glucose – which are two important carbohydrates commonly found in sports performance drinks.
Interestingly, many store-bought sports drinks are glucose-based whereas table sugar is sucrose-based.
The research found that both glucose and sucrose-based drinks were effective in fighting mid-activity fatigue by awakening these glycogen stores. However, the solution of sugar and water did as well as, if not better than, the brand name drinks as sucrose-based solutions were unlikely to cause any gut discomfort.
RELATED: Sugar: how much of the sweet stuff should you aim to eat each day?
Dr Javier Gonzalez, the lead researcher in the study, says the results shed new light on how to fuel our bodies during exercise.
"Whilst we have a relatively good understanding of the changes in our muscle carbohydrate stores with exercise and nutrition,

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Retrieved Text: We recommend incorporating HIGH5 products into your training. That way you won’t be trying something new at the event, and you can focus on giving it your all.
It is important to eat a carbohydrate rich meal 3-4 hours prior to the event. This will be breakfast for the participants of the marathon and will serve to replenish liver glycogen stores, which will have been depleted after the overnight fast. This meal should be relatively low in fat and fibre to aid gastric emptying and should leave the athlete satisfied but without undigested food in their stomach. The meal should contain 200-300g CHO and moderate protein content. It should provide 500-600 calories.
One hour before the race starts, it is advised to consume a high carbohydrate snack to top up glycogen stores and blood glucose levels. This snack is most effective when it provides the following benefits.
Eating and drinking during the race is tricky but should be attempted by all marathon runners to prevent injury and illness and prevent what is commonly known as ‘Hitting the Wall’. After 90 minutes of exercise, muscle glycogen stores will have been completely depleted in most people and it is essential to re-fuel before this happens.
Evidence has shown that consuming a high glycemic index carbohydrate based food with some protein will replenish glycogen stores and promote protein synthesis therefore positively affecting muscle repair post exercise. For most people this means consuming a snack containing 50g of Carbohydrate an hour after starting the race and every hour thereafter.
The key to recovery fuel is

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Retrieved Text: Gatorade, PowerAde, All-Sport, Cytomax, GatorLode, Ultra Fuel, GlucoBurst gels, Power Bars, Clif Bars — with so many sport drinks, gels, and other sport-related supplements to choose from, how can you choose which one to use, if any? Let’s start by taking a closer look at sports drinks and other fluids. During exercise, a fluid that is a 5- to 10 percent carbohydrate solution (meaning that it contains 5 to 10 grams of carbohydrate per 100 milliliters of fluid) will empty from your stomach as rapidly as plain water does, can hydrate you effectively, and will provide you with carbohydrate. If you’re worrying about maintaining your blood sugars more than your hydration, choose one with a slightly higher carbohydrate content; not surprisingly, taking in a 10 percent carbohydrate sports drink has been shown to keep blood sugars higher than consuming a similar quantity of an 8 percent one.
You should use more concentrated solutions (above 10 percent) only before or after exercise because their emptying from your stomach is somewhat delayed. Fruit juices are usually more concentrated than 10 percent and should be diluted for faster absorption during exercise, but remember that their GI is usually lower than many other choices. You may also want to avoid juice for another reason: drinks with high amounts of fructose (fruit sugar) may cause abdominal cramps or diarrhea, likely because fructose is absorbed more slowly than glucose is and it pulls water into your stomach and small intestines when consumed in high concentrations.
As far as your hydration status is concerned, whether

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Retrieved Text: Home Uncategorized How body gains weight?
The main contributor to body weight gain is Carbohydrates, the main food component received by the human body from foods prepared from wheat and other cereals, for example, the bread, which is essential part of food in North America, Europe, Middle East and South Asia. The other sources of carbohydrate are potatoes, sweet potatoes etc.
In order to understand the main cause of weight gain, or alternatively obesity, we will discuss the mechanism in our body to digest and ingest food intake.
Carbohydrates are essential element of food that provides use energy to perform day to day tasks and movements. The body converts carbohydrates to Glucose after digestion that is directly absorbed into the blood. Now the actual mechanism starts to turn this glucose into energy.
The glucose in blood has to be transported to cells where it is converted into energy. This transportation is carried out by Insulin, a powerful hormone secreted by Pancreas. The insulin attaches itself to glucose molecules and transports them to body cells where a chemical reaction called oxidation takes place resulting in production of heat energy that is subsequently utilized by human body to sustain itself and to perform work.
But as you know, every process has its own limitations. Now if the quantity glucose ingested into blood is in excess to what is required by the cells at that time, it cannot be burnt immediately and this excess glucose is then transported back to liver where it is converted to glycogen and again distributed to body where it

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Retrieved Text: We review the basics of recovery nutrition and how to use products for recovery, featuring insights from world-class running coach Greg McMillan.
Proteins and fats support muscle recovery. We have limited carbohydrate stores and if you train for a long time or at a high intensity, you burn through those carbohydrates stores to some extent and need to replenish them.
Within the first 30 minutes after your workout, called the glycogen window, the enzyme that helps restock your stores is ramped up above normal levels. If you take in carbohydrates within that glycogen window, your body is going to restock carbohydrates faster because it can take the enzyme up to 2 hours to go back to normal.
After long or intense workouts, getting carbohydrates with protein into your system will restock the glycogen stores so you can focus on your next meal, usually within two hours after the activity and containing high-quality carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The higher the quality of meals, the better the recovery.
If you don’t eat the right kind of fuel, your body’s still going to want more and that’s when you start overeating. Get something in right after you finish that hard workout and then focus on the meal. Don’t skimp on the meal because when you’re not eating a meal until three or four hours later, you’re still going to feel under recovered the next day.
The challenge that runners trying to lose weight have with recovery nutrition is that it’s too often not based specifically on what activity they’ve just done. The actual number

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Retrieved Text: In low carb diets, the protein->glucose pathway is mostly utilized to fill the liver with glycogen (a long-lasting store of glucose, to feed the brain, and if any is left over, to refill muscle glycogen or store in fat). So it’s hard to do anything other than lose fat (although with enough dietary fat you may be able to gain).
For athletes, eating carbs on workout day, or to near-bursting once or twice a week (following a muscle glycogen depleting workout, possibly), is thought to help maintain or build muscle while losing fat (just cutting calories while maintaining enough protein in diet, you’ll still lose plenty of muscle mass along with fat mass). I first heard of this from Lyle McDonald (look for “depletion workout” and “refeed”). I’m not sure how strong the evidence is, but there are several plausible mechanisms beyond the claim below that alternating carb-loading and carb-avoiding will increase glycogen storage capacity, which would make for a better low-carb diet experience (more energy available, especially compared to the Atkins-type 50g/day or less of carbs and the accompanying ketosis-only malaise - although I guess burned proteins contribute less to cancer than burned glucose or fat).
Recreational exercisers who are normoglycemic and who do LC intermittently tend to increase the size of their liver glycogen tank over time, viacompensatory adaptation, and also use more fat (and ketones, which are byproducts of fat metabolism) as sources of energy. Somewhat paradoxically, these folks benefit from regular high carbohydrate intake days (e.g., once a week, or on exercise days), since

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Retrieved Text: Alcohol, Blood Glucose and Diabetes. Can diabetics drink?
In healthy individuals, long-term moderate drinking does not significantly affect fasting and after-meal blood glucose levels [6,16,17,18].
Binge drinking increases the risk of diabetes 2 in women .
In one study, in lean healthy individuals, moderate amounts of alcohol (1-3 drinks) consumed with carbohydrate meals attenuated the rise of glucose levels after meals for up to 37% .
It is estimated that 45-70% of chronic alcoholics with alcoholic liver disease (hepatitis or cirrhosis) have glucose intolerance or diabetes type 2 . Hyperglycemia is also common in chronic alcoholics without liver disease .
According to one large 2006 study, alcohol drinking (mild, moderate or heavy) decreases HbA1c (hemoglobin with attached glucose) levels in individuals with diabetes 1 . HbA1c reveals average glucose levels over the last 2-3 months. Lower HbA1c means better control of blood glucose (less hyperglycemia) during 2-3 months preceding testing .
Individuals with diabetes type 1 who drink moderately amounts of alcohol in the evening may have hypoglycemia after the breakfast next morning .
Diabetics type 1 who binge drink on an empty stomach for several days may develop diabetic ketoacidosis with nausea, vomiting, fruity smell of breath, frequent urination, thirst, confusion, coma or can die .
Moderate drinking decreases insulin resistance and the risk of diabetes type 2 [3,6,7,8].
Alcohol drinking (mild, moderate or heavy) can decrease HbA1c levels in individuals with diabetes 2 .
In one study, in individuals with diabetes type 2 who previously abstained from alcohol and were then drinking 150 mL of wine (13 g alcohol) with dinner each day for

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Rank: 23
Score: 54.96826
Retrieved Text: The discussion that led to the Forum recently prompted me to write this article. Her subject was post-training nutrition. In view of the fact that there is some confusion in this matter, I decided to write a few sentences illustrating my view on this very important aspect of nutrition which is undoubtedly a post-training meal.
For starters, a little general knowledge. Carbohydrates are divided into simple carbohydrates (sugars), complex carbohydrates (sugars) and fiber. Simple carbohydrates include glucose, galactose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are starch and its derivatives, including dextrose and dextrin. On the other hand, fiber can be divided into hard (bran, oat flakes) and soft (apple pectin, citrus fruit, apricots, plums).
The basic simple carbohydrate is glucose. Its transfer from blood to cells, including muscle cells, facilitates and facilitates insulin. In cells, it is converted into energy. The end result of the digestion of simple carbohydrates are monosaccharides, which are absorbed by the intestines and transferred to the liver to be transformed into glycogen. Glucose, except that it is a source of energy for the body, also has a less glorious property, or the ability to transform into fat.
But what to eat after training? Well, in my opinion, only simple carbohydrates (plus protein supplement but this is not the topic of this article). If the training takes place in the evening, it must be enough if in the morning or in the afternoon it should be a normal meal in which the dominant role may play complex carbohydrates (eg steak, chicken breast plus rice, pasta or groats

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Rank: 24
Score: 54.67755
Retrieved Text: Front Physiol. 2011 Dec 30;2:112. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2011.00112. eCollection 2011.
The role of skeletal muscle glycogen breakdown for regulation of insulin sensitivity by exercise.
Jensen J1, Rustad PI, Kolnes AJ, Lai YC.
Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences Oslo, Norway.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in mammals. In humans the majority of glycogen is stored in skeletal muscles (∼500 g) and the liver (∼100 g). Food is supplied in larger meals, but the blood glucose concentration has to be kept within narrow limits to survive and stay healthy. Therefore, the body has to cope with periods of excess carbohydrates and periods without supplementation. Healthy persons remove blood glucose rapidly when glucose is in excess, but insulin-stimulated glucose disposal is reduced in insulin resistant and type 2 diabetic subjects. During a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, 70-90% of glucose disposal will be stored as muscle glycogen in healthy subjects. The glycogen stores in skeletal muscles are limited because an efficient feedback-mediated inhibition of glycogen synthase prevents accumulation. De novo lipid synthesis can contribute to glucose disposal when glycogen stores are filled. Exercise physiologists normally consider glycogen's main function as energy substrate. Glycogen is the main energy substrate during exercise intensity above 70% of maximal oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]) and fatigue develops when the glycogen stores are depleted in the active muscles. After exercise, the rate of glycogen synthesis is increased to replete glycogen stores, and blood glucose is the substrate. Indeed insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis is elevated after exercise, which, from an evolutional point of view, will favor

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Rank: 25
Score: 54.57933
Retrieved Text: I’ve decided to write a little bit on nutrition and how our bodies take in the garbage we feed it. I’ll devote one section to each macronutrient and then bring it all together at the end. First I want to explain that all of the information below is based on different books, articles, podcasts etc that I have consumed.
So many choices – if you google diet you will quickly become overwhelmed. There are some many ideas out there, any most of them all contradict each other. I decided to take a different approach to overall wellness. I read a book that totally changed my perspective, and it did it in a way that for me was completely unexpected. That book is called Good Calories, Bad Calories by Gary Taubes.
Remember sitting in a health or nutrition class in college? Do you remember reading or listening to the instructor talk about how nutrients are absorbed into the body? I remember hearing about insulin and blood glucose, about leptin and ghrelin, carbohydrates, protein and fat. The different pathways that exist to digest and absorb the nutrients that we ingest.
And then all of that went out the window when it comes to the foods we should actually put into our body.
According to the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services, today, the average American eats 152 POUNDS of sugar a year. Full stop. That is basically 6 ounces of sugar daily, ON AVERAGE. Holy crap. Compare that to pre modern era where the average American ate 3 pounds of

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Rank: 26
Score: 54.51168
Retrieved Text: Carbohydrates are needed for energy during training and competition. But boxers have somewhat of a love-hate relationship with them. Some boxers totally cut them out and some embrace them for ultimate training performance.
Carbs are the main fuel source used for high intensity exercise. Eating carbohydrates at strategic times throughout the day, phase of your camp as well as before a fight is essential to perform at high intensity.
In this article, sport scientist and nutritional consultant Lee Rickards will share the key facts that you need to know to help fuel your performance.
The key role of carbohydrates is to provide energy.
Carbohydrates are often restricted when making weight.
This makes it important to carefully choose the quality, quantity and the timing of intake.
The main role of carbohydrates is to serve as fuel, particularly during high-intensity exercise.
Carbohydrates are absorbed in the small intestine and either become available as an energy source for metabolism, form glycogen (stored carbohydrate) in the liver and muscle or convert to fatty acids if all liver and muscle glycogen stores are full.
So in a nut shell, you either use the carbs wisely or store it as fat.
So how do we use carbohydrates appropriately?
Planning your carbohydrate intake relative to your training load will help you perform to your best in the gym, and limit the potential for fat storage.
When should I eat more carbs?
Generally, boxers should consume higher amounts of carbohydrates on high-intensity and high-volume training days (although there are several instances when this might not be preferable, such as when losing weight or training carbohydrate restricted).
You

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Rank: 27
Score: 54.26717
Retrieved Text: For athletes, the toughest aspect of the GoPro Mountain Games: Ultimate Mountain Challenge will be recovery between events. If recovery time can be shortened, then subsequent performance will be improved. Recovery nutrition is the key, so what and when I eat and drink will be critical to shortening recovery time. Eating the wrong food or none at all will leave my glycogen stores depleted, my immune system vulnerable and my legs weary the next day.
While cycling and running at race intensity, I am easily burning 1,000 to 1,200 calories per hour with carbohydrates as the primary fuel source. At lower intensities, about 50 percent of your energy needs are supplied by fat and the other 50 percent by carbohydrates. As the intensity increases, so does the percentage of carbohydrates to fat that is burned as fuel. In the body, carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in the liver and in the muscles, but stores are limited. Blood glucose, muscle glycogen and liver glycogen only amount to about 2,200 calories. In a two-hour mountain-bike race, these limited reserves could become completely depleted. Therefore, replenishing muscle and liver glycogen stores is the No. 1 goal of recovery nutrition.
With multiple events, the recovery begins before and during the events themselves. It is important for me to make sure my glycogen stores are topped off before the first race. Although it is impossible to completely replace what I am burning during exercise, I can spare some of the stored glycogen by taking in 200 to 300 calories of carbohydrates in the

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Rank: 28
Score: 53.869698
Retrieved Text: Carbohydrates – What are they?
Carbohydrates (also referred to as ‘Carbs’) are one of the four main energy sources that fuel our bodies. These energy sources are called macronutrients, they come from food that’s digested in our stomach and converted into energy. The energy is then used by the cells in our muscles, organs and bones.
• Fats 9 kcal of energy produced per gram.
We can think of macronutrients purely in terms of energy, however each has a different role, essential for the normal functioning of the body. Here, we are going to look at carbohydrates.
It is recommended that total carbohydrate should contribute around 50% of our daily food intake. They are very important for: providing energy to cells, muscles and organs; stopping the breakdown of protein and muscles; source of fibre; providing vitamins and minerals to the body. Carbs are broken down into glucose by the hormone insulin, before it is transported to the different areas of the body to either replenish energy or be stored as fat.
You may have heard of the term ‘free sugars’. ‘Free sugars’ is the term used to describe sugars added to foods and those naturally occurring in foods such as honey and syrup, excluding lactose. ‘Free sugars’ should not contribute more than 5% of your total daily energy.
Dietary fibre should also be considered as part of carbohydrate intake; Fibre is defined as carbohydrates that are not digested or absorbed by the body. Fibre has shown positive effects on blood lipid levels and gut health. The recommended amount of fibre for adults

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Rank: 29
Score: 53.543877
Retrieved Text: The 8 Hour Diet proposes that limiting your food intake to just eight hours of the day is an easy diet technique that supports weight control. Here all calories and meals need to be consumed within just 8 hours of the day, for example brunch at 10am, lunch at 1 or 2pm and your final meal of the day by 6pm. Here the amount of calories or even fat consumed it not important, rather it is argued that our long days, in which food may be consumed across as many as 16 hours each day is one of the key reasons so many of us are struggling with our weight. Indeed there is some physiological aspects of this argument that make sense. Prolonged periods of feeding, in which food is not only consumed relatively frequently, every few hours and across many hours of the day means that more insulin (the hormone that controls blood glucose levels) is released in an attempt to keep blood glucose levels stable. High levels of insulin over time promotes inflammation and fat storage in the body. In addition hunger is less likely to be experienced, as we never really let ourselves get really hungry and fat is more likely to be stored in the liver. Studies on animals support this approach when it comes to weight loss and hormonal control.
In some preliminary studies, rats given free access to high fat foods but only for relatively short periods of time, weighed less, and had no issues with their cholesterol levels, blood glucose

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