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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Mesophiles grow best in moderate temperature, typically between 25°C and 40°C (77°F and 104°F). Mesophiles are often found living in or on the bodies of humans or other animals. The optimal growth temperature of many pathogenic mesophiles is 37°C (98°F), the normal human body temperature. Mesophilic organisms have important uses in food preparation, including cheese, yogurt, beer and wine.


Q: What type of organism is commonly used in preparation of foods such as cheese and yogurt?

 Choices:

- protozoa

- gymnosperms

- viruses

- mesophilic organisms

A:

Target Text: mesophilic organisms

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Rank: 0
Score: 38.977978
Retrieved Text: IMPORTANT! BATTLE FOR YOUR BELLY – 75-80% of your immunity and what you look and feel like is related to DIET. The saying you are what you eat holds true. More research is leading back to diet causing the following issues including: allergies, arthritis, asthma, autoimmune diseases, depression, headache, fatigue, infections, muscle pain, liver problems, osteoporosis, thyroid, and more. So, what can you do about it? Start by eating clean, Eliminate wheat products (gluten) and sugar (yes sugar, I know it will be hard), Add Probiotics and Digestive enzymes to your daily diet.
Probiotic organisms are live microorganisms that are thought to be beneficial to the host organism. According to the currently adopted definition by FAO/WHO, probiotics are: “Live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host”. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics; but certain yeasts and bacilli may also be used. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures; such as in yogurt, soy yogurt, or as dietary supplements.
Many people use probiotics to prevent diarrhea, gas, and cramping caused by antibiotics. Antibiotics kill “good” (beneficial) bacteria along with the bacteria that cause illness. A decrease in beneficial bacteria may lead to digestive problems. Taking probiotics may help replace the lost beneficial bacteria. This can help prevent diarrhea.
carbohydrases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as glucose.

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Retrieved Text: L-Lysine is an amino acid found in the protein of foods such as beans, cheese, yogurt, meat, milk, brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, and other animal proteins. Proteins derived from grains such as wheat and corn tend to be low in L-Lysine content. The bio availability of L-Lysine is reduced with food preparation methods, such as heating foods in the presence of a reducing sugar (ie, fructose or glucose); heating foods in the presence of sucrose or yeast; and cooking in the absence of moisture at high temperatures. The average 70 kg human requires 800 to 3,000 mg of L-Lysine daily.
L-Lysine is an essential amino acid in human nutrition because the body cannot produce it; therefore, it must be taken in either by diet or supplementation. L-Lysine was first isolated from casein (a milk phosphoprotein) in 1889. It was first introduced in the United States as L-Lysine hydrochloride in 1955. There was an interest in fortifying bread with L-Lysine to target populations with L-Lysine poor diets. However, the FDA refused to modify the standards of identity for white bread. Since 1970, L-Lysine has been commonly added to animal feed.
L-Lysine has been studied for the prevention and treatment of herpes infections and cold sores. It also increases the intestinal absorption of calcium and eliminates its excretion by the kidney, suggesting that it might be helpful in osteoporosis. L-Lysine has been investigated for its effects on increasing muscle mass, lowering glucose, and improving anxiety. Case reports suggest lysine may ameliorate angina. L-Lysine acetylsalicylate has been used to treat pain

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Retrieved Text: General Information: Lactic acid bacterium used in the fermentation of dairy products. They are commonly found in the oral, vaginal, and intestinal regions of many animals. They are important industrial microbes that contribute to the production of cheese, yogurt, and other products such as fermented milks, all stemming from the production of lactic acid, which inhibits the growth of other organisms as well as lowering the pH of the food product. Industrial production requires the use of starter cultures, which are carefully cultivated, created, and maintained, which produce specific end products during fermentation that impart flavor to the final product, as well as contributing important metabolic reactions, such as the breakdown of milk proteins during cheese production. The end product of fermentation, lactic acid, is also being used as a starter molecule for complex organic molecule syntheses. The subspecies bulgaricus is used as a starter culture for a number of fermented dairy products such as yogurt and Swiss and Italian-type cheeses, and is a thermophilic culture, where the optimum temperature is 42 degrees C.

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Retrieved Text: Calcium is an essential nutrient that plays many important roles in the body. While most commonly associated with strong teeth and bones and the prevention of osteoporosis, calcium is also involved in muscle contraction, including contraction of the uterus during childbirth, regulation of the heartbeat, blood clotting, enzyme production, blood pressure regulation, and proper functioning of the nervous system.
Getting sufficient calcium is even more important in pregnancy to ensure proper growth of the developing baby. If the expectant mother isn't getting sufficient calcium in her diet, calcium needed for the baby's development will be drawn from the mother's bones. Calcium deficiency during pregnancy can contribute to a difficult delivery and prolonged recovery period after childbirth. The recommended daily amount of calcium for pregnant and lactating women is 1,200 milligrams.
In addition to drinking a glass of milk or eating a cup of yogurt, dairy products can be added to the diet in a variety of ways, such as macaroni and cheese, casseroles, cream soups, cheese or yogurt toppings, milk-based sauces on vegetables and potatoes, and puddings.
Many foods that may not be naturally rich in calcium are available with additional calcium added. Choose calcium-fortified orange juice, breakfast cereals, instant oatmeal, cereal bars, and bread.
Pregnant women who are lactose-intolerant can try lactose-free dairy products that are now commonly available, including lactose-free milk. Depending on the degree of lactose-intolerance, some women may be able to eat small amounts of hard cheeses, buttermilk, or fermented milk products such as yogurt with no harmful effects.
Iti s best to get calcium and other

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Retrieved Text: Technical Abstract: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Dataset for What We Eat In America, NHANES (Survey-SR) provides the nutrient data for assessing dietary intakes from the national survey What We Eat In America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (WWEIA, NHANES). The current version, Survey-SR 2013-2014, is based on the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (SR) 28 (2) and contains 65 nutrients each for over 3,300 foods. These nutrient data will be used for assessing intake data from WWEIA, NHANES 2013-2014. Two hundred sixty-five new foods were added for this version. These are mainly commercially processed foods and include several gluten-free products, milk substitutes, sauces and condiments such as sriracha, pesto and wasabi, Greek yogurt, breakfast cereals, low-sodium meat products, whole grain pastas and baked products, and several beverages including bottled tea and coffee, coconut water, malt beverages, hard cider, fruit flavored drinks, fortified fruit juices and fruit and/or vegetable smoothies. Several school lunch pizzas and chicken products, fast-food sandwiches, and new beef cuts were also added, as they are reported more frequently by survey respondents. Nutrient profiles were updated for about 500 foods, including several commonly consumed foods such as cheddar, mozzarella and American cheese, ground beef, butter, catsup. Survey-SR contains four files – Food Description, Nutrient Data, Nutrient Definition and Source Code Files and can be downloaded at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/Docs.htm?docid=25662.

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Retrieved Text: Do you need funds to purchase foods for your culinary classroom?
Apply for a “Learning to Cook with Dairy Mini-Grant”!
The Learning to Cook with Dairy Mini- Grant Program is designed to provide dairy foods for use in culinary activities for students in junior high and high school Family and Consumer Science, Culinary or Agriculture courses. This program is funded by dairy farmers in Arizona and administered by the Dairy Council of Arizona.
Teachers are encouraged to apply for mini-grants of up to $500 per school per year for the purchase of milk, cheese and/or yogurt products to use in culinary activities. Culinary activities include any recipe or food preparation activity designed to instruct students about the use, functionality, taste profiles, cooking properties, etc. of dairy foods, specifically milk, cheese and/or yogurt. Additional topics may include dairy food storage, dairy food safety, dairy food nutrition, or other aspects of dairy foods.
Applications will be accepted through October 31, 2017. Funds must be utilized by May 1, 2018.
Work with students to implement the grant utilizing milk, cheese and/or yogurt in culinary activities in the classroom.
Instruct students on the different types of dairy foods and culinary aspects of dairy foods. Additional topics include dairy food nutritional content, storage, food safety, or other aspects pertinent to culinary activities.
Work with students to develop recipes using milk, cheese and/or yogurt as an ingredient.
Take photos of recipes, students working with dairy foods, etc.
Submit: recipes developed, photos, receipts of dairy expenditures.
For more information, contact Terri Verason.
Thank you for your interest in the Learning to Cook with Dairy

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Rank: 6
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Retrieved Text: When it is very hot we do not feel like copious or hot meals, however, even being summer we must feed and nourish ourselves well. It is a matter of habits and opting for foods to lower body temperature. Find out more in this article.
They can be served for breakfast next to a slice of toast and cheese or a pot of skimmed yogurt. And during the day, an orange or apple juice is the best liquid foods to lower body temperature and prevent you from eating any other food with no nutritional value.
You can not forget about fresh fish as one of the best foods to lower body temperature in summer. It has fewer calories than meat and depending on the preparation method can refresh you. Accompany it with salad or vegetables.
Best of all, during the hot months, it is easier to get salmon, sole or hake that has fatty acids such as omega 3 (healthy fat). Seafood is also an excellent solution to enjoy a rich, healthy diet and a refreshing lunch.
Instead of mayonnaise, you can spread avocado. Instead of sausages, put palm hearts; Choose fresh sprouts, fresh cheese. You can innovate with what you have in the fridge.

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Retrieved Text: Here’s what we’re talking about!
High temperature – fruit yogurt. Elevated temperature – Your organism prepares to fight infection. Help your body properly! An excellent solution for this is fruit yogurt which speeds up the metabolism, restores energy and reduces temperature. Whenever you feel that you have an elevated temperature help your body with a tasty fruit yogurt.
Yeast infection – Yogurt. This is a partial cure and preventative. People who regularly drink yogurt have a 75% lower risk of fungal infections. If you already suffer from a yeast infection, drink yogurt regularly. With its “good” bacteria it will always be beneficial.
Urinary tract infection – Cranberry juice. Just two glasses of cranberry juice will prevent the proliferation of bacteria in the bladder, particularly the bacteria Escherichia coli, which is the most common cause of this type of infection.
PMS – Cheese. Cheese is a product that is rich calcium. According to a survey conducted by researchers, food that is rich in calcium is an excellent buffer for symptoms of pre-menstrual cycle.
Cold – soup. Yes, this is a well known medicine that simply works. It is great for inflammation of the lungs, rehydration when you have a temperature, rhinitis and all the symptoms of a cold.

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Rank: 8
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Retrieved Text: Gelatine (also gelatin, from French gélatine) is a translucent, colourless, brittle, nearly tasteless solid substance, extracted from the collagen inside animals' skin and bones. It has been commonly used as a gelling agent in food, pharmaceutical, photography, and cosmetic manufacturing. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a similar way are called gelatinous. Gelatin is an irreversibly hydrolyzed form of collagen. Gelatin is classified as a foodstuff and has E441 E number.It is in almost every gummy we eat today as well as other things, such as marshmallows, and skittles.
Household gelatine comes in the form of sheets, granules, or powder. Instant types can be added to the food as they are; others need to be soaked in water beforehand.
Common examples of foods that contain gelatine are gelatin desserts, trifles, aspic, marshmallows, and confectioneries such as Peeps and gummy bears. Gelatine may be used as a stabilizer, thickener, or texturizer in foods such as ice cream, jams, yogurt, cream cheese, and margarine; it is used, as well, in fat-reduced foods to simulate the mouthfeel of fat and to create volume without adding calories.
Gelatine is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of vinegar. Isinglass, from the swim bladders of fish, is still in use as a fining agent for wine and beer. Beside hartshorn jelly, from deer antlers (hence the name "hartshorn"), isinglass was one of the oldest sources of gelatine.
Gelatine is also one of the additives that can be used in molecular gastronomy for foams and gels.
Agar can be used as a vegetarian

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Retrieved Text: Lactose is a sugar found in milk and other dairy products. Lactose intolerance occurs when your body’s ability to digest lactose is impaired due to a deficiency of an enzyme called lactase. This can lead to symptoms like stomach pain and bloating, gas, diarrhea and nausea after eating dairy products. Limiting your consumption of dairy products can help control symptoms.
Milk is typically a problem for people with lactose intolerance, but many people with lactose intolerance can drink up to a 1/2 cup of regular milk at a time without causing symptoms. Drinking milk with meals may make it easier to digest, and you may also want to start with a small amount of milk and gradually increase the amount you drink to build up a tolerance. You may also want to switch to lactose-free milk, which is available in most supermarkets, or take lactase supplements to reduce symptoms when you do drink milk.
Lactose is found in most other dairy products besides milk, so you may want to limit your consumption of them. These include ice cream, cream, butter and yogurt. Cheese also contains lactose, though the amount varies depending on the type of cheese. Soft cheeses like cottage cheese tend to be higher in lactose. Some hard cheeses, such as Swiss or cheddar cheese, contain less lactose and may not cause symptoms if eaten in moderation.
Lactose is an ingredient in many prepared foods you might not think of. These include bread and other bakery items, cereals, baking mixes, instant potatoes, soups, nondairy creamers, whipped toppings, protein

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Rank: 10
Score: 34.285507
Retrieved Text: Dairy products are considered to be a foundation of health for many cultures. Milk has been used by humans since the beginning time to provide both fresh and storable nutritious foods. It is considered that consuming dairy products provides health benefits - especially improved bone health. Foods in the dairy products group provide nutrients that are vital for health and maintenance of your body. These nutrients include calcium, potassium, vitamin D, and protein.
Intake of dairy products is linked to improved bone health, and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis. The intake of dairy products is especially important to bone health during childhood and adolescence, when bone mass is being built. Milk and dairy foods are healthy foods and considered nutrient-rich because they serve as good sources of calcium and vitamin D as well as protein and other essential nutrients. They provide phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and vitamins A, B12, and riboflavin1. Intake of dairy products is also associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, and with lower blood pressure in adults.
Here, at Export Portal, we are specialized in all the kinds of dairy trade. We offer you a broad range of dairy products, such as milk and yoghurt drinks, cheese, butter and milk powder and take care of the import and export of all dairy products all over the world.
As you know, raw milk is the basis for a tasty assortment of products, from butter to yogurt and cheese, created over the centuries by necessity, accident or ingenuity. Many of these products

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Rank: 11
Score: 34.25372
Retrieved Text: General Information: This strain is a Chinese commercial lactic acid bacterium with several probiotic functions. Lactobacillus plantarum are commonly isolated from plant material, and the gastrointestinal tract of animals. This organism is used in the production of fermented foods such as saurkraut, kimchi and sourdough bread. This organism is also of interest as a probiotic to maintain and regulate the human intestinal microflora.

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Rank: 12
Score: 34.186855
Retrieved Text: Everyone is always looking for new healthy foods to incorporate into their diet. Superfoods are very trendy nowadays, but it turns out that some rather mundane items in your fridge, like sauerkraut, are actually among the healthiest things you can eat. Fermented foods are taking the health and nutrition world by storm, and with good reason. In this article, you will learn what fermentation is, why it’s so beneficial for your health, and which foods and beverages you should be stocking up on to benefit from fermented foods.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that occurs when microbes convert carbohydrates in foods into acids, alcohol, or gas.
Fermentation is a natural process, and one humans have taken advantage of for thousands of years. Fermentation is how all alcoholic beverages are made, and how many common foods such as yogurt and pickles are produced. It is also the key process by which breads are made. Yeast, which is a living organism, performs fermentation to obtain energy. With dairy products, it’s bacteria which do this, converting the carbohydrates in milk into lactic acid.
This is probably the fermented food you are most familiar with. Yogurt contains billions of live probiotic bacteria which support digestion. Probiotic foods help line the intestines and gut with a protective layer of beneficial bacteria which protects against infections and assists your body in the digestive process, maximizing the benefits from the foods you consume.
Yogurt typically contains healthy bacteria such as lactobacillus, streptococcus thermophiles, and bifidobacterium strains. If you are unfamiliar with or unable to pronounce those names,

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Retrieved Text: "It reminds me of Ricotta cheese!!!!!! How quickly should it be consumed?"
2. In the morning, drain soak water and rinse cashews. Blend in high powered food processor until completely smooth. You may need to add 1-2tbsp of water.
2. Add yogurt and salt and blend once more to combine, scraping down the sides as needed.
3. Leave to set for 24 hours in a clean air-tight container at room temperature.
How Can Cultured Cashew Cheese Make You Feel Great?
'Cultured Cashew Cheese' may sound like a handful, but it's surprisingly simple. With just two main ingredients (plus a pinch of salt and a drop of water!) you can create this creamy, tangy spread. Those who are intimidated by culturing (aka fermenting), foods can rest easy. This vegan friendly option is a perfect starting point for beginners.
The process of culturing occurs when bacteria, such as lactobacilli, feeds on sugar as its energy source creating lactic acid. Culturing the cashews in this way with coconut yogurt preserves the vital nutrients, creates enzymes which aid digestibility and puts those all important probiotics back into your digestive system, creating a blooming gut flora. You'll feel vibrant and well year round.
Ayurveda has a strong tradition of enjoying fermented foods including wines, chutneys and the all important digestive lassi. In excess, fermented foods can create a dull, heavy feeling in the body due to length of time the food has been fermenting. But in the right quantities, fermented foods boost vitality, energy and are sattvic in nature, promoting clarity and lightness of body and mind.
This recipes

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Retrieved Text: All foodstuffs manufactured, processed or sold in South Africa as well as those imported into South Africa are governed by the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act, 1972 (Act 54 of 1972) (FCD) from a human health perspective. There are two sets of regulations promulgated in terms of this Act which make provision for microbiological standards or specifications for certain foodstuffs.
In addition, the Regulations Relating to Foodstuffs for Infants, Young Children and Children (R.1130 of 1984) stipulate that these foods should be free from pathogenic microorganisms and/or their toxins.
All foodstuffs, however, should not contain microorganisms at levels, which may cause harm to humans upon consumption. This is one of the regulations of section 2(1)(b)(i) of the FCD Act.
It must be borne in mind that the presence of microoganisms in foods is not necessarily an indicator of a hazard to the consumer. Plants and animals form the major origin of the foods, which we eat and these sources are naturally associated with microorganisms, which implies that foods will be associated with microorganisms.
Food can become microbiologically hazardous to the consumer when the principles of hygiene and sanitation are not met or when it becomes contaminated by pathogens from humans or from the environment during production, processing or preparation, or when it originates from a sick animal, for example, a cow with mastitis or an animal with anthrax. On subjection to conditions that allow the entry and/or growth of infectious agents, it may become a vehicle for transmission of diseases such as salmonellosis or staphylococcal food poisoning. Examination of food

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Rank: 15
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Retrieved Text: Class II milk is defined as the milk that is used for manufacturing soft dairy products such as ice cream, sour cream, whipped cream, cheese dips, cream cheese and yogurt. Increasing consumption of yogurt and sour cream among consumers has fuelled the demand for class II milk over the past few years. The Federal Milk Marketing Orders (FMMO) has defined the various classes of milk to enhance the quality of milk in various end-use industries and to provide a standardised pricing for milk based on its end use.
Class II milk finds applications in various dairy processing as well as packaged food processing industries. Class II milk also plays a vital role in confectionaries as a key ingredient in producing milk-based chocolates and candies, which has escalated the demand for class II milk in the recent years. As the end products of class II milk are used in various food and beverage processing industries, class II milk is increasingly manufactured and traded by the leading producers of dairy products. Due to its increasing demand, there the overall supply chain of class II milk has increased significantly during the recent years, which is estimated to drive the global class II milk market in the near future.
The dairy products derived from class II milk, such as yogurt, cream cheese and sour cream, are often combined with staples for regular consumption, which is contributing to the growth of the global class II milk market. Increase in the number of food chains, such as packaged dairy products, dairy co-operatives, dairy formulators,

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Retrieved Text: Elderly people who bustle around the house, spend much time on their feet, climb stairs, and hold down jobs might be buying themselves precious years of life.
A commonly prescribed anti-osteoporosis drug works as well at preventing breast cancer in postmenopausal women as the sole drug currently prescribed for the task, a head-to-head trial shows.
Physicists last year created an exotic state of matter previously unattainable in the laboratory but whose characteristics theorists have debated for more than 40 years. The latest probes of the new state suggest that the material—a cloud of ultracold atoms that's imbalanced with regard to a quantum property known as spin—behaves differently than most theorists had anticipated.
Want to lose weight without counting calories? A new study finds that the easiest strategy might be reducing a meal's energy density—calories per ounce of food. When volunteers were offered such density-diminished meals, they rated the fare as filling—and as palatable—as they had full-calorie versions of the same foods.
Arthritis-ameliorating cheese, anyone? Asthma-moderating yogurt? How about a scoop of lupus-fighting ice cream? Although such foods don't yet exist, they might one day. Data from a new study finds that an unusual fatty acid, a type of dairy fat, can modulate the injurious, runaway inflammation that underlies these and many other diseases.

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Retrieved Text: A food that’s “free” of something you don’t want (such as fat) probably has more of something else you also don’t want (like sugar or salt) to replace the missing ingredient. Trade a nonfat treat for a real-deal one that doesn’t make false promises and satisfies craving.
AMEN! Whole foods are where it’s at when it comes to your health and your waistline. Please don’t be scared or believe any hype that makes you fear whole, full fat foods (like yogurt, cheese, etc) Your body will absorb the most nutrients and be most satisfied by foods in their most natural form. Ever notice how you can keep eating and eating low-fat/non-fat foods, but with full-fat, you don’t seem to eat as much?
Personally, I love eating whole milk plain yogurt with fresh fruit and nuts rather than nonfat flavored yogurt loaded with extra sugar or artificial sweeteners. What about you?
I couldn’t agree more! I think we are so brainwashed into thinking fat is bad, but I do feel so much more satiated when I have the full-fat version, and then I definitely eat less! Being pregnant doesn’t hurt, either, as the baby needs full fat stuff… another good excuse!
Also, good luck with your move!
I very much agree! I used to eat these things when I was younger, but now it is really important to me that everything I put into my body is as natural as possible.
Great post!!! More people need to read this!
This post is so true Annie! I never drink diet anything and always buy whole

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Retrieved Text: For a decrease in absorption process for some types of acceptable quality, to wait for most antibiotics. In dairy black and cephapirin, including antibiotics and cheese can interfere with the effect. Amoxi-Clav: cows, other foods such as antibiotics with a baby formula, amoxicillin? Each single dose to eat yogurts; takanen, including antibiotics of online shopping effective. A variety of clinical trial treating staphylococcus. Examples for the potential for most antibiotics of fermented milk containing penicillin. Can be taken at mrl affected the treatment. My ds dear son is a prescription drug amoxicillin goes very well with milk were determined.
Kaartinen, water, hot dogs or amoxicillin, amoxicillin? For antibiotic that people who are rich in small quantities with milk, amoxicillin. Read more about which foods, yogurt, 48 hours; laine, amoxicillin is in lactating dairy products, https://www.missgorgeous.nl/nitro-and-viagra/ taking these medicines, l. Amoxicillin may be drunk two hours, residues.
Probiotics occur in order to three hours, penicillin. As penicillin g procaine, and lower amounts of fermented milk, l. Antibiotics, food results click to read more breast milk allergy research group. We got a script for up to prevent and cephapirin, drug imprint information about which foods, ginger ale, airing our expert says. The absorption or drinking any other viral infections. Can pass into breast milk, yogurt or drinking any dairy products. I noticed hives appearing on it right? Can pass into breast milk as butter, side. Keywords: effect of this combination product containing amoxicillin will not drink.
People who eat yogurt, airing our expert says. The absorption of medications, hps, 36 hours,

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Retrieved Text: The art of paring virgin oil offers a world of discovery. Each Extra Virgin Olive Oil type can be used in different preparations and ways to experiment with the best food and oil combinations.
Which variety of Olive Oil suits best for each preparation?
Enjoy it in ceviches, hearty vegetables, fresh or boiled salads.
Use it in sauces for any type of white meats, fish and seafood.
Enjoy it in any egg preparation, scrambled, sunny side, among others.
Try it in baked dishes, as a butter substitute.
Dare to use it to top your ice cream.
Get the best out of red meats.
Use it as a base for stews.
Try it in sautéed vegetable or wok stir-fry recipes.
Get the best out of prepared meals, adding a special touch to your food.
Use it in cooked preparations, red and white meat and fish.
Boost the taste of any type of cheese, tapas and dishes.
Improve your fried food frying with Extra Virgin Olive Oil!
Did you know that when you fry your foods in Extra Virgin Olive Oil they don’t loose their nutritional values? The EVOO endures high temperatures, which means it preserves all of the nutritional values of food, at the same time that it adds other values such as phenols (natural antioxidants).
The Research group of the Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology in Granada University has proven that the intake of olive oil can modify the composition of the membrane of the mitochondria. This process makes it more resistant to the aggression of free radicals, which means the organism is more resistant to growing old.
Adding Extra Virgin

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Retrieved Text: The Military Diet Substitutions and Swaps List: Must I eat Grapefruit?
One of the most common complaints about the Military Diet Plan is that some of the food options aren’t exactly enjoyable by all. Not everyone likes grapefruit or black coffee, and these are two of the key foods on the 3 day diet plan. Luckily for you, there are some substitutions you can make to get the same results. Here is our list of foods you can swap out for something you prefer!
This is one of the most commonly disliked foods on the 3 day diet plan. Unfortunately, it is a very key part of the diet and you can’t swap it for an orange or another citrus fruit. If you refuse to eat grapefruit or drink grapefruit juice (that you can sweeten with Stevia), there is another option.
You can have a piece of fruit that is the caloric equivalent to half of a grapefruit (such as a small apple). And then you need to mix half a teaspoon of baking soda with a cup of water and drink this mixture. The reason for this is that both baking soda and components of grapefruit help produce alkaline which will help combat the fat that thrives in an acidic environment.
The important thing about having your morning cup of black coffee is that it is caffeinated. This caffeine will help stimulate your metabolism to be burning energy and calories throughout the day. You can swap black coffee for black tea providing it is caffeinated. Remember, you can’t add

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Retrieved Text: It is recommended to all participants to follow a dietary preparation, at least 5 days before the Ayahuasca Retreat. Of course, it is much better to start with the diet as soon as possible, that is, the sooner the better. Some people decide to follow dietary preparation from weeks or months before the Retreat, which is very helpful. Preparation is really a very important aspect to participate in this type of experience. The diet helps keep the body clean, and that is really very important and necessary in oder to live an optimal process.
The diet is also part of precautions to avoid complications during the process with ayahuasca medicine, it facilitates a better assimilation of the Ayahuasca medicine, avoids risky interactions, and allows an adequate physical and energetic preparation before the process with Ayahuasca.
There is no specific diet to participate in an ayahuasca process. The different healers and retreat centers that work with ayahuasca, choose to recommend diets according to their own work objectives, beliefs and knowledge. There is no standard diet.
We advise avoiding heavy and fatty foods. Do not eat red meat, especially pork. It is possible to eat fish, but not very fatty. It is possible to eat eggs and drink yogurt. Although it is recommended, essentially, a vegetarian or vegan diet, as healthy as possible, i.e. little saturated fat, low sugar, low salt and low carbohydrate.
It is possible to eat all kinds of vegetables, and eat all kinds of fruits, however, one day before the Ayahuasca Retreat avoid very ripe fruits, ripe avocados,

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Score: 33.03332
Retrieved Text: If you have Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) you may know either intuitively or through various media that acidity has something to do with your bladder pain and other symptoms.
To eliminate the acidity from the diet and reduce symptoms of pelvic pain there are many dietary recommendations.
Just by eliminating known trigger foods and making fundamental changes in your nutritional format you can go a long way toward resolution of your symptoms.
But what foods to avoid often comes down to “who’s doing the eating?”. According to the energy science of Ayurveda the nutritional format that’s recommended is unique to each person and their current condition.
At times we don’t know that what we are eating is making us sick. Did you know that pain from IBS can also be related to the acidic loading that occurs from poor food combining?
Some foods don’t belong with one another. For example, fruit with any other food is commonly practiced yet it can lead to poor digestion and symptoms of bloating and abdominal pain if done frequent enough.
In the energy science of Ayurveda every food has unique qualities and when foods are combined which are antagonistic to one another they may be toxic to the mind-body.
Here’s a thorough list of incompatible food combinations.
Don’t eat with fruit, eggs, cheese, fish, milk, meat, yogurt.
Eat fruit by itself for optimal digestion. Melons especially should be eaten alone.
Don’t eat with fruit or tapioca.
Don’t eat boiled or cooked honey. Do not eat with an equal amount of ghee by weight.
Don’t eat with cucumbers, tomatoes, yogurt or milk.
Don’t eat

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Retrieved Text: Probiotics: A Comprehensive Guide. What Are They? Do They Work?
If you’re keen to add more probiotic benefit into your life, the good news is that there are plenty of foods which can help you do that.
First things first however, how much do you really know about probiotics?
Do Probiotic Foods Really Support Gut Health?
Do You Take Probiotics With Food, or on an Empty Stomach?
Probiotics are actually bacteria and yeasts which live in your gut and digestive system overall. The word ‘bacteria’ might be a little worrying, but don’t worry at all, these bacteria are the friendly type, and your body needs them to fight off the bad bacteria, and to keep everything running as smoothly as possible.
Without good bacteria, you are going to slip into bad health, illness, and your digestive system is going to be completely out of whack.
When you replenish any good bacteria you’ve lost (perhaps through taking antibiotics due to illness) and you keep a good supply in your gut, you reap major benefits, and you can also boost your immune system at the same time!
Probiotics are found in many different foods, but it’s also possible to take a supplement too, especially if you struggle to pack many of the foods into your daily diet.
These supplements are often a tablet, capsule, or commonly a yoghurt-style drink which you enjoy daily, and gives you the benefits which the natural foods would too.
Despite that, we believe natural is always the best route. If you’re wondering which probiotic foods you should be trying to add into your

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Retrieved Text: In the field of biotechnology, there are many industrial applications that result in biotech products that we use every day at home. Some of these are food science applications that utilize enzymes to produce or make improvements in the quality of different foods.
Milk contains proteins, specifically caseins, that maintain its liquid form. Proteases are enzymes that are added to milk during cheese production, to hydrolyze caseins, specifically kappa casein, which stabilizes micelle formation preventing coagulation. Rennet and rennin are general terms for any enzyme used to coagulate milk. Technically rennet is also the term for the lining of a calf's fourth stomach.
The most common enzyme isolated from rennet is chymosin. Chymosin can also be obtained from several other animals, microbial or vegetable sources, but indigenous microbial chymosin (from fungi or bacteria) is ineffective for making cheddar and other hard cheeses.
Limited supplies of calf rennet have prompted genetic engineering of microbial chymosin by cloning calf prochymosin genes into bacteria. Bioengineered chymosin may be involved in the production of up to 70% of cheese products. While the use of bioengineered enzymes spares the lives of calves, it presents ethics issues for those opposed to eating foods prepared with GEMs.
Milk contains a number of different types of proteins, in addition to the caseins. Cow milk also contains whey proteins such as lactalbumin and lactoglobulin. The denaturing of these whey proteins, using proteases, results in a creamier yogurt product. Destruction of whey proteins is also essential for cheese production.
During the production of soft cheeses, whey is separated from the milk

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Retrieved Text: Both mold and yeast belong to Kingdom Fungi. Both are eukaryotes, meaning they have cell nuclei and membrane-bound organelles. Though both belong to the same kingdom and act as a parasite on other organic matter, yet they are different from each other. Let us see how mold differs from yeast!
Mold is a type of fungi which is a eukaryotic, multicellular organism and grows in the form of multicellular thread-like structures called hyphae. The hyphae are collectively called a mycelium. Molds are heterotrophic organisms, meaning they cannot make their own food like plants. So, in order to survive, they must gain nutrients from other organic substances. They have round or oval shape, appear in different colours and can reproduce asexually or sexually.
There are more than 100000 types of mold. Some of the common types are Rhizopus stolonifer which is known as black bread mold; Penicillium which is used to produce the antibiotic, Penicillin. Like animals, mold does not eat its food; it secretes enzymes to break down the food into smaller organic molecules which are absorbed by it. So, they are decomposers of dead organic matter like leaves, plants and wood etc.
Molds often require moisture to grow which they usually get from washing area, cooking, air humidifiers, condensation or leaks from the water pipes etc. Poor ventilation which tends to increase humidity levels also leads to condensation which helps mold grow and reproduce.
Yeast is also a type of fungi which is a eukaryotic, unicellular organism. It looks like a thread or filament and appears white or colorless.

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Retrieved Text: What you eat has an effect on both your overall health and your oral health. It is well known that both calcium and Vitamin D are beneficial for strong bones and teeth. These nutrients are commonly found in dairy products, making items such as milk, yogurt, and cheese a good choice for healthy teeth. Not only do the nutrients in dairy products help keep teeth strong, but research is showing that dairy products may offer even more protective benefits to teeth.
When the pH levels in the mouth become too acidic, your enamel begins to erode. This can lead to the development of cavities by allowing plaque and bacteria to get to the softer tooth tissues. While brushing your teeth can help remove this harmful plaque and bacteria, brushing is not always convenient or even possible.
While eating sugary or acidic foods can increase the acid level in the mouth, lowering the pH level, certain dairy products, especially cheese, can reduce this acid and raise pH levels, offering some protection against the formation of cavities. Chewing cheese can increase saliva, which washes away acids. Cheese also leaves a slight coating on teeth, offering additional protection to keep plaque and bacteria from sticking.
If you have any questions on how your diet is affecting your oral health, our dentist in West Hollywood can provide you with the best recommendations for at-home oral health care, daily nutrition, and other preventive measures.

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Score: 32.099026
Retrieved Text: It's school time again! Like me, you may feel excited but also a little sad that summer is over. As a parent to eight year old twins, I look forward to getting back into a routine with school, work and extracurricular activities. With this comes school lunches and evenings out of the house watching the twin’s in sports. Weekends will fill with more sports, getting groceries, planning and preparing meals and hopefully getting to spend some quality time together.
In the morning, our family’s first connection is preparing and eating a healthy breakfast together. My children like to remind me of the ‘divisions of responsibility’ with eating. As a parent, I am responsible to make sure healthy breakfast choices are in the fridge and cupboards, getting these on the table, while my children are responsible for choosing which foods to eat and how much. My daughter enjoys spreading peanut butter on the toast, while I pour cereal, chop fruit and fill cups with milk, while my son checks the sports highlights before we eat. We try to eat a breakfast with at least 3 out of the 4 food groups from Canada’s Food Guide. In our home, breakfast may be a whole grain bagel with peanut butter, sliced strawberries and a glass of milk or whole grain cereal with fruit and low fat milk. On weekends, we have time to prepare homemade breakfast sandwiches, pancakes with my homemade berry sauce and yogurt or whole grain muffins with fruit and cheese.
During the week, I like to pack school

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Score: 32.09226
Retrieved Text: Industry News | WIC, Feeding Programs, NMPF, IDFA, International Dairy Foods Association, National Milk Producers Federation.
“Milk, cheese and yogurt are the No. 1 source of nine essential nutrients in children’s diets: protein, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, vitamins A, B12, D and riboflavin. The reason dairy foods are included in the WIC package is that no other food source can deliver such a wide range of vital nutrients to mothers and young children. Cutting back on dairy is a step in the wrong direction.
“To its credit, the committee also made recommendations that encourage dairy consumption by WIC participants, including continuing to allow the substitution of cheese, and expanding options for substituting yogurt, as well as making it easier for participants to purchase yogurt in popular sizes. The committee also recognized that many plant-based beverages, such as those derived from almonds and rice, are not nutritionally equivalent to milk.
The International Dairy Foods Association (IDFA), Washington, D.C., represents the nation’s dairy manufacturing and marketing industries and their suppliers, with a membership of 550 companies within a $125-billion a year industry. IDFA is composed of three constituent organizations: the Milk Industry Foundation (MIF), the National Cheese Institute (NCI) and the International Ice Cream Association (IICA). IDFA’s nearly 200 dairy processing members run nearly 600 plant operations, and range from large multi-national organizations to single-plant companies. Together they represent more than 85 percent of the milk, cultured products, cheese, ice cream and frozen desserts produced and marketed in the United States. IDFA can be found online at www.idfa.org.
WIC, Feeding Programs, NMPF,

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Retrieved Text: Avoid acidic foods such as citrus and tomato juices, citrus fruits, pickles, and vinegar. Instead try bananas, canned peaches, pears, or apricots and fruit nectars.
Use seasonings sparingly. Spicy or salty foods may irritate a sore mouth.
Choose soft, bland foods such as cream soups, yogurt, cottage cheese, scrambled eggs, gelatin, macaroni and cheese.
Serve foods warm or at room temperature rather than hot.
Soft cold foods often alleviate pain. Try ice cream, Popsicles, slushes, purees, or puddings.
Use a straw for drinking.
Puree foods in a blender if chewing is difficult. Baby foods may also be used.
Dunk hard foods, such as toast, in milk, cocoa, coffee, tea, or other warm beverages.
Tilt head back or forward to aid swallowing.
Eat small frequent meals to minimize irritation to mouth.
Good mouth care is especially important to avoid infections.
If brushing teeth is painful, use swabs on teeth and gums.
Avoid mouthwashes which contain alcohol and are drying. Instead rinse mouth 4 times a day with a solution of 1 tsp baking soda and 1 tsp of salt dissolved in 1 quart of warm water.
Apply A&D ointment or other lip lubricant to avoid cracked lips. May also use petroleum jelly, lip balm, or cocoa butter.

================



======= Instance Index 1 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Without Coriolis Effect the global winds would blow north to south or south to north. But Coriolis makes them blow northeast to southwest or the reverse in the Northern Hemisphere. The winds blow northwest to southeast or the reverse in the southern hemisphere.


Q: What phenomenon makes global winds blow northeast to southwest or the reverse in the northern hemisphere and northwest to southeast or the reverse in the southern hemisphere?

 Choices:

- centrifugal effect

- tropical effect

- coriolis effect

- muon effect

A:

Target Text: coriolis effect

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 52.67106
Retrieved Text: A visualisation of the South Asian Monsoon based on the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) 30+ year quasi-global rainfall dataset, analysed and visualised using Google Earth Engine.
Annual average monsoon precipitation in India over 110 years. The long-term average has been 899 millimeters of precipitation. However, the monsoon varies over the Indian subcontinent within a ±20% range. Rains that exceed 10% typically lead to major floods, while a 10% shortfall is a significant drought.
The monsoon of South Asia is among several geographically distributed global monsoons. It affects the Indian subcontinent, where it is one of the oldest and most anticipated weather phenomena and an economically important pattern every year from June through September, but it is only partly understood and notoriously difficult to predict. Several theories have been proposed to explain the origin, process, strength, variability, distribution, and general vagaries of the monsoon, but understanding and predictability are still evolving.
The unique geographical features of the Indian subcontinent, along with associated atmospheric, oceanic, and geophysical factors, influence the behavior of the monsoon. Because of its effect on agriculture, on flora and fauna, and on the climates of nations such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka — among other economic, social, and environmental effects — the monsoon is one of the most anticipated, tracked, and studied weather phenomena in the region. It has a significant effect on the overall well-being of residents and has even been dubbed the "real finance minister of India".
The American Meteorological Society calls it a name for seasonal

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Retrieved Text: peak rainfall in Mauritius occurred on 25 Feb (240 mm in 24 hrs).
on this system by JTWC.
longer makes the pressure strange.
passing the above addenda/corrections on to me.
Donaline began to weaken and accelerate off to the south-southeast.
located the center about 750 nm southeast of Rodrigues.
1000 nm east of Rodrigues Island.
position about 215 nm northeast of Mauritius.
east of Mauritius at around 1500 UTC on 19 Mar with 40-kt winds.
of La Reunion at 20/1200 UTC.
wise, references to sustained winds imply a 10-min averaging period.
of rain on the northern and eastern portions of the peninsula.
a weakening depression about 150 nm north-northwest of Cooktown.
pommelling New Zealand with high winds and seas and heavy rains.
subtropical waters and usually referred to as subtropical cyclones.
this summary covering the Southwest Pacific Basin.
references to sustained winds imply a 10-min averaging period.
was centered about 350 nm east-southeast of Honiara on Guadalcanal.
easterly to southeasterly direction without significant strengthening.
the system did not develop into an organized tropical cyclone.
close enough to brush the southernmost islands of Tanna and Aneityum.
type often referred to in the North Atlantic as a subtropical cyclone.
center about 325 nm east-southeast of Brisbane.
became absorbed into the circumpolar trough between 65S and 75S.
quite low.  Only minor damage was reported elsewhere in Vanuatu.
contain a full report on Tropical Cyclone Zuman.

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Retrieved Text: Home Knowing How is a cyclone formed?
A tropical cyclone is a storm system that is characterized by a low-pressure center that produces strong winds and heavy rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released by the condensation of moist air. The latent heat gets converted into kinetic energy and feeds the strong winds emerging out of it. Because of its warm center, it’s often called a warm core storm system. Cyclonic storms have a counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Developed over warm water bodies, like oceans and seas, they lose their strength once they move over land. Apart from ( their devastating nature, they help in the global atmospheric circulation mechanism by carrying heat and energy away from the tropics towards temperate latitudes.
Tropical cyclones are named to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public. Apart from this, they can often last a week or longer and the same basin can have more than one cyclone. Hence, assigning names reduces confusion about what storm is being described. The naming of cyclones started in the early 20th century when an Australian forecaster started naming cyclones after politicians he disliked. During World War II, American meteorologists started naming cyclones after their wives and girlfriends and all cyclones were christened with female names. In the early 50s, they were identified by the phonetic alphabet — Able, Baker, Charlie and so on. In 1953, the US Weather Bureau again switched to women’s names. Now, cyclones are given names that are

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Retrieved Text: Kyle was founded in 1880 when Fergus Kyle and David Moore donated 200 acres to the International-Great Northern Railroad for a station and right-of-way for their line between Austin and San Marcos. Town lots were auctioned under the “Kyle Auction Oak Tree.” Within the year Kyle had four saloons and a newspaper. Kyle incorporated in 1895, dis-incorporated in 1887, and reincorporated in 1906. Several fires over the years destroyed many of Kyle’s old buildings. Many Kyle residents commute to Austin or San Marcos for work. Kyle is located at the intersections of IH-35, FM 1628 and FM 150, 58 miles northeast of San Antonio, 27.5 miles northeast of New Braunfels, 10.8 miles northeast of San Marcos, approximately 32 miles northeast of Sattler and Canyon Lake, 18 miles east of Wimberley, 49 miles southeast of Blanco, 38 miles southeast of Lakeway via Austin, 22.3 miles southeast of Dripping Springs, 15 miles southeast of Driftwood, 23 miles southwest of Oak Hill, 22 miles southwest of Austin, 24.3 miles southwest of Elroy, 8.6 miles southwest of Buda, 39.7 miles southwest of Bastrop, 17 miles northwest of Lockhart, 31 miles northwest of Luling, and 31 miles northwest of Seguin, Texas.

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Score: 47.482655
Retrieved Text: During June and early July, the western Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are the favored locations for tropical cyclone formation. By late July, this area shifts eastward and the frequency increases. Late August storms form over a broad area of the eastern Atlantic and extend to the Cape Verde Islands off the coast of Africa. The period from August 20 through September 15 shows a maximum of Cape Verde storms with peak frequency of Atlantic basin hurricanes on September 10. Most Cape Verde storms cross the Atlantic and turn northward then northeastward towards northern Europe before dissipating. A few may move far enough westward to be a threat to North America. Those storms that make landfall in the U.S. are generally severe since they have been over the warm waters gathering strength for days or even weeks. By the middle of September, the frequency of storm occurrence declines and the formation area returns to the still warm, shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. By the middle of November, tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic basin has normally decreased.
For more information on tropical cyclone climatology check out the National Hurricane Center.
Since official records began in 1851, 41 tropical cyclones made landfall in the NWS Charleston, SC "County Warning Area" (which includes Charleston County, SC southward through McIntosh County, GA). These storms are highlighted in red below and include 25 hurricanes, 10 tropical storms, and 6 tropical depressions.
Refer to the National Hurricane Center for more details on each storm and NOAA's

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Rank: 5
Score: 47.07994
Retrieved Text: TODAY Southwest winds 5 to 10 knots. A slight chance of showers and thunderstorms late this morning. Scattered showers and thunderstorms this afternoon. Waves 1 foot or less.
TONIGHT Southwest winds 5 to 15 knots becoming northwest. Scattered showers and thunderstorms through the early overnight. Waves 1 to 2 feet.
TUESDAY North winds 15 to 20 knots diminishing to 10 to 15 knots. Waves 1 to 3 feet.
TUESDAY NIGHT North winds 10 to 15 knots becoming northeast. Waves 1 to 3 feet building to 2 to 4 feet, then subsiding to 1 to 3 feet.
WEDNESDAY Northeast winds 5 to 15 knots becoming east. Waves 1 to 3 feet subsiding to 1 foot or less.
THURSDAY Southeast winds 5 to 15 knots. Waves 1 to 3 feet.

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Rank: 6
Score: 46.18844
Retrieved Text: The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 69 degrees and Cloudy . There is 46 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
0am:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 61 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 58 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
3am:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 60 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 63 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Southeast.
6am:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 59 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 64 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
9am:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 62 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 58 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Northeast.
12am:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 69 degrees and Cloudy. There is 46 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
3pm:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 73 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 42 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southwest.
6pm:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 72 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 47 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the North.
9pm:The New York, NY forecast for Apr 22 is 69 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 55 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southeast.
Monday:The New York forecast for Apr 22 is 69 degrees and

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Rank: 7
Score: 45.829563
Retrieved Text: Mostly cloudy, with a low around 50. South southwest wind 13 to 16 mph, with gusts as high as 24 mph.
Mostly sunny, with a high near 69. South southwest wind 11 to 18 mph becoming northwest in the afternoon. Winds could gust as high as 28 mph.
Mostly clear, with a low around 40. Northwest wind 6 to 16 mph, with gusts as high as 24 mph.
Sunny, with a high near 59. Breezy, with a west northwest wind 7 to 12 mph increasing to 18 to 23 mph in the afternoon. Winds could gust as high as 33 mph.
Mostly clear, with a low around 35. Breezy, with a west northwest wind 17 to 22 mph decreasing to 9 to 14 mph after midnight. Winds could gust as high as 31 mph.
Sunny, with a high near 55. Northwest wind 10 to 13 mph, with gusts as high as 18 mph.
Mostly cloudy, with a low around 36. North wind around 9 mph becoming east after midnight.
A slight chance of rain and snow before 8am, then a slight chance of rain. Mostly cloudy, with a high near 50. East northeast wind around 9 mph. Chance of precipitation is 20%.
Mostly cloudy, with a low around 35. East northeast wind around 8 mph becoming south southeast after midnight.
A chance of rain and snow before 8am, then a chance of rain. Mostly cloudy, with a high near 48. East northeast wind 7 to 10 mph becoming southeast in the afternoon. Chance of precipitation is 40%.
A chance of rain and snow. Cloudy, with a

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Rank: 8
Score: 45.67875
Retrieved Text: Frontal System affecting extreme Northern Luzon.
Cloudy skies with light to moderate rains and thunderstorms will be experienced over the regions of Ilocos, Cordillera and Cagayan Valley. Partly cloudy to cloudy skies with rainshowers or thunderstorms will prevail over Metro Manila and the rest of the country.
Light to moderate winds blowing from the southeast to south will prevail over Luzon and Visayas and from the east to southeast over Mindanao. The coastal waters throughout the archipelago will be slight to moderate.
Frontal System affecting extreme Northern Luzon. Southwest Monsoon affecting the Western Section of Northern and Central Luzon.
Cloudy skies with moderate to occasionally heavy rains and thunderstorms which may trigger flashfloods and landslides is expected over the provinces of Ilocos, Apayao, Batanes, and the islands of Calayan and Babuyan. Cloudy skies with light to moderate rains and thunderstorms will be experienced over the province of Zambales and the rest of Ilocos and Cordillera region. Partly cloudy to cloudy skies with rainshowers or thunderstorms will prevail over Metro Manila and the rest of the country.
Light to moderate winds blowing from the southwest to south will prevail over Luzon and from the southeast to south over Visayas and Mindanao. The coastal waters throughout the archipelago will be slight to moderate.
Southwest Monsoon affecting the Western Section of Luzon and of Visayas.
Cloudy skies with light to moderate rainshowers and thunderstorms will be experienced over the regions of Ilocos, Cordillera, Western Visayas and the provinces of Zambales, Mindoro and Palawan. Partly cloudy to cloudy skies with rainshowers or thunderstorms will prevail over Metro

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Rank: 9
Score: 45.38823
Retrieved Text: Overnight... Scattered showers. Patchy fog. Otherwise, cloudy, with a low around 61. Calm wind. Chance of precipitation is 30%.
Thursday... Showers likely, then periods of showers and possibly a thunderstorm after 10am. Patchy fog before 10am. High near 69. South southeast wind 5 to 9 mph. Chance of precipitation is 80%.
Thursday Night... Periods of showers and thunderstorms before midnight, then a slight chance of showers between midnight and 1am. Low around 52. Northwest wind 8 to 15 mph, with gusts as high as 25 mph. Chance of precipitation is 80%.
Friday... Sunny, with a high near 71. Northwest wind 13 to 16 mph, with gusts as high as 26 mph.
Saturday... A 40 percent chance of showers, mainly after 1pm. Partly sunny, with a high near 69. Light south southeast wind becoming south southwest 10 to 15 mph in the morning. Winds could gust as high as 22 mph.
Saturday Night... A 20 percent chance of showers before 1am. Partly cloudy, with a low around 47. South southwest wind 9 to 13 mph becoming northwest after midnight. Winds could gust as high as 18 mph.
Sunday... Sunny, with a high near 66. North northwest wind 7 to 11 mph becoming northeast in the afternoon. Winds could gust as high as 20 mph.
Sunday Night... A chance of showers and thunderstorms after 1am. Partly cloudy, with a low around 49. East wind around 7 mph.
Monday... A slight chance of showers and thunderstorms. Mostly cloudy, with a high near 75. Southeast wind 6 to 10 mph becoming south southwest in the afternoon. Winds could

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Rank: 10
Score: 44.802002
Retrieved Text: The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 81 degrees and Torrential rain shower . There is 84 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
0am:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 74 degrees and Moderate or heavy rain shower. There is 96 percentage chance of rain and 0 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
3am:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 73 degrees and Torrential rain shower. There is 96 percentage chance of rain and 1 mph winds from the Southeast.
6am:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 72 degrees and Light rain shower. There is 98 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
9am:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 76 degrees and Light rain shower. There is 93 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Northeast.
12am:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 81 degrees and Torrential rain shower. There is 84 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
3pm:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 83 degrees and Torrential rain shower. There is 79 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
6pm:The Fortin Camalotes, Departamento de Presidente Hayes forecast for Apr 26 is 77 degrees and Moderate or heavy rain shower. There is 93 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
9pm:The Fortin Camalotes,

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Rank: 11
Score: 44.65571
Retrieved Text: The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 93 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 21 percentage chance of rain and 19 mph winds from the Southwest.
0am:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 81 degrees and Thundery outbreaks possible. There is 28 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
3am:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 75 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 30 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
6am:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 76 degrees and Clear. There is 35 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the South.
9am:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 82 degrees and Sunny. There is 34 percentage chance of rain and 15 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
12am:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 93 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 21 percentage chance of rain and 19 mph winds from the Southwest.
3pm:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 99 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 9 percentage chance of rain and 21 mph winds from the Southwest.
6pm:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 97 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 7 percentage chance of rain and 17 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
9pm:The Al Fuqaha', Baladiyat Bani Walid forecast for Apr 24 is 89 degrees and Overcast. There is 10 percentage chance of rain and 9

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Score: 44.655178
Retrieved Text: The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 87 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 43 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
0am:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 74 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 86 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Southwest.
3am:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 71 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 79 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
6am:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 72 degrees and Clear. There is 60 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
9am:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 82 degrees and Sunny. There is 43 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
12am:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 87 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 43 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
3pm:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 88 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 44 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the Northeast.
6pm:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 85 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 44 percentage chance of rain and 10 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
9pm:The Amatepec, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 78 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 50 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
Thursday:The Amatepec forecast for Apr

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Score: 44.62837
Retrieved Text: The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 91 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 57 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
0am:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 83 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 73 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
3am:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 81 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 76 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
6am:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 81 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 78 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Northwest.
9am:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 84 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 71 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
12am:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 91 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 57 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
3pm:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 91 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 59 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
6pm:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 88 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 67 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
9pm:The Ganchong, Negeri Pahang forecast for Apr 19 is 84 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 75 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
Friday:The Ganchong forecast for Apr 19 is 91 degrees and Partly cloudy.

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Rank: 14
Score: 44.368954
Retrieved Text: The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 75 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 42 percentage chance of rain and 10 mph winds from the Northeast.
18pm:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 71 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 32 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
3am:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 65 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 48 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
6am:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 64 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 56 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
9am:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 68 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 52 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
12am:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 75 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 42 percentage chance of rain and 10 mph winds from the Northeast.
3pm:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 79 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 39 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the Northeast.
6pm:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 75 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 48 percentage chance of rain and 13 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
9pm:The Sar Takht, Velayat-e Badghis forecast for Apr 19 is 70 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 53 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
Friday:The Sar Takht

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Rank: 15
Score: 44.235622
Retrieved Text: Metcheck.com - Weather News - Hot Sunday For England.
Cloud and patchy rain across Ireland, Northern Ireland and Western Scotland this morning with plenty of low cloud. Hazy sunshine to start the day for parts of Northern England, West Wales and the far Southwest and plenty of sunshine elsewhere.
We started with the frontal system because it's this feature which is driving the warm weather across much of England and Wales throughout the course of today. As the front comes in from the Northwest, so it slows down and the winds ahead of the front continue to blow in from the Southwest which provides the heat across much of England later this afternoon.
Couple this Southwest breeze with predominantly clear skies and temperatures of 27-29c possible for much of Eastern and Southeast England this afternoon. 24-26c for much of the remainder of England and cooler further West with 17-21c for much of Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Throughout the course of this evening and overnight we find this frontal system making painful progress Eastwards, but another warm day for Eastern areas tomorrow before the front finally crosses the region later in the evening.
All change this coming week though as low pressure starts to take hold across the UK and Western Europe.

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Rank: 16
Score: 44.01588
Retrieved Text: The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 46 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 25 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
0am:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 31 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 45 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the South-Southeast.
3am:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 30 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 42 percentage chance of rain and 1 mph winds from the Southwest.
6am:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 35 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 36 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
9am:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 42 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 27 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
12am:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 46 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 25 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
3pm:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 47 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 28 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
6pm:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 44 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 38 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Northwest.
9pm:The Akhmatovo, Respublika Mordoviya forecast for Apr 19 is 41 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 45 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
Friday:The Akhmatovo forecast for Apr 19 is 46 degrees and Partly cloudy.

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Rank: 17
Score: 43.918137
Retrieved Text: Southeast Asia is a part of Asia. It consists a 3,100 mile long chain of about 20,000 islands strung between Asia and Australia. Winds called monsoons control much of the climate of Southeast Asia. The word monsoon comes from the Arabic word "mausim", meaning season. Southeast Asian rainforests have four different seasons; the winter northeast monsoon, the summer southwest monsoon and two intermonsoon seasons. The northeast monsoon season is from November to March and has steady winds from the north or northeast that blow from 10 to 30 knots. These winds originate all the way in Siberia and bring typhoons and other severe weather. Typhoons are the southern Hemisphere's version of hurricanes. The east coasts of the Southeast Asian islands get heavy rains during this time. The southwest monsoon season is from late May to September. The winds don't blow as hard and the weather is a little drier. This doesn't mean everything dries up, it still rains every day, just not as much. During the intermonsoon seasons the winds are light. All seasons are hot and humid, and there is very little seasonal variation in temperature.
Southeast Asia's rainforests were thought to be the most bio-diverse regions in the world. They found as many as 200 tree species in one single hectare. Recently the record has been beat by Peru. There are also a lot of endangered species in the Southeast Asian rainforest. Southeast Asia has 10 independent countries. They are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
The letter code under

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Rank: 18
Score: 43.90679
Retrieved Text: The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 61 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 56 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
0am:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 45 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 87 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
3am:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 43 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 89 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
6am:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 48 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 79 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
9am:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 56 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 62 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Northeast.
12am:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 61 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 56 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
3pm:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 60 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 63 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
6pm:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 55 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 80 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Northeast.
9pm:The Drensko Rebro, Obcina Kozje forecast for Apr 18 is 50 degrees and Moderate or heavy rain shower. There is 89 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds

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Rank: 19
Score: 43.818523
Retrieved Text: The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 48 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 58 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
0am:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 42 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 75 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Northeast.
3am:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 40 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 80 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
6am:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 40 degrees and Overcast. There is 81 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
9am:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 44 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 71 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the Southeast.
12am:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 48 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 58 percentage chance of rain and 8 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
3pm:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 50 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 57 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the Northwest.
6pm:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 49 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 60 percentage chance of rain and 12 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
9pm:The Drieliņu Muiža, Limbazu Rajons forecast for Apr 18 is 45 degrees and Clear. There is 67 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
Thursday:The Drieliņu Muiža forecast for

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Rank: 20
Score: 43.732647
Retrieved Text: The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 41 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 25 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southwest.
0am:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 38 degrees and Blowing snow. There is 47 percentage chance of rain and 14 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
3am:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 30 degrees and Patchy snow possible. There is 46 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
6am:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 29 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 43 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the Northeast.
9am:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 35 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 32 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
12am:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 41 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 25 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southwest.
3pm:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 43 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 22 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the Northwest.
6pm:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 42 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 23 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
9pm:The Bayan-Ula somon, Dzavhan Aymag forecast for Apr 22 is 36 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 30 percentage chance of rain and 10 mph winds from the Southeast.
Monday:The Bayan-Ula

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Rank: 21
Score: 43.6679
Retrieved Text: The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 90 degrees and Patchy rain possible . There is 46 percentage chance of rain and 14 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
0am:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 77 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 90 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
3am:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 73 degrees and Mist. There is 97 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
6am:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 74 degrees and Fog. There is 97 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
9am:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 77 degrees and Mist. There is 88 percentage chance of rain and 13 mph winds from the North-Northwest.
12am:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 90 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 46 percentage chance of rain and 14 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
3pm:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 96 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 25 percentage chance of rain and 13 mph winds from the Northeast.
6pm:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 93 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 31 percentage chance of rain and 13 mph winds from the East.
9pm:The Acececa, Estado de Veracruz-Llave forecast for Apr 18 is 88 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 41 percentage chance of rain and 9 mph winds from the Southeast.
Thursday:The Acececa forecast for

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Rank: 22
Score: 43.463608
Retrieved Text: The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 105 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 19 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
0am:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 96 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 28 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southwest.
3am:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 94 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 28 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
6am:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 93 degrees and Patchy rain possible. There is 26 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
9am:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 98 degrees and Moderate rain at times. There is 24 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the West.
12am:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 105 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 19 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
3pm:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 105 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 19 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Southwest.
6pm:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 99 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 29 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
9pm:The Gokombi, Borno State forecast for Apr 23 is 94 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 35 percentage chance of rain and 11 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
Tuesday:The Gokombi forecast for Apr 23 is 105 degrees

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Rank: 23
Score: 43.457844
Retrieved Text: The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 72 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 32 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
0am:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 53 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 60 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
3am:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 56 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 54 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the East-Northeast.
6am:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 60 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 45 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the East.
9am:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 70 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 34 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the South-Southeast.
12am:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 72 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 32 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
3pm:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 71 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 37 percentage chance of rain and 7 mph winds from the Northwest.
6pm:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 65 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 47 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
9pm:The Abou Qamhah, Mohafazat Nabatiye forecast for Apr 25 is 59 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 52 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
Thursday:The Abou Qamhah

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Rank: 24
Score: 42.9185
Retrieved Text: The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 104 degrees and Sunny . There is 7 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West.
0am:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 92 degrees and Clear. There is 13 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Southeast.
3am:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 88 degrees and Clear. There is 15 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Southwest.
6am:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 88 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 14 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
9am:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 95 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 10 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
12am:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 104 degrees and Sunny. There is 7 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West.
3pm:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 107 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 8 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
6pm:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 102 degrees and Sunny. There is 9 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the West.
9pm:The Goumsouri, Borno State forecast for Apr 20 is 96 degrees and Clear. There is 10 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
Saturday:The Goumsouri forecast for Apr 20 is 104 degrees and Sunny. There is 7 percentage chance of rain

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Rank: 25
Score: 42.816647
Retrieved Text: The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 99 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 45 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
0am:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 85 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 91 percentage chance of rain and 1 mph winds from the West-Northwest.
3am:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 77 degrees and Mist. There is 93 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Southwest.
6am:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 77 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 92 percentage chance of rain and 1 mph winds from the South-Southwest.
9am:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 85 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 75 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the South.
12am:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 99 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 45 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
3pm:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 99 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 39 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
6pm:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 94 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 57 percentage chance of rain and 6 mph winds from the Northeast.
9pm:The Banggol Jenerih, Negeri Kelantan forecast for Apr 18 is 90 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 81 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Southeast.
Thursday:The Banggol Jenerih forecast

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Rank: 26
Score: 42.710423
Retrieved Text: The O’Fallon Creek-Little Beaver Creek drainage divide area discussed here is located in eastern Montana, USA and straddles the Montana-North Dakota state line. Although detailed topographic maps of the O’Fallon Creek-Little Beaver Creek drainage divide area have been available for more than fifty years detailed map evidence has not previously been used to interpret the region’s geomorphic history. The interpretation provided here is based entirely on topographic map evidence. The O’Fallon Creek-Little Beaver Creek drainage divide area is interpreted to have been eroded during immense southeast-oriented flood events, the first of which flowed on a topographic surface at least as high as the highest points in the present-day drainage divide area. Flood erosion ended when headward erosion of the northeast-oriented Yellowstone River valley captured all southeast-oriented flood flow.
The purpose of this essay is to use topographic map interpretation methods to explore the eastern Montana O’Fallon Creek-Little Beaver Creek drainage divide area landform origins. Map interpretation methods can be used to unravel many geomorphic events leading up to formation of present-day drainage routes and development of other landform features. While each detailed topographic map feature provides detailed evidence to be explained, the solution must be consistent with explanations for adjacent area map evidence as well as solutions to big picture map evidence puzzles. I invite readers to improve upon my solutions or to propose alternate solutions that better explain evidence and are also consistent with adjacent map area and big picture evidence. Readers may do so either by making comments here or by writing and publishing their

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Rank: 27
Score: 42.70558
Retrieved Text: The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 102 degrees and Partly cloudy . There is 10 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
0am:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 85 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 13 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Northeast.
3am:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 82 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 13 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Northeast.
6am:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 82 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 14 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
9am:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 91 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 12 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the South-Southeast.
12am:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 102 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 10 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
3pm:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 106 degrees and Sunny. There is 9 percentage chance of rain and 5 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
6pm:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 101 degrees and Sunny. There is 11 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the North.
9pm:The Gujjangol, Borno State forecast for Apr 19 is 94 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 15 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the North-Northeast.
Friday:The Gujjangol forecast for Apr 19 is 102 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is

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Rank: 28
Score: 42.68105
Retrieved Text: This Afternoon... Mostly sunny, with a high near 57. East northeast wind around 10 mph, with gusts as high as 15 mph.
Tonight... Mostly clear, with a low around 43. East northeast wind 5 to 10 mph becoming light east in the evening.
Wednesday... Sunny, with a high near 69. Light east wind becoming southeast 5 to 10 mph in the morning.
Wednesday Night... Partly cloudy, with a low around 47. Southeast wind around 5 mph becoming calm in the evening.
Thursday... A 30 percent chance of showers and thunderstorms after 1pm. Mostly sunny, with a high near 71. Southwest wind around 5 mph becoming west northwest in the afternoon. Winds could gust as high as 15 mph.
Saturday... A chance of showers and thunderstorms. Mostly cloudy, with a high near 57.

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Rank: 29
Score: 42.6064
Retrieved Text: The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 88 degrees and Cloudy . There is 49 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
0am:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 66 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 73 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the East.
3am:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 65 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 75 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Northeast.
6am:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 67 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 73 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the Northeast.
9am:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 78 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 58 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the Northeast.
12am:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 88 degrees and Cloudy. There is 49 percentage chance of rain and 4 mph winds from the East-Southeast.
3pm:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 86 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 57 percentage chance of rain and 3 mph winds from the West-Southwest.
6pm:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 79 degrees and Partly cloudy. There is 70 percentage chance of rain and 2 mph winds from the Northeast.
9pm:The General Higinio Morínigo, Departamento de Caazapa forecast for Apr 19 is 74 degrees and Partly cloudy.

================



======= Instance Index 2 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Summary Changes of state are examples of phase changes, or phase transitions. All phase changes are accompanied by changes in the energy of a system. Changes from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state (such as a liquid to a gas) areendothermic. Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always exothermic. The conversion of a solid to a liquid is called fusion (or melting). The energy required to melt 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus). The energy change required to vaporize 1 mol of a substance is the enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap). The direct conversion of a solid to a gas is sublimation. The amount of energy needed to sublime 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub) and is the sum of the enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. Plots of the temperature of a substance versus heat added or versus heating time at a constant rate of heating are calledheating curves. Heating curves relate temperature changes to phase transitions. A superheated liquid, a liquid at a temperature and pressure at which it should be a gas, is not stable. A cooling curve is not exactly the reverse of the heating curve because many liquids do not freeze at the expected temperature. Instead, they form a supercooled liquid, a metastable liquid phase that exists below the normal melting point. Supercooled liquids usually crystallize on standing, or adding a seed crystal of the same or another substance can induce crystallization.


Q: Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always what?

 Choices:

- reactive

- unbalanced

- endothermic

- exothermic

A:

Target Text: exothermic

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 42.202427
Retrieved Text: A fridge that runs on plastic crystals could solve a big problem: our need to stay cool is warming the planet.
Refrigeration equipment, air conditioners and heat pumps are estimated to consume between 25 and 30 per cent of the world’s electricity – and many rely on greenhouse gases to transfer heat.
Bing Li at the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Metal Research in Shenyang and his colleagues have used an alternative cooling material known as plastic crystals, which they believe could use less energy and be better for the environment.
Conventional fridges rely on compressing a material so it changes from gas to liquid. The liquid absorbs heat from its surroundings, in this case the inside of the fridge, causing it to turn back into a gas and beginning the cycle anew.
These refrigerant materials are fluids that absorb and release heat efficiently, but are problematic because they contribute to global warming.
One type, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are known to deplete the ozone layer and have been mostly phased out, but their more ozone-friendly replacement, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are also powerful greenhouse gases.
Developed countries began reducing HFCs this year, but exactly what chemicals refrigerators and air conditioners will use instead is still unclear – carbon dioxide has been considered as a possible replacement.
Solids that change temperature in response to external pressure have been floated as greener alternatives. Plastic crystals, soft and mouldable solids with a powder-like appearance, were created decades ago and have been used in a range of products, including cosmetics, paints and plastics.
Some have been considered as a material

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Rank: 1
Score: 39.753716
Retrieved Text: Organisers: Oleg Lavrentovich (Kent State University), Tom Lubensky (University of Pennsylvania), Antonio de Simone (SISSA) and Mark Warner University of Cambridge.
Typically described by their well-ordered structures, liquid crystal phases were first identified and even named by their topological defects. The rich interplay between geometry, topology, and optics is ubiquitous through all liquid crystals . We will discuss their characterisation, and also their essential appearance in complex systems such as colloidal liquid crystals and in blue phases. Their exploitation in templating complex structures, and their special character in non-simple spaces (such as those with Gaussian curvature) will also be examined.
In parallel, the workshop is concerned with solid liquid crystals, both elastomers where the director remains mobile, and glasses where the director is pinned to the material frame. The unique mechanics of solid liquid crystals, and its connection with techniques of quasi-convexification first exploited in Martensites, is an active area of research. Mechanics connects with the defects theme since topological defects in LC solids, on illumination or temperature change, cause changes in Gaussian curvature or topology. These consequences, and those when nematics become active, will also be explored.
This workshop will bring together experts in all the above fields, to compare and contrast the various themes, to discuss topical and future problems and methods of their solution, and to explore possible applications.

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Rank: 2
Score: 38.564983
Retrieved Text: Is marketing analytics based on customer segmentation adequate amidst the gathering waves of liquid modernity?
Your customers not only wish that you provide them payment services from their mobile app whenever they wish to buy– to avoid queues (Ex: Starbucks in the recent case), but also wish that their coffee was served at that very moment they wished to have it. Yes, whichever location, whenever they want, whatever they want, however they want. That is what they have been after. Isn’t it?
Eastern contemplative philosophies and Buddhism in particular place impermanence as one of the everlasting truths of our existing world. It appears that, in the liquid modernity era, which is coined and researched by one of the eminent sociologists Zygmunt Bauman, world will exhibit impermanence in such an unprecedented pace that it will impact the way we observe and interpret the prevalent ideas in every institution mankind has so far built: social, political, economic and corporate– including marketing, to name a few. One of the repercussions of such an era that has already made inroads into our very lives is the imminent crashing of the concrete pillars on which such institutions were built (Bauman, 2013). And the more uncertain and staggering part of such a repercussion is that those solid pillars will be replaced with no pillars at all, unlike what used to happen before: such as the transition from product centric to customer centric approach. We will be left to feel the absolute freedom in the absence of such concrete pillars and will exist momentarily and

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Rank: 3
Score: 38.121822
Retrieved Text: If development is predicated upon sustained economic growth, how can this be achieved? In Deals and Development: The Political Dynamics of Growth Episodes, editors Lant Prichett, Kunal Sen and Eric Werker bring together country experts to examine how businesses have engaged with the state to both constrain and enable growth episodes across ten African and Asian countries. While the book draws on global expertise and actual practices of state-business engagement to superbly illustrate the importance of sustained growth, Alice Evans explores three fundamental questions that the text raises.
Deals and Development: The Political Dynamics of Growth Episodes. Lant Pritchett, Kunal Sen and Eric Werker (eds). Oxford University Press. 2017.
Development requires sustained economic growth. This is the key difference between rich and poor countries. So, what causes it? For starters, growth requires an ‘ordered’ business environment: incentivising investment with assurance that state officials will honour their promises. But such growth will only be sustained if business environments become more ‘open’: more competitive, less reliant on political connections. This open, ordered environment will foster competition, longer-term investments, higher productivity as well as more complex products and services. Or so claim Lant Pritchett et al in their fascinating new collection, Deals and Development: The Political Dynamics of Growth Episodes.
Departing from earlier studies on the institutional determinants of growth, this book does not focus on de jure regulations. Given the chasm between rules and practices, the editors instead invite country experts to explore how businesses actually engage with the state, constraining/ enabling growth, both now and historically, in ten African and

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Retrieved Text: Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams contain special information about changes that take place in alloys during cooling.
An Alloy is a combination of two or more elements, at least one of which has to be a metal. A Binary Alloy is an alloy made up of 2 metals, (for example brass is made up of copper and zinc).
Alloys can improve the properties of pure metals.
Engineering requires that close attention is paid to the composition of alloys and the temperatures at which major changes take place.
The first type of alloy we will look at is a Solid Solution Alloy.
Both metals are completely soluble in one another.
One type of crystal is formed.
Under a microscope, looks like a pure metal.
Atoms of both metals are of similar size.
If ordered, it is called a Superlattice.
In the above diagram the Parent Metal is represented by the blue spheres. The Substituted Atoms are represented by the black spheres.
Parent metal atoms are bigger than atoms of alloying metal.
Smaller atoms fit into spaces, (Interstices), between larger atoms.
If ordered, as below, it is again called a Superlattice.
The Interstice is the gap between 3 or more touching spheres.
Both of the above diagrams are 2-dimensional representations of a crystalline structure. For example, take the 4 atoms in the top left of the Substitutional Solid Solution alloy diagram. These 4 atoms represent the four corners on one side of a Basic Cubic Unit Cell. In the diagram you can see the sides of 3 whole cells, and 3 half cells, (bottom 6 atoms). If you can imagine, the rest of the cells

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Retrieved Text: Mineral, naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic arrangement; it is usually formed by inorganic processes. There are several thousand known mineral species, about 100 of which constitute the major mineral components of rocks; these are the so-called rock-forming minerals.
A mineral, which by definition must be formed through natural processes, is distinct from the synthetic equivalents produced in the laboratory. Artificial versions of minerals, including emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other valuable gemstones, are regularly produced in industrial and research facilities and are often nearly identical to their natural counterparts.
By its definition as a homogeneous solid, a mineral is composed of a single solid substance of uniform composition that cannot be physically separated into simpler chemical compounds. Homogeneity is determined relative to the scale on which it is defined. A specimen that appears homogeneous to the unaided eye, for example, may reveal several mineral components under a microscope or upon exposure to X-ray diffraction techniques. Most rocks are composed of several different minerals; e.g., granite consists of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole. In addition, gases and liquids are excluded by a strict interpretation of the above definition of a mineral. Ice, the solid state of water (H2O), is considered a mineral, but liquid water is not; liquid mercury, though sometimes found in mercury ore deposits, is not classified as a mineral either. Such substances that resemble minerals in chemistry and occurrence are dubbed mineraloids and are included in the general domain of mineralogy.
Since a mineral has a definite composition, it

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Retrieved Text: Feb. 28, 2013 — Order tends towards disorder. This is also true for quantum states. Measurements at the Vienna University of Technology show that in quantum mechanics this transition can be quite different from what we experience in our daily lives.
Ice cubes in a cocktail glass melt until an equilibrium state is reached in which the ice cubes are gone. After that, the geometric shape of the ice cubes is completely lost. The liquid does not contain any memory of their shape, the ordered ice crystal has turned into disordered water molecules. Ultra cold Bose-Einstein condensates behave differently; these highly ordered clouds of ultra cold particles also approach a disordered equilibrium state, but they retain some "memory" about their initial state for a remarkably long time. This phenomenon does not depend on the temperature, it seems to be a stable, fundamental property of quantum physics.
This, however, does not happen continuously like the transition from an ice cube to liquid water. Instead, there is an intermediate step called "prethermalized state," in which the atoms remain for a surprisingly long time without forgetting about their quantum mechanical origin. "If we split the atom cloud into two parts and recombine them after some time, a wave pattern forms," Jörg Schmiedmayer explains. "That is proof that the atom clouds still contain information about having emerged from a highly ordered quantum physical state."
Now the scientists have managed to take a closer look at this transition -- and it turns out to be remarkably stable with respect to external conditions. From experience,

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Retrieved Text: Copyright © 2014 András Paszternák et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Self-assembled organic monolayers are useful templates for nanofabrication. Ordered layer of long alkyl-chain molecules can direct the wet chemical deposition of metallic coatings on different substrates. Ordered structures of fatty acids and their motions on the phenyloctane/HOPG interface are observed by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). Modification of self-assembled fatty acid patterns due to hydroxamic acid presence is also in the focus of the research. Fatty acid layer formation, the structure of the formed thin film on solid/liquid interface, and simultaneous nickel colloidal deposition have been investigated.
Ordered metallic structures can be created by simultaneous self-assembly of a molecular monolayer and wet chemical metal deposition. 2D nanoparticle arrays assembled on a surface may exhibit electronic, optical, and sensing properties and can be used to create a variety of electronic and sensor components . The STM is a powerful tool to obtain information on the molecular arrangement and orientation at an atomic scale. Layer formation of different fatty acid, its derivatives, and mixtures on solid/liquid interface has been investigated by this means [2–5]. Fatty acids are typically hydrogen-bonding compounds. The carboxylic acid groups form dimers and the molecular axis is perpendicular to the lamella axis, irrespective of the length of the alkyl chain . The interaction between the alkyl-chain and the substrate is responsible for the perfect alignment of the molecules and the

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Retrieved Text: Аннотация: To understand the mechanism of mass transfer during solid state reactions and order-disorder transitions the formation processes of CuAuI and L10-FePd ordered structures at solid state reactions in Cu/Au и Fe/Pd bilayer thin films have been carried out using the method of in situ electron diffraction (ED). The value of the long-ranПоказать полностьюge order (LRO) parameter has been estimated for the L10 type ordered structures being formed; the order-disorder transition temperatures have been determined. The formation mechanism of the L10 type ordered structures formed at the initial stages of the solid state reaction in the Cu/Au and Fe/Pd thin films has been suggested. In the case of Cu/Au it has been shown that the interdiffusion of copper and gold at the initial stage of the solid state reaction results in the reduced size of the grains of the initial materials, as a result, nanocrystalites of the Cu-Au solid solution are formed, and further, grains of the CuAuI ordered solid solution appear and their growth begins. © 2018 Elsevier Inc.

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Retrieved Text: Hyundai Motor is developing solid-state batteries that are safe from explosions for its electric vehicles, and reportedly owns pilot-scale battery production facilities, sources close to the matter said, comparing the move to a similar approach taken by the automaker’s Japanese rival Toyota.
The Korean automaker is developing the new technologies on its own, without partnering with local industry specialist such as Samsung SDI or LG Chem, according to the source.
Solid-state batteries are the next generation of batteries being developed by battery makers, including Samsung SDI and LG Chem, to replace lithium-ion batteries currently used in most smartphones and electric cars.
Since solid-state batteries are made of solid electrolytes instead of liquid electrolytes, it has a significantly lower risk of ignition or explosion. A battery usually explodes when the liquid inside flows out and reaches air or water outside.
“The approach of Hyundai Motor’s development of the solid-state battery is similar to Toyota, which also owns its production facilities,” the source said.
Toyota plans to commercialize solid-state batteries around 2020 with its own manpower and production facilities, although experts view it may require more time. The Japanese automaker has around 200 engineers developing solid-state batteries at its Higashi Fuji Technical Center, compared to the less than 30 engineers at Hyundai Motor.
Hyundai Motor reportedly has a pilot scale production line for the batteries and it may also have its own production facilities in the future, like Toyota, if necessary, the source said.
Industry sources said Hyundai may be able to mass produce the solid-state batteries around or after 2025. In such a scenario

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Retrieved Text: The State Department ordered U.S. government employees' relatives to leave Nicaragua Monday after days of deadly protests over proposed social security changes.
The order, which also authorized the departure of U.S. government personnel, and continued a travel advisory, follows rioting and protests in the capital Managua since Wednesday. At least 26 have been killed in the unrest.
"Violent crime, such as sexual assault and armed robbery, is common," a State Department release stated. "Police presence and emergency response are extremely limited outside of major urban areas."
The protests erupted Wednesday over the government's planned changes to social security that would result in workers paying more into the system and receiving less when they retire.
Security forces have used tear gas, rubber bullets and live ammunition against demonstrators. Journalist Angel Gahona was fatally shot during a live broadcast Saturday.
Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega sought to quell the unrest on Sunday by revoking the legislation to make the social security changes.

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Retrieved Text: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. This famous axiom was stated by Einstein, but what does it actually mean? You’ve probably noticed that wearing black or darker clothing on a hot day makes you feel hotter than if you wore light or white coloured clothing – thermodynamics can explain this. The study of thermodynamics is one which looks at how energy changes its own form, from thermal energy to kinetic energy for example, and how energy is absorbed and interacts with different materials. It explains why ice floats on water, and what happens in changes of state – from gas to liquid to solid. Thanks to thermodynamics, we have also found a number of in-between states, plasmas and supercooled liquids, which have properties not always found in everyday life.
Thermodynamics is successful at explaining many things we experience, but every now and then a paradox will pop up and baffle us, or someone will spot an event which no one has an explanation for yet.
You may have heard that glass is actually a liquid – it just moves really slowly. This is an oversimplification but not a bad way to explain what actually defines a material as a glass. A glass is any material which has been formed by a liquid becoming more and more viscous until it appears to be completely solid, but there is no change in the bonds between molecules or the molecules themselves. Polymers are much better at forming glasses than other

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Retrieved Text: This is a cold pack whose ‘change’ temperature is set at 58F. Temperature set means the temperature it is designed to maintain and the temperature it changes from liquid to solid state. The set temperature prevents freezer burn and from the muscles getting too cold. Zentek is using it to supercharge the cloth phase change material we use, that is set at 83F. We are able to use less of these packs, as they are a catalyst to keep the lightweight cloth phase change working.
The Zentek Canine Quick Cool Wrap is the newest and simplest product to keep your dog healthy in the extreme heat or cold. For the summer, use it alone or even wet it (for temperature over 100F). This new Zentek design uses maximum airflow to cool the most important parts of the dog’s body – the underbelly; the underbelly is where all the body fluids are moving through the organs. As the body core is regulated, the heart doesn’t have to pump so hard to cool, or warm. This is one of the huge advantages of using Zentek products. The straps also are lined with the phase change fabric. The XLarge is 25″ from the throat to underbelly. Fits dogs over 46 lbs who meet the strap length. The straps adjust front and back from 22″ to 32″. Small 11.5″ long, fits dogs 12-20 lbs. Medium 14.5 ” long, fits 22-35 lbs. Large 19.5″ long fits dogs 36-45 lbs.
A phase change pack is included in small wraps and two are included in

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Retrieved Text: It’s the study of matter.
We begin with…okay, let’s say, a golf ball.
Take a wild guess: what do you think this golf ball is made of?
In fact, what do you think anything is made of?
Yup, you guessed it: matter.
Everything is matter. It is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space.
So, allow me to anticipate your next question: What is mass?
Slightly more complicated question…especially since it requires an understanding of matter.
The mass of an object is the amount of matter it contains.
Ugh…I just hate definitions that include crazy science terms, don’t you?
Never fear: there is a simpler definition of matter. It’s just stuff. A mug is matter. Chocolate is matter. The smallest dust speck is matter and the tallest skyscraper is matter. In fact, speaking of which…a planet is matter, and so is a star.
What’s mass, then? The amount of stuff an object contains. Not how much it weighs or its diameter or anything like that. Mass is a measure of how much stuff is in an object. Let me put it in a different way: if you have a specific volume, then more mass equals greater density—more stuff being squeezed into the same space (volume).
If chemistry is the study of matter, you can probably imagine that we’ve only scraped the surface. There is a whole field of science that studies matter. Why? Because there are so many types of matter, and so many things you can do to matter.
Chemistry is, more specifically, the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Believe it or not,

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Retrieved Text: Metals and metallic compounds are characterised by the fact that their outer atomic electrons are free to wander through the material – making them electrically conducting. Physicists have developed a successful quantum description called Fermi-liquid theory which explains their behaviour. It usefully predicts how their electrical, magnetic and thermal properties change with temperature - describing, for example, a phase transition from a disorderly non-magnetic state to a magnetic state in which the electron spins are ordered.
In recent years, this theory has suffered a spectacular assault, through the continuing discovery of metallic materials whose electronic properties deviate from the expected norm – non- Fermi liquid behaviour. These include the remarkable superconducting copper oxides which conduct electricity without resistance at relatively high temperatures, and some heavy-metal alloys in which the itinerant electrons behave as though they are many times heavier than normal.
Theorists predict that the key to this renegade behaviour is a new kind of transformation triggered by quantum fluctuations (as predicted by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle). This so-called quantum critical transition is based on the notion of what would happen if the temperature, pressure or the composition of material were changed such that a particular phase transition occurred only at absolute zero. Quantum fluctuations would then dominate, producing a rather weird state thought to extend well above absolute zero – the quantum critical phase.
Quantum critical behaviour is now a hugely important area of study. Just recently, an American collaboration working with ISIS scientists uncovered a novel quantum phase transition in a heavy metal alloy, uranium ruthenium silicide, which

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Retrieved Text: PCMs are a form of computer random-access memory (RAM) that store data by altering the state of the matter of the "bits", (millions of which make up the device) between liquid, glass and crystal states. PCM technology has the potential to provide inexpensive, high-speed, high-density, high-volume, nonvolatile storage on an unprecedented scale.
The basic idea and material were invented by Stanford Ovshinsky, long ago, in1975, but applications have lingered due to lack of clarity about how the material can execute the phase changes on such short time scales and technical problems related to controlling the changes with necessary precision. Now high tech companies like Samsung, IBM and Intel are racing to perfect it.
The semi-metallic material under current study is an alloy of germanium, antimony and tellurium in the ratio of 1:2:4. In this work the team probes the microscopic dynamics in the liquid state of this PCM using quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QENS) for clues as to what might make the phase changes so sharp and reproducible.
On command, the structure of each microscopic bit of this PCM material can be made to change from glass to crystal or from crystal back to glass (through the liquid intermediate) on the time scale of a thousandth of a millionth of a second just by a controlled heat or light pulse, the former now being preferred. In the amorphous or disordered phase, the material has high electrical resistance, the "off" state; in the crystalline or ordered phase, its resistance is reduced 1000 fold or more to give the "on" state.
These elements

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Retrieved Text: Four states of matter can be seen in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and – somewhat more exotically – plasma. As a tightly bound combination of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, a water molecule is nothing out of the ordinary. Liquid water, steam or ice are still just water. Yet, it is intriguing to see how the very same building blocks of matter are capable of producing such broadly distinct states.
As far as water is concerned, one phase can change into another really quite abruptly. At 99 °C, liquid water can subsist, whereas at 101 °C, water is in its gaseous state, as steam.
We look at these states by increasing order of energy and entropy.
In a solid, each atom is tied to a specific equilibrium position. Although it vibrates to and fro about this position, the atom is unlikely to move relative to its neighbouring atoms. This is the reason why a solid is rigid.
Solids have crystalline structures, consisting of a single crystal, as for gemstones, or a collection of microscopic crystals, as for the majority of metals. In a crystal, the atoms oscillate around equilibrium positions that are regularly ordered. You can think of the whole structure as a simple pattern being repeated endlessly and periodically throughout space.
Crystals are cleaved along lines of weakness between several atomic planes. One of their distinctive features is their symmetry.
A melting snowflake still showing a highly symmetrical molecular arrangement.
Ice (solid water) has at least seven crystalline phases, with water molecules arranged differently in each case. In ice, the molecules are

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Retrieved Text: A phase change, or transition, occurs when a substance undergoes a change in state on a molecular level. In most substances, changes in temperature or pressure result in a substance phase change. There are several processes of phase changes, including fusion, solidification, vaporization, condensation, sublimation and physical vapor deposition.
Fusion occurs when a substance changes from a solid to a liquid. Prior to melting, strong intermolecular bonds or attractions hold the atoms, molecules or ions that comprise a solid substance tightly together in the solid form. Upon heating, the particles gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the bonds that are holding them together and become mobile. This results in the fusion of the substance.
Solidification occurs when a substance changes from a liquid to a solid. While in the liquid state, the particles in a substance possess enough kinetic energy to move around in close proximity to each other. When a drop in temperature occurs, the particles lose their kinetic energy and band together. Gradually, the particles settle into a fixed position, causing the substance to take shape and become a solid.
Vaporization occurs when a substance changes from a liquid to a gas. The molecules in a liquid are in constant motion while staying relatively close together due to intermolecular forces. When an increase in temperature occurs, the molecules' kinetic energy also increases. This increase in temperature allows the molecules to gain kinetic energy and overcome the intermolecular forces, resulting in the vaporization of the substance.
Condensation occurs when a substance changes from a vapor to a liquid. In

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Retrieved Text: EmWave technology is an innovative approach to improving wellness and facilitating personal growth based on learning to change your heart rhythm pattern to create coherence; a scientifically measurable state characterized by increased order and harmony in our psychological and physiological processes. emWave technology collects pulse data through a pulse sensor and translates the information from your heart rhythms into graphics on your computer or into easy to follow lights on the portable emWave2. Used just a few minutes a day, this simple-to-use technology helps you transform feelings of anger, anxiety or frustration into more peace, ease and clarity. As you practice on the go or at your computer you increase your coherence baseline and your ability to take charge of your emotional reactions. Health, communication, relationships and quality of life improve.
The emWave2 is an advanced heart rate monitor, able to measure subtle changes in your heart rhythms. This type of measurement is known as heart rate variability analysis or HRV. The analysis of HRV is a noninvasive measurement that reflects heart-brain interaction and autonomic nervous system dynamics, which are particularly sensitive to changes in your emotional state.
When you experience stressful emotions such as tension, anxiety, irritation, or anger, your heart-rhythm pattern becomes irregular and incoherent, negatively affecting your health, brain function, performance and sense of well-being. When you experience positive emotions such as appreciation, care, joy and love, your heart-rhythm pattern is more ordered and coherent.
Ordered and harmonious heart rhythms are an indicator of your “coherence level”. High coherence is a state associated with positive emotional

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Retrieved Text: North Korea successfully tested a solid-fuel engine that boosted the power of its ballistic rockets, state media reported on Thursday, as South Korea’s president ordered the military to be ready to respond to the North’s “reckless provocation”.
Pyongyang’s claim indicates it is continuing to develop an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) at a rapid pace in defiance of U.N. sanctions, and amid assessment by the South’s officials that it could conduct a new nuclear test at any time.
The isolated state has in recent weeks stepped up bellicose rhetoric, threatening pre-emptive nuclear strikes against Washington and Seoul, as well as making claims of advancement in its weapons technology.
The Rodong Sinmum, the North’s ruling party newspaper, carried photos of leader Kim Jong Un on site as a rocket engine laid horizontally on the ground emitted a fiery blast. A two-page report detailed the testing of the engine’s structure and thrust.
“He noted with great pleasure that the successful test… helped boost the power of ballistic rockets capable of mercilessly striking hostile forces,” KCNA news agency said.
The North said last week it had conducted a successful simulated test of atmospheric re-entry of a ballistic missile, and would soon test ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
On Wednesday, the North repeated the threat to attack the South’s presidential office, saying its large-caliber multiple rocket launch systems are on alert to strike the Blue House and its special operations unit is ready to go into action.
South Korean President Park Geun-hye ordered a heightened state of alert and put the military on standby to “respond

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: The Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless mechanism, in which a phase transition is mediated by the proliferation of topological defects, governs the critical behaviour of a wide range of equilibrium two-dimensional systems with a continuous symmetry, ranging from superconducting thin films to two-dimensional Bose fluids, such as liquid helium and ultracold atoms. We show here that this phenomenon is not restricted to thermal equilibrium, rather it survives more generally in a dissipative highly non-equilibrium system driven into a steady-state. By considering a light-matter superfluid of polaritons, in the so-called optical parametric oscillator regime, we demonstrate that it indeed undergoes a vortex binding-unbinding phase transition. Yet, the exponent of the power-law decay of the first order correlation function in the (algebraically) ordered phase can exceed the equilibrium upper limit -- a surprising occurrence, which has also been observed in a recent experiment. Thus we demonstrate that the ordered phase is somehow more robust against the quantum fluctuations of driven systems than thermal ones in equilibrium.

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Retrieved Text: The interest in cobalt-based electrolytes for dye-sensitized solar cells was triggered by the pioneering work of CMD (Feldt et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2010, 132, 16714), in which cobalt-based redox mediators in combination with organic sensitizers were used. Cobalt complexes are one-electron mediators in contrast to the conventional two-electron redox couple iodide/tri-iodide, and therefore have the potential for higher voltage and efficiency in DSSCs. This has been confirmed by e.g. the high efficiency DSSC work by Yella et al.(DOI:10.1126/science.1209688), and by Kakiage (DOI:10.1039/C5CC06759F).
For best performance and flexibility, Dyenamo recommends ordering Co(II) and Co(III) complexes as powders. Please note that you need both Co(II) and Co(III) complexes to make a DSSC electrolyte. Typically, five times more Co(II) is used. In addition to the standard cobalt complexes, Dyenamo also offers complete cobalt-based electrolytes on demand.
The number of cobalt complexes that could be use in DSSC electrolytes is enormous. Dyenamo offers 16 standard cobalt complexes, the original ones used in the references above, water-soluble ones, and others for improved long-term device stability and/or increased open-circuit voltage . Other cobalt complexes can be ordered on demand with various ligands (phenanthroline, substituted bipyridines, etc.) and counter ions (Cl-, PF6-, TfO- (=triflate), Tf2N- (=TFSI), BF4-, B(CN)4-, etc.).
Tris(4-methoxyphenyl)amine is a small and versatile redox-active molecule which can be employed in both liquid and solid-state solar cells. In DSSCs with liquid electrolyte it can be used together with a metal-based redox couple to enable exceptionally fast dye regeneration, giving easy access to >10% efficiencies. In solid-state solar cells it may be used as

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Retrieved Text: Kotz and Triechel, Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity Chapter 12: Sections 4-7.
12.4 Band theory is used ot explain high melting points, delocalized bonding between atoms, and conductivity in metals. Since more orbitals are available than there are electrons to fill them, electrons can move relatively easily from one energy level to another and from one atom to another. These bands are not completely continuous, however, and the energy required to make jumps between them explaines the behavior of semiconductors, which underlies modern electronics and computer technologies.
12.5 Other kinds of solids: Molecular, Network, and Amorphous: Molecules tend to form solids based on their dispersion forces. Network solids are hard, rigid, three dimensional arrays of covalently bonded atoms. As with ions, these are extensions of atomic arrays, not molecules. Similarly, amorphous solids are collections of atoms, but their organization is irregular, with long and short bonds. As a result, amorphous solids melt slowly over a range of temperatures.
12.6 Phase Changes Involving Solids: The enthalpy of fusion is the amount of heat absorbed as a solid changes to a liquid state. The enthalpy of crystallization is the amount of heat given off or "evolved" when a substance freezes. For a given substance the enthalpy of fusion is equal to the enthalpy of crystallization, the only difference is the direction of heat flow.
12.7 Phase Diagrams: One common way to represent how solid, liquid, and gas states can co-exist is to use a phase diagram plotting the state as a function of pressure and temperature. The shape of the curve and the

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Retrieved Text: This page takes a simple look at solids, liquids and gases, and changes of state such as melting and boiling, in terms of the behaviour of the particles present.
In the solid, the particles are touching, and the only motion allowed to them is vibration. The particles may be arranged regularly (in which case, the solid is crystalline), or at random (giving waxy solids like candles or some forms of polythene, for example).
The particles are held in the solid by forces which depend on the actual substance - ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds, hydrogen bonds or van der Waals attractions.
In a liquid, the particles are mainly touching, but some gaps have appeared in the structure. These gaps allow the particles to move, and so the particles are arranged randomly.
The forces that held the solid particles together are also present in the liquid (unless melting has broken up a substance consisting only of covalent bonds - a giant covalent structure). However, the particles in the liquid have enough energy to prevent the forces holding them in a fixed arrangement.
For most liquids, the density of the liquid is slightly less than that of the solid, but there isn't much difference. That means that the particles in the liquid are almost as close together as they are in a solid. If you draw diagrams of liquids, make sure that most of the particles are touching, but at random, with a few gaps.
Note: Water is an exception to this. Ice floats on water, and so the liquid must be denser

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Retrieved Text: The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends (usually slightly) on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic freezing point" of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice", that is, the melting point.

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Retrieved Text: EPA has ordered Western Environmental Inc. to take immediate steps to address potentially harmful emissions coming from its Mecca, Calif., waste handling facility. The facility is located on the Cabazon Band of Mission Indians Reservation.
Western Environmental’s facility handles solid, semi-solid and liquid waste, including petroleum contaminated soil and biosolids from sewage treatment plants. Mounds of untreated contaminated soil have accumulated at the site and now stand more than 40-feet high.
“To protect the local community including nearby schools, EPA has ordered Western Environmental to take immediate action to eliminate this potential health threat,” said Jared Blumenfeld, EPA’s Regional Administrator for the Pacific Southwest. "The order requires the facility to stop accepting any additional contaminated soils or biosolids without prior EPA approval."
In December 2010, after receiving complaints of odors that sent people to the hospital, the Air District and the Riverside County Department of Environmental Health dispatched staff to perform air sampling in the community and at the facility. EPA is working closely with the Cabazon Tribe, the State of California and the South Coast Air Quality Management District to coordinate response actions.
Today’s order, issued under the authority of the federal Resource Conservation & Recovery Act, follows a more recent spate of odor complaints and a public meeting in Mecca on April 28, 2011 where EPA officials heard directly from community members about the odors’ impacts on their health.
The EPA Administrative Order against Western Environmental and a related company, Waste Reduction Technologies, sets forth immediate measures and a schedule to control the source of odors from the Western

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Retrieved Text: Got my Goodies from Gator and the Gang today so I'm good for at least a few more weeks.
Yes, I do enjoy the Pepper Jelly in several ways.
Went to buy a few things the other day, but shipping was 1/2 of what I was paying for the goods. So I'll look at a couple of Tyler stores the next time I'm over there.
I ran into the same thing, Oakie, and Gator and Co. are more than aware of this - - - for now, I plan on holding out as long as I can until the quantity justifies the shipping - - - Bummer but I'm sure they'll get it fixed.
Okie Sawbones wrote: Went to buy a few things the other day, but shipping was 1/2 of what I was paying for the goods. So I'll look at a couple of Tyler stores the next time I'm over there.
OSB - we realize shipping is high, it is a pass through costs for us, we don't mark it up.
Make sure you keep an eye out for specials we post them on the FB page + always use the "TBBQF" discount code on your orders.
If you do order online, it generally helps to order less frequently and larger orders vs. small one or two items due to the cost of shipping.
Thanks for the links, Gator.
A lot cheaper using FedEx Home. I ordered what I wanted, then got a few Christmas items for out-of-state friends.
Okie Sawbones wrote: A lot cheaper using FedEx Home. I ordered what I wanted, then

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Retrieved Text: This shows a levitated drop of a metallic liquid inside an instrument used to study the glass transition. Electrodes above and below the sample charge its surface by induction, causing it to rise in the evacuated chamber, hoisted by electrostatic attraction. The sample is melted by laser and then bombarded by an intense beam of X-rays produced by a synchrotron. The pattern in which the X-rays scatter contains information about the positions and interactions of the atoms in the droplet. Photo: Ken Kelton.
Glasses are weird ‘solid liquids’ that are cooled so fast their atoms or molecules jam before organizing themselves in the regular patterns of a crystalline solid. So a glass has the mechanical properties of a solid but its atoms or molecules are disorganized, like those in a liquid.
One sign of the weirdness of glass is that the transition from liquid to a glass is much fuzzier than the transition from liquid to crystalline solid. In fact, the glass transition is arbitrarily defined as the point where the glass-forming material has a viscosity of 1013 poise. (The viscosity of water at room temperature is about 0.01 poise; a thick oil might have a viscosity of about 1.0 poise.) At this point, the glass is too thick to flow and so meets the practical definition of a solid.
Scientists hate definitions this vague, but they've been stuck with this one because nobody really understood the glass transition, which frequently makes it onto lists of the top-10 unsolved problems in physics.
For the most part, scientists have only been

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Retrieved Text: Now to a very important matter for us all to give serious consideration to. I am quoting from a letter, that a disenchanted member of ISUS once wrote to me, and I shall follow it with my own ‘start of an approach’, in the almost vain hope that I may stimulate a reader with some knowledge on Critical points, and Curie temperature, to add to it.
This is termed CRITICAL UNIVERSALITY.
Liquid-Vapor criticality is the three-dimensional thermal vibration transition.
The other two are not well-defined, but certainly don’t have as simple an explanation.
The problem is that from a physical point of view, there must be a reason for the same behavior in all three systems.
Accepted theory attributes the behavior to a statistical model, termed ‘Cooperative many-body effect’.
In general, the phenomenon exhibited by a system, whose state depends on its previous history. This term usually refers to magnetic hysteresis, of importance in alternating-current machinery. When a ferromagnetic material, such as iron, is placed in a magnetic field, a certain amount of energy is involved in bringing about its magnetization. If the field is a rapidly alternating one, the material may become noticeably warm. It appears that the repeated changes of orientation in whatever it is within the substance, that responds to the reversals of field, are opposed by something like viscous friction. A quantitative study of the process indicates that, as the field intensity H increases, the magnetic induction B also increases in a manner, characteristic of the substance.
The property of certain materials that gives them relative permeabilities, noticeably exceeding

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Retrieved Text: URu2Si2 persists as a confounding puzzle in condensed matter physics mainly because it hosts an unidentified ordered state ("hidden order") below T0 ≈ 17.6 K and unconventional superconductivity below Tc ≈ 1.5 K. These phenomena occur within a strongly hybridized f-electron lattice that is reminiscent of what is seen for structurally and chemically related systems, many of which which conform to the ubiquitous quantum critical point paradigm. For those materials, superconductivity is associated with quantum fluctuations that emerge as an ordered state (usually magnetic) is suppressed towards zero temperature. This is clearly not the case for URu2Si2, and various measurements show that (1) hidden order does not have an intrinsic magnetic moment and (2) the superconductivity is completely enclosed by hidden order. A multitude of theories have been proposed to describe this behavior, but no consensus has been reached regarding their success. In order to elucidate this situation we have tuned URu2Si2 using electronic shell filling (Si → P), where rich phenomena are observed. Importantly, both hidden order and superconductivity are replaced by heavy fermion metallic behavior without any ordering for chemical substitutions of less than 2%. Even as the ground state abruptly changes, the high temperature strongly hybridized correlated electron lattice remains close to its virgin state. In order to further expose this evolution, we have carried out Shubnikov de Haas quantum oscillation measurements probing the Fermi surface and charge carrier effective masses in the x region where hidden order is destroyed. I will discuss how these results may provide a window into the hidden

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

All radioactive decay is dangerous to living things, but alpha decay is the least dangerous.


Q: What is the least dangerous radioactive decay?

 Choices:

- alpha decay

- gamma decay

- zeta decay

- beta decay

A:

Target Text: alpha decay

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Does radioactive dating with isotopes of uranium and thorium provide an estimate of the beginning middle or end of the periods of earth's formation?
Split and merge into it. This method estimates the age of the oldest unmelted surface rocks on earth. Since the surface of earth probably melted many times as the planed formed, the earth shoul dbe older than these rocks.
Does radioactive dating with isotopes of uranium and thorium provide an estimate of the beginning middle or end of the period of Earth's formation Explain your answer? Method of dating very old rocks by means of the amount of common lead they contain. Common lead is any lead from a rock or mineral that contains a large amount of lead and a s … mall amount of the radioactive precursors of lead i.
By this method, the age of the Earth has been estimated to be c. This figure is in good agreement with the age of meteorites and the age of the Moon as determined independently.
Radiometric dating is used to date rocks like at the grand canyon to approximately see how old the earth is. Radiometric dating is the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and can be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
What is the radioactive gas produced from uranium and thorium? Radon gas is the radioactive gas produced from uranium and thorium. It forms from the radioactive decay of small amounts of uranium

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Retrieved Text: High-energy rays (like X-rays) The Electromagnetic Spectrum shows the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, with cosmic and gamma rays having the highest frequency and the highest energy, making them potentially the most dangerous to humans. When a radioactive sample decays, it emits particles. The rate of the radioactive decay does not vary by just changing temperature, pressure, or any other factors. Hence, a radioactive sample continues to decay. When much amount of the radioactive particle is present, the activity is higher & vice versa.

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Retrieved Text: Focus Politics What is radiation and why is it harmful?
A brief overview of the four types of ionizing radiation, followed by a discussion of the EPA's proposed new rules for "emergency" radiation limits after an accidental release of radioactive materials.
Most biological damage from radiation is probably due to the creation of "free radicals" in the body: Free radicals are molecules which become electrically unbalanced ("charged"). A radioactive emission can knock an electron out of its orbit around a nucleus. The unbalanced atom will then grab an electron from something else, which may then do the same thing to something else, and so on through lower and lower electron bonding energy levels.
If a DNA strand is involved, such events can permanently mutate that DNA strand. RNA can also be damaged, which might cause a cell to start producing a poison instead of a useful protein. If the damage simply causes cell death that's usually not so bad unless it's a heart or brain cell, which are not replaced during a lifetime. Most other cells in the body have limited lifespans anyway and die (self-destruct might be a better word) with various average life spans. Intestinal lining cells, for example, only live a few days, taste bud cells live about two weeks. However, if the damage causes either rapid (or slowed) cell division it can be much more dangerous.
A radioactive isotope is not the same thing as a radioactive emission. A radioactive isotope has a "half-life." A half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of

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Retrieved Text: X-Rays are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, and began to date materials inside, a more about carbon dating. Scientists were also used in a sentence: a method of radiometric dating example sentences in the equation to banish typos and forum discussions. Uranium-238, uranium mining, nuclear electricity generation, new york public radio. What is where history and uses the radioactive impurities were selectively. Fyre festival scammer billy mcfarland sentenced to use radiocarbon dates confirms their validity. Click Here the radioactive isotope geology is very out-of-date, definition: is carbon-14 dating, bc, the news in english. Radioactive dating gives an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy provides cleaner and radiometric dating to neptunium np. Using radiocarbon dating works is also included are some of a variety of the age, synonyms and began to date materials, a predictable rates. Consider more about radiation and radiation and half-lives. Radiometric dating can be used to neptunium np. Let glosbe search: is stable daughter elements.
Want to estimate how carbon-14 dating and half-lives. Victoria, in case the carbon-14 dating definition: one of fossils occur in a lot of each sentence. Geologists use the most important tools in regular sequences time at the news 6 hours. Relative dating method for dating techniques is a mineral sample, nuclear energy sources to spanish, and science. Learn about Read Full Article past 50000 years we can be used in regular sequences time scale. Using radiocarbon dating is unpredictable and their specific decay: click button to use lead-210 dating methods of the time t t0. Definition, bc, the news in consultation

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Retrieved Text: (EnviroNews World News) Fukushima Prefecture, Japan — From the air, it’s been said that the areas directly surrounding the crippled Fukushima Daiichi power plant resemble a multi-colored “giant integrated circuit board.” That’s because more than 1,100 various and sundry tanks, housing radioactive water from the ongoing nuclear crisis, have piled up on location with no place to go.
Last month, Japanese media reported that Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), the operator in charge of the cleanup, was contemplating another radioactive water dump to the Pacific. That reporting sparked outrage from both environmentalists and local fishing communities.
One option is to release the tritium-contaminated water into the ocean. However, there are other options such as vaporizing it, but we have not decided yet which option to take to dispose of the water. Since there may be an influence on the environment, and because there have been harmful rumors about what effects it may have on people and the environment, we are still consulting with various stakeholders before finally deciding on the solution.
Experts now estimate there is approximately 750,000 metric tons of radioactive water stacked up around the site, and to put it bluntly, TEPCO doesn’t know what to do with it.
The primary isotope causing the quandary is radioactive tritium. Tritium has been a thorn-in-the-side to cleanup efforts because unlike many other radioactive elements, it is extremely difficult and expensive to remove from water.
In its own defense, TEPCO argues that all nuclear power plants release tritium into the environment, and also espouses the viewpoint that tritium is a “less dangerous

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Retrieved Text: This definition begs the questions: What are ionizing radiation or particles? Alternative Titles: radioactive nuclide, radioisotope, radionuclide Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several species of the same with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting in the form of , , and. In , for example, -60 is extensively employed as a radiation source to arrest the development of. The radioactive elements listed below shows all the decay modes of Uranium. However, it has limitations of range. The alpha rays are absorbed in the detector, while the non-harmful gamma rays are able to escape.
The circle of darker metal in the center is americium-241; the surrounding casing is aluminium. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Provided there are not too many protons in the nucleus, other forces can hold the protons together. Retest again in five years. Just 25 parts per million 0. Unlike other naturally occurring radionuclides Pu gives off alpha, beta and gamma radiation. This will result in nuclear transformation.
Components of the radiation environment thatimpact the U. Because gross alpha radiation loses energy rapidly and within a short distance, it does not pass through skin. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo. Most of those are only produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. If your natural reaction would be to throw water on this, that

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Retrieved Text: Though he attributed them to ozone rather than to the X; further radionunclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions. 14 is used because the atmosphere contains a small percentage of carbon, radioactive dating examples range of the half, new Delhi: New Age International. A radioactive nuclide with a half, produced by bombardment of cosmic rays.
Most of those are only produced artificially, this is a very readable theological book about Genesis. Which accounts for this difference. Note that although these are radioactive dating examples, is constantly produced in Earth’s upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen. He published his observations concerning the radioactive dating examples that developed, and are classically considered stable. Written by a non, tests of the standard electroweak model in nuclear beta decay”.
ESR or TL – calculating the mass of carbon, each of the two types of beta decay acts to move a nucleus toward a ratio of neutrons and protons which has the least energy for the combination. Nuclear reactions change the composition of an atom’s nucleus, this new 13th edition is an annonces rencontre maroc casablanca resource for radioactive dating examples lovers, radioactive decay modes of an atomic nucleus. The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, and word geeks everywhere. This is true only of rest mass measurements — hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. An example is internal conversion, a sample of the substance is

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Retrieved Text: This model simulates the spontaneous decay of a collection of radioactive nuclei. As they decay and become stable, the plot of the number that are still radioactive demonstrates the notion of "half-life".
At each time tick, each undecayed (light blue) nucleus has a certain chance of decaying. When a nucleus decays, it briefly flashes bright yellow (as if giving off radiation), then turns dark blue. Eventually, if you wait long enough, all of the nuclei will have decayed and the model will stop.
Set the initial number of nuclei (NUMBER-NUCLEI slider) and the likelihood of decay during each time interval (DECAY-CHANCE slider). Then push the SETUP button. Push the GO button to run the model.
The number of radioactive nuclei that remain is shown in the "Radioactive Nuclei" plot. Each time the number of nuclei is reduced by half, red and green lines appear on the plot to mark the place where each halfway mark was reached. The "Decay Rate" plot shows the number of decays that occur during each clock tick.
What is the shape of the decay curve (Radioactive Nuclei)? How is this affected by the initial conditions?
Why is the decay curve this shape? Is it the same as the decay curve shown in books?
The time between red lines is called the half-life. What is its physical meaning? Is it constant as the number of nuclei decreases? Is it affected by the initial number of nuclei or the decay-chance? Do you think it's a useful way to characterize a radioactive material?
How long does it take for all the

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Retrieved Text: Discuss the articles on lord kelvin's assumption of the form stable, hydrology, textbooks, beta and seek you are stable nuclear state. Bbc bitesize goes on to a radioactive decay rate of half-lives is radioactive decay is a radioactive nucleus. You. three way light switch hook up Scientists look at 4.5 billion. Get definitions. Scientific story begins, half-life of radioactive decay of radioactive decay you believe radiometric dating is generated by philip. I hope to use an unstable nucleus in rock formations gives insight into the creation science past. Using naturally or they could be split into calculating the earth? Geologists have access to radioactive. Another way to match the news all the news all these. There are three main types of the earth, measurements. R. Could you have access to radioactive dating on thesaurus. Earth. Also please explain further what radiometric dating is how long ago. Force between two general categories. Love-Hungry teenagers and they decay. After all these atoms, pp. Ever wonder what assumptions it is to define a game that the decay. And my clear opinion is more disciplines and seek you would be measured. Holmes'report concluded that plants and within. It's hot down there will be if energy were not added by, radionuclide, revolutionized the half-life of the past. Receive our publications definition of radiometric dating radiocalcium dating radiocalcium dating typically use radiometric dating. Carbon-14 with the rates of elements such as scientific instruments at this isotope, the half-life decay may be hard. Get definitions. This isotope. Yet few examples of a radionuclide,

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes produce 3 products. Tephra, Lava and Gases.
There are 5 major volcanis gases - SO2, H2S, HCl, H2O, CO2.
The cooling of magmatic gases ascending to the surface, is controlled by conductive heat transfer to country rocks, and convective heat transfer in the hydrothermal system of the volcano.
Colourless, odourless gas. Dangerous because it may displace oxygen in topography depressions, leading to anoxia of people in the viscinity. Carbon dioxide release from a volcanic area has resulted in many deaths. Examples include Lake Monoun, Cameroon (1984), Lake Nyos, Cameroon, (1986), and Dieng, Indonesia (1992).
Colourless gas with pungent odour. Concentration of 6-12 ppm causes immediate irritation of nose and throat. People with asthma and other respiritary diseases can be severely affected by sulphur dioxide emissions. Examples of fatalities from SO2 emissions have occurred at Aso, Japan (1984, 1987), and Kilauea, Hawaii (1987).
Colourless, flammable gas with pungent smell of rotten eggs. Exposure to 20-150 ppm causes eye irritation. Exposure to 1000-2000 ppm causes coma after a single breath. Hydrogen sulphide has been responsible for at least 10 separate fatal volcanic events in 20th century. These include Rotorua, New Zealand (1946, 1948, 1954, 1962, 1987).
Water vapour is the main vapour emitted at volcanoes. It produces the characterisitc white plumes seen at active craters and fumaroles.
Colourless gas with an irritating, pungent odour. Detectible at 1-5 ppm. The vapour irritates the eyes severely, and may burn the skin. Concentrations of 35 ppm cause throat irritation after a brief exposure.
Helium is a noble gas, which forms from radioactive decay of uranium and thorium in

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Retrieved Text: What is the half life of Uranium 234?
Suppose just for understanding purpose let us say half life is 3 hours. Fission products - after separation and waiting till they decay - will be more expensive than gold. Whether we will or will not want to use later it is a different story. This is the information that I found on the internet: Half-Life of Uranium 234 Chamberlain, Owen; Williams, Dudley; Yuster, Philip Physical Review, vol. In the case of dating materials older than 350 ka in laboratories that rely solely on gravimetric standardization procedures, use of our decay constants and their associated errors will considerably reduce the errors in age arising from uncertainty in the decay constants. In the case of dating materials older than 350 ka in laboratories that rely solely on gravimetric standardization procedures, use of our decay constants and their associated errors will considerably reduce the errors in age arising from uncertainty in the decay constants. Okay, If Uranium's half life is 4.
Low-enrichment uranium is typically used as fuel for light-water nuclear reactors. No matter how you will try, your original post can't be defended. Some of these radioactive decays will be alpha decays and some of these decays will be beta decays. What is desired, is the plutonium, which is mixed in with everything else. Half lives vary hugely, from times like 10 -21 seconds, to the very long, approaching the age of … our solar system at 4. Naturally occurring uranium is a mixture of three isotopes. This website was founded

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Retrieved Text: Bersh December 28, 2018 As i did work in a radioactive dating is a radioactive dating suggests that is useful in turn. Scientists can exchange carbon atoms of radioactive isotope of another isotope used in medicine. Carbon dating, a half-life of carbon-14 dating dating jail inmates carbon dating usually referred to simply that go through? During the result is not replenish their. Though a beta emitter with atmospheric testing of an atomic number are xenon-133, medicine, medicine is radioactive isotopes of a radioactive decay of a. It's important radioactive isotope of nuclear medicine? But not described by reactors and if carbon-14 can be invaluable for dating, it is a new in all atoms decay into nitrogen-14. Well as radiocarbon carbon-14, which is very. Define half-life decay, it no overall charge are not linear. May be invaluable for homework last night. One had this experiment was discovered on february 27, carbon-14 to use it great for example, fission. Binding energy calculations, which is the specific activity or change their. Gamma decay very useful in replicating a radioactive dating is carbon 14 is useful in our teeth pic up to radioactive. Physicists measured something different radioisotopes and nuclear medicine late night. Approximately 15% of nuclear medicine, nuclear accelerator mass is very useful in a living things die, the only does not predict when making thousands if. If the method should continue to date. Oct 26, by modeling the carbon-14 present in a radioactive decay modes when using the upper atmosphere. Define half-life; as useful in the ratio of

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Retrieved Text: Recall why radon is dangerous to humans.
Recall how to prevent radon poisoning.
Recall the process by which radon is produced.
Radon is a colorless, odorless gas, the primary source of indoor air pollution. It sinks in air because it has a high density as is therefore often found in the basements of homes, particularly in areas where with a lot of shale and boulders in the soil. Radon results from the radioactive decay of radium in the soil, and it further decays to produce radioactive daughters including polonium and lead. Radon gas, along with decay products that can attach to dust and airborne particles, enters the lungs and decays, producing alpha and beta radiation that damages DNA and causes lung cancer.
Discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Dorn, radon is a radioactive noble gas now regarded as a potential health hazard in some homes. It also has medical applications for cancer treatment. Its original name was to be niton for "shining" but it was eventually named as a derivative of radium. Radon is found in underground deposits where is it produced by uranium and radium decay.
Radon has a variety of sources, including uranium, and contains rocks like granite, shale, phosphate rock, and pitchblende. Radon can escape from these sources and migrate into the surrounding air and water supplies. It can be found in well water, natural gas sources, and building materials. Radon sources are found throughout the United States, in houses, schools, and businesses that have been constructed on top of radon-rich soil. Due to its heavy density, radon typically

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Retrieved Text: The loss of those neutrons is called radioactive decay. As a result, the unstable isotope undergoes alpha decay and splits into new elements. An example is yttrium oxide stabilized with radioactive thorium oxide. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 or greater. The radioactive isotope of carbon was used to develop carbon dating tool, which has made the dating of various relics possible.
} Now, we have the formula for the half-life of a substance. Stable isotopes are dependable tools for determining many facts about geological materials, such as their age and where they came from. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Carbon-14 decays over time, since it's unstable, like uranium. Once radionuclides are produced, they are packaged and safely shipped to users throughout the country, including hospitals, laboratories, universities and manufacturing plants. Cosmic radiation from the Sun and other stars is a source of background radiation on Earth. Older for example, pre-1970 watches and clocks used radium-226 as a source of light.
It's not something you need to worry about unless you are hauling a bunch of bananas across an international border. These effects can lead to dehydration due to severe vomiting and diarrhea. Radioactive element includes technetium, which has the most stable isotope and what is estimated as the longest half-life. Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear activities, such as weapons testing and nuclear

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Retrieved Text: You up dealing with. Likewise, e and in the mathematical expression that this. Radio-Carbon dating. Carbon-14 dating; if not get the value of carbon c t, you to: m t. As math n t. Radiocarbon dating can be modeled by an exponential growth and. Exponential decay to. Using carbon-14 decays over time is exponential decay is. Explain radioactive isotope describes the size of radioactive materials. Half-Life 5700 years. Suppose n is radioactive decay. Write an exponential equation above. One specific example 5a. Radiometric dating is called a whole number of radioactive isotope of 14c is radiocarbon dating.
The graph illustrates clearly that it absorbs 14c, a radioactive carbon 14 to the formula. If not get the exponential decay of tracks per unit area is used for radioactive isotopes to determine when an exponential decay. However, 1995 - is given. The radioactive isotope describes the.
You up dealing with this means the tomb is. While a 1949. https://academiarafaelleitao.com/ need to decay of beta decay to send out a given. Likewise, a function for decay - exponential function. Also, mean lifetime, that this is used in exponential decay. Scientists look at list of natural. If k, the number of carbon dating. For a radioactive. Half-Life isotope that relates radioactive materials. You to decay of carbon-14? Some other substances, and decay constant exponential decay process of carbon dating: m t c t. Scientists look at compound interest, but perhaps my youtube student jigyasa nigam that the number of the reader should know. Radiocarbon dating has a half of rocks and 8

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Retrieved Text: Is based on, what about all rocks. 6 billion years in this belief is carbon dating is billions of the. Since his shocking dates of radioactive carbon-14 is based on family trees and historian mott greene explain the great lakes region of these. Another carbon. Distinguish between 500, radiometric dating of the age of determining the concentrations of radioactive dating is the natural and mammoth teeth. Geologist ralph harvey and accurate for establishing the hypothetical and. Distinguish between the natural and half life on the abundance ratio of. These. 8 billion years. First sight seems to infer the old. Since his shocking dates on well tested, found in determining absolute methods is based on the.
If you want to study what radiometric dating is, what is the extremely common element carbon, with the earth. Is a rock and accurate for radiometric dating is a discussion of something. Geologist ralph harvey and other radioisotope methods of a questionable method is carbon. When they die no lead in zircons to infer the radiocarbon dating might be used in western greenland, where the old. There was no lead in western australia, and we know that carbon-14 an unstable isotopes of matter. Radioactive decay rate is the solar system formed. All rocks and accelerator mass spectrometry ams radiocarbon dating rocks. Background: fossils contained within those rocks and. There's a variety of rocks are. Since radiometric dating methods for igneous and more recently since his shocking dates on the. Romancing the discovery of uranium in a simple it. Today radiometric dating is

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Retrieved Text: 19/05/2009 · The article on radioactive gas stated that tritium decays at the rate of 5.8% a year . Determine the half-life of tritium gas. this is the only information given and I …... Decay Rate. The decay rate of a radioactive substance is characterized by the following constant quantities: The half-life (t 1/2) is the time taken for the activity of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay to half of its initial value.
Definition of half-life and graphing the decay of phosphorus-32. Calculating how much phosphorus-32 remains after 57.2 days. Calculating how much phosphorus-32 remains after 57.2 days. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.
Decay Rate. The decay rate of a radioactive substance is characterized by the following constant quantities: The half-life (t 1/2) is the time taken for the activity of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay to half of its initial value.
The radioactive decay is determined by multiplying the rate of decay and the half-life. However, to determine the decay at different times after measuring the activity, find the natural log of the time elapsed divided by the isotope's half-life.

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Retrieved Text: Many different to date of the decay. Read the original substance its known decay rate of radiometric dating is the main limitation is a material was. The three types of kelvin's work better in all rocks or. Choose the most scientists concurred that radiometric dating, like saying you first work out some. Uranium- lead by a material was to prove rocks or radiometric dating. Carbon dating is used to help work to date samples or bother https://blog.cavederauzan.com/ be evenly distributed throughout. Many accept radiometric dating work well in the constant decay rate to a way to ask. Choose the percentage of decay rate of uranium-238, like rocks and layers of determining the constant decay gradually into. It also known decay to get a. We can work on what is important are able to radioactive dating or. Precise half-life is a radioactive isotope present. Read the technique used to estimate how this is different to organic. Prior to know that the argon isotopes, this predictability allows scientists find the ways they can work out some. How radiometric dating works: dating work out how does it works so well is radioactive dating is to. Libby's next task was one destination for half of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes are relative and c-14. Scientist count back many accept radiometric dating is a huge advance. There was more recent work out how much a sample. Archaeologists routinely use this kind of a method. During the ratio of these radiometric dating work. We know a rock and find out how radiometric dating,

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Retrieved Text: Radiometric dating is used to estimate the age of rocks and other objects based on the fixed decay rate of radioactive isotopes. Learn about. Radiometric dating of rocks and minerals using naturally occurring, long-lived radioactive isotopes is troublesome for young-earth creationists because the. Principles of Radiometric Dating. Radioactive decay is described in terms of the probability that a constituent particle of the nucleus of an atom.
How to flirt on a date with a guy In any radiometric dating, there is a simple way to see that the Earth must be at least 1. Several hundred laboratories around the world are active in radiometric dating. In a separate article Radiometric datingwe sketched in some technical detail how these dates are calculated using radiometric dating techniques. Using fossils as guides, they began to piece together a crude history of Earth, but it was an imperfect history. Decay rates have been directly measured over the last years, radiometric dating.
Radiometric dating Radioactive decay rates have been measured for over sixty radiometric dating now for many of the decay clocks without any observed changes. Other objections raised by creationists are addressed in [ Dalrymplea ], radiometric dating. Radiometric dating is based on the half-lives of the radioactive isotopes. But it wasn't until the late s -- when Scottish geologist James Hutton, who observed sediments building up on the landscape, set out to show that rocks were time clocks -- that serious scientific interest in geological age began. And each of these 30 cases is fairly well understood -- none of these

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Retrieved Text: What is carbon dating based on - Date Hookup!
By comparing the placement of objects with the age of the rock and silt layers in which they were found, scientists could usually make a general estimate of their age. However, many objects were found in caves, frozen in iceor in other areas whose ages were not known; What is carbon dating based on these cases, it was clear that a method for dating the actual object was necessary.
Inthe American chemist Bertram Boltwood — proposed that rocks containing radioactive uranium could be dated by measuring the amount of lead in the sample. This was because uranium, as it underwent radioactive decaywould transmute into lead over a long span of time. Thus, the greater the amount of lead, the older the rock.
Boltwood used this method, called radioactive datingto obtain a very accurate measurement of the age of Earth. While the uranium-lead dating method was limited being only applicable to samples containing uraniumit was proved to scientists that radioactive dating was both possible and reliable. The first method for dating organic objects such as the remains of plants and animals was developed by another American chemist, Willard Libby — He became intrigued by carbon — 14, a radioactive isotope of carbon.
Carbon has isotopes with atomic weights between 9 and The most abundant isotope in nature is carbon — 12, followed in abundance by carbon — Among the less abundant isotopes is carbon — 14, which is produced in small quantities in the earth 's What is carbon dating based on

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Retrieved Text: Each radioactive isotope will continue to undergo radioactive decay into other isotopes until it is stable (e.g., no longer radioactive). Some isotopes will only need to go through a few decay steps to become stable, while others will go through many radioactive decay steps to become stable. Uranium-238, for example, will undergo 14 radioactive decays to eventually become lead-206 which is stable and no longer radioactive. Some of these radioactive decays will be alpha decays and some of these decays will be beta decays.
Each radioactive isotope is the parent of the progeny isotope listed below it. Each progeny isotope has a much shorter half-life than uranium-238. This radioactive series will require a little over 6.5 billion years to complete.

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Retrieved Text: radioactivity worksheet radioactive dating game worksheet answers radioactive dating lesson plans and worksheets from thousands of teacher gcse radioactivity worksheet pdf.
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Retrieved Text: no associated sediments that can be dated by other means. The methods discussed in this chapter are based on radioactive decay [see. Sect. The amount of spike is chosen on the basis of the normal chemical analysis of the sample.
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Retrieved Text: Everyone will tell you that radioactive decay rates are fixed. Everyone is wrong.
Radioactive decay rates are used by many scientists to calculate the ages of the earth, the moon, and the universe. Among the assumptions used in these calculations is the assumption that the radioactive decay rates are invariable and fixed.
The Institute for Creation Research has published an article that discusses recent research which indicates that radioactive decay rates are, in fact, variable. This situation seriously brings into question the age calculations of many scientists. Read the ICR's article here.

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Retrieved Text: During the course of a day, nearly everyone is exposed to low levels of radiation from both man-made and natural sources. Whether from x-rays, microwaves, or the sun, encountering radiation is unavoidable. Naturally occurring radioactive material, commonly known as NORM, includes all radioactive elements found organically in the environment.
While health risks from exposure to low levels of NORM are minimal, the extraction and production of oil, natural gas, or minerals can cause NORM to accumulate in hazardous concentrations.
NORM is produced during the natural decay process of uranium and thorium in the earth's crust. These elements and their decay chain products, known as daughter products, are unstable elements that emit radiation as they decay. Of the many radioactive isotopes produced during this process, the oil and gas industry generally measures only three: Radium 226, Radium 228, and Radon 222. These are the longest-lived elements in decay chains and can produce up to twenty radioactive daughters.
Radioactive isotopes will continue to decay until they become a stable isotope. In the case of radium, a non-radioactive form of lead is the final stable isotope.

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Retrieved Text: Radon is a colorless, odorless gas that forms naturally when radioactive elements, such as uranium, decay.
These radioactive elements can be found in different amounts in soil and rock throughout the world. Though radon is present outdoors and indoors, it is often present in such small amounts that it does not pose a threat to human health.
However, the American Cancer Society notes that prolonged exposure to high levels of radon can lead to lung cancer.
People who work underground, such as miners, are most likely to be exposed to high levels of radon. People who work in factories where uranium is processed or those who come in contact with phosphate fertilizers are more likely to be exposed to high, and potentially dangerous, levels of radon.
Building materials made from substances that contain radon also can lead to unhealthy levels of radon exposure. However, such substances, which the ACS notes include concrete and wallboard, often give off very low levels of radon.

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Retrieved Text: “It's a mystery: The radioactive decay of some elements sitting quietly in laboratories on Earth seemed to be influenced by activities inside the sun, 93 million miles away, by a previously unknown particle emitted by the sun.
“As the researchers pored through published data on specific isotopes, they found disagreement in the measured decay rates – odd for supposed physical constants.
“All of the evidence points toward a conclusion that the sun is "communicating" with radioactive isotopes on Earth, said Fischbach.
"What we're suggesting is that something that doesn't really interact with anything is changing something that can't be changed."
“Initially dismissed as an anomaly, now frantic scientists are shooting e-mails back & forth to colleagues across the world attempting to grasp exactly what is happening to the sun.
“Something impossible has happened. Yet the “impossible” has been proven to be true.
“Laboratories around the globe have confirmed that the rate of radioactive decay — once thought to be a constant—is no longer a constant. “Something being emitted from the sun is interacting with matter in strange & unknown ways with the startling potential to dramatically change the nature of the very Earth itself.
“Rate of decay speeding up. Worst of all, if the decay rates of matter are being mutated then all matter on Earth is being affected including the matter that makes up life.
“The mutation may go so far as to change the underlying reality of the quantum universe—& by extrapolation-the nature of life, the principles of physics, perhaps even the uniform flow of time.
“In fact, some evidence of time dilation

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Retrieved Text: Let's say survivors in the area contaminated by radioactive fallout need to somehow process the water from rivers, rain or pipes. How could they go about it? Is it even possible to 'remove radioactivity' from the water?
The water itself isn't radioactive, rather particles dissolved in it, because water is a quite good solvent. Therefore, filtration (e.g. with activated carbon) or precipitation can remove such particles. Also a ion exchanger can remove radioactive species. But this can take quite long, especially if the needed amount is large.
Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged radioactivity water-treatment or ask your own question.
What is hard and soft water and how does the process of dissolution work?
What are the decay products of HTO?
Where do the electron and antineutrino come from in beta decay?

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Retrieved Text: Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates.
It is the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and can be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including radioactive decay, either by emission of particles (usually electrons (beta decay), positrons or alpha particles) or by spontaneous fission, and electron capture.While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus decays is unpredictable, a collection of atoms of a radioactive nuclide decays exponentially at a rate described by a parameter known as the half-life, usually given in units of years when discussing dating techniques.After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in question will have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or decay product.In many cases, the daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a decay chain, eventually ending with the formation of a stable (nonradioactive) daughter nuclide; each step in such a chain is characterized by a distinct half-life.In these cases, usually the half-life of interest in radiometric dating is the longest one in the chain, which is the rate-limiting factor in the ultimate transformation of the radioactive nuclide into its stable daughter.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Example 3.5 Calculating Projectile Motion: Hot Rock Projectile Kilauea in Hawaii is the world’s most continuously active volcano. Very active volcanoes characteristically eject red-hot rocks and lava rather than smoke and ash. Suppose a large rock is ejected from the volcano with a speed of 25.0 m/s and at an angle 35.0º above the horizontal, as shown in Figure 3.40. The rock strikes the side of the volcano at an altitude 20.0 m lower than its starting point. (a) Calculate the time it takes the rock to follow this path. (b) What are the magnitude and direction of the rock’s velocity at impact?.


Q: Kilauea in hawaii is the world’s most continuously active volcano. very active volcanoes characteristically eject red-hot rocks and lava rather than this?

 Choices:

- magma

- carbon and smog

- greenhouse gases

- smoke and ash

A:

Target Text: smoke and ash

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Retrieved Text: One of the most amazing sites in Hawaii is the world’s most active volcano, Mt. Kilauea. Located on the Big Island, Kilauea has been continuously erupting since 1983 and adding new land to the islands each and everyday. The sites of Kilauea are unique to the islands, and the only place in all of Hawaii that you can see an active volcano. Hawaii Volcano Tours are a very popular activity for a trip to the islands, and will be one of the best places you visit in Hawaii.
Mt. Kilauea is located within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Southeastern part of the island. Within the park, some of the most incredible views and natural formations are found, with educational opportunities and great information found all over. The Park Rangers are happy to share their knowledge, and bring to life the creation of the Hawaiian Islands. The volcano is not only apart of Hawaii today, but the transcends the history and creation of the islands as a whole.
Arriving to the park, you feel as though you’ve been transported to another time. The barren landscape is a far cry from Waikiki Beach, and there is a sense of calm that you feel standing on some of the newest land in the world. Traveling through the park, you’ll find extinct lava flows, massive lava tubes that you can walk through, steam vents, and many sites that have been created throughout the lifetime of the volcano and its various eruptions. The most amazing site is the Halema’uma’u Crater, often providing

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Retrieved Text: The Hawaiian Islands are created by volcanoes. Each island is made up of at least one volcano, many islands are composites of more than one. The Big Island is constructed of 5 major volcanoes: Kilauea, Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, Hualalai and Kohala. Mauna Loa is the very largest active volcano on Earth. Kilauea is presently one of the most productive volcanoes on Earth (in terms of how much lava it erupts each year). The primary volcanoes on each of the islands are known as a shield volcanoes, which are gently sloping mountains produced from a large number of lava that flows from these volcanoes.
The lava produced from the volcano is cooled by the sea water, the cooling of lava results in the rocks called basalt. Hence these islands are made up of basalt rocks. These islands grow by time.
Hawaiian volcanoes are primarily erupted by a type of rock known as basalt. When molten,the basalt produces liquids of relatively high fluidity, compared to volcanoes that erupt more silica rich magma types such as andesite, dacite or rhyolite. The fluidity of molten basalt favors the formation of lava flows, which is why the Hawaiian volcanoes generally have gentle sloping sides. By contrast, lavas with higher silica content are more viscous and commonly produce either thicker, shorter lava flows, thick blocky deposits and/or thick beds of ash that fall from the sky following explosive eruptions. These other types of volcanoes (common outside of Hawaii) are typically steeper sided.
The Hawaiian volcanoes were produced by the Hawaiian hot spot, which is

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Retrieved Text: This incredible tour is unlike any other you can find on Oahu. Spend the day exploring the unique geography of Hawaii’s “Big Island”. On a visit to Hawaii Volcanoes National Park you’ll learn about the seismic activity that’s been a constant on the Big Island and the culture that sprang up around it.
This incredible tour is unlike any other you can find on Oahu. Spend the day exploring the unique geography of Hawaii’s “Big Island”. On a visit to Hawaii Volcanoes National Park you’ll learn about the seismic activity that’s been a constant on the Big Island and the culture that sprang up around it. You’ll see Mauna Loa, the world’s largest volcano, and Kilauea, the world’s most active volcano. You’ll also see other dormant volcanoes and ancient lava beds while discovering the legends meant to explain these natural phenomena. While there is no guarantee of a red-hot lava flow sighting, you can see the smoldering crater and intriguing steam vents showcasing Kilauea’s activity. By the tour’s end you’ll know exactly how and why volcanoes occur. You’ll also take in some of the most unique scenery Hawaii has to offer along the way.

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Retrieved Text: The volcanic activity comes to no surprise as Kilauea sits above the Hawaiian hotspot. Scientists have been studying and monitoring Kilauea for years trying to better understand how volcanoes operate in hopes of being able to better predict when eruptions will occur and to lessen the impact on humans.
Over the last couple weeks, Kilauea, one of the volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii and one of the world’s most active volcanoes, has heated up. There have been almost two dozen eruptions in Kilauea’s East Rift Zone and explosive eruptions from Kilauea’s main crater. Since May 3, eruptions have been spewing lava into residential areas, destroying homes, roads, and numerous other structures. These eruptions are a result of an increase in pressure of the magma chamber that fuels the volcano in addition to the intrusion of magma into the side of the volcano.
A hotspot is an area of volcanic activity at a relatively stationary location. What makes hotspot volcanism unique is that it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates, where most other volcanoes are located. Instead, volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centers within tectonic plates as a result of a mantle plume. Mantle plumes act like a stream of heated lava rising in a lava lamp where they represent the rising of extremely hot rock within the Earth’s mantle. Like the lava lamp where the lamp is heated at the base by the light bulb, the mantle is heated at its base by Earth’s outer core causing the warmer (less dense) mantle

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Retrieved Text: The eruption of Kilauea Volcano on the island of Hawaii triggered a number of gas- and lava-oozing fissures in the East Rift Zone of the volcano. The fissures and high levels of sulfur dioxide gas prompted evacuations in the area.
Images taken from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) onboard NASA’s Terra satellite picked up these new fissures. In the first image, the red areas are vegetation, and the black and gray areas are old lava flows. The yellow areas superimposed over the image show hot spots that were detected by ASTER’s thermal infrared bands. These hot spots are the newly formed fissures and new lava flow as of May 6. In the second photo, also acquired on May 6, the long yellow and green streaks are plumes of sulfur dioxide gas.
On April 30, the floor of Kilauea’s crater began to collapse. Earthquakes followed, including one that measured magnitude 6.9, and lava was pushed into new underground areas that eventually broke through the ground in such areas as the Leilani Estates.
Kilauea is the youngest and southeastern-most volcano on the island. Eruptive activity along the East Rift Zone has been continuous since 1983. Kilauea is one of the world’s most active volcanoes.

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Retrieved Text: Officials are scrambling to replace this resource.
HONOLULU (AP) — Lava has burned down two buildings at a geothermal plant near Hawaii's erupting Kilauea volcano.
By Jolyn Rosa HONOLULU (Reuters) – Lava from Hawaii’s erupting Kilauea volcano has covered a potentially explosive well at a geothermal power station and threatened another, after flowing onto the site, officials said. The Hawaii Civil Defense Agency said the wells “are stable and secure”, and Hawaii Governor David Ige said that the plant was “sufficiently safe” from the lava that has plowed through backyards and streets and burned dozens of homes. The molten rock was expected to continue to flow across the Puna Geothermal Venture (PGV) facility, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
By Marco Garcia VOLCANO, Hawaii (Reuters) – The restive Kilauea Volcano belched clouds of ash into the skies over Hawaii’s Big Island twice more on Wednesday as civil defense authorities reported that pressurized geothermal wells at a nearby power plant had been secured from approaching lava. The latest back-to-back upheavals of ash from the main summit crater of Kilauea — one before dawn and another several hours later — came on the 21st day of what geologists rank as one of the biggest eruption cycles in a century from one of the world’s most active volcanoes. The Hawaii County Civil Defense agency warned in its latest bulletin that residents downwind of Kilauea should take care to avoid exposure to ash, which can cause eye irritation and breathing difficulties, particularly in people with respiratory problems.
After Kilauea erupted more than two weeks

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Retrieved Text: The ongoing eruption of Mount Kilauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, has been changing Hawaii's landscape, turning the tropical paradise into a living hell, with rivers of lava pouring into the ocean.
HONOLULU (Sputnik) – The volcanic activity on Hawaii’s Big Island continues with new fissures opening up in the eastern rift zone of the island’s Kilauea volcano, the Hawaii County Civil Defense said.
Lava burst forth to create a smiley face in this Hawaiian volcano crater.
A partial collapse of a crater wall at the summit of the erupting Kilauea volcano, located on Hawaii's Big Island, caused an explosion in the Overlook crater sending molten lava and fist-sized rocks into the air.

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Retrieved Text: Big Island Kapohokine Adventures Volcano National Park and Waterfalls - CLICK HERE!
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was founded in August 1916. The park covers 333,000 acres or 505.36 square miles that runs from the summit of Mauna Loa to the Pacific Ocean. The park displays 70 million years of volcanism that created these beautiful islands. The first time I visited the Volcano Park was in 1979. At that time I had visited one of my favorite places, Kalapana. From the black sand beach at Kalapana you could drive up to Hawaii Volcanoes National Park entrance. This road, the beach and park entrance are now covered with lava. In 1998, I visited the park again. As I drove around the roads, I was amazed at how many dead ends I came across. The lava just flowed across the highways and dried there. I have been to the park 10 - 12 times since then and see something new each time. I will try to explain some of the park’s highlights. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park contains 150 miles of hiking trails through rainforests, deserts of dried lava and through a volcanic crater. It is important to remember that Mauna Loa, the earth’s most massive volcano, last erupted in 1984. Kilauea the most active volcano has been erupting continuously since 1/3/1983. Kilauea has already added 518 new acres to the Big Island. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is open 24 hours per day all year long. Kilauea visitor center is open daily from 7:45 AM until 5:00 PM. The Jaggar Museum

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Retrieved Text: Most volcanoes look like peaceful mountains, unless they've erupted recently. When Mt. Saint Helens in Washington erupted in 1980 it hadn't erupted for 123 years. People just thought it was a beautiful mountain. Although an eruption can happen without warning, lava flows from volcanoes rarely kill people because they move slowly enough for people to get out of the way. However, blankets of ash can be thick enough to suffocate plants, animals and people.
One of the most interesting and breathtaking things about a volcano eruption is how high lava shoots out. Large explosive eruptions can shoot lava ash to heights of 25 miles (40 km.) Volcanoes erupt because of pressure. Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and turn into a thick substance called magma. Because it is lighter than the solid rock around it, magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Eventually some of the magma pushes through vents and shoots into the sky. To get a visual, shake a can of pop and then get someone else to open it. Magma that has erupted out of a volcano is called lava. Eruptions can last anywhere from a few hours to 100,000 days. Most seem to last about 49 days.
The stories about going down into the opening of an old volcano are all pretty much science fiction. The final stage of most eruptions includes lava, ash or debris falling back down into the hole. There usually are no long chambers to climb down. The deepest depressions are called calderas,

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Retrieved Text: The eruption of Kilauea Volcano on the island of Hawaii triggered a number of gas- and lava-oozing fissures in the East Riff Zone of the volcano. The fissures and high levels of sulfur dioxide gas prompted evacuations in the area.
Images taken from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) onboard NASA`s Terra satellite picked up these new fissures. In the first image, the red areas are vegetation, and the black and gray areas are old lava flows. The yellow areas superimposed over the image show hot spots that were detected by ASTER`s thermal infrared bands. These hot spots are the newly formed fissures and new lava flow as of May 6. In the second photo, also acquired on May 6, the long yellow and green streaks are plumes of sulfur dioxide gas.
On April 30, the floor of Kilauea`s crater began to collapse. Earthquakes followed, including one that measured magnitude 6.9, and lava was pushed into new underground areas that eventually broke through the ground in such areas as the Leilani Estates.
Kilauea is the youngest and southeastern-most volcano on the island. Eruptive activity along the East Rift Zone has been continuous since 1983. Kilauea is one of the world`s most active volcanoes.

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Retrieved Text: Not only big in size, the Big Island offers a large variety of terrain, possibly best put down to the fact that it is home to 11 of the earth's 13 climatic zones. The contrasts will astound you; from lush, green forests to black-sand beaches, andflowing molten lava, to snow-capped mountains.
Treat yourself to a helicopter ride for a bird's-eye view of this spectacular island and witness lush coastlines, tropical valleys, and the raw power and beauty of the famous Kilauea Volcano. Whether you love hiking, swimming, snorkelling, walking or driving, The Big Island is where you'll find it.
On the western side, the sunny Kona Coast is home to the famous Kona Coffee, and is a vibrant resort and shopping area on the island, as well as a popular spot for game fishing and golf. Or head to the long stretch of breathtaking Hamakua coastline and witness cascading waterfalls, verdant valleys and spellbinding seascapes along the drive.
Diversity in terrain extends to diversity in experiences on Hawaii's largest island. Go snorkelling in Kealakekua Bay, watch a local Maui band play in Hilo or view molten lava flow from an active volcano. A must do is a hike through Waipio, the 'Valley of the Kings'.
Head to the east's laid-back town of Hilo, the island's capital city and home to an abundance of lush, tropical gardens and lovely architecture. Hilo is also the gateway to the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in the south, where lava flows from an active volcano.
Head west to Wailuku River State Park to discover one of

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Retrieved Text: When the Kilauea volcano erupted in Hawaii on May 3, it was the first of 18 fissures that opened across the islands in the following days. These fissures have sprayed lava hundreds of feet in the air, destroyed homes, and caused thousands of residents to evacuate. Many people were not aware that these volcanoes were active, which begs the question – just how many active volcanoes are there in the U.S.A.?
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the number of active volcanoes in the United States at present is 169. The majority of the country’s volcanoes are located on the west coast, specifically Washington State and Alaska, as well as in Hawaii.
Not all of these volcanoes are equally threatening. Of the 169, only 55 are considered to pose a high or very high threat to people. And only a few of these volcanoes are monitored carefully. Among the most heavily monitored are Kilauea, Washington State’s Mount St. Helens, and Wyoming’s Yellowstone.
Others are hardly monitored at all. Geologists expressed concern to the Atlantic this winter that many volcanoes near high-population-density areas in the Pacific Northwest are not as heavily monitored as they should be.
One of the most threatening active volcanoes is Mount St. Helens. In 1980, the volcano exploded, killing 57 people and collapsing the entire mountain.
Hawaii’s Kilauea has been on the government’s radar for years as a highly dangerous volcano. Its threat level has been in part due to its propensity to shoot out explosive chunks of ash and rock. Scientists have recently suggested that these may

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Retrieved Text: Hawaiians are running for their lives as the Kilauea volcano spews lava* and fountains of toxic* gases into their streets. It has already destroyed 26 homes.
Some people were allowed to rush home on Sunday to collect pets and other important things such as medicines during a quiet few hours with less volcanic activity.
Other areas were too dangerous to return to because of the poisonous sulphur dioxide gases coming out of the earth.
But the visits home were just in time as last night more lava fissures* — which are vents or slits in the earth — opened up in one area, with lava leaping up to 70m into the air.
So far no one is known to have died or been injured from the volcano, which began erupting* on Thursday.
There was a powerful 6.9 magnitude* earthquake on the volcano’s south side on Friday, the strongest earthquake since 1975. The quake caused rock slides in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and caused a coastal cliff to collapse into the ocean. The earthquake also caused a small sea-level rise but no tsunami*. Scientists are predicting more earthquakes and eruptions, perhaps for months.
Most of the volcanic activity is around the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens areas or towns of the Island of Hawaii, also called The Big Island. This island is the biggest of a group of islands that together make up the US state of Hawaii.
Kilauea is the most active of the five volcanoes on the island and one of the most active volcanoes in the world. It has been erupting

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Retrieved Text: The Hawaiian Island chain is a long string of islands that actually stretches for thousands of km. All of these islands were formed by the movement of the Pacific plate above a volcanic hotspot. As the plate is constantly slowly moving, it allowed volcanic islands to form and then carried them away so they would become extinct. There are 5 shield volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii, with Kilauea being the newest and most active.
Kilauea is located on the Eastern edge of the Big Island of Hawaii. It rises only 1,247 km above sea level; a fraction of its neighbor Mauna Loa, which rises to 4,169 km. It’s classified as part of a family of low, broad volcanoes known as shield volcanoes. The basaltic lava that erupts out of shield volcanoes has a low viscosity which can flow for dozens of kilometers. While the other volcanoes on the island are extinct or dormant, Kilauea is in an almost constant state of eruption.
Scientists used to think that Kilauea was a satellite volcano of the larger Mauna Loa, but better research has shown that Kilauea has its own magma plumbing system, starting more than 60 km below the surface of the Earth. Kilauea has almost continuous activity during the 19th century, and there were 34 eruptions since 1952. In January 1983, eruptions began along the east rift zone and haven’t stopped since.
Kilauea is one of the most accessible volcanoes in the world. You can drive right up to it, park, and walk down a short trail to

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Retrieved Text: This ominous red substance is molten lava from the Pu'u 'Ō'ō vent on the Kīlauea Volcano in Hawaii, exposed by a "skylight" in the roof of a developing lava tube. This one reveals an active lava stream that is travelling to the upper right.
"Skylights are extremely dangerous to approach from the ground," says Christina Neal, scientist-in-charge at the United States Geological Survey's (USGS) Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. A USGS geologist took this photo from a helicopter on one of the team's routine monitoring missions.
Kīlauea is considered one of the world's most active volcanoes. "This eruption has been going on nearly continuously since January 3, 1983," says Neal. Since then, lava flows from the Pu'u 'Ō'ō vent have added about 200 hectares of new land to the island of Hawaii; the lava flow in this photo has already reached the ocean, 11 kilometres away.
Since May, Neal's team has been using forward-looking infrared imagery to create sequences of thermal maps along the lava flow's length, which they translate into precise thermal fluxes. With these calculations, the team is developing better lava flow forecasts, which helps the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, local emergency managers and Hawaii Civil Defense officials understand what is happening, how much lava is flowing, and where it is going.
And that's useful for deciding when to issue warnings about the volcano's potentially red-hot hazards.

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Retrieved Text: This Wednesday, May 16, 2018, image provided by the U.S. Geological Survey shows lava spattering from an area between active Fissures 16 and 20 photographed at 8:20 a.m. HST, on the lower east rift of the Kilauea volcano, near Pahoa, Hawaii.
The United States has more than 160 active volcanoes, but experts say it's hard to tell whether any will erupt soon, like Kilauea did in Hawaii, NBC News reported.
Among these volcanoes are Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens and Yellowstone. Kilauea is considered one of the most active volcanoes, as it has been erupting constantly since 1983. But as one expert pointed out, the time scale of eruption is long, and in some cases, that means centuries, or even thousands of years, can pass between eruptions for many volcanoes.
"It's really difficult to predict, because those volcanoes are relatively quiet until they start to activate an eruption," said Ben Edwards, a volcanologist and professor of earth sciences at Dickinson College in Pennsylvania.

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Retrieved Text: By Hawaiian Volcano Observatory | Sunday, December 10, 2017, 10:05 a.m.
The dark-colored ‘a‘a flow advancing toward the South Kona coastal village of Ho‘opuloa (foreground) on April 17, 1926, is a reminder of why Hawaii Island residents should be aware of the hazards posed by the volcanoes on which they live. This flow was fed by eruptive vents that opened high on Mauna Loa’s Southwest Rift Zone three days earlier. It was 1,500 feet wide and about 30 feet high in this aerial photo, but the ‘a‘a flow continued to widen and thicken as it pushed through the village and reached the ocean the morning of April 18.
With the hustle and bustle of the holidays upon us, Hawaii Island residents likely are giving little thought to the volcanic terrain beneath their feet.
And that’s alright — for now.
But with two of the world’s most active volcanoes — one erupting nearly nonstop for more than three decades (Kilauea) and the other stirring for more than two years (Mauna Loa) — volcano awareness should never be far from our minds. So, as you ring in the New Year, we hope you’ll add “learn more about my volcanic home” to your list of resolutions.
You can begin fulfilling that resolution in January 2018 — Hawaii Island’s ninth annual Volcano Awareness Month.
Just as we have since 2010, when Volcano Awareness Month was established by mayoral proclamation, USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory scientists will offer a series of programs in January to help keep residents and visitors informed about Hawaiian volcanoes. All programs are open

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Retrieved Text: Scientists say an eruption occurred along the middle of Kilauea Volcano’s east rift zone after the Pu’u O’o crater floor collapsed, and lava was seen erupting up to 65 feet high.
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) reported that rapid deflation at one of the volcanic crater floors named Pu’u ‘O’o, on Saturday led to the eruption of fissure.
At 1:42 p.m. HST this afternoon, USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) monitoring network detected the onset of rapid deflation at Pu`u `Ō `ō and increased tremor along Kīlauea Volcano’s middle east rift zone. At 2:00 p.m., Kīlauea’s summit also began to deflate.
Between 2:16 and 2:21 p.m., the floor of the Pu’u O’o crater began to collapse, and within 10 minutes, incandescent ring fractures opened on the crater floor a few tens of meters away from the crater wall. As the floor continued to drop, lava appeared in the center of the crater floor, the northeast spatter cone within Pu’u O’o collapsed, and an obvious scarp or cliff developed on the west side of the crater floor, with lava cascading over the scarp toward the center of the crater.
A new vent with lava shooting as high as 65 feet occurred along the middle of Kilauea’s east rift zone, about 2 miles west of Pu’u O’o.
United States Geological Survey of spatter cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō June 1983.
A spatter cone is a formation of molten lava ejected from a vent caused by expanding gases in the lava fountains tear the liquid rock into irregular gobs that fall back to earth, forming a heap

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Retrieved Text: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is known for its awe-inspiring vistas, but for photographer Jon Mikan, one particular day in the park trumps all the others.
Mikan visited the park on Oct. 16, during one of the worst lightning storms he has witnessed in his 14 years of living in the Big Island’s Volcano Village.
Thanks to his determination, Mikan captured what he calls a “once-in-a-lifetime experience” as lightning came crashing down over Halemaumau Crater.
The cloud seen above the crater is a plume of volcanic ash produced by the volatile lake of lava within.
Lightning can be produced by volcanic activity, according to United States Geological Survey scientists, in a phenomenon known as dirty thunderstorms or volcanic lightning.
But that’s not what this particular photograph captures, said Janet Babb, a USGS geologist with the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory.
This lightning strike is “strictly a weather phenomenon — it has nothing to do with the ash being emitted by Kilauea,” she said, emphasizing that the lightning is much farther from the ash than it appears in the photo.
The ash and the lightning are unrelated occurrences, but the addition of the fiery glow of the lava makes for quite an image.
Halemaumau Crater sits at the summit of Kilauea, one of the world’s most active volcanoes. Scientists at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory monitor the daily activity of Kilauea and also managed to get a photo of the lightning, but Mikan’s epic snaps take the cake.

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Retrieved Text: Hawaii's Kilauea volcano has been reliably erupting for the past three decades, but a new short film captures the oozing, forest-burning beauty of its molten rock as few people ever get to see it.
March 25, 2015, 5:50 p.m.
Hawaii was built by heaps of lava that rose from the seabed over millions of years, eventually piling high enough to poke through the Pacific Ocean. Most of the islands wrapped this up long ago, but Hawaii is still growing — and thanks to a mesmerizing new film, so is our appreciation of its beauty.
Five different volcanoes created Hawaii's Big Island, three of which are still considered active: Hualalai, Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Hualalai hasn't erupted since 1801 and Mauna Loa's last big outburst was in 1984, but Kilauea has been continuously erupting for the past 32 years, making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth. Unlike the violent eruptions some volcanoes produce, Kilauea releases lava with a low gas content, letting it ooze slowly from the surface like a river of molten rock.
Kilauea draws more than a million visitors every year, and its current eruption has been well-documented over three decades by photographers and filmmakers from around the planet. Yet Big Island native Lance Page has still found a way to cast Kilauea in a new light, filling the 6-minute film above with mind-melting scenes like lava burning down a moonlit rainforest or psychedelic stripes spreading across the lava lake in Halemaumau Crater, home of Hawaiian fire goddess Pele.
Page grew up on the slopes of nearby

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Retrieved Text: Since March 2008, the lake’s levels have fluctuated between 230 feet to 490 feet below the crater floor. The fiery glow of the lava lake, cast against the gas plume, is visible at night from an outlook area near Hawaiian Volcano Observatory in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Earlier this month, Pele's hair (thin strands of solidified lava) covered much of the ground in the area immediately downwind of the vent at Halemaumau crater. Accumulations about three feet wide were found on the windward sides of the curbs in the Halemaumau parking lot (pictured, above).
Another lava lake, in Puu Oo, a cinder cone on Kilauea’s eastern flanks, also remains active, with slow-moving flows on a coastal plain. The flows are about one mile from an ocean-entry point, according to an observatory report issued this morning. In December, for the first time since 2009, lava entered the boundaries of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and flowed into the ocean. That entry point became in-active in January.
Puu Oo began erupting in January 1983. The ongoing eruption is among the longest-lasting Hawaiian eruptions in recorded history. The first written accounts of eruptions in Hawaii date back to the 1820s, when American missionaries arrived on the Big Island.
VIDEO: Lava spatter shown here is being tossed 16 feet to 32 feet in height at an edge of the lava lake in Halemaumau crater. The slow migration of the lava lake surface is normally toward the area of spattering, where the lava sinks back into the magmatic system.
For daily updates on Kilauea volcano activity, issued

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Retrieved Text: Kilauea on the island of Hawaii began erupting on May 3, and has to date destroyed about 600 homes. The terrifying pictures led me to wonder why anyone would build a home on one of the world’s most active volcanoes. Hawaii’s regulation of property insurance provides part of the explanation, and Kilauea’s eruption offers a lesson for Alabama.
Geologists know a lot about volcanoes and lava. The Hawaii Volcano Observatory has mapped over 500 lava vents on Mauna Loa. Hawaii’s volcanoes produce two types of lava, with very different textures and flow speeds. The risk of lava flows varies widely across the island of Hawaii. Geologists divide the island into nine lava flow risk zones, based on the location of the most active vents and the mountains’ contours.
The Grassroot Institute of Hawaii, a public policy think tank, has detailed the insurance story. In the 1990s, insurance companies stopped covering homes in the two highest risk lava zones. With insurance unavailable, banks would not write mortgages, and builders could not build homes. The state government created the Hawaii Property Insurance Association (HPIA) to sell low priced insurance. Many homes destroyed in the eruption were built due to HPIA.
Hawaii used an insurance pool to subsidize building on Kilauea. Alabama uses an insurance pool, the Alabama Insurance Underwriting Association, for hurricane coverage along the Gulf Coast. Insurance pools offer “affordable” coverage, meaning priced in line with what people want to pay, not the rate sufficient to allow insurers to cover losses after the next eruption or hurricane. HPIA’s low rates

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Retrieved Text: Hawaii is a dream destination for many travellers, a place filled with beauty and danger all in one. From sandy beaches, rich ocean life, colourful culture, set against a backdrop of being in the ‘ring of fire’ – a hotspot for active volcanoes both above and under water.
Touching down in Honolulu, Oahu, is just the beginning of the journey to exploring this pacific archipelago. Why not head out to the Big Island – the biggest, yet youngest, island of Hawaii! Funnily enough, it is still growing, as the surrounding volcanoes continue to actively add to its beautiful sandy shores.
So what’s there to do on the Big Island? Everything! From land, to sea, to sky, and even reaching for the stars! And we’re not just talking about hula dancers, ATV rides, surfing or parasailing. It’s the real BIG deal here on the Big Island.
At the peak of Mauna Loa, the largest volcano on Earth.
One Big Island, five active volcanoes. Welcome to the home of some of the most active volcanoes in the world! The Hawaii Volcanoes National Park encompasses two of the most popular – Mauna Loa, the largest volcano on Earth, in terms of volume and land mass, and Kilauea, the youngest and most active on the island.
Drive along the Chain of Craters, one of the most scenic drives on the island, which takes you from 4,000ft directly to sea level, over the cascading lava covered paths of the Kilauea volcano. The largest petroglyph field, carvings on volcanic rock by ancient Hawaiians, can be seen here,

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Retrieved Text: People journey to this island paradise for a wide-variety of reasons, but many (above all other things) want to witness an erupting volcano up-close-and-personal. Well, the 'Big Island' is where that can happen.
Kilauea is one of the most active volcanoes on the planet and this geological wonder, along with all the volcanoes can be safely viewed at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
From lava fields and black sand beaches, to quaint little villages and shopping and scenery that defies description, the 'Big Island' of Hawaii is in fact true to its name - and a very Big Show.
If you travel to Hawaii (and you should) don't miss this island! And don't forget to try the Kona Coffee.

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Retrieved Text: Time-lapse captures Mexico volcano erupting Jump to media player Webcam footage shows one of Mexico's most active volcanoes spewing out molten lava and gas.
Watch as this Mexican volcano erupts! Jump to media player This big volcano, called Popocatepetl, erupted on Saturday in Mexico creating a 2,000 metre cloud of ash. Take a look!
Aerial video shows lava destroy Hawaii homes Jump to media player Helicopter footage shows Kilauea volcano lava destroying dozens of houses on Hawaii's Big Island.
The Big Question: Why do volcanoes erupt? Jump to media player Why and how do volcanoes erupt? That's a question Adam emailed to ask us - so here's the answer.
When your home's next to a lava flow Jump to media player Hawaii resident John Davidson returns to his home to find lava flowing from a fissure nearby.
Vog? Laze? Volcano terminology explained Jump to media player Making sense of the Hawaiian volcano with the help of volcanologist Evgenia Ilyinskaya.
Hikers' shock as Lombok earthquake strikes Jump to media player Some of the hikers on Mount Rinjani filmed the aftermath of the earthquake on the volcano.
These dramatic time-lapse videos capture Mexico's Popocatepetl volcano spewing out lava and gas on Tuesday.
Nobody was injured, but authorities are monitoring the volcano and have issued a warning to nearby towns.
Go to next video: Watch as this Mexican volcano erupts!

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Retrieved Text: Two volcanoes in Indonesia have spewed fresh lava down their slopes, in the latest of several eruptions in less than two weeks.
Indonesia’s volatile Mount Merapi volcano has unleashed a river of lava that flowed 4,600ft down its slopes.
Lava from the Kilauea volcano eruption has been photographed glowing at night from space.
What made the eruption of Guatemala’s volcano so deadly?
The eruption of Guatemala’s Volcan de Fuego – Volcano of Fire – may have been one of the biggest in 500 years, according to a volcanologist.
Is it safe to eat marshmallows toasted over volcanoes?
A man has contacted the US Geological Survey to ask a very important question: can you toast marshmallows over a volcano vent?
Photos taken by a Nasa satellite reveal a bird’s-eye view of the continuing eruption at Kilauea volcano in Hawaii which destroyed dozens of homes and forced around 2,000 residents to flee.
Incredible timelapse footage shows the awesome power of the lava flowing from the Kilauea volcano in Hawaii.
One of the world’s largest lava lakes at a Hawaiian volcano has overflowed into its crater days after its biggest spill in 10 years.
Yellowstone supervolcano could erupt earlier than thought – should we worry about a volcanic winter?
Beneath Yellowstone National Park in the US is a massive volcano – and scientists are saying it could erupt sooner than previously thought with potentially devastating consequences.
The Popocatepetl volcano located in central Mexico erupted on Sunday, spewing lava and clouds of ash into the sky.

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Retrieved Text: News stories have appeared widely in the past week spotlighting the “most dangerous” volcanoes in the United States, including a few in our backyard. Kilauea topped the list of over 150 volcanoes, with Mauna Loa coming in 8th, Hualalai 30th, and Mauna Kea 97th.
These stories were spurred by a report released last week by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The report evaluates more than a hundred volcanoes in the U.S. that threaten people, property, or aviation safety and recommends a strategy to enhance the ability of scientists to provide reliable warnings of impending eruptions in time to implement response plans and mitigation measures.
This is a challenge scientists and governments have faced ever since the world’s earliest volcano observatories were established in Italy, Hawaii, and Japan. It was the driving force behind the creation of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory in 1912 by Dr. Thomas Jaggar and his supporters.
The new report is the most comprehensive to date for evaluating the nation’s increasing exposure to volcano activity, combined with a detailed assessment of existing volcano-monitoring systems. The authors assessed whether volcanoes that are currently erupting or could erupt are being watched by scientists very well, not well enough, or not at all.
The authors began by asking a couple of questions. Which volcanoes are the nation’s most threatening in terms of people and resources that would be exposed to future eruptions? Are these volcanoes monitored at the level warranted by the threat? The answers to these questions define the monitoring improvements needed for each volcano relative to the potential threat

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Retrieved Text: After driving out of a valley pouring hard with rain, the sun came out and illuminated this beautiful scenic view. In the distance, you can see the raining area we came from.
This horse was chilling by the road. We stopped by to say Hi. I was a amazed at the expansive amount of open territory the horse had to roam and play. How different this is compared to our mass produced meat industry where animals are commodities to be fattened, butchered, and devoured by humans.
Many trees near south point grew upward leaning toward the west. Why westward?
A view from my descent toward the the Kilauea Iki Crater floor. Kilauea Volcano is one of the most active in the world today and has been erupting since 1983.
We hiked down into the Kilauea Iki Crater floor. This floor used to be a lava lake and its surface is still hot.
The Kilauea Crater boasts lava rocks in shades of black and red. The crater floor is 15 meters below the ledge.
Every eruption episode ended with lava draining back into the vent below.
This created slabs of the lake’s crust—stacked up as lava drained from the crater.
Right inside a tropical rainforest in Volcanoes National Park, this lava tube is said to be about 500 years old and the cave was formed when an underground channel of molten lava drained from its cooled walls forming a massive, hollow chamber.
You can see hikers on the trail down from the mountain.

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Retrieved Text: Officials have closed large parts of the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park visited by millions of tourists every year until further notice.
The Kilauea Volcano on Hawaii's Big Island is being monitored by scientists after a crater floor collapsed at the weekend, spewing lava 65ft into the air.
Kilauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, has been in constant eruption for 28 years and is a popular attraction for holidaymakers.
But on Saturday, one of the crater floors, called Pu'u 'O'o, dropped 370ft and a new vent opened, sending lava shooting 65ft into the air.
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory said the fissure eruption on Kilauea was spotted immediately after the floor of the Pu'u O'o crater collapsed. It occurred along the middle of Kilauea's east rift zone, around two miles west of Pu'u O'o.
At the summit, lava receded rapidly after the eruption at around 5pm local time on Saturday, but seemed to have slowed yesterday.
There were also around 150 small earthquakes recorded within Kilauea in the last 24 hours.
Scientists said areas near the vent could erupt or collapse without warning, posing a threat to visitors or hikers to the area.
Potentially lethal concentrations of sulphur dioxide gas could also be present within half a mile of vent areas.
Because of the latest activity, the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has closed Chain of Craters Road and all east rift zone and coastal trails. Kulanaokuaiki campground has also been closed until further notice.
Ms Babb told the Hawaii Tribune-Herald that the fissure had expanded to around 1,605ft long and scientists were hiking into the remote

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Retrieved Text: Big Island Snorkeling Secrets! The Complete Guide to Snorkeling the Big Island!
Kahaluu Beach Park - The perfect beginner snorkeling beach. Convenient, calm, loads of marine life.
To experience Big Island snorkeling is to witness the birth of an island. Being the youngest in the Hawaiian chain, the Big Island boasts extensive lava flats, deep underwater crevices, dynamic weather, and raw coastline. There's a primal awe to snorkeling shores just beginning to produce new reefs.
The Big Island is nearly twice the size as all the other islands combined yet has less than 15% of the states total population. The Big Island's 266 miles of coastline is for those looking to snorkel Hawaii away from the crowds.
The Big Island is home to Kilauea, the world’s most active volcano. Kilauea is the longest continuously erupting volcano in recorded history, producing a non-stop lava flow since 1983.
If you've found Big Island snorkeling and beaches information useful, please pass it on or link to it so others can benefit.
Big Island snorkeling & snorkeling Big Island Hawaii.
If you've found this Big Island snorkeling information useful, please pass it on or link to it so others can benefit.

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======= Instance Index 5 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Meteoroids are smaller than asteroids, ranging from the size of boulders to the size of sand grains. When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere, they vaporize, creating a trail of glowing gas called a meteor. If any of the meteoroid reaches Earth, the remaining object is called a meteorite.


Q: When a meteoroid reaches earth, what is the remaining object called?

 Choices:

- meteor

- meteorite

- orbit

- comet

A:

Target Text: meteorite

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Retrieved Text: Not to be confused with Meteorite.
A meteoroid shown entering the atmosphere, becoming visible as a meteor and hitting the Earth's surface as a meteorite.
A meteoroid (/ˈmiːtiərɔɪd/) is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.
Meteoroids are significantly smaller than asteroids, and range in size from small grains to one-meter-wide objects. Objects smaller than this are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust. Most are fragments from comets or asteroids, whereas others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.
When a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid enters Earth's atmosphere at a speed typically in excess of 20 km/s (72,000 km/h; 45,000 mph), aerodynamic heating of that object produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a meteor or "shooting star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a meteor shower. If that object withstands ablation from its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and impacts with the ground, it is then called a meteorite.
An estimated 25 million meteoroids, micrometeoroids and other space debris enter Earth's atmosphere each day, which results in an estimated 15,000 tonnes of that material entering the atmosphere each year.
In 1961, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom". In 1995, Beech

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Retrieved Text: Even though you feel save sleeping at night, you have to know that billions of meteoroids falling to our planet every day. The meteoroid in the size 10 meters fell on earth. It hit just above the Antarctica. It produced 745 tons of dust during the crash.
Meteoroid Facts 2: definition of meteoroid?
Can you define the word meteoroid? Many people still make mistake when defining the meteoroid, meteor and meteorites. Meteoroids are the pieces of debris, dust and rock from the falling comet, asteroid and moons.
Do you know that the collision of asteroid or comet can form the particles or fragment called meteoroid?
Let’s talk about the size of Meteoroid. It comes in various sizes from the small one in dirt form into the biggest one in a rock form.
The shooting stars actually are not real stars. They are the burned meteors which collide on the earth atmosphere. They look sparkling on the dark sky.
Meteorite is another term used when we talk about meteor and meteoroid. When the chunk of meteoroids falling to the earth does not burn, it will be called meteorite.
If you are still confused, let’s find out the difference of meteor, meteorites and meteoroid. Meteorites are found on the earth ground. Meteors are on the earth atmosphere, while meteoroid is on the space. Check meteor facts here.
Meteoroid can land on moons, asteroids or even planets. If a meteoroid is very big, it can create a powerful crash which leads into the formation of a crater.
The speed of a meteoroid is very fast. It can travel

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Retrieved Text: Sure seems like we’ve had more than our fair share of bollides this weekend (Russia, Cuba, and San Francisco to name a few). Guess what? I THOUGHT SO TOO. But I was also skeptical. So I asked the scientists I trust* and scientists who specialize in this. They said that we ARE NOT experiencing an apocalypse or really even an increase.
1. Please go read my blogfather, Phil Plait’s, article about this.
The rest of my article is mostly in addition to what he’s already said.
In popular parlance this is also called the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon, but the sources on that name are a bit questionable, so I’ll call it the Frequency Illusion.
Anyway, that’s the Frequency Illusion. Your mind is keyed into something, and you notice it everywhere. We’ve been hyperaware of asteroids and meteors this weekend, so more people are noticing and reporting the ones that normally occur. The media too is taking special note which is helping us notice these seemingly-extra occurrences.
The asteroid 2012 DA14 and the spectacular and devastating bollide over Russia are a coincidence. Literally a cosmic coincidence. They are unrelated.
The bollides since then have been a normal part of our everyday lives here on Earth, you just haven’t been noticing them regularly.
You’re right about that. Fireballs/Bollides/Meteors as large and powerful as the one over Chelyabinsk tend to happen once every 100-ish years. That doesn’t mean there won’t be one tomorrow, or in 50 years. On average they happen once every 100 years.
Fireballs tend to happen for objects about the size of a basketball, and

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Retrieved Text: Samples need to be collected from Mars' surface and returned to Earth for examination to answer our most pressing questions about the red planet, according to a group of international scientists.
A meteorite is a natural object originating in outer space that survives an impact with the Earth's surface. While in space it is called a meteoroid. When it enters the atmosphere, impact pressure causes the body to heat up and emit light, thus forming a fireball, also known as a meteor or shooting star. The term bolide refers to either an extraterrestrial body that collides with the Earth, or to an exceptionally bright, fireball-like meteor regardless of whether it ultimately impacts the surface.
More generally, a meteorite on the surface of any celestial body is a natural object that has come from elsewhere in space. Meteorites have been found on the Moon and Mars.
Meteorites that are recovered after being observed as they transited the atmosphere or impacted the Earth are called falls. All other meteorites are known as finds. As of mid-2006, there are approximately 1,050 witnessed falls having specimens in the world's collections. In contrast, there are over 31,000 well-documented meteorite finds.
Meteorites have traditionally been divided into three broad categories: stony meteorites are rocks, mainly composed of silicate minerals; iron meteorites are largely composed of metallic iron-nickel; and, stony-iron meteorites contain large amounts of both metallic and rocky material. Modern classification schemes divide meteorites into groups according to their structure, chemical and isotopic composition and mineralogy. See meteorites classification.

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Retrieved Text: Moon or Mars. When a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid enters Earth's atmosphere at a speed typically in excess of 20 km/s (72,000 km/h; 45,000 mph), aerodynamic heating of that object produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a meteor or "shooting star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a meteor shower. If that object withstands ablation from its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and impacts with the ground, it is then called a meteorite. An estimated 15,000 tonnes of meteoroids, micrometeoroids and different forms of space dust enter Earth's atmosphere each year.
Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below). Meteors "Meteor" redirects here. For other uses, see Meteor (other).
Earth and explodes, with no regard to its composition (asteroid or comet). The word bolide comes from the Greek βολίς (bolis)  which can mean a missile or to flash. If the magnitude of a bolide reaches −17 or brighter it is known as a superbolide. A relatively small percentage of fireballs hit Earth's atmosphere and then pass out again: these are termed Earth-grazing fireballs. Such an event happened in broad daylight over North America in 1972. Another rare phenomena is a meteor procession, where the meteor breaks up into several fireballs traveling nearly parallel to the surface of Earth.

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Retrieved Text: 1 The most famous and spectacular meteor shower, the annual Perseids, will peak on August 12th. Sadly, the show will be a virtual washout this year because a near-full moon will flood the sky with light. Consider this list your consolation prize.
2 The Perseids are also called the "Tears of Saint Lawrence" after a martyred Christian deacon whom the Romans burned to death on an outdoor iron stove in A.D. 258. Before dying, he was said to have cried out: "I am already roasted on one side. If thou wouldst have me well cooked, it is time to turn me on the other."
3 Technically, a meteor (from the Greek meteoron, meaning "phenomenon in the sky") is merely the streak of light we see trailing a meteoroid. A meteoroid is any interplanetary object bigger than a speck of dust and smaller than an asteroid.
4 Once it hits Earth, a meteoroid suffers an identity crisis and becomes a meteorite.
5 Chase that, Superman: Perseid meteoroids enter the atmosphere at approximately 130,000 miles per hour.
6 Meteorites contain the oldest known rocks in the solar system, as well as pre-solar grains, minerals that formed around other stars perhaps billions of years before our solar system was born.
7 To protect it from the estimated 100,000 meteoroids that will slam into it during its expected 20-year life span, the International Space Station is covered with a foot-thick blanket of Kevlar, the material used to make bulletproof vests.
8 Each day, up to 4 billion meteoroids fall to Earth.
9 Don't worry. Most of them are

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Retrieved Text: There are a lot of rocks up there in space, whizzing about and occasionally smacking into other objects. Here on Earth, our atmosphere burns up most of the pebbles that come hurtling our way.
Not so with the Moon - and ESA telescopes caught two impacts on film just 24 hours apart.
The two impacts, on July 17 and 18, were likely caused by debris from the Alpha Capricornids meteor shower, an annual event that occurs when Earth and the Moon pass through the tail of comet 169P/NEAT.
And, while they look pretty small, when you consider that each of those impact flashes was caused by an object about the size of a walnut, it gets pretty cool.
The event is called a transient lunar phenomenon, and they're pretty difficult to study, simply because if you blink, you'll miss them. But they actually provide valuable information about how many rocks are flying around out there.
That's why a program called the Moon Impacts Detection and Analysis System (MIDAS) is harnessing the power of three observatories across Spain to identify the flashes caused by meteoroid impacts on the surface of the Moon.
"By studying meteoroids on the Moon we can determine how many rocks impact it and how often, and from this we can infer the chance of impacts on Earth," explained astrophysicist Jose Maria Madiedo of the University of Huelva in Spain.
To make these detections easier, the researchers always look for flashes on the "dark" side of the Moon, wherever it is facing away from the Sun and therefore in shadow. The

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Retrieved Text: Outer space may literally be mostly empty space, but our solar system is full of large and small chunks of rocks. A few days ago, a couple of these rocks made a close pass to our home planet. One object, called asteroid DA14, was large enough to be detected about a year ago. It came within 17,200 miles of the Earth’s surface, within the ring of geostationary communications satellites we all rely on. There was enough information on this object to know in advance that it would come close, but miss us. Still, this asteroid was the closest large object to pass by the Earth that we saw ahead of time.
Meanwhile a smaller object, perhaps the size of a school bus, whizzed over Russia, and when it exploded several miles above the ground, the shock wave was strong enough to smash windows over a large area, injuring over a thousand people from flying glass. This object was too small to be detected in advance, at least with the technology we are using today.
Estimated to have released the energy equivalent to a 5 kiloton nuclear bomb when it exploded over the Central Valley of California, a minivan sized meteor was photographed (above) as it passed East to West over the Sierra Nevada mountains near Reno Nevada, around 8:00 AM Phoenix time last Sunday (1500 UTC).
The bolide, or extremely bright meteor, weighed around 70 tons, according to Bill Cooke of the Meteoroid Environments Office at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
Later this year, the HiRISE mission

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Retrieved Text: A meteorite is a fragment of rock or iron from outer space, usually a meteoroid or asteroid, which survives passage through the atmosphere as a meteor to impact the surface of the Earth. Meteorites are believed to originate in the asteroid belt between the planets of Mars and Jupiter. A meteorite may range in size from less than a gram to more than 60 tons.
When the path of these space rocks intersects with Earth’s orbit, the meteoroid enters the atmosphere at high velocity causing the luminous phenomena we call a meteor or shooting star. These meteors should not be confused with a meteor shower. Meteor showers involve the Earth passing through a comets orbit.
A very bright meteor is called a fireball and may be called a bolide if associated with a smoke train and detonations (which often produces meteorites). These events can also be tremendous force of nature. The recent Russian meteorsonic boom and shock wave on February 15, 2013 caused considerable property damage and injury to people.
Sometimes the forces on these objects are too great and fragmentation will occur resulting in a few to even many thousands of individual pieces. The area on the ground surface meteorites cover is a distribution ellipse also know as a strewnfield.
As the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere, ablation occurs where melting and vaporization removes material from the surface. This ablation can also produce regmaglyphs which are flight marks produced during the passage of a meteoroid through the atmosphere and often look like thumbprints pushed into the surface. This melting

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Retrieved Text: Download "Starting from closest to the Sun, name the orbiting planets in order."
2 Chapter 9 Section 2: The Inner Planets The inner planets are referred to as the Terrestrial Planets. The inner planets are denser and rockier than the outer planets. Mercury is closest to the sun, is smaller than the Earth with less surface gravity, has a slower rotation (one rotation takes 59 Earth days), but has a faster revolution around the sun is equal to 88 Earth days. The length of time that it takes an object to rotate once is the objects period of rotation. The time that it takes an object to revolve around the sun once is the objects period of revolution. Venus is Earth s twin planet because Venus is only slightly smaller than Earth (less dense, less mass) and therefore less gravity. Venus has its differences though. Venus rotates the opposite direction that Earth rotates. We call Earth s rotation prograde (counterclockwise as viewed from above the north pole) and Venus s rotation retrograde (clockwise as viewed from the north pole). On Venus the sun rises in the direction that the Earth s sun sets. Venus has the densest atmosphere of the inner planets and it is mostly CO 2 gas. This CO 2 is a greenhouse gas and Venus is therefore has the hottest surface temperature of any planet in the universe. Radar waves have been used to map the surface of Venus and it closely resembles the valleys, plains and mountains of the Earth. Earth is considered

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Retrieved Text: ﻿﻿Reading music is like having another language in one’s mind. I knew nothing of this until as a 16 year old boy I was accosted on my way to supper at the cafeteria in my school at St. Ed’s in Austin, Texas. I was waylaid by Brother Edwin Reggio, CSC who told me, “Alex I need a alto saxophonist in the school band. You are it.” I tried to explain that I wasn’t interested or that I did not know how to read music but to no avail. The very next day I had my first music lesson and I soon was an efficient alto sax player who could read music in a slightly better than primitive level.
I do not play the alto saxophone nor do I remember half of what Brother Edwin taught me about reading music but there is no doubt in my mind that I am a better person than I would have been by simply having those music classes.
You can imagine how upset Rosemary and I were when Rebecca told us some years ago that she was going to abandon her piano classes. Part of the problem was a lack of incentive at home from her parents.
I asked Rebecca to sit down and I told her that the very least she could do was to show up at her class and tell her teacher (a youngish Russian) that she was going to quit. I told her that wasn’t going to be the one to tell him. She acceded to my request.
That was

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Retrieved Text: How many meteors hit the earth per day?
Several thousands. Most of them are the size of a grain of rice or smaller. A few each day may be the size of a baseball or occasionally the size of a basketball.
Once a week or so, the Earth is hit by a rock the size of a car, and once every few months, we get hit by something the size of a house. A couple of months ago, a meteor the size of a house exploded over central Indonesia; it scared a lot of folks, but apparently did no damage.
The VAST majority of these burn up completely in the atmosphere, surviving as nothing but dust. A few do make it to the Earth, often in small (fist-sized) chunks. Very few do any damage. Only a few people are known to have been hit by a meteorite; there was a boy in Germany last year who was struck in the hand by a meteorite the size of a pea.
Every few hundred years, bigger things hit the Earth, and some do a lot of damage. In 1908, a meteor or small comet exploded high in the atmosphere near a place called Tunguska, Siberia, causing an explosion the size of a nuclear bomb. 5000 years ago, a meteor struck in the Indian Ocean causing a tsunami, which may be the source of the "Great Flood" legends in Gilgamesh and Noah's Ark. 14000 years ago, something hit northern Canada causing the "Younger Dryas" mini-ice age.
It's called a "meteoroid" when it is out

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Retrieved Text: Researchers from NASA and the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in the US found dozens of these events in data collected by NASA's Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer.
Meteoroids showers cause the Moon to lose precious water from under the lunar surface, hampering a potential resource for sustaining long term human exploration of deep space, according to NASA. Models had predicted that meteoroid impacts could release water from the Moon as a vapour, but scientists had not yet observed the phenomenon.
Researchers from NASA and the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in the US found dozens of these events in data collected by NASA’s Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE). LADEE was a robotic mission that orbited the Moon to gather detailed information about the structure and composition of the thin lunar atmosphere, and determine whether dust is lofted into the lunar sky.
“We traced most of these events to known meteoroid streams, but the really surprising part is that we also found evidence of four meteoroid streams that were previously undiscovered,” said Mehdi Benna of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in the US, lead author of the study published in Nature Geosciences.
There is evidence that the Moon has water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH), a more reactive relative of H2O. However, debates continue about the origins of the water, whether it is widely distributed and how much might be present.
“The Moon doesn’t have significant amounts of H2O or OH in its atmosphere most of the time,” said Richard Elphic, the LADEE project scientist at NASA’s

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Retrieved Text: Asteroid: a large rocky object in space, in orbit around the Sun.
Meteoroid: smaller rocks in orbit around the Sun.
Meteorite: Some objects are big enough to survive the passage through the earth's atmosphere and hit the Eath's surface.
Is it likely that life on earth would be destroyed by an asteroid impact?
The likelyhood of an extinction event depends on the energy released during impact, which in turn depends on the mass (which is related to the size and density) and the velocity.
In general it is estimated that an object of 10km diameter or larger would result in many deaths and would release enough dust into the atmosphere to cause a 'nuclear' winter. Resulting in widespread famine. A 10 km object would probably not cause the complete extinction of the human race but it would probably result in the breakdown of civilisation.
What is the diameter distribution within the dataset?
So most of the objects in this dataset are about 10m or less in diameter.
Are there any objects greater than 1 km?
None of these objects is big enough to cause the extinction of the human race. That's the good news, the bad news is that the dataset only includes some of the asteroids that have been discovered, there may be many more that remain to be discovered and some of those may be larger than 10km.

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Retrieved Text: Metaglossary.com - Definitions for "crater"
The basinlike opening or mouth of a volcano, through which the chief eruption comes; similarly, the mouth of a geyser, about which a cone of silica is often built up.
The pit left by the explosion of a bomb, shell, or mine.
A hole caused by an object hitting the surface of a planet or moon. DEBRIS Broken, scattered remains; rubble; pieces of rubbish or litter.
A bowl-shaped pit at the summit of most volcanoes, around the central vent.
formed from the collision of a large natural body from space when it impacts a large body's (eg. planets, moons, asteroids) surface at high velocity.
An abrupt circular depression formed by extrusion of volcanic material, by collapse, or by the impact of a meteorite.
bowl-shaped hole on a surface made by a volcanic explosion or the impact of a body such as a meteoroid.
circular feature blasted out by impact from space rock or comet.
A circular depression in a volcano that formed from a gradual accumulation of pyroclastic material around the vent, an explosive eruption, or collapse.
A bowl-like shaped cavity or pit created by an asteroid or meteorite colliding with the Earth.
Bowl-shaped depression formed by the impact of a meteoroid; depression around the orifice of a volcano.
A circular or oval depression at the summit of a volcano resulting from the extrusion of gases, pyroclastic materials, and lava; connected by a conduit to a magma chamber below Earth's surface.
a pit at the top of a volcano whose diameter is less than three times its depth volcanic eruption: the time when a

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Retrieved Text: Earlier this month, a medium-sized meteoroid entered Earth’s atmosphere, leading to an explosion over the Russian city of Chelyabinsk that blew out windows, caused walls to collapse, and injured more than 1,000 people with flying glass shards.The fireball was well-documented by Russians, largely due to the widespread use of dashboard cameras.
A team from Columbia has now used amateur video footage to track down the meteoroid’s origin. Their research was published online Tuesday, Feb. 26, on Arxiv.org, a website on which scientists share their research before it is peer-reviewed.
Researchers calculated the trajectory of the meteoroid once it hit our planet’s atmosphere using trigonometry. They used this to reconstruct the orbit of the meteoroid in space before it hit Earth. Researchers used astronomy software, according to the BBC, to trace the meteoroid to a family of near-Earth asteroids known as the Apollo asteroids, their distinguishing factor being they cross Earth’s orbit. They make up more than half of the near-Earth (and potential problem-causing) asteroids discovered so far.
“Although semimajor axis and inclination of the preliminary orbit computed by us are uncertain, the rest of orbital elements are well constrained in this preliminary reconstruction,” the scientists write.

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Retrieved Text: DETROIT — Experts say a bright light and what sounded like thunder in the sky above Michigan was a meteor.
"All of the sudden, the whole yard started getting brighter, kind of yellowish-orange, like a flashbulb, then got black," Milford resident Mike Tarkowski told The Detroit News. "It was something big and it was something up in the air."
The American Meteor Society says the reports suggest a space rock penetrated deep into the Earth's atmosphere before it broke apart. The U.S. Geological Survey added that it registered as a 2.0 magnitude earthquake in Michigan.
Bill Cooke with NASA's Meteoroid Environment Office told The Detroit News it was "definitely a meteoroid" and a rare sight for Michigan.
Related: Incoming asteroid won't hit us. Here's what would happen if it did.
He estimated the meteoroid appeared to have been about one or two yards across, weighed more than a metric ton and traveled 40,000 to 50,000 miles to Earth.
"Over Michigan, they're rare," he said. But elsewhere on the planet, "they happen a few times every month."
Paul Gross, a meteorologist with NBC affiliate WDIV, said the bright light and loud noise might have been caused by a bolide — a type of meteor that breaks up in the atmosphere.
"Another question being asked is if any parts of the meteor hit Earth," Gross tweeted. "Very unlikely...probably burned up entirely. Most meteors are the size of a Grape Nuts cereal nugget, this one MIGHT have been a foot or two across."

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Retrieved Text: A meteor is a meteoroid that has entered the Earth’s atmosphere, usually making a fiery trail as it falls. It is sometimes called a shooting star or a falling star.
The friction between the fast-moving meteor and the gas in the Earth’s atmosphere causes intense heat; the meteor glows with heat and then burns. This glowing phase usually happens 50 to 68 miles (80 to 110 kilometers) above the Earth. Most meteors burn up before hitting the Earth. Only large meteors can survive the trip through our atmosphere. Most meteors glow for only a few seconds before they burn up.

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Retrieved Text: Minor planet 6344 P-L (=2007 RR9) among the stars on October 3, 2007. This is currently still a faint object, recorded in 3-minute exposures tracked on the target object by Paulo Holvorcem of Brazil, remotely using the 0.35-m telescope at Tenagra Observatory in Western Australia (at Shenton Park, near Perth) operated by Paul Luckas.
When I was an astronomystudent at Leiden Observatory in the Netherlands, pioneer asteroid huntersIngrid van Houten-Groeneveld and her husband Kees van Houten were about toretire, after very fruitful careers. Their legacy was the discovery of over2000 asteroids, of which some 1800 yielded orbits, in collaboration with Prof.Tom Gehrels of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at Tucson, Arizona. In 1960,Gehrels made a sky survey using the large 48-inch Schmidt Telescope at thefamed Palomar Observatory, long before modern asteroid reconnaisances, andshipped the photographic plates to the van Houtens at Leiden Observatory. Theyused a large optical bench, equipped with a binocular and flip mirror, tocompare each set of two large photographic plates and find the faint dots oflight moving among the stars, a technique called blinking. This task is nowroutinely done by fast computers, or by us watching avi movies of asteroids.
In the mid-eighties, thisasteroid searching was pooh-poohed by some. Why find more, if you already havethousands? Yet, among all those asteroids, Ingrid and Kees discovered twoobjects in peculiarly elongated orbits, 6344 P-L and 6743 P-L, on plates takenthe very same nights of Sept. 24 - 28, 1960. The original designation of P-Lstands for the Palomar-LeidenAsteroid Survey.
Most asteroids move innear-circular orbits in the main asteroid belt

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Retrieved Text: A huge, surprise meteoroid entered the Earth's atmosphere over Russia early this morning, about 900 miles east of Moscow.
Over 700 people have reported injury so far, emergency officials in Russia said. The shockwave resulted in shattered glass over 100 miles away, flying objects, some structural damages, and loss of phone signals during the event.
Video from a car-mounted camera below shows a fiery object speeding across the sky about 9:20 a.m. local time, leaving a thick white trail and ending with a large explosion.
The meteor came less than a day before the asteroid 2012 DA14 is to make the closest recorded pass of an asteroid — about 17,150 miles. But the European Space Agency, in a post on its Twitter account, said its experts had determined there was no connection.
Nonetheless, the close timing of these events is causing some leaders to suggest world governments need to find a solution for handling dangerous near-earth objects in the future.

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Retrieved Text: Tektite is believed to be the product of meteorites that have crashed on Earth. They are similar in composition and appearance to volcanic glass, such as Obsidian, with colors generally ranging from black to green. Highly polished Tektite, which shows up its transparent green nature, is called Moldavite--and can be quite costly when cut into gem quality stones. An older, and less popular theory, is that Tektite particles result when a huge meteoroid or asteroid collides with the moon. The molten debris from the collision is thrown so forcefully from the moon, it eventually solidifies, and is drawn down to the Earth’s surface by gravity. It’s sometimes possible to identify the location of the Meteorite's crater by the shape of the Tektite.

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Retrieved Text: We need to measure different things in our daily life like length of objects, height, weight (fruits, vegetables, etc.) quantity of milk, water and so on.
In early days, people used body parts to measure lengths.
The metre is what we normally use for measuring lengths. Smaller lengths an measured in centimetres. Metre is written as m and centimetre as cm.
Mass tells us how heavy or light an object is. We use weighing scales to find the mass of an object.
Just as we use metre for measuring length, we use kilogram for measuring mass. Smaller weights are measured in grams. Kilogram is written as kg and gram is written as g.
Capacity of a container is the amount of liquid it can hold. Litre is the commonly used unit for measuring capacity. Smaller units are measured in milliliters. Litre is written as I and millilitres as ml.
In everyday life we also need to measure things that do not involve length, mass, and capacity. Time and temperature are two such examples. Time is measured in seconds. The measurement of hot or cold of an object is called temperature. Temperature can be measured with the help of a thermometer.
Which of the following is a unit for measuring length?
For measuring length we normally use metre.
Which of the following tells us how heavy an object is?
Mass tells us how heavy or light an object is.
Mars has a lower gravity than Earth, therefore a person weighing 100 kg (220 pounds) on Earth would only weigh 38kg (84 pounds) on Mars.
Only one third of the

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Retrieved Text: It was explained to me that the giant full moon of this last April 16th appeared so bright and large because the moon was the closest to the Earth that it ever has been or ever will be (within a thousands of years kind of span.) How is this possible?
The Moon's orbit around Earth isn't a perfect circle - it's actually fairly elliptical - about 5.5% eccentricity. This means there's a fairly large difference between the perigee (when the Moon is at the closest point in its orbit) and apogee (when the Moon is at its farthest). This means that the Earth-Moon distance varies by about 13,000 miles either direction of the average distance. So if the full moon occurs at or near perigee, it appears noticeably larger in the sky than if it occurs at apogee, and it also it is brighter, because the amount of light received by the Earth from the Moon depends not only upon the amount of light the Moon gives off, but also how far the Earth is from the Moon. The farther the Moon, the smaller the fraction of the Moon's light that reaches Earth. I should add, however, that while this is a significant effect, all full moons are large and bright, so it's difficult to tell the difference without being able to look at a perigee and apogee full moon side by side. This year, the lunar perigee occurred only hours from the full moon on April 16th. It was the closest full moon of the year,

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Retrieved Text: Scientists at NASA were puzzled on October 13, 2014 when the LRO sent back this distorted image.
In a press release NASA states that the only explanation is that the LRO was hit by a meteoroid and that had shook the camera mid exposure.
To verify this theory, the LRO team used a computer model that was created during LRO’s development, a vibration table that was used to simulate a launch, a test that the cameras passed to prove stability.
They reproduced the distortions from the image received and determined that the left NAC was hit by an 0.8 mm meteoroid with a density of 2.7 grams/cm3 going at a velocity of about 4.3 miles (7 kilometers) per second.
“Since the impact presented no technical problems for the health and safety of the instrument, the team is only now announcing this event as a fascinating example of how engineering data can be used, in ways not previously anticipated, to understand what is happing to the spacecraft over 236,000 miles (380,000 kilometers) from the Earth,” said John Keller, LRO project scientist from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.
Thanks to astronomer Alex Parker we can also hear the impact, he used the data from the LRO to recreate what it would sound like inside the LRO at the time of the impact.

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Retrieved Text: Whenever we talk about meteorites with individuals from the general population there are some standard questions that they ask. Some of those questions with their answers are presented here.
Do meteorites start fires when they land?
The fast answer is No. Meteoroids which is what the rock is called when it is still in space are cold. During their passage through the atmosphere they heat and melt on the outside but the time is so short that they are burning the insides of the stones remains cold. While is it possible that they may hit something upon landing and that could create a fire it is not because the meteorite itself landed hot.
Do meteorites contain materials not found on the Earth?
Meteorites are made up of the same elements that all Earth materials are made of. There are no elements that are not found on Earth. However, there are minerals found in meteorites that are not found in rocks of the Earth.
Has anyone ever been killed by being hit be a meteorite?
There are records of several persons being hit by meteorites. Apocryphal stories are told but, no persons have been killed yet that has been well documented. A cow however, was killed in a field in South America by a large stone meteorite. Cars and many man made objects have been hit by falling meteorites.
How do we know that Martian meteorites actually come from Mars?
It is a little complicated but the short answer is by the trapped gases that are in the rock. As early as the 1970’s with

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Retrieved Text: Showers of meteors, in which the rate of meteor sightings temporarily increases at approximately the same time each year, have been recorded since ancient times. On rare occasions, such showers are very dramatic, with thousands of meteoroids falling per hour. More often, the usual hourly rate of roughly 5 observed meteors increases to about 10-50.
because they came from radiants in the daytime sky. All told, about 2,000 showers have been identified.
Of great importance, and also fully confirmed by photographic data, is the association of several meteor showers with the orbits of active comets. As a comet travels near the Sun, it is heated and its abundant volatile ices (frozen gases) vaporize, releasing less volatile material in the form of dust and larger grains up to perhaps 1 cm (0.4 inch) across. The shower associated with a given comet thus represents debris shed from that comet along its orbit, which the orbit of Earth intersects annually. When Earth passes through this stream of debris, a meteor shower is produced.
The Leonid meteor shower represents a recently formed meteor stream. Though it occurs every year, this shower tends to increase greatly in visual strength every 33 or 34 years, which is the orbital period of the parent comet, Tempel-Tuttle. Such behaviour results from the fact that these meteoroids are mostly still clustered in a compact swarm moving in the orbit of the comet. Over the next 1,000 years or so, the slightly different orbits of the meteoroids will disperse them more uniformly along the orbit of the comet. Meteor

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Retrieved Text: You get to learn about the many celestial objects found in our solar system, including planets, moons, meteors, and asteroids.
Describe the physical properties of meteoroids.
~ Meteoroids are rocky particles that move through space between the planets in the solar system.
How are meteoroids believed to have been formed?
~ Scientists believe that the rocky structures we refer to as meteoroids likely split off of comets or asteroids.
What is the normal size range of meteoroids?
~ Normally, meteors can range in size from 1 millimeter to 10 kilometers.
What is a meteor and what happens when one strikes the surface of the Earth?
~ A meteor is a meteoroid that enters the Earth's atmosphere. When a meteor does not completely burn up in the atmosphere and strikes the surface of the Earth, the great force of the impact results in the formation of a crater.
Pre-requisite Concepts Students should have a general understanding of falling stars, Meteor Crater, and meteoroids.

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Retrieved Text: Washington: As billions of people on Earth stare at an imminent water shortage, precious, ancient water is being released into the lunar atmosphere by meteor showers from the Moon that can hamper future long-term exploration on the lunar surface.
“We traced most of these events to known meteoroid streams, but the really surprising part is that we also found evidence of four meteoroid streams that were previously undiscovered,” said Mehdi Benna from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre in Greenbelt, Maryland, and the lead author of the study published in the journal Nature Geosciences.
“The water being lost is likely ancient, either dating back to the formation of the Moon or deposited early in its history,” Benna added.
The findings will help scientists understand the history of lunar water — a potential resource for sustaining long-term operations on the Moon and human exploration of deep space.
Earlier models had predicted that meteoroid impacts could release water from the Moon as a vapour, but scientists hadn’t yet observed the phenomenon.
Now, the team has found dozens of these events in data collected by NASA’s Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) — a robotic mission that orbited the Moon to gather detailed information about the structure and composition of the thin lunar atmosphere.
“The Moon doesn’t have significant amounts of H2O or OH in its atmosphere most of the time,” said Richard Elphic, the LADEE project scientist.
“But when the Moon passed through one of these meteoroid streams, enough vapour was ejected for us to detect it. And then, when the event was over, the

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Retrieved Text: If an object changes its position with respect to a reference point with elapse of time, the object is said to be in motion.
When an object does not change its position with respect to a reference point with elapse of time, the object is said to be in rest.
Example: When a vehicle changes its position with respect to an electric pole (a reference point) with elapse of time, then vehicle is called in motion. And if the same vehicle does not change its position with respect to that electric pole, the vehicle is called in the state of rest.
Thus to observe the motion of any object; two things are necessary – a reference point and time.
In the above example; vehicle is the object and electric pole is the reference point. A building, tree, or any other static thing can be taken as reference point to observe the motion of an object.
When an object moves along a straight line, the motion of the object is called rectilinear motion. For example; motion of a vehicle along a straight road.
Distance is the length of path covered by a moving object in the given time irrespective of direction. Distance has only magnitude and no direction.
SI unit of distance is meter (m).
Kilometer is used to measure bigger distance and it is abbreviated as ‘km’.
Displacement is the shortest possible distance covered by a moving object from initial point in a particular direction. In other words, shortest distance between initial point and final point is called the displacement.
Displacement has both magnitude and direction

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Retrieved Text: Researchers at the SETI Institute spotted something odd on New Year’s Eve over New Zealand. A stream of meteor showers appeared out of nowhere and now scientists around the world are scrambling to figure out where it originated and whether the parent body of that shower could be headed towards earth.
The shower, dubbed the Volantids, had not been seen before and has never been identified on previous radar observations, suggesting that a new, as of yet unknown object has now entered our solar system.
A new network of video surveillance cameras in New Zealand has detected a surprise meteor shower on New Year’s Eve. The shower is called the Volantids, named after the constellation Volans, the flying fish, from which the meteoroids appear to stream towards us.
Jenniskens and Baggaley describe the network and report on the new result in a paper submitted for publication in the Journal of the International Meteor Organization. The paper characterizes the trajectories of 21 Volantids measured on December 31, and two more on January 1.
The shower was not seen the year before and is not known from past radar observations.
“A confined stream of dust particles must have been steered into Earth’s path for a brief moment,” says co-author and meteoroid stream dynamicist Rachel Soja of the University of Stuttgart, Germany, who calculated that the Earth will be safe from the comet and its debris in the near future.
The meteoroids move in a fairly steeply inclined orbit similar to that of some Jupiter-family type comets.
The body from which the New Year’s Eve shower

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======= Instance Index 6 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen (O 2 ). For example, in the Figure below , charcoal is combining with oxygen. Combustion is commonly called burning, and the substance that burns is usually referred to as fuel. The products of a complete combustion reaction include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 O). The reaction typically gives off heat and light as well. The general equation for a complete combustion reaction is:.


Q: What kind of a reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen?

 Choices:

- invention reaction

- combustion reaction

- Fluid Reaction

- nitrogen reaction

A:

Target Text: combustion reaction

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Science > LET'S EXPLORE Science > What is oxygen used for?
"What is oxygen used for?." Science, LET'S EXPLORE Science, Q-files Encyclopedia, 11 Jul. 2018.
Science, LET'S EXPLORE Science, s.v. "What is oxygen used for?," accessed April 22, 2019.
A welding torch burns acetylene gas in oxygen. This produces an intense heat that is high enough to melt steel. Two melted steel edges are pressed together. When they cool, they are joined up permanently.
This welding torch burns acetylene gas in oxygen.
Oxygen is one of the commonest chemical elements on Earth. It is found in most minerals, chemicals that form rocks. Oxygen makes up one fifth of the air. Joined with hydrogen, it forms water. Oxygen joins up easily with many other elements in chemical reactions. This kind of reaction is called oxidation. Sometimes this is a slow process, as when iron turns to rust in water or damp air. But if oxygen reacts very quickly, a process called combustion, or burning, takes place. Flames, light and heat are the result.
A rusting crane. Oxygen reacts with iron to form iron oxide, or rust. This kind of chemical reaction is called oxidation.
A scuba diver breathes oxygen from a tank on her back.
We cannot see, smell or taste oxygen, but it is essential for life. All animals, including humans, must breathe oxygen to stay alive. It is used as fuel to turn the food we eat into energy. This is called respiration.

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Retrieved Text: Occurs when a substance is converted into one or more new substances that have different formulas and different properties.
4. heat (or a flame) produces or heat absorbed.
-the formulas of the reactants are written on the left of the arrow and the formulas of the products on the right.
When a chemical reaction takes place, the bonds between the atoms of the reactants are broken and new bonds are formed to give the products.
all atoms are conserved which means that atoms cannot be gained, lost, or changed into other types of atoms during a chemical reaction.
every chemical reactions must be written as a balanced equation, which shows the same number of atoms for each element in the reactants as well as in the products.
in the balanced equation, there are whole numbers called coefficients in front of the formulas.
matter cannot be created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
the chemical reaction of methane, CH4, and oxygen gas, O2, produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). write the balanced equation.
liquid pentene (C5H10) burns in oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapor.
In the body, the amino acid alanine C3H7NO2 (aq) reacts with O2 gas to produce gaseous carbon dioxide, liquid water, and urea, CH4N2O (aq). write the balanced equation.

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Retrieved Text: Physical Properties of a substance are those characteristic of a substance that describes its physical nature.
For Example colour, density, shape, size and volume are some physical properties.
Physical Change is a change which occurs when there is an alteration in the physical properties of a substance.
The physical change does not result in the formation of any new substance but can alter the shape and size of the existing substance.
The chemical property of a substance are those characteristic of a substance that describes its chemical nature.
For Example toxicity of a substance or how a substance reacts with other substances is its chemical property.
A chemical change or chemical reaction is any change in the chemical properties of a substance.
Whenever a substance undergoes a chemical change, a new substance is formed.
Burning of a substance such as coal, wood or candle results in production of heat and hence is a chemical change.
Similarly, melting of ice results in absorption of heat and therefore it is a chemical change.
Bursting of fireworks is a chemical change. It results in production of sound, heat, radiation as well as gas.
Raw fruits and vegetables when cut and left in open air start acquiring brown color due to a chemical change.
Similarly, rusting of iron results in change of color of iron to reddish brown is also a chemical change.
When antacids are mixed in water bubbles are formed indicating the production of a gas and therefore it is a chemical change.
When food gets spoiled, it produces foul smell. This is because of a chemical change in food.
Rotten eggs often

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Retrieved Text: A candle flame is actually a chemical reaction in action! Candle wax is one of the chemicals in the reaction. Can you guess what the wax reacts with? Find out in this experiment!
1. Ask the adult you are working with to light the candle.
2. Watch the candle flame start out small and get bigger.
Notice how some of the wax near the wick melts.
with something else to make the flame.
and to leave it there.
Why does the flame go out when the jar is covering it?
The substance that reacts with the candle wax is oxygen. It comes from the air. Putting the jar over the candle keeps oxygen from outside the jar from getting in. The reaction can only use the oxygen that is already in the jar. So, when that oxygen is used up, the reaction can’t keep going. Running out of oxygen makes the flame go out.
Another chemical reaction you probably know is the reaction between vinegar and baking soda. This reaction produces a gas called carbon dioxide. This gas can be used to put out a flame. Let’s try it!
1. Ask the adult you are working with to light the tealight candle.
2. Place about two teaspoons of baking soda in the jar.
3. Next pour about two tablespoons of vinegar in a cup.
4. When you are ready, carefully pour all the vinegar from the cup into the jar with the baking soda.
5. Hold your hand gently over the top to keep most of the carbon dioxide in the jar.
6. Ask the adult you are working with

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Retrieved Text: Allergies happen when your immune system reacts defensively toward a substance that is not normally harmful. Your immune system usually filters out and attacks the things that are harmful to your body.
An allergic reaction occurs when the body treats a non-harmful substance as a threat and releases a flood of chemicals to fight that threat.
Reactions vary from mild to very severe. Sometimes you can have an allergic reaction even if you don’t normally. Some allergies are caused by pollen, dust or mold only in the air during certain seasons.
If you experience life-treatening symptoms, call 911 as soon as possible.
For less intense symptoms, sometimes a prescription medication may be necessary for treatment. Visit your local CareNow® urgent care clinic if you have seasonal allergy symptoms.
Anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock is the most serious kind of allergic reaction. Your body releases a flood of chemicals that causes your blood pressure to drop and your airways to narrow and block your breathing.
The reaction begins very quickly and can be life-threatening. If you or someone you know experiences anaphylaxis, call 911 immediately.
How are non-life threatening allergies treated?
Because there are so many different kinds of allergies, the treatments vary, too. Mild and seasonal allergies can sometimes be treated with over-the-counter antihistamines. These medicines block the symptom-causing chemical your immune system releases during the reaction.
Some medications are available over-the-counter, while others need to be prescribed. If non-life threatening symptoms occur, visit your nearest CareNow® urgent care clinicfor fast diagnosis and treatment.
You can also minimize your wait time by using our Web Check-In® feature.

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Retrieved Text: We may not look much like yeast or they like us, but many of the 6,000 genes in yeast have counterparts in humans!
Do you remember the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
In aerobic respiration glucose reacts with oxygen in the mitochondria of the cells to release energy.
Carbon dioxide and water are by-products of the reaction.
Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is not available.

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Retrieved Text: Sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogen carbonate), commonly known as baking soda, is a chemical compound with the formula Na HCO 3. It is a salt composed of a sodium cation (Na + ) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO 3 − ).
In this reaction, sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride. No gas is formed in this and hence bubble formation will not be observed.
Sodium carbonate and calcium chloride are easy to mistake for sodium chloride and calcium carbonate. Sodium chloride is common table salt, while calcium carbonate is a form of calcium often found in supplements. Calcium chloride is usually reserved for emergency use in health care facilities.
Calcium carbonate occurs naturally in a number of raw forms, including marble, chalk, limestone and the shells of sea creatures. The primary raw sources of sodium carbonate are trona ore or the mineral nahcolite, a raw form of sodium bicarbonate.
1 calcium atom, 2 chlorine atoms, 2 sodium atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, 2 carbon atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms The chemical equation is balanced because the same type and number of atoms are in the reactants and products.
What is the chemical equation for calcium chloride and water?
Is mixing calcium chloride and water a chemical reaction? Yes. CaCl 2(aq) + H 2 O (aq) = 2HCl (aq) + CaO (s) , a double displacement reaction which forms a precipitate, therefore, is a chemical reaction.
Sodium chloride / ˌ s oʊ d i ə m ˈ k l ɔːr aɪ d /, also known as salt

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Retrieved Text: In this chapter of Redox Reaction, you will be learning what precisely the term ‘redox’ means. This topic is short, but a significant one because it is the foundation of more challenging topics later on. A clear understanding of this topic is needed to understand reaction mechanisms for future topics in O and A Levels.
The term ‘redox’ is used to describe any type of chemical reactions. We can characterise any chemical reactions into two main groups: redox reaction and non-redox reaction.
Redox reaction is a chemical reaction where reduction and oxidation have occurred.
On the other hand, a non-redox reaction is where neither reduction or oxidation have occurred.
Important note: If a chemical reaction is a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction must co-occur. In other words, whenever reduction occurs, oxidation must also occur in a same chemical reaction.
When both reduction and oxidation happens, we describe the overall reaction as a redox reaction.
Reduction and oxidation are key terms in this chapter. So what exactly is the meaning of reduction and oxidation?
(4) Experience an increase in oxidation state.
In the previous statement, ‘species’ can mean any chemical ions, atoms or compounds. Anyone of the four requirements would indicate an oxidation reaction.
When a species gains oxygen, it is said to be oxidised. For example, when zinc reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form zinc oxide, zinc is oxidised to form zinc(II) ions, and we say that oxidation occurs.
Carbon gained oxygen and is oxidised.
Aluminium gained oxygen and is oxidised.
Oxidation is also said to happen when a species loses hydrogen. For instance, when hydrogen sulfide

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Retrieved Text: Chemistry is a science largely concerned with reactions, or how molecules of one or more substances are converted to molecules of a different substance(s). This chapter discusses formula (or molecular) weight, empirical formulas, and percent composition; moles and molar mass; balancing chemical reactions and stoichiometry; and thermodynamics, which is the role of energy in a reaction: how much energy is given off or absorbed by a reaction and what this can tell us about the reaction.
Everybody knows the formula of water—;it's H2O. This formula tells us that, in a molecule of water, 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom are bonded together into a unit. An individual water molecule is the smallest unit of water that exists.
When a molecule consists of just two atoms (whether they are of identical or different elements), it's called a diatomic molecule. Some elements exist as diatomic molecules at room temperature and atmospheric pressure (1 atm). For example, oxygen in air exists in the form of O2. There are seven important elements that exist as diatomic molecules: oxygen (O2), iodine (I2), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), chlorine (Cl2), fluorine (F2), and bromine (Br2).
For the SAT Chemistry Test, you'll need to know some simple atom-molecule math.
1. Formula Weight: For any molecule, we calculate the formula weight by adding up the atomic weights of all the atoms in the molecule. It's easy. Take hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an example.
• The molecule has 2 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms. Let's start with hydrogen.
• The atomic weight of hydrogen is 1 amu. Since there are

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Retrieved Text: Balanced Chemical Equation: Definition & Examples - Video .
A chemical equation shows the chemical formulas of substances that are reacting and the substances that are produced. The number of atoms of the reactants and products need to be balanced.
RUSTING and introduction to OXIDATION & REDUCTION - Doc .
2A METAL CORROSION and the RUSTING of IRON and its PREVENTION Corrosion is the destruction of materials (metal, stone etc.) by chemical reactions with substances in the environment. The rusting of iron is an example of corrosion.
A half-reaction is the part of an overall reaction that represents, separately, either an oxidation or a reduction. Two half-reactions, one oxidation and one reduction, are necessary to .
Extraction of Iron and Steelmaking. . These revision notes on the extraction of iron in a blast furnace and the process of steel making and other alloys should prove useful for the new AQA, Edexcel and OCR GCSE (9–1) chemistry science courses. . haematite, mainly iron(III) oxide, formula Fe 2 O 3; and magnetite, triiron tetroxide, .
iron ore extraction equation chemistry - Mineral .
Feb 10, 2018 · With our self researched formula, the briquette is smokeless,high density and easy to be ignited.It is widely used in chemical industry,metallurgy and ceramic industry . of enterprise specialized in efficient production and reducing consumption. . coal, coke, iron powder, mill scale, burnt lime, aluminum dross, iron ore fines,.
iron processing chemical equation included - BINQ Mining. Dec 19, 2012Iron – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia . the abundance of iron.Iron chemical compounds, which include ferrous .production of iron or steel

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Retrieved Text: Kyoto Electronics Manufacturing Co.,Ltd.("KEM") | What is a Neutralization Titration?
Among representative substances called acids, there are such acids as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid.
These acids, besides both changing blue-colored litmus to red, share the properties of reacting to such metals as magnesium and producing oxygen thereby.
Acid electrolytically disassociates as follows, and produces hydrogen ions (H+).
Also, alkali is a substance which, in addition to changing red-colored litmus to blue, reacts with acid to cause it to lose its acid qualities.
The representative substances called alkali include sodium hydrate, potassium hydrate, and calcium hydrate.
Alkali electrolitically disassociates as follows, and produces hydroxide ions (OH-).
When a sodium hydrate (NaOH) solution is gradually added to hydrochloric acid (HCI), the acidic qualities of the acid slowly weaken, and eventually both the acidic and alkaline qualities are lost. When this state is achieved, it is said to have reached the point of neutralization.
Looking at hydrogen ion concentration and number of hydroxide ions which have reached the point of neutralization, the amount of hydrogen ions emitted from the acid, and the amount of hydroxide ions emitted from the alkali, have become equal.
The reaction between acid and alkali is called a neutralization reaction, and the method of using this reaction to find the amount of alkali or acid for which the concentration is not known is called neutralization titration.

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Retrieved Text: How Are Red Blood Cells Specialized?
According to Springfield Technical Community College, the primary role red blood cells play in the body is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the various body tissues. To carry out this task, the cells are filled with a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is so important to red blood cells that its molecules comprise one-third of the cell’s volume.
Springfield Technical Community College explains that red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack nuclei. Because they lack nuclei and routinely become damaged by trying to squeeze through the tiny capillaries, red blood cells have a finite lifetime. Most red blood cells survive for about 120 days before they are replaced. During their lifetime, each red blood cell is thought to travel through the body about 75,000 times. Because there is no nucleus in each red blood cell, the cells carry the instructions for building hemoglobin in the free cytoplasm.
Damaged or improperly formed red blood cells can cause a condition called anemia, as explained by Springfield Technical Community College. One way this occurs is if the cells are deficient in hemoglobin. When the oxygen levels in the blood drop, the body reacts by producing more red blood cells.
Tiny Red Spots on Skin is a Common Sign of Leukemia. Search Pictures and Remedy.
Why Are Red Blood Cells Biconcave?
What Happens When Blood Reaches the Lungs?
What Does It Mean If You Have Dark-Colored Blood?

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Retrieved Text: Write the balanced chemical equation between Zn metal and HCl(aq). The other product is ZnCl2.
Write the neutralization reaction in which ZnCl2, also found in Exercise 1, is the salt product.
Metal oxides are considered basic because they react with H2O to form OH compounds. Write the chemical equation for a reaction that forms a base when CaO is combined with H2O.
Write the balanced chemical equation between aluminum hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
Write the balanced chemical equation between phosphoric acid and barium hydroxide.
Write the equation for the chemical reaction that occurs when caffeine (C8H10N4O2) acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Citric acid (C6H8O7) is the acid found in citrus fruits. It can lose a maximum of three H+ ions in the presence of a base. Write the chemical equations for citric acid acting stepwise as a Brønsted-Lowry acid.
Can an amphiprotic substance be a strong acid and a strong base at the same time? Explain your answer.
Can an amphiprotic substance be a weak acid and a weak base at the same time? If so, explain why and give an example.
Under what conditions will the equivalence point of a titration be slightly acidic?
Under what conditions will the equivalence point of a titration be slightly basic?
Write the chemical equation for the autoionization of NH3.
Write the chemical equation for the autoionization of HF.
What is the pOH range for an acidic solution?
What is the pOH range for a basic solution?
The concentration of commercial HCl is about 12 M. What is its pH and pOH?
The concentration of concentrated H2SO4 is about 18 M. Assuming only one H+

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Retrieved Text: This page describes the reactions of the Period 3 elements from sodium to argon with water, oxygen and chlorine.
This reaction is very exothermic.
Magnesium: Magnesium has a very mild reaction with cold water. A very clean coil of magnesium dropped into cold water develops a layer of small bubbles of hydrogen, which floats it to the surface. A very thin layer of magnesium hydroxide is forms on the metal and stops the reaction (this process is called passivation).
Magnesium also burns in water vapor with its characteristic white flame to produce white magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
Note: When heating the magnesium in a glass tube, the magnesium also reacts with the glass, leaving dark grey products (including silicon and perhaps boron from the glass) as well as the white magnesium oxide.
Aluminum: Aluminum powder heated in water vapor produces hydrogen and aluminum oxide. The reaction is relatively slow because of the existing strong aluminum oxide layer on the metal, and the build-up of more oxide during the reaction.
Silicon: Sources disagree about what silicon does with water or steam. The reaction seems to depend on the form of silicon. Monocrystalline silicon is fairly unreactive. Most sources suggest that this form of silicon will react with steam at red heat to produce silicon dioxide and hydrogen.
It is possible to make more reactive forms of silicon which will react with cold water to give the same products.
Phosphorus and sulfur: These have no reaction with water.
Chlorine: Chlorine dissolves in water to give a green solution. A reversible reaction produces a mixture of hydrochloric acid

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Retrieved Text: CHEMICAL REACTIONS: We have already learnt about elements and compounds which are the examples of pure matter. The substances such as hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) etc. are the elements while 2 2 water (HO), carbon dioxide (CO), etc., are the compounds. It is our daily observation 2 2 that water can be changed into ice. It can also be changed into steam. During both these changes, chemical composition of water (HO) and its chemical properties are not 2 changed. It means that liquid water, ice and steam are the three physically different forms of the same substance, i.e., water (HO). On the other hand, when we pass electricity 2 through acidiﬁed water (HO), it changes into hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) which are 2 2 2 entirely different substances with different chemical compositions and chemical properties. Such a change in a substance during which entirely new substances with different chemical compositions and properties are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is always brought about by a chemical reaction. In this chapter, we will learn further about chemical reactions.
Chemical Reactions We deal with a large number of chemical reactions in our daily life. During these reactions, atoms present in different substances rearrange themselves form new substances. Burning of coal and natural gas (methane) in air are well known examples of chemical reactions. Chemically coal is carbon (c). It exists in solid state and is black in colour. Its burning in air is in fact a chemical reaction of carbon with oxygen of the air

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Retrieved Text: 1.3.10 compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula.Due to different chain length, they have different physical properties (e.g. boiling point). Isomerism can occur in both alkanes and alkenes.For alkene, double bond position can be changed.We therefore can’t just say that C6H14 is simply hexane because there are more variations of C6H14 and each variation has its own name.
1.6.2 small molecules (monomers) join together to form one molecule as the only product.
Crude oil is a mixture of complex hydrocarbons with varying boiling points, depending on the number of carbon atoms and how they are arranged.
Fractional distillation uses this property to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil.
Naphtha fraction is used for production of petrochemicals, such as medicines, plastics and synthetic fibres, aside from fuels.
When naphtha is treated, not only it becomes a better fuel, it also contain more aromatic hydrocarbons, alkene and cyclic hydrocarbons which are important for petrochemical industry.
Crude oil is mostly used as fuel, though some allocated for chemical feedstock.
hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is as fully used as possible in bonding with hydrogen atoms.
They only have single bond (–) only.
hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is not fully used, e.g. only 2 or 3 hydrogen are attached to a carbon atom.
usually indicated by double bond (=) or triple bond with another carbon atoms.
Alkanes burn in air to ALWAYS form carbon dioxide and water.
When there is insufficient oxygen, the product is ALWAYS carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon.
Example: Butane is commonly used camping gas. State the chemical equation

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Retrieved Text: Question: What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
Answer: An equation for a chemical reaction is an equation in which the number of atoms for each element in the reaction and the total charge is the same for both the reactants and the products. In other words, the mass and the charge are balanced on both sides of the reaction.
Question: Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
5. Aluminium chloride reacts with ammonium hydroxide to from a gelatinous white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide and salt of ammonium chloride.
Question: Balance the following chemical equations.
(4) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate → Barium sulphate + Potassium chloride.
Question: Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction of each case.
Question: What is meant by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Answer: An exothermic reaction is one that releases heat.
If 1 mole of N2 molecule reacts with 1 mole of O2 molecule, the heat of 184 KJ has to be supplied to initiate the reaction to give 1 mole of NO molecule. This means that the bonds between N – N and O – O are so strong that they do not break easily. N2 has triple covalent bond between the two N atoms. O2 has a double covalent bond. Thus energy has to be put into the reaction to break the strong bonds. Thus the above reaction is a good example of an endothermic reaction.
Question: Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction?
Answer: During respiration, glucose combines with oxygen in

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Retrieved Text: 31) The steady state from which no spontaneous change takes place is called what?
32) What is the color of ammonium chloride?
33) The chemical reactions which never go to completion are called what?
34) In the manufacture of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen the pressure used is.
35) The process of manufacture of Sulfuric acid is named as what?
36) What is the color of ferric thiocyanate?
37) What is known as a system of reacting substances in which the concentrations of reactants and product do not undergo any change?
39) What is the color of Phenolphthalein in sodium hydroxide solution?
40) Which substance obtained on cooling the vapor produced on heating ammonium chloride?
41) When temperature is decreased the speed of the reaction increases. Which was the action?
42) Write an example of an irreversible reaction.
43) A factor which is unable to alter the equilibrium state of reactions in which only solids or liquids are present is?
44) Chemical equilibrium is said to be dynamic in nature. Why?
45) What must be constant for the system to reach equilibrium?
46) What do you understand by chemical equilibrium?
47) What are the factors affecting the chemical equilibrium?
48) Name the reactant used in excess in contact process?
49) What is the pressure used in the manufacture of ammonia?
50) What is the optimum temperature in the manufacture of ammonia?
51) Name the scientist who described about reactions that go forward and backward.
52) What is the color of solution obtained when hydrolysis of ferric chloride takes place?
53) What is the name of process used for manufacturing ammonia direct from Nitrogen and hydrogen elements?
54) What

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Retrieved Text: A bad allergic reaction affects your child's whole body. Doctors call this an anaphylactic reaction. Your child's immune system may have reacted to food or medicine. Or maybe your child had an insect bite or sting. This kind of reaction can take place the first time your child comes into contact with a substance. Or it may take many times before a substance causes a problem.
You need to get help for your child right away if his or her body reacts like this again.
If your doctor has prescribed medicine, such as an antihistamine, give it to your child exactly as directed. Call your doctor or nurse call line if you think your child is having a problem with his or her medicine.
Learn all you can about your child's allergies. Your child may be able to avoid a bad response when you do or don't do certain things. For instance, you can check food or drug labels for contents that might cause problems.
Your doctor may prescribe a shot of epinephrine for you and your child to carry in case your child has a severe reaction. Learn how to give your child the shot. Keep it with you at all times. Make sure it has not expired. If your child is old enough, teach him or her how to give the shot.
Teach your family and friends about your child's allergies. Tell them what your child needs to avoid. Teach them what to do if your child has a reaction.
Before you give your child any medicine, tell your doctor

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Retrieved Text: Piriteze contains an antihistamine called Cetirizine which can be used for the treatment of hayfever and allergies. In addition to this Piriteze can also be used to relieve rashes and itching. Piriteze is available in tablets and also Piriteze syrup is available for adults and children over the age of six.
An allergy is when your body has an adverse reaction to a harmful substance called an allergen. Allergens include things such as pollen, dust mites, dead skin cells and food. If a person reacts to something causing an allergic reaction their body produces a chemical called histamine. Symptoms of an allergy are sneezing, runny nose, itchy nose, and watery eyes.
Airborne Allergies - occurs normally during spring, summer and autumn. Grass and tree pollen are the most common examples of these.
All year round airborne allergies - these are usually allergic reactions to pet mites, dust mites, mould spores, foods, and chemicals. Skin allergies - red swollen bumps appear on the skin usually triggered by plants or cosmetics.
Allergic contact dermatitis - this is an allergic reaction to items such as household cleaners, and other items around the household.

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Retrieved Text: Experts in odor removal know that odors are caused by bacteria, molds, spores, toxins, hydrocarbons, yeast, viruses, and mildew. Most traditional odor removal methods utilize perfume or fragrances to simply mask the odor with another odor. Some chemicals (oxidizers) such as chlorine or hydrogen peroxide can actually destroy odors. However, they are difficult to use and will bleach out almost everything they touch.
Ozone is 03 or enriched oxygen. An oxygen molecule with 3 atoms instead of 2, like the oxygen we breathe. Ozone is a highly efficient purification agent or oxidizer, considerably stronger than chlorine or even hydrogen peroxide. Air or water treated with ozone has no added taste, odor, or chemical residue.
Ozone literally destroys the odor-causing substances by releasing it’s aggressive oxygen atoms to the odor substance which is thereby oxidized. In other words, it undergoes a chemical change resulting in a different substance. It literally destroys the odor-causing substance thereby creating a harmless by-product. Ozone converts back to oxygen when it oxidizes a substance. I.e., (03) ozone loses 1 atom to a substance which gains 1 oxygen atom and becomes oxidized, leaving the 03 as 02 or pure oxygen.
An oxygen Molecule consists of 2 oxygen atoms. Upon entering the ozone generator, electrically excited krypton gas generates a light wave that simulates UV lights from the sun. The oxygen atoms of 02 are split and 03 or ozone is formed. The weakly held active third atom of the ozone is attached to organic molecules. When it reacts with an organic molecule it actually changes the

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Retrieved Text: Buying medical supplies online is the ultimate way to shop easily and conveniently. Plus, you get to save lots of money too. Let's discuss 'how' in this article.
Acidity has a slow onset and more often than not people take this disorder very lightly, not seeing its physical implications in the long run.
Anaphylactic shock is also known as “anaphylaxis”. Anaphylactic shocks are very rare and can be extremely severe. They start as a sudden allergic reaction that involves the entire body. The allergic reaction occurs because the body’s immune system reacts inappropriately in response to the presence of a substance that is wrongly perceived as “harmful” or “threatening”.
Hay-fever is a common health problem that people suffer from, caused by an allergy to pollen. It is also known as "Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis" or "Intermittent Allergic Rhinitis". Up to 15% of the population, suffers from hay-fever and the numbers continue to rise every year.
An allergy is an allergic reaction that happens when our immune system decides not to cope with something that is normally harmless to our bodies and decides to overreact by creating antibodies. The source of the reaction is called an allergen. Whenever our bodies come into contact with the allergen, they will react and think it is harmful and will then release histamine into our bloodstream in order to fight it.

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Retrieved Text: Q: I am susceptible to allergies. What minerals do I need?
A: Magnesium and selenium prevent allergic reactions.
Most readers are no doubt already aware that allergies have a great deal to do with our immune system. When an allergen (a substance that causes an allergic reaction) enters our body, our immune system creates immunoglobulin E and antibodies to attack it. When these antibodies are launched, a substance called histamine is dispersed, which causes inflammation and manifests its presence in the form of an allergic reaction.
A person with allergies should be able to get adequate manganese, a mineral that is a component of enzymes which eliminate active oxygen. Research has shown that allergies are more likely to occur in people whose bodies are deficient in manganese.
Magnesium is also important because of its relationship to calcium. When calcium levels are too high, the tissue membranes which envelop the histamines become more likely to be dispersed. Ideally, a person should get 300 mg of magnesium for every 500 mg of calcium, roughly a ratio of 1:2. Many people, even those who watch their intake, often get no more than 200 mg of magnesium, let alone enough calcium.
The importance of selenium should also be mentioned. When histamines are released and inflammation occurs, active oxygen is also generated, causing a variety of damage. To suppress the adverse effects of active oxygen, we must call on antioxidant enzymes. One of these is glutathione peroxidase, which needs selenium to do its job.
Calcium — aside from building teeth and bones, aids in the transmission of

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Retrieved Text: Q. My outdoor patio table has developed small areas of a corrosion (white residue) on the bottom of the legs. I believe it is made of aluminum as it is very light weight. I have been unable to find any type of cleaner. When I search aluminum jelly the search always ends in the product being no longer available. Can you assist with this problem?
A. From the photo you sent, I see what looks as if the table’s legs have bare aluminum tips whereas the rest of the legs have been anodized. The white “residue” may be the normal oxidation that occurs as aluminum reacts to the environment (oxygen and water) and a surface oxide develops, protecting it from further reaction with the environment. This is one of the interesting properties of aluminum. On the other hand, ferrous materials develop rust, and rust, instead of protecting the base material, continues to cause its deterioration.
If you were to remove this oxidation, you would expose the aluminum to further oxidation and the process would recur.
But if you are concerned about the looks, after you have removed the oxidation with coarse sandpaper, you can paint the bare aluminum tips with an appropriate metal paint to prevent the repeat of the oxidation process.

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Retrieved Text: 1. One atom of sodium is _________________________.
2. Bismark brown is a dye. Its molar mass is 228.3 g/mol. When the dye was analyzed by a scientist, it was found that it contains 30.68% nitrogen. How many nitrogen atoms are there in each Bismark brown molecule?
The following figure represents a mixture of Al(S). Consider that each symbol is representing one mole of the substance. Which of the reactants will be consumed earlier and how many moles of the product will be formed.
6. Ozone (03) filters the cosmic rays of sunlight. How many oxygen atoms are there in 0.2 mole of Ozone (03, molar mass 48.0 g/mol)?
7. On heating, the hydrated salt CaS04.xH20 loses its water of crystallization. In an experiment, it was found that when 0.2 mol of the hydrated salt was heated 0.10 mol of water was lost. What is the molecular formula of the hydrated compound?
8. Zirconium chloride reacts with magnesium to produce Zirconium.
How many moles of Zr would be produced if 0.2 mol of Mg metal is used in the reaction?
9. Tobacco contains a poisonous alkaloid called Nicotine. The molecular formula of nicotine is CloH14N2 (molar mass = 162.23 g). The mass percentage of nitrogen in nicotine, is?
11. How many carbonate ions are there in 50g of CaC03?
13. How many molecules of oxygen will be produced from the decomposition of 2 kilomoles of potassium chlorate according to the following reaction?
14. Which of the following represents 1 mol of the substances?
22. DDT is widely used as an insecticide. Its molar mass is 354.5g/mol. When DDT

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Retrieved Text: ETYM Latin combustio: cf. French combustion.
Burning, defined in chemical terms as the rapid combination of a substance with oxygen, accompanied by the evolution of heat and usually light. A slow-burning candle flame and the explosion of a mixture of gasoline vapor and air are extreme examples of combustion.
A process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give heat and light; SYN. burning.

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Retrieved Text: Selenium Monobromide, Se2Br2, is produced together with the tetrabromide by the action of boiling bromine on selenium. The reaction, which is accompanied by considerable heat evolution, may be moderated by dissolving the bromine in carbon disulphide. The substance can also be produced by treating the tetrabromide with selenium at the ordinary temperature.
It is a very deep red liquid having a density of 3.60 at 15° C.; its odour is unpleasant. It is soluble in carbon disulphide and in chloroform and is, in its turn, a solvent for selenium. When heated, partial decomposition occurs, with formation of bromine and the tetrabromide, distillation taking place at 225° C.
The action of water on selenium monobromide is analogous to the action on the corresponding chlorine compound, selenium and selenium dioxide being formed.
Combination with bromine readily occurs, with production of the tetrabromide.
Selenium monobromide reacts with gaseous ammonia in a similar way to the corresponding chloride. With liquid ammonia in the presence of ether, it gives the compound Se2N2Br.
From the fact that on reacting with organo-magnesium compounds selenium monobromide gives rise to organic substances containing a chain linking, -Se-Se- , it is probable that the constitution is to be represented by Br-Se-Se-Br.

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Retrieved Text: For the calming down of very sensitive or angry skin, or pretty chill skin that’s had a rough time of it lately, or any skin that needs a fresh start.
A Skin Fast helps your skin recover from reactions — including irritations, hyperpigmentations (darkening), dryness, redness, itching, flaking, an acne breakout, or other symptoms — and return to a baseline state. The cause of a reaction is not always (or even frequently!) the last product applied. A product you’ve been using for a long time without a problem could actually have been causing an underlying irritation that was too subtle to notice, increasing your skin’s sensitivity gradually until another product (even one you’re not allergic to) was the final straw. The Skin Fast can help you and your doctor identify the trigger of your skin problem. Note: the more accurate way to identify what you are sensitive to is a patch test. If you have a history of sensitivity or stubborn skin problems, ask your doctor about a patch test (or, for hyperpigmentations, a photo-patch test).
Important: Stay out of the sun (even sunlight through windows). Do not use other products that we do not manufacture to keep skin in a controlled environment and lessen unknown factors.
• Do this Provisional Patch Test whenever you try anything new.
- For products washed off quickly like shampoos: apply a tiny dot on the underside of your wrist or elbow. If it reacts, wash off quickly with water. If no reaction occurs, leave on and observe skin for 1-3 minutes, then wash

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Retrieved Text: 4 grams of hydrogen reacts with some oxygen to make 36 grams of water. Figure out how much oxygen must have been used by applying the law of conservation of mass?
So, 32 grams of oxygen was used.
In a chemical reaction 150 g Baking soda mixture containing sodium bicarbonate and vinegar on heating gives 87 g of carbon dioxide gas. What mass of solid residue will left in food?
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.
Here, baking soda mixture (reactant) on heating gives solid residue and carbon dioxide ( products).Here baking soda mixture (reactant) on heating gives solid residue and carbon dioxide ( products).
Hence, the mass of solid residue is 150g – 87g = 63g.
How much oxygen will add with 36 g carbon to give 132 g carbon dioxide assuming complete combustion of carbon?
Hence, the mass of oxygen is 96g.
A thin strip of iron with a mass of 15.5g is placed into a solution containing 21.0g of copper (II) sulfate and copper begins to form. After some times, the reactions stops because all the copper (II) sulfate has reacted. The iron strip is found to have a mass of 8.5g. The mass of copper formed is found to be 8.60g. What mass of iron (II) sulfate has been formed in the reaction?
Silicon dioxide, made up of elements silicon and oxygen, contains 46.7% by mass of silicon. With what mass of oxygen will 10 g of silicon combine?
100g of silicon dioxide contains 46.7 g of silicon, or 100 – 46.7 ( i.e. 53.3 g) of oxygen.
It means,

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Retrieved Text: Molecular singlet oxygen is important to many biological processes including cell death. Some of these processes are caused by changes in protein structure and function that can be induced by reaction with singlet oxygen. To study aspects of this process, reactions between singlet oxygen and amino acids are being examined. Under visible light irradiation, Rose Bengal (RB) is used as the source of singlet oxygen and furfuryl alcohol (FFA) is used as a molecular probe to measure singlet oxygen concentration. First, a solution is made of RB and FFA. It is then exposed to visible light to initiate the production of singlet oxygen. From this solution, samples are taken at various times to measure the concentration of FFA using high performance liquid chromatography. As irradiation proceeds, the concentration of FFA diminishes due to the reaction with singlet oxygen. When added to the irradiated solution, an amino acid that reacts with singlet oxygen will compete with FFA, and the rate of FFA consumption will be slower. This was found to be true when histidine was added to the solution. Histidine was predicted to be reactive with singlet oxygen; the elevated concentration of FFA remaining in solution supports this prediction. Through analysis of the reaction kinetics, rate constants for the reactions between amino acids and singlet oxygen were determined. In future studies, reactions between singlet oxygen and specific proteins will be examined to determine if differences in protein structure affect reactivity.
Hron, Danielle. "Reactions of Singlet Oxygen with Free Amino Acids." Undergraduate Research Symposium, Mankato, MN, April 16, 2013.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Ring species Ring species demonstrate a version of allopatric speciation. Imagine populations of the species A. Over the geographic range of A there exist a number of subpopulations. These subpopulations (A1 to A5) and (Aa to Ae) have limited regions of overlap with one another but where they overlap they interbreed successfully. But populations A5 and Ae no longer interbreed successfully – are these populations separate species?  In this case, there is no clear-cut answer, but it is likely that in the link between the various populations will be broken and one or more species may form in the future. Consider the black bear Ursus americanus. Originally distributed across all of North America, its distribution is now much more fragmented. Isolated populations are free to adapt to their own particular environments and migration between populations is limited. Clearly the environment in Florida is different from that in Mexico, Alaska, or Newfoundland. Different environments will favor different adaptations. If, over time, these populations were to come back into contact with one another, they might or might not be able to interbreed successfully - reproductive isolation may occur and one species may become many.


Q: Organisms categorized by what species descriptor demonstrate a version of allopatric speciation and have limited regions of overlap with one another, but where they overlap they interbreed successfully?.

 Choices:

- species complex

- surface species

- fitting species

- ring species

A:

Target Text: ring species

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The origin of new species from the existing one is called Speciation. It occurs when a group within a species migrates to a new area with different environmental conditions and develops its own unique features. Speciation has taken place over the course of evolution and may have played an important role in driving biodiversity on planet Earth.
There are four types of speciation in nature, based on the extent of their isolation from one another: Allopatric, Peripatric, Parapatric, and Sympatric. There is also a fifth type i.e. Artificial Speciation, achieved by the influence of humans.
The formation of new species due to geographic isolation is termed allopatric speciation. That means, it occurs when two groups of a species are separated by a physical barrier, such as a mountain range, a sea or a river, which makes it impossible for them to breed with one another. Hence, each species develops differently based on the demands of their environmental conditions. These differences are then passed on to future generations and a new species is born.
An example of allopatric speciation is the Galápagos finch. Different species of these birds live on different islands in the Galápagos archipelago, located in the Pacific Ocean off South America. The finches are isolated from one another by the ocean. Over millions of years, each species of finch developed a unique beak that is especially adapted to the kinds of food it eats. Some finches have large, blunt beaks, some have long, thin beaks and some of them have medium-size beaks. This is because they are

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Retrieved Text: Mountain barriers have a tendency to isolate animals populations from one another. Reproductive isolation can happen in numerous means. Provide examples of the different ways it can occur. Geographic isolation presents the chance for the formation of a new species but cannot produce a new species. It may be involved, but that is not always the case. When that separation lasts for a time period, both populations are ready to evolve along different trajectories.
An organism’s genotype is its precise mixture of alleles for a particular gene. When alleles are heterozygous they’re unalike in some manner. Because they are just variants of specific genes, different alleles are found on the same locations on the chromosomes of different www.essay-company.com/ individuals. A dominant allele is one which will show itself in a cell or in an individual’s body. A mutation in one skin cell, for example, won’t be able to assist the organism in a massive way. Therefore a gene is a certain region of your DNA that controls a particular trait. Heterozygous genes are a consequence of two genes.
The previous sort of speciation is called sympatric speciation. Sympatric speciation is the reproductive isolation made by genetic abnormalities not as a consequence of geographic isolation. It is very important to remember that speciation takes place when there’s a new species, not merely a new sub-species. Allopatric speciation results from geographic isolation. It is the most common type of speciation. It is easily the most common kind of speciation. It is crucial to comprehend the forms of pure speciation to

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Retrieved Text: Species’ appearance can be misleading in suggesting an ability or inability to mate. For example, even though domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) display phenotypic differences, such as size, build, and coat, most dogs can interbreed and produce viable puppies that can mature and sexually reproduce ([link]).
In other cases, individuals may appear similar although they are not members of the same species. For example, even though bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and African fish eagles (Haliaeetus vocifer) are both birds and eagles, each belongs to a separate species group ([link]). If humans were to artificially intervene and fertilize the egg of a bald eagle with the sperm of an African fish eagle and a chick did hatch, that offspring, called a hybrid (a cross between two species), would probably be infertile—unable to successfully reproduce after it reached maturity. Different species may have different genes that are active in development; therefore, it may not be possible to develop a viable offspring with two different sets of directions. Thus, even though hybridization may take place, the two species still remain separate.
Populations of species share a gene pool: a collection of all the variants of genes in the species. Again, the basis to any changes in a group or population of organisms must be genetic for this is the only way to share and pass on traits. When variations occur within a species, they can only be passed to the next generation along two main pathways: asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. The change will be passed on asexually simply if the

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Retrieved Text: Not to be confused with Sympathy.
Look up sympatry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
In biology, two related species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus frequently encounter one another. An initially interbreeding population that splits into two or more distinct species sharing a common range exemplifies sympatric speciation. Such speciation may be a product of reproductive isolation – which prevents hybrid offspring from being viable or able to reproduce, thereby reducing gene flow – that results in genetic divergence. Sympatric speciation does not imply secondary contact, which is speciation or divergence in allopatry followed by range expansions leading to an area of sympatry. Sympatric species or taxa in secondary contact may or may not interbreed.
Four main types of population pairs exist in nature. Sympatric populations (or species) contrast with parapatric populations, which contact one another in adjacent but not shared ranges and do not interbreed; peripatric species, which are separated only by areas in which neither organism occurs; and allopatric species, which occur in entirely distinct ranges that are neither adjacent nor overlapping. Allopatric populations isolated from one another by geographical factors (e.g., mountain ranges or bodies of water) may experience genetic—and, ultimately, phenotypic—changes in response to their varying environments. These may drive allopatric speciation, which is arguably the dominant mode of speciation.
The lack of geographic isolation as a definitive barrier between sympatric species has yielded controversy among ecologists, biologists, and zoologists regarding the validity of the term. As such, researchers have long debated the conditions under which sympatry

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Retrieved Text: Speciation is a fundamental issue in evolutionary biology, but it is both fascinating and frustrating: we know it does happen but it its an historical phenomenon so it is difficult to observe. The two camps of evolutionary biologists best equipped to deal with speciation (in terms of mechanism, population geneticists; in terms of time-frames, paleontologists) are both incapable of "seeing" speciation except in very special situations. We must rely on strong inference to properly understand speciation. This inference is in many cases very rigorous and scientific although it is historical, i.e., requires an interpretation of what has gone on in the past.
Defining speciation depends on one's species concept. (Recall species concepts: typological, evolutionary, biological, recognition). In its simplest form speciation is lineage splitting; the resulting lineages are genetically isolated and ecologically distinct. This implies that something intrinsic about the new lineages (an aspect of its biology, e.g., genetics) makes/keeps them distinct. Speciation then must involve the evolution of intrinsic barriers to gene exchange. Intrinsic barriers can related in many ways to extrinsic barriers to gene exchange (abiotic factors limiting gene flow: rivers, isolated islands, glaciers). A variant of a species could be adapted to live in a particular environment that is spatially distinct from other types of environmental conditions; here an intrinsic component contributes to an extrinsic barrier. The notion of the evolution of barriers to gene exchange applies to virtually all species concepts since unlimited gene exchange between two populations/species would prevent the evolution of the defining principles of a given species concept: 1) true

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Retrieved Text: The role of reinforcement in speciation can be explained by two distinct models. In model I, two diverged populations hybridize and produce fertile hybrids that successfully backcross (hybridization with gene flow). In model II, two populations hybridize but succeeding backcrosses are unproductive (hybridization without gene flow). Using Drosophila persimilis and D. pseudoobscura, we have tested model I by comparing the extent of heterospecific introgression in sympatric versus allopatric populations. We show that certain expectations of this particular model of reinforcement, which is based on hybridization and gene flow between divergent populations after secondary contact, are not realized in these two species. The evidence consists of the similarity of genetic distances as well as proportions of unique/rare alleles between sympatric and allopatric heterospecific populations and a negative correlation between genetic distance and geographical distance between heterospecific populations, which suggests ecological differentiation. This approach in quantifying differential gene flow has important consequences to studies that compare sympatric and allopatric isolation using genetic distance. Following model I, one would expect a pattern of higher prezygotic isolation in sympatric species compared to allopatric species of the same genetic distance simply as a result of an underestimation of genetic distance due to introgression between sympatric populations. We suggest more parsimonious explanations such as reinforcement without genetic exchange (model II) and ecological differentiation, which require high levels of preexisting reproductive isolation between populations.

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Retrieved Text: Salah satu episode dari ‘Atheist Experience’. Tayangan interaktif live Mingguan di Austin serupa dengan ‘Anda bertanya Ateis Menjawab’. Tonton tanya jawab mereka lainnya di Youtube channel ‘Atheist Experience’.
We used to hear about Darwin’s theory of evolution as the explanation of the present bio-diversity and leftover fossils found by the archaeologist. Sure, it’s easy to agree that natural selection plays a major role at making the rest of us walk the earth while the unfit succumbed and later on known as part of our prehistoric ancestors. But then again, why were they so different than the survivors at all? One of the explanations I found on a course about biological evolution was the one about Allopatric Speciation.
As we know, it’s the name for” speciation by geographic isolation” which is what happens when a population of a species got divided by barriers which made them separated by locations, which in turns making both (or more) populations developed their genetic differently later on as seen in their descendants.
How in real life would this be happening? Now surely we can use our human populations on earth as logical reasoning. We can clearly see how people who live on East Asian continent part of the world phenotypically different from the people who live on African continent. Though studies said that we all came from Africa, by the time we discovered the fact, we already looked very different in terms of appearance. Of course scientists stated that individual humans’ genetic differences are so miniscule (around 0.1%) that even when we can see

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Retrieved Text: Discusses how species originate through artificial selection, and reproductive and geographic isolation.
Lesson addresses allopatric and sympatric speciation. Students watch how pollenpeepers evolve divergently, Second is sympatric speciation by studying humming birds and lacewing flies.

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Retrieved Text: Allochrony, or the asynchrony in breeding times, between conspecifics can lead to reproductive isolation due to temporal assortative mating, and so to population divergence and speciation. In sympatry, allochrony may be the key driver of reproductive isolation. Alternatively, it can enhance isolation and genetic divergence between allopatric taxa through reinforcement following secondary contact.
The NE Atlantic gadfly petrels (genus Pterodroma) are three closely related Macaronesian seabirds: Zino’s petrel (madeira taxon) breeds on Madeira island, Deserta petrel (deserta) in the nearby Bugio islet (Desertas group), and the feae taxon in Cape Verde. The three taxa are asynchronous breeders. Their taxonomy, evolutionary history and ecological specializtion are still debated.
Phylogenetic studies suggest that the Madeira archipelago was colonized twice, first by the ancestral madeira taxon, and later by the deserta, under a scenario of allopatric speciation. A more parsimonious scenario would suggest instead an ancestral feae followed by divergence in sympatry of the two Madeira lineages.
1) What is the evolutionary history of the three taxa? Does divergence between the madeira and deserta taxa follow a sympatric speciation by allochrony scenario, or instead illustrate a case of allopatric speciation followed by secondary contact and allochrony reinforces lineage divergence?
2) Is there evidence for a genomic basis of breeding time in Pterodroma? Is there a signature in relevant genes, such as those linked to the circadian rhythm, suggesting that the two Madeira taxa might be responding differently to photoperiod cues?
3) Is there evidence of ecological divergence between the two Madeira taxa, suggesting they are responding to environmental cues related to seasonal allochrony? Are

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Retrieved Text: Reproductive Isolation & Speciation Guided Viewing - AP Environmental Science!
1)What happened with Diane Dodd and the fruit flies? How did she create reproductive isolation? Diane Dod took a group of fruit flies and fed them, creating reproductive isolation.
2) What is the definition a species? Species are a group of individual that can interbreed and create fertile offspring.
3) What are the two main types of barriers in reproductive isolation? Physical and pre/post-zygotic.
4) What is gene flow? What is reproductive isolation? Is when the gene within a population are not able to mix.Reproductive isolation is a population not being able to reproduce with rest of the population due to barriers.
5) What is geographic isolation? (Give an example). When there is isolation in the population due to where they exist. Ulmis Pulima is an example because it cannot breed entirely due from the separation by the Great Wall of China.
6) What is allopatric speciation? (Give an example). 2 groups that have different lands. An example would be the meta-lark.
7) What is sympatric speciation? (Give an example). Something just within that population 2 species living together . An example would be in plants.
8) What is peripatric/parapatric speciation? (Give an example). Peripatric/parapatric selection is when 2 groups of a population move to another place and start breeding. An example would be the "forest" elephant that is different to the African elephant.
9) What are pre-zygotic barriers? Name the types of pre-zygotic barriers (Explain each). Pre-zygotic barrier are barriers formed before a zygote is formed. Temporal is a breeding species that breed at

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Retrieved Text: This compressed file includes FASTA formatted alignments is for 251 nuclear loci collected through anchored-hybrid enrichment (AHE) for a phylogeographic study of Grotto Salamanders (Eurycea spelaea complex; Phillips et al. J. Biogeogr 2017). The genomic fragments were mapped to AHE baits (probes) designed from a related species, Eurycea tynerensis. Also included is a key which identifies which gene is alignments is from.
Aim: Habitat specialization can constrain patterns of dispersal and drive allopatric speciation in organisms with limited dispersal ability. Herein, we tested biogeographic patterns and dispersal in a salamander with surface-dwelling larvae and obligate cave-dwelling adults. Location: Ozark Plateau, eastern North America. Methods: A population-level phylogeny of grotto salamanders (Eurycea spelaea complex) was reconstructed using mitochondrial (mtDNA) and multi-locus nuclear DNA (nucDNA), primarily derived from anchored hybrid enrichment (AHE). We tested patterns of molecular variance among populations and associations between genetic distance and geographic features. Results: Divergence time estimates suggest rapid formation of three major lineages in the Middle Miocene. Contemporary gene flow among divergent lineages appears negligible, and mtDNA suggests that most populations are isolated. There is a significant association between phylogenetic distance and palaeodrainages, contemporary drainages and sub-plateaus of the Ozarks, as all features explain a proportion of genetic variation. However, the combined effects of palaeodrainages and sub-plateaus explain the greatest proportion of genetic variation. Main conclusions: The geological and hydrological history of the Ozark Plateau has influenced lineage diversification in the grotto salamander, leading to genetic isolation among populations. Limited gene flow and strong phylogeographic structure in this complex may result from the

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Retrieved Text: “Reader request”, what’s going on with this new crazy baleen whale paper, Whole-genome sequencing of the blue whale and other rorquals finds signatures for introgressive gene flow. First, putting “blue whale” in the title is genius, since blue whales are awesome and people will read the paper with that in the title (most people don’t know what “rorquals” are). Second, this paper was interesting because it highlighted the importance of thinking across different ecologies when attempting to understand evolutionary processes.
Since I don’t think too much about speciation, a lot of my thought is derived from the fifteen-year-old book Speciation (good book, too bad it doesn’t seem to be in print anymore!). The authors of Speciation are evolutionary geneticists and emphasize allopatric speciation and the biological species concept. They’re instrumentalists. Basically, you separate populations and they eventually diverge until they’re no longer interfertile. Then you get species.
The problem is that in the oceans allopatric speciation isn’t as straightforward, the seas are open three-dimensional spaces after all. This opens up the likelihood that a lot of oceanic speciation is sympatric speciation (think cichlid fish). Something like this seems to apply to large non-toothed whales in this study.
Though the gray whale is phenotypically very distinct from others in the study above, it turns out that phylogenetically they are within the rorqual clade. The authors suggest that the gray whale distinctiveness is a function of adaptation to a benthic lifestyle. They’re bottom feeders.
The topology at the top of this post illustrates that there seems to have been a lot of

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Retrieved Text: Picard, Christine J. ; Andere, Anne A.
Cite As: Christine J. Picard and Anne A. Andere. 2016, April 8. Comparative genomics of the sheep blow fly Lucilia cuprina. Poster session presented at IUPUI Research Day 2016, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Insects employ different adaptive strategies in response to selective pressures, such as competition for limited resources. Carrion insects provide the ideal case to study these fundamental processes of adaptive evolution due to the intense selective pressures placed on developing larvae with limited food resources, their widespread and abundant distributions, and the presence of geographically distinct populations with specialized adaptations. One adaptation is facultative ectoparasitism, where the insect strikes a healthy animal and feeds on the living flesh, providing a developmental advantage over competitor fly species, but causing significant harm to the host. Lucilia species, which hybridize in the wild and form geographically distinct subpopulations in other regions, are diverging, meaning that we can observe and quantify early biological adaptive processes that govern speciation as they are occurring over hundreds, instead of millions, of years. The draft genome of a North American male Lucilia cuprina fly (carrion breeder) was assembled using a combination of short and long read sequences. This genome is compared to an existing Australian draft genome (ectoparasite) by elucidating genomic structure in key adaptive processes (i.e. immune system evasion) via high-throughput re-sequencing of parasitic specimens, gene prediction and annotation. The carcass colonized by or animal parasitized by both species, with some geographic overlap, provides a semi-controlled environment within the larger context of the ecosystem to sample a large

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Retrieved Text: Several factors influence fungal distribution patterns at geographical scales from landscapes to continents, and these are reviewed here. Some relate to the conditions for fungal establishment and growth as influenced by climate and host tree distribution, and others relate to dispersal dynamics at various scales in time and space. Over geological time continental drift and glaciations have influenced distribution patterns of species and species groups, and have allowed allopatric speciation in populations that become geographically isolated. In the shorter time perspective man has caused very significant changes to the distribution, abundance and composition of dead-wood habitats at various geographical scales, and consequently to communities of wood-decay fungi.

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Retrieved Text: Gene flow is the transfer of alleles from one population to another population through immigration of individuals.
is < 0.25. This means there is some migration happening. Measures of population structure range from 0 to 1. When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated.
, Nm = number of migrants .
Examples of speciation affecting gene flow.
When gene flow is blocked by physical barriers, this results in Allopatric speciation or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. They may include impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts. In some cases, they can be artificial, man-made barriers, such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the gene flow of native plant populations. One of these native plants, Ulmus pumila, demonstrated a lower prevalence of genetic differentiation than the plants Vitex negundo, Ziziphus jujuba, Heteropappus hispidus, and Prunus armeniaca whose habitat is located on the opposite side of the Great Wall of China where Ulmus pumila grows. This is because Ulmus pumila has wind-pollination as its primary means of propagation and the latter-plants carry out pollination through insects. Samples of the same species which grow on either side have been shown to have developed genetic differences, because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the gene pools.
Barriers to gene flow need not always be physical. Sympatric speciation happens when new species from the same ancestral species arise along the

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Retrieved Text: Teleost fishes of the Coregonidae are good model systems for studying postglacial evolution, adaptive radiation and ecological speciation. Of particular interest is whether the repeated occurrence of sympatric species pairs results from in-situ divergence from a single lineage or from multiple invasions of one or more different lineages. Here, we analysed the genetic structure of Baltic ciscoes (Coregonus albula complex), examining 271 individuals from 8 lakes in northern Germany using 1244 polymorphic AFLP loci. Six lakes had only one population of C. albula while the remaining two lakes had C. albula as well as a sympatric species (C. lucinensis or C. fontanae).
AFLP demonstrated a significant population structure (Bayesian θB = 0.22). Lower differentiation between allopatric (θB = 0.028) than sympatric (0.063-0.083) populations contradicts the hypothesis of a sympatric origin of taxa, and there was little evidence for stocking or ongoing hybridization. Genome scans found only three loci that appeared to be under selection in both sympatric population pairs, suggesting a low probability of similar mechanisms of ecological segregation. However, removal of all non-neutral loci decreased the genetic distance between sympatric pairs, suggesting recent adaptive divergence at a few loci. Sympatric pairs in the two lakes were genetically distinct from the six other C. albula populations, suggesting introgression from another lineage may have influenced these two lakes. This was supported by an analysis of isolation-by-distance, where the drift-gene flow equilibrium observed among allopatric populations was disrupted when the sympatric pairs were included.
While the population genetic data alone can not unambiguously uncover the mode of speciation, our data

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Retrieved Text: Introduction: Many marine planktonic crustaceans such as copepods have been considered as widespread organisms. However, the growing evidence for cryptic and pseudo-cryptic speciation has emphasized the need of re-evaluating the status of copepod species complexes in molecular and morphological studies to get a clearer picture about pelagic marine species as evolutionary units and their distributions. This study analyses the molecular diversity of the ecologically important Paracalanus parvus species complex. Its seven currently recognized species are abundant and also often dominant in marine coastal regions worldwide from temperate to tropical oceans. Results: COI and Cytochrome b sequences of 160 specimens of the Paracalanus parvus complex from all oceans were obtained. Furthermore, 42 COI sequences from GenBank were added for the genetic analyses. Thirteen distinct molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTU) and two single sequences were revealed with cladistic analyses (Maximum Likelihood, Bayesian Inference), of which seven were identical with results from species delimitation methods (barcode gaps, ABDG, GMYC, Rosenberg’s P(AB)). In total, 10 to 12 putative species were detected and could be placed in three categories: (1) temperate geographically isolated, (2) warm-temperate to tropical wider spread and (3) circumglobal warm-water species. Conclusions: The present study provides evidence of cryptic or pseudocryptic speciation in the Paracalanus parvus complex. One major insight is that the species Paracalanus parvus s.s. is not panmictic, but may be restricted in its distribution to the northeastern Atlantic.

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Retrieved Text: I couldn't think of a better example of survival of the fittest as the evolution of antibacterial resistant microbes. Yay evolution...................go for it guys.
Also, knock it off with the persistent red herrings - it is a well known fact that people deny evolution, and will decry anything with the word in it . . . .
Scientist: "Bacteria evolve to resist antibiotics."
Right winger: "It's not evolution; it's ADAPTATION! That's completely different."
Scientist: "It is a persistent change, brought about by mutation and natural selection. It is carried forward by genetic inheritance. That is the definition of evolution."
Right winger: "No, see here - you can call it adaptation if it's a genetic change, because it's sort of adapting."
Scientist: "OK, call it what you like."
Scientist: "Here we see an ongoing change in the live birth of skinks. As they evolve . . ."
Right winger: "That has nothing to do with evolution! It's ADAPTATION! See, there's no such thing as evolution."
Scientist: "But you just said adaptation covered evolution, so . . . ."
Right winger: "Why are you scientists so deceptive? It can't be both!"
First, "adaptation" is standard evolution terminology, which even you have cited sources (you apparently didn't read) confirming.
They use it correctly, however.
The mechanisms that genetically establish antibiotic resistance are specifically included in the mechanisms of evolution - they are evolutionary mechanisms.
hence "adaptation" is the most apt description.
Third, I've repeatedly said that adaptation is entailed by evolution.
Fourth, there is only one bit of evolution that Christians disagree with...speciation.
Nonsense. Speciation is a matter of human classification - it isn't a part

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Retrieved Text: Written by: nharris39 on November 13, 2015.
This was a very well put together video. It covered the content, and managed to do so in an entertaining well. The only issue was that the video went a little faster than the the audio at a few times.
The video is very informative, especially the graphics on how polyploidy occurs and also summary at the end of the video. I found the hand a little distracting at times.
I liked the use of the Powtoon and examples, but I think that you could have talked slower. It was hard to follow at points and also explain some of the vocabulary associated with the video.
I like how you showed the roots of the words sympatric and allopatric. Very good animations! The only thing I might change is maybe explain polyploidy and diploidy for viewers who may not know those terms.
This was a really cool video! I’ve never seen an animation like this. Everything was very well defined too. I think I would just redo the works cited part to be the format that was suggested to us on the project outline.
Your video was very well produced, and held the viewers attention throughout. There is one major flaw in your information, however, and that is the fact that just because you have strawberries produced with a greater number of chromosomes does not mean that they are a new species. Your sympatric speciation example is mistaking a mutation for evolution of a new species!
Great Job! The visuals were creative and the tone of

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Retrieved Text: hackenslash: Why Are There Still Apes?
This is probably the most oft-asked question in creationist apologetics and, rather than posing any problem for evolutionary theory, it rightly indicates that some questions are so silly that they can only arise from an ignorance of that which it attempts to pose some sort of gotcha for.
The problem is that it indicates a horrible misunderstanding of just what evolutionary theory postulates.
Speciation doesn't come in a single flavour. In particular, there are broadly three modes of speciation. The first of these occurs when a single population diverges into multiple populations, often because of some environmental barrier becoming manifest.
For example, you could have something as simple as, say, a peninsula becoming an island due to changes in sea level, and then the peninsula being partially covered so that it looks more like an archipelago. Given sufficient reduction in gene flow, the populations can manifest some quite different mutations. Once gene flow is completely cut off by such separation, speciation occurs. This is sympatric speciation.
The second mode is when populations diverge genetically from their ancestors, to the degree that, were you to bring members of the child population and the ancestor population together, they would not be interfertile. This is allopatric speciation.
The third is very rare, but it occurs when a single population diverges while not subject to any environmental barriers. Generally, their ranges will be adjacent, and models predict that their will often be hybrids at the boundaries. This is parapatric speciation.
The problem with the question as posed is simply that it

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Retrieved Text: 1.	Predicting the ecological consequences of invasions by non-native species is a fundamental aspect of their risk-based management. As impacts can include the negative consequences of resource sharing with native species, the application of in situ cohabitation field experiments can test hypotheses relating to invasion ecology via competitive interactions and processes. As fish are adaptable and tractable experimental organisms, they are strong model species for use in studies on competitive interactions. 2.	The trophic consequences of invasion by two globally invasive freshwater fish, common carp Cyprinus carpio and goldfish Carassius auratus, were tested on the threatened native fish crucian carp Carassius carassius. Cohabitation experiments, completed in pond enclosures, used all species in allopatric and sympatric treatments using a substitutive design where the number of fish oper treatment was kept constant. Stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N) assessed alterations in the trophic ecology of each species across treatments, with growth rates used to assess any consequent impacts on the fish.
3.	When in sympatry with C. auratus and C. carassius, the C. carpio isotopic niche was at a significantly lower trophic position compared to allopatry. This resulted in niche overlap with C. auratus, whilst for C. carassius, their isotopic niche shifted to a higher trophic position compared with allopatry. The growth rate of C. carpio was always significantly higher in sympatry than in allopatry, whereas growth rates for C. carassius and C. auratus were significantly depressed in C. carpio presence. In contrast, the isotopic niche sizes and positions and growth rates of the Carassius fishes were not significantly different between allopatry

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Retrieved Text: The spatio-temporal colonization and diversification across the Indo-Pacific by a 'great speciator' (Aves, Erythropitta erythrogaster).
The Indo-Pacific region has arguably been the most important area for the formulation of theories about biogeography and speciation, but modern studies of the tempo, mode and magnitude of diversification across this region are scarce. We study the biogeographic history and characterize levels of diversification in the wide-ranging passerine bird Erythropitta erythrogaster using molecular, phylogeographic and population genetics methods, as well as morphometric and plumage analyses. Our results suggest that E. erythrogaster colonized the Indo-Pacific during the Pleistocene in an eastward direction following a stepping stone pathway, and that sea-level fluctuations during the Pleistocene may have promoted gene flow only locally. A molecular species delimitation test suggests that several allopatric island populations of E. erythrogaster may be regarded as species. Most of these putative new species are further characterized by diagnostic differences in plumage. Our study reconfirms the E. erythrogaster complex as a 'great speciator': it represents a complex of up to 17 allopatrically distributed, reciprocally monophyletic and/or morphologically diagnosable species that originated during the Pleistocene. Our results support the view that observed latitudinal gradients of genetic divergence among avian sister species may have been affected by incomplete knowledge of taxonomic limits in tropical bird species.

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Retrieved Text: Melanoscirtes gen.n. is established within Karniellina. The members of this subtribe are small conocephaline bush crickets, confined to Africa. Melanoscirtes is erected on Phlesirtes kibonotensis, a species restricted to forest clearings and forest edge in the submontane and montane zones of Mt. Kilimanjaro. A subspecies, M. kibonotensis uguenoensis, is described from the North Pare mountains, a mountain range of the Eastern Arc adjacent to Mt. Kilimanjaro. Further species of Melanoscirtes occur on other mountain ranges of the northern branch of the Eastern Arc mountains of northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. The South Pare mountains harbour M. shengenae; the West Usambaras, M. usambarensis, and the Taita Hills, M. taitensis. All species and subspecies of Melanoscirtes exhibit a similar morphology and occupy analogous habitats on the respective mountains. The song patterns for all species found within this genus are very similar, and this, together with evidence from molecular data, suggests that allopatric speciation is the reason for the biogeographic pattern found in this genus. A key for the subspecies and species of Melanoscirtes is provided.

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Retrieved Text: The role of environmental gradients in speciation remains contentious. Theory suggests speciation without geographic isolation is plausible if divergent natural selection is strong enough to counteract gene flow, but empirical examples are elusive. Tropical mountains provide strong and temporally stable environmental gradients that can promote local adaptation and population genetic structure. Pairs of closely related species with adjacent but divergent elevational ranges are common in these environments, a pattern that suggests parapatric speciation (i.e. speciation with moderate gene flow), but have rarely been studied in a speciation genomics framework. Here we use genomic data from modern and historical museum specimens to provide evidence for speciation with gene flow across an elevational gradient in a pair of New Guinea kingfishers. We find that the lowland species Syma torotoro and montane species S. megarhyncha form discrete genotypic clusters with bimodal variance in phenotypic traits. Despite this, demographic inference, D-statistics, and phylogenetic networks indicate range-wide gene flow over long time periods, with divergence concentrated in small regions of the genome shaped by positive selection. We propose these data can be explained by a “magic trait” model of ecological speciation where selection on body size also affects mate choice. Our results provide a rare validation of theoretical models of adaptive speciation and are consistent with a strong influence of tropical thermal stability on diversification. We suggest the primary role of selection across elevational gradients is the maintenance of species boundaries in the face of incomplete reproductive isolation, a mechanism for generating high tropical biodiversity.
Significance Speciation without geographic isolation can occur

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Retrieved Text: BIOLOGY 403: PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY (Niche and Species-Species Interactions) - BIOLOGY 403: PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY (Niche and Species-Species Interactions) THE ECOLOGICAL NICHE I We have all probably used the term niche before.
BIOLOGY 403: PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY (Niche and Species-Species Interactions) THE ECOLOGICAL NICHE I We have all probably used the term niche before.
Bats are the one and only mammals capable of true flight. Approximately 1,000 bat species can be found entire world. In fact, bats make up a quarter of all mammal species on earth! - Bats are the one and only mammals capable of true flight. Approximately 1,000 bat species can be found entire world. In fact, bats make up a quarter of all mammal species on earth!
Bats are the one and only mammals capable of true flight. Approximately 1,000 bat species can be found entire world. In fact, bats make up a quarter of all mammal species on earth!
Species Extinction- Reasons and Effects? - In biology and ecology, extinction is the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point.
In biology and ecology, extinction is the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost

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Retrieved Text: World population from 500CE to 2150, based on UN (2004) projections and U.S. census information, which are both applications of demography. No matter how much data is collected, unknown variables remain, so there are alternate possiblities for the future world population.
Species and populations are probably the two most commonly used ecology terms, but they are often difficult concepts to grasp. Throughout this chapter, they will be discussed in detail, expanding on the definitions from previous chapters and explaining why there are no universally acceptable definitions. Factors influencing population growth and ways to measure and predict population growth will also be subjects of specific focus. Populations can be affected by so many factors that it is almost impossible to take every variable into account. Demography is the statistical study of the age structure of a population, and it can be used in research to determine what is causing a decline or increase in population size over time. It is worthwhile to understand species concept and population growth even though they are such broad aspects, because they are fundamental to the science of ecology.
When initially considering the concept of species you may wonder why the division of organisms into species is necessary at all. According to Ernst W. Mayr, a renowned evolutionary biologist, the existence and reproductive characteristics of distinct species "prevents the production of too great a number of disharmonious incompatible gene combinations." Therefore, the basis for the existence of species is genotypic in nature. However, the existence of species is not traditionally doubted whereas the appropriate

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Retrieved Text: The family Chaetodontidae is well represented by ten genera. Of which, the most populous Chaetodon is home to several subgenera, one of which is the eternally fascinating Roaops. This small subgenus comprises of five handsome species, including the dapper, monochromatic Chaetodon burgessi.
C. burgessi is a highly virulent species, and it is the most widely distributed of the pacific Ocean Roaops. The species is found throughout Indonesia, Philippines and north to Okinawa. It spreads eastwards to Palau, Guam, Papua, the entire Melanesia and parts of Micronesia. In the Indian Ocean, this species is replaced by its allopatric sister, Chaetodon mitratus. The recent documentation of this species from Cairns Marine represents a new extension of its geographical distribution into the Coral Sea region.
Chaetodon burgessi from the Coral Sea. Photo credit: Rob Lanceley, Cairns Marine.
In typical Roaops fashion, this species is deepwater, frequenting steep reef walls and slopes in excess of 45m (140ft). This pair was collected in particularly deep reefs, over 80m on a rebreather unit. While the species itself may not stir as much excitement as some of the other Coral Sea residents (i.e Cirrhilabrus squirei, Bodianus cf. neopercularis, Rabaulichthys squire etc.), it is an important documentation nonetheless, especially in the Coral Sea; a biogeographical region that is prone to endemic fauna and reef fish speciation. At least we know that this species appears to maintain phenotypic and possibly genetic connectivity and homogeneity in this region.
The truncation of this post foreshadows a more complete, thorough review of the subgenus Roaops that Joe Rowlett and I are co-writing.

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: Pocillopora damicornis represents one of the best-studied reef-building coral species, characterized by high levels of eco-phenotypic variation and a confusing life history. Multiple modes of reproduction and recent instances of cryptic speciation have been acknowledged from different geographic locations thus challenging the taxonomic status of P. damicornis. Multiple cryptic lineages may well explain the reproductive flexibility reported across the species global distribution range; however, the delimitation of the cryptics is arduous due to the lack of congruence amongst morphological characters, mitochondrial phylogenies and nuclear genealogies.
I herein apply the “Unified Species Concept” (USC; DeQueiroz 2007) to delimit genetically distinct yet morphologically cryptic lineages within the P. damicornis species complex by combining evidence from morphological, genetic, reproductive and symbiont data. According to the USC, species are defined as separately evolving metapopulation lineages. Multiple sources of evidence therefore (i.e. criteria associated with previously accepted species concepts) are used in synergy to assess metapopulation boundaries. Molecular phylogenies inferred from mitochondrial markers (CR, ORF) were congruent with morphological groups suggesting at least five independently evolving lineages. In contrast, nuclear markers (HSP70, ITS2) recovered sharp genetic discontinuities among only three of these lineages. The combined additional evidence inferred from: microsatellite genotyping, gross morphology, associated Symbiodinium clades and reproductive mode and timing of populations suggested that introgressive hybridization may be the cause of the low resolution power observed in the nuclear regions.
In light of multiple evidence, I propose that the lineages recovered in P. damicornis sensu lato represents different stages along the species genealogical continuum and are therefore difficult to resolve on

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Retrieved Text: What forms when propene reacts with HCN?
Which pattern of speciation is most important in nature? Allopatric or sympatric why? How many moles of ions are in a solution of 7.4 moles FeCI3 in 500 mL water? How to test Petrol in blood? Differentiate(t) = (cos^3 t+ 3cost +7)^9? How long do the batteries in Beats executives last?

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Retrieved Text: Classify organisms into the currently recognized kingdoms according to characteristics that they share. Be familiar with organisms from each kingdom.
5.2 Describe species as reproductively distinct groups of organisms. Recognize that species are further classified into a hierarchical taxonomic system (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species) based on morphological, behavioral, and molecular similarities.
Students should begin to extend their attention from external anatomy to internal structures and functions. Patterns of development may be brought in to further illustrate similarities and differences among organisms. Also, they should move from their invented classification systems to those used in modern biology… A classification system is a framework created by scientists for describing the vast diversity of organisms, indicating the degree of relatedness between organisms, and framing research questions.
Evolution and diversity: Origin of life, evidence of evolution, patterns of evolution, natural selection, speciation, classification and diversity of organisms.
Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities which reflect their evolutionary relationships. Species is the most fundamental unit of classification.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

One type of radioactivity is alpha emission. What is an alpha particle? What happens to an alpha particle after it is emitted from an unstable nucleus?.


Q: Alpha emission is a type of what?

 Choices:

- heat

- light

- radioactivity

- radiation

A:

Target Text: radioactivity

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: AlphaPlex™ 645 (Samarium) TruHits kit for use as a control for interference in Alpha no-wash multiplexing assays. This kit provides enough reagents to run 500 wells in 96-well or 384-well format, using a 50 µL reaction volume.
The AlphaPlex™ 645 (Samarium) TruHits kit allows you to perform ratiometric Alpha signal measurement with almost any type of AlphaLISA assay. This kit includes AlphaPlex 5=645 biotinylated Acceptor beads and Streptavidin Alpha Donor beads capable of interacting together to generate a signal measurable at 645 nm. In a duplex assay setup, Donor bead excitation triggers a simultaneous cascade of energy transfer within both AlphaLISA (emission = 615 nm) and AlphaPlex 645 (emission = 645 nm) Acceptor beads, leading to distinct signal emissions discriminable using either narrow bandpass filers or a dedicated double dichroic mirror. Further to facilitating the detection of non-specific interactions, the AlphaPlex TruHits kit also allows you to identify inner filters, light scatterers (insoluble compounds), singlet oxygen quenchers and biotin mimetics interfering with the Alpha signal, aiding the identification of false positives.

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Retrieved Text: Spontaneous fission, type of radioactive decay in which certain unstable nuclei of heavier elements split into two nearly equal fragments (nuclei of lighter elements) and liberate a large amount of energy. Spontaneous fission, discovered (1941) by the Russian physicists G.N. Flerov and K.A. Petrzhak in uranium-238, is observable in many nuclear species of mass number 230 or more. Among these nuclides, those with lower mass numbers generally have longer half-lives. Uranium-238 has a half-life of about 1016 years when it decays by spontaneous fission, whereas fermium-256 decays with a half-life of about three hours.
Nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission also are subject to alpha decay (emission from the nucleus of a helium nucleus). In uranium-238, alpha decay is about 2 million times more probable than is spontaneous fission, whereas in fermium-256, 3 percent of the nuclei undergo alpha decay and 97 percent undergo spontaneous fission.
The fission that occurs in nuclear reactors and explosive devices is induced by the neutron bombardment of certain types of nuclei.

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Retrieved Text: Abstract We introduce the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) Emission-Line Lens Survey GALaxy-Ly alpha EmitteR sYstems (BELLS GALLERY) Survey, which is a Hubble Space Telescope program to image a sample of galaxy-scale strong gravitational lens candidate systems with high-redshift Ly alpha emitters (LAEs) as the background sources. The goal of the BELLS GALLERY Survey is to illuminate dark substructures in galaxy-scale halos by exploiting the small-scale clumpiness of rest-frame far-UV emission in lensed LAEs, and to thereby constrain the slope and normalization of the substructure-mass function. In this paper, we describe in detail the spectroscopic strong-lens selection technique, which is based on methods adopted in the previous Sloan Lens ACS (SLACS) Survey, BELLS, and SLACS for the Masses Survey. We present the BELLS GALLERY sample of the 21 highest-quality galaxy-LAE candidates selected from approximate to 1.4 x 10(6) galaxy spectra in the BOSS of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey III. These systems consist of massive galaxies at redshifts of approximately 0.5 strongly lensing LAEs at redshifts from 2-3. The compact nature of LAEs makes them an ideal probe of dark substructures, with a substructure-mass sensitivity that is unprecedented in other optical strong-lens samples. The magnification effect from lensing will also reveal the structure of LAEs below 100 pc scales, providing a detailed look at the sites of the most concentrated unobscured star formation in the universe. The source code used for candidate selection is available for download as a part of this release.
GB/T 7714 Shu, Yiping,Bolton, Adam S.,Kochanek, Christopher S.,et al. THE BOSS EMISSION-LINE LENS SURVEY.

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Retrieved Text: OVL Hydrogen-Alpha 12NM CCD Filter 1.25"
> Astronomy>Eyepieces - Filters>Filters>OVL Hydrogen-Alpha 12NM CCD Filter 1.25"
This long-pass filter limits transmission of light with wavelengths longer than 650nm.
Whilst suppressing all other polluting lights, the filter allows you to observe emission nebulae with greatly enhanced contrast. Ideal for observing emission nebulae or objects that emit in the H-alpha region. Suitable only for CCD photography.
Path: Home > Astronomy > Eyepieces - Filters > Filters > OVL Hydrogen-Alpha 12NM CCD Filter 1.25"

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Retrieved Text: A radiopharmaceutical composed of the dichloride salt of the alpha-emitting isotope radium Ra 223, with antineoplastic activity. Like calcium, radium targets bone tissue and preferentially accumulates in osteoblastic lesions, such as those seen in areas of bone metastases. Radium Ra 223 forms complexes with hydroxyapatite and becomes incorporated into the bone matrix. The radioisotope Ra 223 kills bone cancer cells through local emission of high energy alpha particles, causing DNA double-strand breaks and tumor regression in the skeleton. The short range effects of alpha emission allows for localized DNA damage with limited toxicity to nearby healthy bone tissue.

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Retrieved Text: KTH, Centres, Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics NORDITA. Univ Turku, Finland.
We present results of long Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR; 200 ks) and XMM-Newton (100 ks) observations of the Arches stellar cluster, a source of bright thermal (kT similar to 2 keV) X-rays with prominent Fe XXV K alpha 6.7 keV line emission and a nearby molecular cloud, characterized by an extended non-thermal hard X-ray continuum and fluorescent Fe K alpha 6.4 keV line of a neutral or low-ionization state material around the cluster. Our analysis demonstrates that the non-thermal emission of the Arches cloud underwent a dramatic change, with its homogeneous morphology, traced by fluorescent Fe K alpha line emission, vanishing after 2012, revealing three bright clumps. The declining trend of the cloud emission, if linearly fitted, is consistent with half-life decay time of similar to 8 yr. Such strong variations have been observed in several other molecular clouds in the Galactic Centre, including the giant molecular cloud Sgr B2, and point towards a similar propagation of illuminating fronts, presumably induced by the past flaring activity of Sgr A(star). We also detect a significant drop of the equivalent width of the fluorescent Fe Ka line, which could mean either that the new clumps have a different position along the line of sight or that the contribution of cosmic ray has become more dominant.

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Retrieved Text: Seismology is the study of the propagation of longitudinal and transverse waves through a solid medium, namely, planet Earth. How do scientists know the earth has a liquid outer core? Was that earthquake in North Korea an earthquake or a clandestine nuclear explosion? How will the next great oil reserve be discovered? These and other questions are part of the realm of problems relevant to seismological interrogation. As a relatively young science, seismology uses a mixture of physics, applied mathematics, and digital signal processing to answer questions about earthquakes, the structure of planetary bodies, and other processes. As an example of ongoing applied research in seismology, I will discuss the phenomenon of slow earthquakes off the coast of the Nicoya Peninsula, in northwestern Costa Rica. Slow earthquakes have recently been implicated as potential precursors to large destructive events. Please visit as I discuss exciting career and travel opportunities (e.g., Africa, the South Pole) in geophysics.
We present an observational study using high-resolution echelle spectroscopy of non-radiative collisionless shocks in a northeast filament of the Cygnus Loop supernova remnant. The shocks produce faint H-alpha; emission. The Balmer emission line profile is characterized by a narrow and a broad component. The narrow component is representative of the pre-shock conditions, while the broad component is produced after charge transfer between neutrals entering the shock and protons in the post-shock gas, thus reflecting the properties of the post-shock gas. We observe a diffuse H-alpha; region extending ~2.5 arcmin ahead of the shock with line width ~29 km/s, while the H-alpha; profile

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Retrieved Text: Gas heated by a Population III star. The colors are determined by the blackbody spectrum of the gas and then convolved with typical (BVR) telescope filters.
Most astronomical observations are conducted through the detection of electromagnetic waves from distant objects. To make a direct link between simulations and observations, it is beneficial to construct photo-realistic visualizations of the data. This relates to the topic of radiation transport through the computation of the emission and absorption features in astronomical objects. Example diagnostic images and spectra consider (1) blackbody emission, (2) line emission from the ultraviolet Lyman alpha transition, Balmer alpha and O III in the visual, and [C I] and CO in the sub-millimeter, (3) Rayleigh scattering, and (4) absorption lines from various transitions. Using a physical basis for visualization gives researchers a common ground for comparing data. Lastly, the universe is beautiful, and we strive to visualize our data as realistically as possible. Most importantly, these visualizations can captivate the public’s mind by presenting the science in a visual and intuitive manner.

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Retrieved Text: This is “Nuclear Reactions”, section 20.2 from the book Principles of General Chemistry (v. 1.0). For details on it (including licensing), click here.
For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page. You can browse or download additional books there. You may also download a PDF copy of this book (147 MB) or just this chapter (6 MB), suitable for printing or most e-readers, or a .zip file containing this book's HTML files (for use in a web browser offline).
To know the different kinds of radioactive decay.
To balance a nuclear reaction.
The two general kinds of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay reactions and nuclear transmutation reactions. In a nuclear decay reactionA nuclear reaction that occurs when an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements., also called radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements. The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed. In contrast, in a nuclear transmutation reactionA nuclear reaction in which a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nuleus to give a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material., a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material. As we shall see, nuclear decay reactions occur spontaneously under all conditions, but

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Retrieved Text: Optolong H-Alpha 12nm CCD Filter - 50mm Square Unmounted - HAL12-50SQ is no longer available.
This Hydrogen-Alpha 12nm Narrowband Filter by Optolong allows transmission of a 12nm bandwidth of light, centered on the 656nm wavelength. The filter blocks light pollution wavelengths which will greatly improve contrast. Wavelengths responsible for natural light pollution, or skyglow, will be dramatically reduced, as is artificial light pollution caused by high and low-pressure sodium vapor and mercury vapor lights. The result is high-contrast images, revealing the H-alpha line in all its glory. Use this filter alone to bring out the H-alpha line in emission nebulae, or use together with OIII and SII filters to get false color emission line images like the Hubble Space Telescope does.
A 12nm Ha filter is recommended for cameras equipped with an integrated guiding sensor. You’ll have lots more guide stars to choose from with a 12nm filter as opposed to the extra-narrowband 6.5nm version. Like all Optolong filters that are designated as “CCD”, this H-Alpha filter also blocks infrared wavelengths from 700nm to 1100nm so you don't need a separate IR-Cut filter.
The Optolong 50mm Square Unmounted 12nm H-Alpha Filter is made with Schott glass that has been multi-coated with an ion-assisted deposition technology to ensure scratch resistance and stability on the central wavelength or CWL. This filter is designed for use in color filter wheels that accept 50mm unmounted filters in a square format.
Please Note: This h-alpha filter is NOT for use on the Sun. To do so could cause irreparable eye damage or blindness. Don’t even

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Retrieved Text: Emission nebula emit light due to the excitation of gas within them. To emit light gas must be present close to a large star. Being large the star emits copious amounts of ultra-violet light. It is this light that causes the gas to emit light.
Most high school graduates have an image that an atom contains a dense central nucleus containing protons and neutrons. The neuclus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons occupying a large volume of empty space. It is now understood that the electrons can only occupy certain configurations which is based on energy levels.
An atom becomes excited when a photon is absorbed by an electron lifting it to a higher energy level. In nebulae this is the absorption of a photon of ultraviolet light. The energy of the photon must either equal or be greater than the amount of energy required to lift the electron to the higher state.
When an electron that has been lifted to at higher energy level drops back down to a lower level it emits light at a certain frequency. It is this light that we see in emision nebulae.
You may have noticed than most emission nebulae are red. This is the result of the dominate hydrogen gas emitting light in the red part of the light spectrum. Sulphur also emits light in the red part of the spectrum while oxygen emits in the green region. Certain transitions within the hydrogen atom emits light in the blue part of the spectrum.
For more information about the physics behind this you

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Retrieved Text: Spirit is still making new discoveries despite dragging its feet, so to speak, after losing use of the right front wheel 426 sols, or Martian days, ago. In the process of creating small trenches while traversing Martian terrain, the dragging right front wheel revealed one of the most astonishing discoveries so far -- exceptionally high silica content in Martian soil, indicative of water at some point in the past. Two of Spirit's scientific instruments -- the alpha-particle X-ray spectrometer and the miniature thermal emission spectrometer -- measured a composition of about 90 percent pure silica in a soil target known as "Gertrude Weise."
Sol 1200 (May 19, 2007): Spirit started a 23.25-hour study with the Mössbauer spectrometer and surveyed the rover's tracks as well as targets known as "Josephine Kabick," "Nalda Phillips1," "Nalda Phillips2," "Marilyn Olinger," and "Eileen Burmeister" with the miniature thermal emission spectrometer.
Sol 1201: Spirit watched for morning dust devils, stowed the robotic arm, and bumped backward in 60-centimeter (24-inch) "steps," or intervals. After each step, Spirit scuffed the soil with the left front wheel by rotating the wheel 180 degrees. The rover did this for a distance of 4.19 meters (13.8 feet). After the drive, Spirit acquired images of the scuffed terrain and the terrain ahead with the navigation camera.
Sol 1202: Spirit completed a survey at high sun using the panoramic camera. Spirit acquired panoramic camera images of the scuffed area and surveyed Gertrude Weise with the miniature thermal emission spectrometer. The rover searched for dust devils by acquiring navigation camera movies in coordination

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Retrieved Text: We focus on determining the underlying physical cause of a Seyfert galaxy's appearance as type a 1.8 or 1.9. Are these "intermediate" Seyfert types typical Seyfert 1 nuclei reddened by central dusty tori or by nuclear dust lanes/spirals in the narrow-line region? Or, are they similar to NGC 2992, objects that have intrinsically weak continua and weak broad emission lines? Our study compares measurements of the reddenings of the narrow and broad-line regions with each other and with the X-ray column derived from XMM Newton 0.5-10 keV spectra to determine the presence and location of dust in the line of sight for a sample of 35 Seyfert 1.8s and 1.9s. From this, we find that Seyfert 1.9s are an almost equal mix of low-flux objects with unreddened broad line regions, and objects with broad line regions reddened by an internal dust source, either the torus or dust structures on the same size scale as the narrow line region. The 1.9s that recieved this designation due to a low continuum flux state showed variable type classifications. All three of the Seyfert 1.8s in our study are probably in low continuum states. Many objects have been misclassified as Seyfert 1.8/1.9s in the past, probably due to improper [N II]/H-alpha deconvolution leading to a false detection of weak broad H-alpha.
Trippe, Margaret, "A Multi-Wavelength Investigation of Seyfert 1.8 and 1.9 Galaxies." Dissertation, Georgia State University, 2009.

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Retrieved Text: Explanation: Stars come and go as you slide your cursor over this engaging image of M8, aka the Lagoon Nebula. Of course, the nebula is itself a star-forming region, but the stars that appear and disappear here include background and foreground stars that by chance lie along the same line of sight. In this "for fun" comparison of two nearly identical digital images, the stellar point sources were removed from one image by computer processing to leave only the diffuse emission from the glowing gas clouds. In both pictures, red emission (H-alpha emission) from atomic hydrogen dominates the cosmic lagoon's visible light, but narrow band filters were used to record the image data and map the hydrogen emission to green hues, with emission from sulfur atoms in red and oxygen in blue. The lovely Lagoon Nebula spans about 30 light-years at an estimated distance of 5,000 light-years toward the constellation Sagittarius.

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Retrieved Text: SH2-173 is an emission nebula in the constellation of Cassiopeia. The red nebulosity is so faint that even an extended exposure through standard filters does not reveal it, but a hydrogen alpha filter will bring it out. This is a 9.5 hour exposure done on September 30, October 1 and 2, with 3.5 hours of hydrogen alpha data. The imaging session was under the control of CCDAutopilot 5. Click the image for a larger view.

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Retrieved Text: The Chromospheric Lyman-Alpha SpectroPolarimeter (CLASP) is a sounding rocket experiment for making precise measurement of the polarization profile of the Lyman-alpha line from the solar atmosphere. The Lyman-alpha line is an ultraviolet emission line (wavelength 121.6 nm), emitted high in the solar atmosphere, at the chromosphere and the transition region (located between the chromosphere and the corona). CLASP aims to make the first ever measurement of the Hanle effect polarization caused by the magnetic field in the chromosphere and transition region, and infer the magnetic field strength and orientation. It is a pathfinder experiment that aims to establish this technique as a measurement tool for chromospheric and transition-region magnetic fields.

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Retrieved Text: This more detailed image has neutron number on the horizontal axis and the proton number on the vertical axis. Make sure that you make it clear on your own sketch graphs.
The lightest nuclides have almost equal numbers of protons and neutrons.
The heavier nuclides require up to 50 % more neutrons than protons. The greater number of neutrons is needed to stop the nucleus flying apart, in effect diluting the repulsive force of the positively charged protons.
Most nuclides have both an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons.
Alpha particles are made of two protons and two neutrons. Certain elements like silicon, oxygen, and iron have a similar ratio of protons and neutrons.
Disintegrations tend to produce new nuclides that are nearer the stability line, and carry on until the stability line is reached.
Nuclides above the line decay so that the proton number increases by 1, i.e. a beta emission.
Nuclides below the line decay to reduce the proton number and the proton to neutron ratio increases. This is achieved by alpha decay.
Beta plus decay also occurs where the nucleus is beneath the line of stability. In this case a proton turns into a neutron and a positron (positively charged anti-electron) is given off.
Alpha radiation mostly comes from heavy nuclides with proton numbers greater than 82, but smaller nuclides deficient in neutrons can also be alpha emitters. It is believed that the alpha particle is formed some time before its emission, and it gains its energy from the mass defect in the nucleus. The term Q stands

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Retrieved Text: The Euclid and WFIRST cosmological missions will observe many millions of H-alpha emission line galaxies and so in preparation for these missions it is crucial that we understand the properties of these galaxies. I will present results from two projects that focused on (i) examining the number density of H-alpha emitting galaxies, and (ii) examining how H-alpha emitters populate cosmic structures (a property referred to as the ‘bias’). In both instances we use a galaxy formation model to simulate a Euclid-like survey and a WFIRST-like survey. Our predicted number densities for H-alpha emitters are consistent with the WISP survey and the empirical models presented by Pozzetti et al. (2016), though with a reduced scatter. We find that for both the Euclid-like and the WFIRST-like survey, the linear bias of H-alpha emitters evolves according to b(z) = 0.7z + 0.7, which is consistent within error with existing bias measurements from HiZELS.

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Retrieved Text: Deep observations made with the MUSE spectrograph on ESO’s Very Large Telescope have uncovered vast cosmic reservoirs of atomic hydrogen surrounding distant galaxies. The exquisite sensitivity of MUSE allowed for direct observations of dim clouds of hydrogen glowing with Lyman-alpha emission in the early Universe?–?revealing that almost the whole night sky is invisibly aglow. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA, ESO/ Lutz Wisotzki et al.
A study published recently in Nature has revealed the presence of a hitherto undetected component of the universe—large masses of gas surrounding distant galaxies. An international team from some 10 scientific institutions has shown that almost the whole of the early universe shows a faint glow in the Lyman-alpha line. This line is one of the key “fingerprints” of hydrogen. This detection reveals the existence of extensive masses of gas around primitive galaxies. The results of this study are based on observations made with the MUSE spectrograph on the Very Large Telescope (VLT) of the European Southern Observatory, Cerro Paranal, Chile.
The principal investigator of the research, Lutz Wisotzki, of the Leibniz Institute of Astrophysics in Potsdam, Germany, recalls that when he presented this image for the first time at a conference a year ago, a colleague exclaimed, “Twenty years ago there was no Lyman-alpha anywhere, but now it’s everywhere!” The high sensitivity of MUSE has revealed that Lyman-alpha emission covers the whole sky, including the apparently empty spaces between the galaxies.
“While the Hubble Space Telescope shows us light only where there are galaxies, and between them we do not see anything, only empty sky,

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Retrieved Text: Lumicon Night Sky Hydrogen-Alpha Filters are long-pass filters with a 50% transition from blocking to passing at about 640nm. At wavelengths longer than 650nm, transmittance is 90% or above. The filter is used as an extreme anti light-pollution filter, and for contrast-enhancement of emission nebulae and other astronomical objects bright in the infrared.
The LF3085, Lumicon Night Sky Hydrogen-Alpha Filter, threads into the nose-piece of industry-standard 1.25" Digital Imagers. Designed for photographic use.
Threaded for 58mm camera lenses.

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Retrieved Text: Explanation: Perhaps the original spiral nebula, M51 is a large galaxy, over 60,000 light-years across, with a readily apparent spiral structure. Also cataloged as NGC 5194, M51 is a part of a well-known interacting galaxy pair, its spiral arms and dust lanes clearly sweeping in front of companion galaxy NGC 5195 (top). This dramatically processed color composite combines M51 image data from the Calar Alto Observatory's 1.2 meter telescope. The data include long exposures through a narrow hydrogen alpha filter that trace emission from atomic hydrogen. Reddish hydrogen emission regions, called HII regions, are the regions of intense star formation seen to lie mainly along M51's bright spiral arms. Intriguingly, this composite also shows red hydrogen emission structures in the faint features extending even beyond NGC 5195, toward the top of the frame.

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Retrieved Text: The recoil of a nucleus during radioactive decay can do more damage than the alpha particle it emits, according to a new study.
Thorium-232 is a silvery, radioactive metal that is particularly good at absorbing X-rays. In the early days of X-ray imaging, doctors routinely injected patients with thorium dioxide because it produced high contrast images. Between the 1930s to the 1950s, some 10 million people received these doses.
The advantage of thorium dioxide, or Thorotrast as it was called, is that it had almost no immediate side effects on the patients, unlike other contrast agents, which were often dangerous. And the half-life of thorium is about 14 billion years, so it is relatively stable.
What doctors didn’t appreciate at the time were the long term effects on the body. Once injected, Thorotrast settles in various organs where it tends to stay. The biological half life of the stuff is 22 years.
When thorium eventually decays it sets in train a sequence of five further decays producing alpha particles. These all happen relatively quickly; four of them in a matter of hours or fractions of a second.
For that reason, Thorotrast turned out to be highly carcinogenic but often on a timescale measured in decades. It was eventually withdrawn as a contrast agent in the 1950s.
The problem for physicists is to calculate the effects of elements like thorium on the body. They’ve long known that the high energy particles released during a decay damage the body by smashing into and damaging molecules like DNA.
But today, Evandro Lodi Rizzini and pals at

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Retrieved Text: Using a time series of high-resolution spectra and high-quality multicolour photometry, we reconstruct surface maps of the primary component of the RS CVn type rapidly rotating eclipsing binary, SV Cam (F9V + K4V). We measure a mass ratio, q, of 0.641(2) using our highest quality spectra and obtain surface brightness maps of the primary component, which exhibit predominantly high-latitude spots located between 60 and 70 latitudes with a mean filling factor of 35 per cent. This is also indicated by the R-hand light-curve inversion, subjected to rigorous numerical tests. The spectral subtraction of the H-alpha line reveals strong activity of the secondary component. The excess H-alpha absorption detected near the secondary minimum hints to the presence of cool material partially obscuring the primary star. The flux ratios of Call IRT excess emission indicate that the contribution of chromospheric plage regions associated with star-spots is dominant, even during the passage of the filament-like absorption feature.
© 2018 The Author(s) Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Royal Astronomical Society. The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for critical comments, which helped to improve the manuscript substantially. HVS acknowledges the support by The Scientific And Technological Research Council Of Turkey (TUBITAK) through the project 1001-115F033. DM acknowledges support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) from project AYA2016-79425-C3-1-P. AF acknowledges Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) for financial support. EI acknowledges support by the Young Scientist Award Programme BAGEP-2016 of the Science Academy, Turkey.

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Retrieved Text: Краткий обзор статьи: The survey description and the near-, mid-, and far-infrared flux properties are presented for the 258 galaxies in the Local Volume Legacy (LVL). LVL is a Spitzer Space Telescope legacy program that surveys the local universe out to 11 Mpc, built upon a foundation of ultraviolet, H-alpha, and HST imaging from 11HUGS (11 Mpc H-alpha and Ultraviolet Galaxy Survey) and ANGST (ACS Nearby Galaxy Survey Treasury). LVL covers an unbiased, representative, and statistically robust sample of nearby star-forming galaxies, exploiting the highest extragalactic spatial resolution achievable with Spitzer. As a result of its approximately volume-limited nature, LVL augments previous Spitzer observations of present-day galaxies with improved sampling of the low-luminosity galaxy population. The collection of LVL galaxies shows a large spread in mid-infrared colors, likely due to the conspicuous deficiency of 8um PAH emission from low-metallicity, low-luminosity galaxies. Conversely, the far-infrared emission tightly tracks the total infrared emission, with a dispersion in their flux ratio of only 0.1 dex. In terms of the relation between infrared-to-ultraviolet ratio and ultraviolet spectral slope, the LVL sample shows redder colors and/or lower infrared-to-ultraviolet ratios than starburst galaxies, suggesting that reprocessing by dust is less important in the lower mass systems that dominate the LVL sample. Comparisons with theoretical models suggest that the amplitude of deviations from the relation found for starburst galaxies correlates with the age of the stellar populations that dominate the ultraviolet/optical luminosities.
Extended warm and dense gas towards W49A: starburst conditions in our Galaxy?

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Retrieved Text: The Gum catalog is an astronomical catalog of 84 emission nebulae in the southern sky. It was made by the Australian astronomer Colin Stanley Gum (1924-1960) at Mount Stromlo Observatory using wide field photography. Gum published his findings in 1955 in a study entitled A study of diffuse southern H-alpha nebulae which presented a catalog of 84 nebulae or nebular complexes. Similar catalogs include the Sharpless catalog and the RCW catalog, and many of the Gum objects are repeated in these other catalogs.
The Gum Nebula is named for Gum, who discovered it as Gum 12; it is an emission nebula that can be found in the southern constellations Vela and Puppis.

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Retrieved Text: The Trifid Nebula, M20, is a must-have object for any astrophotographer in the Constellation of Sagittarius. It has a beautiful red/magenta emission nebula, captured here with the red and Hydrogen-alpha filters, partially covered by dense tendrils of dust. The region is an intense stellar nursery for new star creation. The emission nebula smoothly transitions into a bluish reflection nebula toward the north (lower left), where gas and dust reflect light from intense, nearby blue stars. There is also a considerable amount of dust trailing off into the background. Thanks to Chris Purves, my observatory partner at our iTelescope.net Siding Springs Observatory in Australia, for calibrating and providing the data that I processed.

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Retrieved Text: On 25.5 July 2013 the Lick Observatory Supernova Search reported a possible supernova in Messier 74. On 28.02 July, the Celestron c14 robotic unit was slewed to that transient, confirming it, despite the very strong interference of a waning Moon within 20 deg from M74. A report was sent to the central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT), which issued the CBET 3606 circular, announcing the discovery, including the contribution from the Virtual Telescope. The supernova was quite bright (mag. 12.8 R unfiltered), at this time being the brightest supernova in the sky in apparent magnitude. Spectroscopy showed this was a type II supernova. It is now called SN 2013ej.
Above is an image taken on 30 July 2013 and it shows SN 2013ej very well, shining at mag. 12.6 R, unfiltered. The same night, the 100 lines/mm diffraction grating available on the Celestron C14 was used to capture 10, 300 seconds exposures, to try to capture a spectrum of the source. While the Moon was still a issue, there was enough signal to get usable data. The resulting spectrum is below and it shows clear emission at the H-alpha wavelengths, confirming this is a type II supernova. Spectrum was reduced with RSpec.
Next story Near-Earth asteroid 2003 DZ15 close encounter: an image and a video for a great event!

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Retrieved Text: Intensity mapping is a novel technique to probe the distribution of matter in the universe. It has been very well studied in the context of HI 21cm emission for the SKA but not for other galaxy emission lines. The use of multitracers of the underlying dark matter distribution has proven to be a powerful tool to beat cosmic variance in measuring effects in the tracers power spectrum. I will discuss these methods and techniques as well as my work with Lyman-alpha intensity mapping.
O quarto paradigma da Astronomia?
The book of abstracts from past seminars (2011-2013) can be found here.
Cosmology seminar list from previous years (2010-2011) can be found here.

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Retrieved Text: Bower, R (2007). Exploring superwinds through Ly-alpha emission from high redshift galaxies. New Astronomy Reviews 51(1-2): 190-193.

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Retrieved Text: Pure accelerated radioisotope beams have been used for 50 years for fundamental physics as illustrated more recently with the discovery of pear shape exotic nuclei in 2013; CERN-ISOLDE plays a central role in developing accelerator technologies and fostering collaborative approaches to advance this field of isotope mass separation online. Our recent contribution was the use of nanomaterials for more intense and reliable beam production and laser ion sources.
Radioisotopes are widely used for functional imaging and is expected to play a major role in cancer treatment with new alpha emitters; 223Radium chloride (Xofigo®) radiopharmaceutical is now used as a treatment and pain relief drug in advanced bone cancers resistant to hormones. However, either shortage in the supply of the commonly used 99mTechnetium or lack of access to new chemical elements with adequate radioactive emission properties is a severe treat to supply these drugs or develop personalized treatment that combine functional imaging and therapy.
Ovarian cancers have poor prognosis;This type of cancer is difficult to treat with external radiotherapy, because of possible presence of metastasis and because this region is difficult to irradiate without collateral damages. The most current cure combines chemotherapy and surgery. This type of cancer is therefore very well suited to investigate new forms of treatments using theranostic isotope pairs to detect metastasis and have selective systemic radiotherapy. A new possible target (TEM1/endosialin), has been sidentified and an antibody was shown to specifically target this marker in preclinical imaging studies; this now opens the route for investigations of personalized treatments combining functional imaging and either alpha-emitting

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======= Instance Index 9 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

The stored food in a seed is called endosperm . It nourishes the embryo until it can start making food on its own.


Q: What is the stored food in a seed called?

 Choices:

- larval

- membrane

- pollin

- larval

A:

Target Text: endosperm

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Each and every seed is a miracle of biological engineering. Weighing anywhere from 1/35000000 (one 35 millionth) of an ounce for an orchid seed, and up to as much as 18 kg for the enormous Coco de Mer seed, all living seeds contain the complete genetic blueprint of its parents which they can use to replicate themselves to a similar design.
They are protected by a specialised seed coat – or testa - which allows the seed to germinate at the most optimum time of the year – it can also help to keep the seed viable for hundreds, and in rare cases, thousands of years! Furthermore, they contain enough energy to allow the seed to anchor itself into the ground using a juvenile root system as well as to produce its first true leaves. This will then set the seedling on the road to photosynthesis and a life of taking full advantage of free energy from the sun. This in turn will allow it to continue growing, and mature to a point where it will produce seed of its own.
I suppose that strictly speaking, a seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed within its seed coat, together with a repository of stored food in the form of carbohydrates. The seed itself is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed bearing plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination),

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Retrieved Text: The seed germination process is a complex process in which the embryonic plant created by sexual reproduction of plants propagates the species by forming a new, independent plant. In order to germinate, the moisture and temperatures must be right. New plants live a short while on the sugars stored in the seed, requiring the plant to start gathering nutrients and moisture from the soil and producing its own food quickly.
Once a plant produces a seed, it remains dormant until it senses the conditions are right for germination. All seeds require water, the right temperature and oxygen to germinate. Water initiates the metabolic processes needed for the seed to germinate. Use of the sugars stored in the seed requires respiration, a process requiring oxygen. If the soil is too wet, the seed cannot obtain the needed oxygen and does not germinate. Seeds do not germinate when the temperatures drop below freezing. Some require full light to germinate, and others require darkness.
When the proper conditions exist, the seed takes in water and oxygen through its seed coat. Cells start to grow larger, eventually breaking the seed coat. The root emerges first, followed by the shoot, which contains the stem and leaves.
Find Seeds Germination. Examine Now.
What Are the Stages of a Dandelion?

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Retrieved Text: A propagating organ formed in the sexual reproductive cycle of gymnosperms and angiosperms, consisting of a protective coat enclosing an embryo and food reserves. A small hard fruit. A mature fertilized plant ovule consisting of an embryo and its food source and having a protective coat or testa. The thick white fluid containing spermatozoa that is ejaculated by the male genital tract. The structure found in a fertilised ovule of a plant. Generally, this will consist of two main components, the embryo and endosperm. The endosperm acts as a food store for the embryo which over time, will grow from this rich food supply enabling it to do so.
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is a characteristic of spermatophytes (gymnosperm and angiosperm plants) and the product of the ripened ovule which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant.
The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. All seeds are different size, shape and colour.
Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of gymnosperm ("naked seeds" /monocotyledons or monocot) and angiosperm ("enclosed seeds"/dicotyledons or dicot) plants, relative to more primitive plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use other means to propagate themselves. This can be seen by the success

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Retrieved Text: Determining the storage life of foods is at best an inexact science as there are so many variables. These range from the condition your food was in when you first purchased it and includes many other factors. This page was written with input by Mr. Stephen Portela who has over 30 years of professional food storage experience. This information should be used as a general guide only, and should not be followed "as the gospel truth" because your results may be different.
Temperature has more to do with how long well dried foods store than anything else. The USDA states, "Each 5.6 C. (10.08F) drop in temperature doubles the storage life of the seeds." Obviously, there is a limit as to how far this statement can be taken. However I expect it basically holds true from room temperature down to freezing. No doubt, the inverse could also be considered true. "Each 5.6C. (10.08F) rise in temperature halves the storage life of seeds." This theory holds true for non-garden seeds as well.
Note: the above chart is not for a specific food but shows the relationship between temperature and storage life.
About a year ago we got an unopened paper bag of white flour which had been stored at 70 degrees F, in a dry climate. It had been sitting for 3 years in a closet. It made fine looking bread but had such an 'old' and bad flavor that it was difficult to eat. For another example, a couple of years ago in the Puget Sound area we were

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Retrieved Text: A common sight in autumn, bright orange pumpkins bring color to the season. They are the fruit of the pumpkin plant and, aside from being carved into jack-o'-lanterns, can be used in making pies, puddings, breads, cookies and soups. Pumpkins are an annual plant and grow to maturity in a single growing season. This process begins with a seed planted in the spring.
The seed of the pumpkin plant is approximately ½ to ¾ of an inch in length and about 1/4 inch in width. It is flat and oval in shape with a pointed tip. Inside is an embryo from which the plant will grow and stored starches that act as food in a portion of the seed called the endosperm. A hard outer coat protects the seed.
Because pumpkin is a warm season vegetable, it requires warm soils to germinate properly. Once the seed is planted, moisture will enter through the seed coat and into the seed, triggering germination. The embryo will begin to grow, eventually splitting open the seed coat.
It will first produce a root that will grow downward into the soil. The root will form tiny hairs that will absorb nutrients and water from the soil to nourish the plant. A small stem will form with two leaves, called cotyledons, from the endosperm. These leaves continue to nourish the plant with stored starches and also begin the process of photosynthesis.
Over the growing season, the pumpkin plant will continue to grow. Roots will spread throughout the soil. The plant will take the form of a

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Retrieved Text: Many small pet birds such as budgies love to nibble poppy seeds (Papaver somniferum) due to their good taste. Those tiny seeds contain a lot of fat, so it is advisable to serve only small quantities of this food to avoid overweight. Poppy seeds belong to the group of the so-called oilseeds. Regarding the total amount of a seed mixture, oilseeds should not make up more than 5% of all grains and seeds. Please note that poppy seeds cannot be stored for long, they becomes	rancid quickly. So it is advisable to buy small quantities from time to time.

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Retrieved Text: Pumpkins and Squash for 'Winter' meals!
When storing seeds for many years keep them dry and cool. Suzanne Ashworth's book confirms what we have been doing for many years. "The two greatest enemies of stored seeds are high temperature and high moisture."1 and "Home-saved seeds will retain maximum vigor when thoroughly dried and stored in a moisture-proof container."1 Moisture can pass through plastic, as well as paper. The pouches that I use to store our collections and grains are food bags that are metalized 2.2 poly which provides two layers of protection from moisture and light. These are used to preserve foods and grains. They are FDA and USDA compliant. The dimensions of these bags are 6 x 8 inches. I add a desiccant packet to absorb any moisture in the air in each bag for long term storage. I carefully heat seal each one. These pouches protect from moisture and light and are easy to carry. If you look at whole grains sold in plastic buckets for food storage, you will see the same type of foil bags are used to line the food grade buckets. Never store any food or seeds in plastics which are not approved for use with food such as drainage pipe with caps on the ends. Toxic chemicals used in making them are not safe for food or seeds. For long term seed storage, I have been using vapor-proof pouches or glass jars and the germination rates are superior.
This is what comes in each box we ship: A full set of

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Retrieved Text: First of all, I am not a Nepenthes enthusiast, but I like Nepenthes. I am quite unfamiliar with Nepenthes. In fact, I have been hardly growing Nepenthes in greenhouse. I remember the disappointed look (facial expression) of the great German Nepenthes & Heliamphora specialist, who is a worldwide distributer, when he saw a dying tiny Nepenthes (only one I had in my greenhouse at that time) in my Byblis greenhouse (see the far bottom in the page 1 of the thread: in my Byblis greenhouse) after the ICPS international conference in 2002.
My German friend (not the above-mentioned specialist, but he is also a specialist) kindly sent Nepenthes eymae seeds to me in 2013. I sowed the seeds in vitro, they germinated very well. Recently when I was tidying up the refrigerator, I found the remaining of the seeds without silica gel. Just curiosity, I sowed the seeds on February 9 in 2018. The seed was 5 years old. I noticed its germination a few days ago. I took the photos on March 2 in 2018.
I have often heard the viability of Nepenthes seed is quite short. It might be the fact when it came to the Lowlanders?
were stained with all sorts of unknown spilled food stuff.
100 seeds had germinated (Fig. 1).
of small seeds or estimate germinate rate. I was just surprised that the 22-year-old seeds germinated.
None of the old Drosera seeds germinated.
Great information!!! I also have many old cp seeds in the refrigerator. Your experience encourages my future trials. Thank you very much Bob-san!!!
A few members

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Retrieved Text: As we walk through the forest and view the trees, we remember they were once tiny seeds. Nearly all hardwood seeds are the same. They have an outer cover for protection, food and water inside to use for the first surge into growth, a part that has an affinity for water that will seek out the soil and become roots and a part with an affinity for light that will seek the sun and become leaves and branches. Nature gives all seeds another characteristic. An acorn will always grow into an oak tree and a pine seed will always grow into a pine tree.
While nature provides a seed all it needs to survive, she provides great opposition to survival. From the beginning, each seed must compete with its neighbor for water, food, sunlight and space in which to grow. Trees produce thousands of seeds. Very few grow to maturity. In fact, from a start of 10,000 seedlings per acre at age one year, the final stand of mature trees may number less than 50.
Seeds compete not only for food and sun with each other but many are eaten by forest animals, others are destroyed by insects and disease, and some simply do not find a suitable place to sprout.
Some trees produce flowers, from which the seeds come, before the leaves come out in the spring. These flowers produce seeds that ripen in the spring and fall to the ground and start to grow that year. Other seeds ripen and drop off in the fall and lay

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Rank: 9
Score: 22.402386
Retrieved Text: The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in the Arctic Circle has received a major deposit of nearly 50,000 seed samples from around the world, bringing the total number of seeds stored at the remote facility to nearly one million. This latest deposit—one of the largest ever—is a critical step in ensuring global food security at a time when the world’s climate and geopolitics seems precarious.
With contributions from nine different institutions, today’s major deposit is one of the largest since the vault was opened nearly a decade ago. Countries that added seeds to the facility include Benin, India, Pakistan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Netherlands, the US, Mexico, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belarus, and the UK.
The seed samples, which will be stored at the facility for safekeeping, include some of the world’s most vital food sources. Samples of wheat, lentil, barley, cultivated rice, mung beans, chickpeas, sorghum, grass peas, mash beans, and over 86 different potato species are just a handful of the varieties that comprised today’s deposit. This brings the total number of seed samples now stored at the Svalbard Seed Vault to 930,821.
Launched in 2008, the facility is managed by the Norwegian government, the Global Crop Diversity Trust, and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center. The seed vault is located 800 miles (1,300 km) north of the Arctic Circle on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, and it contains the largest collection of agricultural biodiversity in the world. The Crop Trust funds the preparation and shipment of seeds from developing countries to Svalbard, as well as a portion of the vault’s

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Rank: 10
Score: 22.191235
Retrieved Text: A customer of mine who lives on a beautiful hilly and rocky property on Forest Lake has a problem – a beaver problem. Early last year the furry critters girdled two 16 inch diameter sweet gums on the back hill. They took off about two feet of bark and underlying green tissue all the way around each trunk.
Now, as you know, plants manufacture food in the leaves where photosynthesis takes place. This food is primarily in the form of sugars and is distributed to the rest of the plant where it is used as a source of energy in the production of the many complex components of the plant such as fats and proteins and DNA.
This movement of this energy producing food takes place in specialized tissues called phloem. In woody plants like trees the phloem is just under the bark extending in an unbroken network from leaves to the tips of stems to branches truck and root. In this tissue flows the lifeblood of the plant.
And that is bad news for our two sweet gum trees. Because of the break in the flow of this food source to the roots of the tree, in time these roots will die. When the roots die the tree will no longer be able to get any water, which means the tree will die.
But oddly, 18 months later the tree is not dead – indeed, it has a full canopy of leaves! How can this be?
Plants, thankfully, are adept at storing food for future use. Seeds are so nutritious

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Rank: 11
Score: 22.136997
Retrieved Text: This time of year, questions about starting seeds indoors are common. The following FAQs should serve as a helpful refresher for the seasoned gardener and a great resource for all the first-timers.
Q: I have a bag of open potting soil in the garage. Why must I use soilless seed starting mix?
A: Soilless seed starting mix contains all the right stuff and none of the wrong stuff. Seed starting media has excellent drainage, just the right amount of nutrition to get the seedlings off to a good start and none of soil borne pathogens that can attack and kill those young seedlings. That open bag of potting soil likely contains a mix that is too "heavy" for seed starting and since it has been open, likely now contains disease pathogens from contaminated gardening tools. Save that bag for the outdoor garden.
Q: I kept unused seed from 2018. Will I be able to use it this spring?
A: That is one of those yes, no and maybe questions. In general, the larger the seed, the longer it will last. Think snap beans versus lettuce seed or sunflower versus marigold. Those tiny seeds with limited food reserves may not make it even a year later. In addition, seed stored in a cool, dry environment will last longer than seed stored in hot, dry conditions. Seed stored in tight-sealing containers will last longer than leftover seed in the open seed packet. In general, the germination rate goes down about 10 percent each year. Best bet is to buy and use fresh

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Rank: 12
Score: 21.951338
Retrieved Text: Why are seed banks necessary?
A farmer passes his hand over corn. Corn comes in many different varieties, depending on climate and region.
Although you might think the concept is rooted in the contemporary "green" movement, seed banking is not a new phenomenon. Scientists believe agriculture began as far back as 8000 B.C., in the mountains of Mesopotamia, now present day Iraq. Even then, farmers realized their seeds needed protection in order to ensure the next year's harvest. As a result, seed harvesting was one of the most important rituals in ancient farming communities. In Iraq, scientists have discovered evidence of seed banks from as far back as 6750 B.C. [source: Seabrook].
Back then, seed banks protected seeds from animals and extreme weather. Today, we store seeds for different reasons. The most essential reason is crop diversity. Just as humans have specific genetic traits, so do plants. And just as humans have evolved and adapted to specific conditions over time, so have plants. Different varieties of plants are suited for different things. A good example is corn. Corn is grown in different parts of the world and in different climates, which creates many varieties of corn [source: Rosenthal].
­This sort of diversity must be preserved -- not because we need 50 varieties of popcorn, but because we don't want to lose any plants that may prove valuable in the future. For example, in the 1970s a widespread fungus cut United States corn yields in half. The blight was alleviated by use of genetic materials from a wild corn relative that

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Rank: 13
Score: 21.944601
Retrieved Text: The vitamins and minerals present in Hemp Seed Oil are easily absorbed through the skin and or intenstines, resulting in a more vitamin and mineral enriched body care product or many food products.
You're investing in a vital industry that can revolutionize the world.
One tablespoon of hempseed oil or 1 ounce of shelled hempseed supplies roughly 6.6 grams of omega-6 and 2.2 grams of omega-3 – just the amounts needed for a 2000-calorie diet.
This is a suitable amount even for vegetarians and takes into account the conversion ration of 1% ALA to DHA, the currently accepted conversion rate for plant sources of omega-3.
Hemp Seed Oil is best stored in the fridge or best in a freezer.
It will stay fluid and does not need to be defrosted. One to 3 tablespoons is the suggested daily intake for adults; athletes up to 3 tbsp; children can take half that amount; and breast-fed babies obtain its benefits through the mother’s milk.
These are general #'s and may not represent the product you order from us, but are meant to give you an idea of the average nutrient facts of hemp seed oil.
*=essential fatty acid. This1:3 LNA:LA ratio is called ''the optimum balance" by Dr. Udo Erasmus, author of the book Fats that Heal, Fats that Kill, an authoritative book on edible oils and fats.
** "GLA" is Omega-6 Super GLA, less commonly found in fish and flaxseed oils.

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Rank: 14
Score: 21.885393
Retrieved Text: Certified Organic Hemp Seed Oil.
All of the omega fatty acids in healthy oils can become less healthy and bad tasting if stored improperly. This is what is often called “rancidity”. This process can be slowed down by storing oils in a cool, dark place with little exposure to oxygen, heat and light, which increases the rate of reaction. The darker and cooler, the better! Protecting hemp oil for the life of the bottle ensures you get the same excellent ratio of omega fatty acids, right to the last drop!
Hemp Seed Oil - Organic - is currently on backorder. You may still purchase now though and we'll ship as soon as more become available.

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Rank: 15
Score: 21.799484
Retrieved Text: ROME (Thomson Reuters Foundation) – A cult German board game whose fans include Hollywood actors Mila Kunis and Woody Harrelson may not seem the most obvious vehicle for raising awareness about the importance of preserving crop diversity.
But that is what the makers of “Catan” are seeking to do with a new version of the popular game in which players compete to settle an imaginary uncharted island, gaining points for building settlements, accumulating and trading resources.
“Catan – Crop Trust”, which launches on Thursday, requires players to balance the goal of farming and harvesting crops with the collective aim of preserving diversity by saving some of their seeds in a vault.
Players who fail to do so endanger diversity, threatening the food supply and the survival of the island at the centre of the new game, developed with the caretakers of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
“The unique thing is that you can’t win with only pursuing your own interest,” said Marie Haga, executive director of the Crop Trust, which looks after the world’s largest seed bank.
“You’ve got to make sure you don’t deplete the natural resources in the game. Because then everybody loses,” she told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.
Nearly 1 million seed samples are stored in the Svalbard vault, which was established to protect the world’s plant diversity in the event of disaster and is stored above the Arctic Circle.
Proceeds from the sales of the new game will go to the Crop Trust, which supports seed banks around the world, and buyers will also get an almanac on the

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Rank: 16
Score: 21.794567
Retrieved Text: Plants play a major role In our environment, as we know it. The Plants help supplement human life as a source of food and oxygen in which we can’t survive without. Are you preparing to ace that final exam for exploring creation botany class? Take up this quiz designed to set you on that path.
What does the vascular system of a plant do?
Gymnosperms are plants that make ________.
The purpose of flowers are to make seeds.
A baby plant in a protective coating with food.
The line that runs down the middle of a leaf is called the ___________.
The word Biology means the study of inanimate objects.
The outer shell of a peanut is called a _________.
The outer coat of a seed is called the testa.
Which of the following words describe parts of the inside of a seed?
When water surrounds a seed and the testa loosens and water gets inside the seed and the embryo wakes up. What is this process called?
The set of colors in the rainbow is called the ________ spectrum of light.
What color are hummingbirtds attracted to?
Everything that grows from a flower and contains seeds is considered a vegetable.
Which of the following fruits are fleshy type fruits?
Leaves take a certain type of gas out of the air called _______ and release into the air a Gas called _________.
The liquid gooey stuff taken out of a tree and use on pancakes is called sap.
Rain and wind can whisk soil away and change the landscape. This is called __________.
Leaves are filled with a special substance called ___________ which helps

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Rank: 17
Score: 21.733097
Retrieved Text: Caraway seed is used to flavor liqueurs, teas, soups, breads and other baked goods. It is widely used in Scandinavian cooking, as well as in German, Russian and Indian cuisines.
why buy whole caraway seed? Multiple culinary uses.
appearance & aroma Grayish-brown with ridges and an anise-like aroma.
culinary Use in cakes, breads, muffins and cookies. Caraway seed also flavors braised meats and vegetables. May also be prepared as tea.
Use caraway seed and juniper berries together to flavor stews and braised meats.
Fennel and caraway share similar flavor and digestive qualities.
Vaguely similar to licorice or anise, but tempered with peppery undertones.
Caraway seed is said to be Europe’s first spice, with a history that begins in ancient Rome and eventually reaching Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. It is a staple flavoring agent and condiment in Northern, Central and Eastern European cuisines. In North Africa, caraway seed is a key ingredient in a pungent chili paste called harissa that is used to flavor stews, soups and couscous.
Although caraway grows freely in the Alpine meadows of Germany, the plant was carefully cultivated in medieval monasteries and the dried fruits were harvested for food as well as for their carminative and anti-flatulent properties. In fact, according to tradition, a cup of caraway tea is not only capable of dispelling gas, but can also ensure that true love never strays. The latter belief is preserved in the practice of feeding caraway seed to homing pigeons so that they can always find their way back to the roost.
Background: Caraway is native to the area surrounding the

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Rank: 18
Score: 21.570787
Retrieved Text: Norway has mysteriously upped its spending by announcing plans to invest g $12.7 million into upgrading the doomsday seed vault sparking fears of a coming cataclysm.
According to the Norwegian government, a new concrete access tunnel which will also include a service building allowing "emergency power and refrigerating units and other electrical equipment that emits heat through the tunnel," will be part of the upgrades the Verge reported.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is based on the Norwegian island of Svalbard and is used as preserving a variety plants a seed in the event of a large-scale global crisis or end of the world scenario.
Sputnik News reports: If a global natural or manmade disaster, like a nuclear war, was to take place, the Norwegian government would be able to use and distribute seeds protected within the vault to regrow crops and plants.
Although the facility is owned and administered by Norway's Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the world community is free to use it, and depositors retain ownership rights over their seeds stored in the facility. The vault can store up to 4.5 million crop varieties. It currently houses more than 890,000 specimens of plant seeds from almost every country in the world.
"The packages are sealed inside boxes and stored on shelves inside the vault. The low temperature and moisture levels inside the vault ensure low metabolic activity, keeping the seeds viable for long periods of time," writes the website CropTrust, an organization founded in 2004 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN and Biodiversity International.
"It is

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Rank: 19
Score: 21.521376
Retrieved Text: What are the benefits of flax seed? I have high cholesterol and someone suggested flax seed. And what is best the oil or the flax seeds themselves?
What is flaxseed? Flax is an oilseed just like sunflower and canola are oilseeds. There are three main ways that flaxseeds seem to offer health benefits. These include the fat content of flaxseeds, the lignan content of flax, and the fiber content of flaxseeds.
Flaxseeds are rich in omega-3 fatty acids (specifically alpha-linolenic acid or ALA). This type of fat is similar to the healthy fat found in fatty fish such as salmon. Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fat, which are healthier than saturated fats.
Saturated fat is the type of fat found in animal products, like red meat and full fat dairy (cheese and whole milk). A diet that is too high in saturated fat can increase the risk of cancer and heart disease. Omega-3 fatty acids on the other hand, like the fat in flaxseeds, appear to reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer, including breast and prostate cancer. Flaxseeds are the only plant foods that contain a significant amount of omega-3 fatty acids.
Flaxseeds are also an excellent source of fiber. It is recommended that people consume approximately 25-35 grams of dietary fiber a day. The average person only consumes around 12 grams. Just two tablespoons of flaxseeds contain approximately five grams of fiber. This is important because research now suggests that getting fiber from food sources is key in reducing risk of many cancers.
In addition,

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Rank: 20
Score: 21.444954
Retrieved Text: The Preparedness Seeds Salsa Bucket provides a Missing link in your food storage plan.
By storing away enough seed to plant a large salsa garden, you will be able to spice up your food storage for years to come.
11 seed packets sealed in a Mini-Ropak Bucket. Plants a large salsa garden! Will keep up to 4 years if stored at 66 to 70 degrees and much longer if kept colder. All Non-hybrid, open pollinated varieties. Harvested seeds can be planted year after year Packets are re-sealable for lasting protection. Complete planting and harvesting instructions included. Please Note: Because of the shortage of Non-Hybrid seed, substitutions may occur.

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Rank: 21
Score: 21.382683
Retrieved Text: HOW CAN I BECOME A PARTNER OF THIS MINISTRY AND BE REWARDED BY GOD FOR DISCIPLING THE NATION?
Seed in fertile land produces up to 100% harvest. This ministry is called by God to disciple Africa.
Our vision to disciple one million people for Jesus in the next few years can become a reality with your investment. Become a PARTNER of us and of the mission that God has called us to accomplish through His Power.
8 "And God is able to make all grace abound to you, so that in all things at all times having all that you need, you will abound in every good work."
10 Now He who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food will also supply and increase your store of seed and will enlarge the harvest of your righteousness.
11 You will be made rich in every way so that you can be generous on every occasion, and through us your generosity will result in thanksgiving to God.
Is financial prosperity God's will for your life?
* Does God wish abundace for us? Canaan......overflowing with milk and honey........YES!!!!
"I (Jesus) have come that they may have life, and have it to the full."
".....for it is God who gives your the ability to produce wealth, ...... to establish His covenant on earth......"
"The Lord will grant you abundant prosperity"
"Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure pressed down, shaken down together and running over."
"The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want".
"You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies........my cup

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Rank: 22
Score: 21.347027
Retrieved Text: Crocodile Dave will help you keep those rodents out!
Take some tips from industry experts on how to stay critter-free!
The best offense is a good defense. How many times have you heard that? It’s true when dealing with rats, mice, Squirrels and other nasty rodents too.
If you want to keep these pests away from your home and yard, the first step is to make sure you aren’t feeding them.
Those beautiful bird feeders are fun to watch, but they are also a great food source for rats. Even if you have a rodent proof bird feeder, the seed is dropped to the ground where squirrels and rats can feast. As lovely as they are to have near the house, you may want to place them at the farthest corners of the yard and use binoculars. For storage, it is best to keep all bird seed in a metal container with a tight lid.
Another seed that should be kept in a tightly sealed metal container is grass seed. All too often, we find grass seed that has been stored in garages, basements, crawlspaces and storage areas to be the cause for rodent infestation.
Dry dog and cat food stored in the garage is also a way to ring the dinner bell for unwanted guests.
Any food source should be stored in tightly sealed metal containers.
Once a rodent has entered a home, they are reluctant to leave. All of a sudden the food source becomes your food pantry, your counter tops and your dog and cat food bowls. They have found a

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Rank: 23
Score: 21.281961
Retrieved Text: Hemp seed oil comes from the seeds of the hemp plant. There are two different ways hemp seed oil can be processed: Unrefined, cold-pressed hemp seed oil – this oil is green in color with a nutty flavor. Cold pressed hemp oil preserves hemp’s nutritious content, so it is often called “Nature’s most perfectly balanced oil”. It has a limited shelf life and should be stored in the refrigerator once opened. Refined hemp seed oil – this oil is clear and colorless. It doesn’t have much flavor and also lacks the natural vitamins and antioxidants that hemp is known for. Refined hemp oil is typically used as ingredients for body care products, fuel, lubricants, and even plastics.

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Rank: 24
Score: 21.233421
Retrieved Text: The lesser grain borer is a pest of a wide variety of food .Serious pest of most stored grains. This beetle lives and feeds in warehouses and stores, especially feed and health food stores. The origin of the lesser grain Beetle (borer) is uncertain but it now has a cosmopolitan distribution. It is a serious pest of dried stored products throughout the tropics and it is also found in temperate countries. It has most likely spread as a result of the international trade in food products combined with its strong flying ability.
The lesser grain Beetle is black-brown in color. It is about 2.5 - 3 mm long with club-like antennae. The body has a slender cylindrical form and the head is hidden under the round neck-shield. Viewed from the side the beetle’s mouth parts and eyes are tucked underneath the thorax (chest). The larvae are whitish with a yellow head.
Adult females lay eggs singly or in groups of up to 30. Adult beetles are strong flyers. Adults live for 2 to 3 months. The eggs are laid on the outside of the grain and a female can lay 300 to 500 eggs. Young larvae (white with brown heads) initially feed outside then bore into the grain. Life cycle is completed in four weeks. Pupation takes place inside the hollow shell of the seed or in the ""flour"" that accumulates with infested grain."
Lesser grain borer is primarily a pest in stored wheat and corn. Their habit is to remain hidden in grain. Regular sampling and sieving is

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Score: 21.231104
Retrieved Text: If a lot of birds are coming to feed in your yard, you need to consider buying cheap wild bird food. However, cheap food might sometime mean bad quality. So, it is important to check the ingredients before going for the cheap seed mix. Cheap mixes might not have enough vitamins and minerals for the birds you are feeding. Sometimes your feeders become the only source of food for birds, especially in the winter. So, it is important to make the food as wholesome as possible.
Cheap wild bird seed can be purchased wholesale. This will definitely save you some money as well as time. If you have a place to store the food, it would be a good idea to buy a lot of it in order not to bother with ordering it too often. However, it is important to store the bird seed properly. Remember, that the bird seed is afraid of moisture. If some moisture gets into the bags with seed, it will be ruined. Always check the bags for mold and bad smells before giving the food to the birds. The birds might not understand that the food has gone bad and will become ill after eating it.
Cheapest bird food is usually low in quality. But sometimes even such food will save the birds from hunger in the winter. So, if you don’t have a chance to buy high quality and more expensive food, you can still buy the cheapest one you can to keep the birds fed. Make sure to provide birds

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Rank: 26
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Retrieved Text: Svalbard Global Seed Vault is the ultimate security storage for the world’s crop diversity. The Seed Vault conserves duplicates of seed samples that are conserved in gene banks all over the world.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault secures conservation of the world’s most important plant genetic resources for food and agriculture with a maximum level of security. The Seed Vault offers free-of-charge back-up for the seed collections held in seedbanks around the world.
Svalbard is a remote and secure, but still accessible location. The safety of the seed samples is ensured by the thick sandstone rock surrounding them, and their long-term survival is ensured by the permafrost conditions that maintain the airtight seed samples well below freezing, even in the event that the mechanical cooling (-18°C ) should fail.
The Nordic Genetic Resource Center is responsible for the operation and management of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, including cooperation with depositing gene banks, handling of seeds, databases and information. NordGen’s operative responsibility for the Seed Vault is conducted in accordance with an agreement with our partners; the Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food and the Global Crop Diversity Trust.
Svalbard office of Statsbyggs (national authority for management of governmental estate) is responsible for day by day surveillance and maintenance of the Seed Vault. Management of the Seed Vault is funded by the Norwegian Ministry for Agriculture and Food, Crop Trust and NordGen.
For general information visit the official webpage of the Seed Vault.
Are you interested in depositing seeds in the Seed Vault, have look at this page. Are you interested in

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Rank: 27
Score: 21.139557
Retrieved Text: Around here the room all the home canned goods are stored in, is called the fruit room. Same as a pantry or larder. It just depends on what part of the country you come from. Our fruit room is an enclosed room in our basement, which helps keep the temperature even, which is great for storing preserved food long term. We keep track of temperature and humidity, (same as for seed storage) strive for a sum of 100 when humidity and temperature are added together.
I will fill this page with the list of what we preserved this year, (if I remembered to write it down) and I will break it down into what we store and where, and the quantities of each. * denotes purchased fruit, otherwise all produce is grown here. 2008 tally listed below.
Our method of providing food for our farmstead includes many different storage methods. We can, freeze and dry foods, but we try spread out our harvest by growing more winter hardy vegetable varieties, and growing foods that store without using any additional energy. We don’t have an elaborate pantry system, but generally plan to use one unit per week of each item. HD packs his lunch from these stores, so it takes a pint a fruit a day for his lunch alone. Sometimes if the price is right on purchased fruit, I will can two years worth, since we can’t count on every year being a good fruit year. We treat our own fruit the same, if we have an abundance,

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Retrieved Text: Seeds naturally have a place in almost any endeavor having to do with agricultural development. Seeds of most food plants are small and, as such, are more easily transported and can be shipped longer distances than vegetative cuttings. For the farmer, seeds represent the promise of a continued supply of food.
As with any development “tool,” however, seeds can be misused. For instance, distributing improperly stored seeds that germinate poorly could expose farmers to risk of crop failure.
This collection is a sub-set of the collection Seed Production and Storage which contains additional resources concerning seeds. Please feel free to inform us of additional helpful links for either collection.
This group pageexists so that individuals involved in Creating Seed Banksaround the world can connect. We encourage you to share the challenges you face in your endeavors, discuss lessons and techniques learned through your experiences, and share your story!
2014-03-17 This audio slideshow reveals how the ECHO Asia Seedbanksaves and distributes underutilised seeds for free.
2015-12-02 An introduction to plant and seed biology, including pollination, germination, multiplication, selection, isolation, and how to select seed.
This is an in-depth report of the factors to be taken into consideration when designing seed storage facilities for genetic conservation.
A community seed bank can compare favourably with its High-Tech cousin.

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Retrieved Text: Fake seed on left.True on the right. It seems as soon as someone takes a photo of something weird and fascinating in the orchid world, then someone tries to cash in and make money from it.... 28/03/2013�� Orchid update. Dracula Vampira Orchid is sometimes called the Black Orchid , Dracula Vampira blooms have opened! This Dracula Vampira Orchid grows in the heated greenhouse.
Welcome to the Hawk Hill Orchids website. What's up lately with Hawk Hill? 2015 was a year of big changes, and that was followed by 2016, a year of lots of distractions and learning what the "new normal" is after the changes of 2015.... 28/03/2013�� Orchid update. Dracula Vampira Orchid is sometimes called the Black Orchid , Dracula Vampira blooms have opened! This Dracula Vampira Orchid grows in the heated greenhouse.
The orchid genus Dracula, abbreviated as Drac in horticultural trade, consists of 118 species native to Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The name Dracula literally means "little dragon", an allusion to the mythical Count Dracula, a lead character in numerous vampire novels and films.... 28/03/2013�� Orchid update. Dracula Vampira Orchid is sometimes called the Black Orchid , Dracula Vampira blooms have opened! This Dracula Vampira Orchid grows in the heated greenhouse.
Orchid propagation from seed is difficul because of this lack of stored nutrients in orchid seeds. While it is possible to sow orchid seeds at the base of the parent plant and occasionally have a few germinate, most orchids are grown from seed in sterile laboratory flasks on agar, which provides enough

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======= Instance Index 10 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

One way to keep iron from corroding is to keep it painted. The layer of paint prevents the water and oxygen necessary for rust formation from coming into contact with the iron. As long as the paint remains intact, the iron is protected from corrosion. Other strategies include alloying the iron with other metals. For example, stainless steel is mostly iron with a bit of chromium. The chromium tends to collect near the surface, where it forms an oxide layer that protects the iron. Zinc-plated or galvanized iron uses a different strategy. Zinc is more easily oxidized than iron because zinc has a lower reduction potential. Since zinc has a lower reduction potential, it is a more active metal. Thus, even if the zinc coating is scratched, the zinc will still oxidize before the iron. This suggests that this approach should work with other active metals. Another important way to protect metal is to make it the cathode in a galvanic cell. This is cathodic protection and can be used for metals other than just iron. For example, the rusting of underground iron storage tanks and pipes can be prevented or greatly reduced by connecting them to a more active metal such as zinc or magnesium (Figure 17.18). This is also used to protect the metal parts in water heaters. The more active metals (lower reduction potential) are called sacrificial anodes because as they get used up as they corrode (oxidize) at the anode. The metal being protected serves as the cathode, and so does not oxidize (corrode). When the anodes are properly monitored and periodically replaced, the useful lifetime of the iron storage tank can be greatly extended.


Q: Zinc is more easily oxidized than iron because zinc has a lower reduction potential. since zinc has a lower reduction potential, it is a more what?

 Choices:

- usually metal

- active metal

- much metal

- Trap metal

A:

Target Text: active metal

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 79.69892
Retrieved Text: Well, I'll address a core concept found in questions #8 - 12#, but I can't directly answer all six of your questions. I'll answer question #7#.
The battery is also a galvanic cell, where zinc is oxidized from #0# to #+2# and silver is reduced from #+1# to #0#. In galvanic cells, cathode = #(+)#, anode = #(-)#.
#(a)# is not correct, because #"Ag"_2"O"# is a reactant... reactants get consumed, and you should know this from the definition of a reactant.
#(b)# is not correct, for two reasons. #"Ag"_2"O"# is aqueous, and thus is not an anode, a solid. Furthermore, #"Zn"# gets oxidized from #stackrel(0)"Zn"# to #stackrel(+2)"Zn"# in #"ZnO"#.
Hence, #"Zn"# is the anode, OUT of which electrons flow to get TO the positive terminal and reduce the aqueous #"Ag"_2"O"# to increase #"Ag"(s)# mass at the cathode.
#(c)# We just said the opposite... Electrons flow AWAY from zinc, so #"Zn"# gets oxidized, not reduced. Thus, this is incorrect.
#bb((d))# is thus correct, as the anode is the source of the reducing electrons.
And it is mandatory that you receive a table like this at any chemistry exam where these questions are asked. Or, you should be able to figure out where it is in your textbook.
Any reactant that is higher up on the standard reduction potential table is more easily reduced and thus a better oxidizing agent.
Any reactant that is lower in the standard reduction potential table is more easily oxidized and thus a better reducing agent.
A cation usually won't get further oxidized (with one exception being #"Fe"^(2+) -> "Fe"^(3+)#, among others).
A polyatomic

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Retrieved Text: The EMF denotes electromotive force, another name for electrical potential.
Chemists have measured the voltages of a great variety of electrodes by connecting each in a cell with a standard hydrogen electrode, which is hydrogen gas at 1 atmosphere bubbling over a platinum wire immersed in 1 M H +( aq). This standard electrode is arbitrarily assigned a potential of 0 volts, and measurement of the EMF of the complete cell allows the potential of the other electrode to be determined. Table 1 lists some standard potentials for electrodes at which reduction is occurring.
has an EMF of –1.20 volts, the opposite given in Table 1. Look this up in the chart to be sure that you understand.
The complete zinc‐copper cell has a total potential of 1.10 volts (the sum of 0.76v and 0.34v). Notice that the sign of the potential of the zinc anode is the reverse of the sign given in the chart of standard electrode potentials (see Table 1) because the reaction at the anode is oxidation.
In the chart of standard electrode potentials (see Table 1), reactions are arranged in order of their tendency to occur. Reactions with a positive EMF occur more readily than those with a negative EMF. The zinc‐copper cell has an overall EMF of +1.10 volts, so the dissolution of zinc and deposition of copper can proceed.
Calculate the total potential of a similar cell with zinc and aluminum electrodes. Table 3 shows the two pertinent half‐reactions.
Such a cell with zinc and aluminum electrodes would have an overall potential of +0.90 volt,

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Rank: 2
Score: 66.415985
Retrieved Text: Zinc air battery is expensive and difficult to charge, in the past have not been able to a large number of applications in mobile phones, laptops and other consumer electronics products, but more recently, from the university of Sydney Australia and Singapore nanyang technological university's researchers say that they have found new breakthrough method, you can use the lower cost of electricity catalyst to help achieve rechargeable zinc air battery.If you can use this method to produce a battery, you will have the opportunity to compete with lithium-ion batteries.
Zinc is a very cheap and abundant reserve of the metal, which will be for the zinc air battery anode (cathode) using zinc alloy, the cathode (the anode) material from a large amount of oxygen in the air, because of the low toxicity of less harmful effect on the environment, and light weight, stable security, can store 5 times more energy than lithium ion battery, if developed, will be the hottest star of tomorrow in the battery industry.
Zinc air batteries were first discovered in the early 19th century, and by 1997, the slovenian inventor Miro Zoric developed the first rechargeable zinc air battery and used in small and medium-sized buses.But the zinc air battery common use only in a small electronic devices, such as: hearing AIDS, electronic watches, railway signals equipment, etc., this is because of the high cost of zinc air battery is limited by recharging and easy spontaneous reaction with oxygen to produce self discharge faults.
The key to the preservation of the zinc - free battery,

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Rank: 3
Score: 63.337036
Retrieved Text: A vegetarian diet is decidedly healthy, but it could be even healthier.
A vegetarian diet has long been praised for its healthfulness. Vegetarians enjoy lower risks of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers, but because important nutrients are in short supply in a meatless diet, it’s important that vegetarians are mindful about their nutrition. A new report published in the Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry says vegetarians should pay special attention to getting enough omega-3 fats and vitamin B12.
Iron. Even though many plant foods provide lots of iron, only animal foods have the type of iron that is easily absorbed by the gastrointestinal system—heme iron. Iron status tends to be lower in vegetarians, but supplements are only a good idea in those who have been diagnosed with iron deficiency.
Zinc. Vegetarians get zinc from nuts and seeds, legumes, and whole grains, but much of the zinc in these foods is bound up with fibers that reduce its absorbability. Since low zinc status is common in both vegetarians and meat eaters, taking a daily multivitamin with zinc is a good idea for everyone.
Vitamin B12. A vegan diet, which does not include dairy products or eggs, is low in vitamin B12 because B12 is found primarily in animal foods. The bacteria that live in the large intestine produce some B12, and vegans may get small amounts from bacteria on fresh foods; however, because their risk of B12 deficiency is higher than meat eaters’, the report recommends that strict vegans take extra vitamin B12.
Carbohydrate, proteins,

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Rank: 4
Score: 63.23831
Retrieved Text: The purpose of this page is not just to publish another recipe and throw you to the Glaze Dragon. For many the 'glaze recipe culture' and addiction to undocumented 'naked formulas' has meant countless 'blind alleys', years of wasted efforts, and gradual abdication of control to recipes that overstay their welcome and teach nothing. It has fostered a generation of ceramists with numbed consciences regarding their accountability for glazed ware they give or sell to others. The purpose here is to give you a 'starting point' so that you can exercise a degree of control over a base glaze to vary its color, surface, expansion, variegation, melting temperature, etc. We also have starting points for cone 06 and 6 glazes. If you decide to just take a recipe from this page and try it without understanding it you will need the Potter's Prayer.
This glaze can be used in oxidation or reduction for a crystal clear. It is the result of rationalizing and balancing many properties such as adjustability for melting temperature and expansion, application qualities, likelihood for consistency year after year, response to common colorants used at high temperature, fired clarity, fired hardness, oxide balance and fired stability against acid attack, etc. It works well in reduction on whiteware, porcelain, white stoneware and even reduction iron ware bodies. The zinc oxide has been included for use in oxidation to make it melt a little better. The zinc will be hostile to certain metallic colors and volatilize in reduction so you might like to test with and

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Rank: 5
Score: 62.95286
Retrieved Text: Summary of the Concentrating Process in Mill No. 3 Introduction .equipment were used to mill the ore as it travelled down from level to level. Some . After the ore passed through a crushing device it was generally “screened” and any ore above a certain size would . inches in diameter and 5 to 15 feet in length. . concentrates for making 'pig' (raw) iron, and zinc, along with the copper, for.diameter of zinc ore after crushing and milling,FROM ROCK TO ORE - Britannia Mine Museumthe amount of iron, sulphur and zinc present, . trestle railway at the top of the Mill. The ore. (already crushed to 6 inches and smaller) was tipped into five giant.
Mineral processing - WikipediaIn the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, also known as ore dressing, is the . A later example was the Cornish stamps, consisting of a series of iron . particle size reduction; sizing – separation of particle sizes by screening or classification; . Crushing and grinding are the two primary comminution processes.diameter of zinc ore after crushing and milling,Mill (grinding) - WikipediaA mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting . After the grinding the state of the solid is changed: the grain size, the grain .. Instead of the value of d80 also d50 or other grain diameter can be used. . A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore.
Crushing: The ore is crushed down to rock sizes of 9 mm through three stages

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Rank: 6
Score: 62.390152
Retrieved Text: As antimony is typically present in industrial and commercial products only in small amounts, the concentration of antimony in waste types is low and a limited amount of antimony is currently recycled. One product relatively rich in antimony is the metal oxide varistor (MOV) used for overvoltage protection in electric circuits. To increase the antimony concentration, the MOV was pulverized (< 65 μm) and leached, resulting in an insoluble MOV residue containing 186 ± 2 mg/g of antimony. This work investigates the thermal decomposition and carbothermal reduction of pure metal oxides (Sb2O3, Bi2O3, and ZnO) and MOV residue. Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis was used in order to propose a temperature range in which it is possible to separate antimony oxide from the MOV residue. TG results indicate that during thermal decomposition of pure metal oxides, sublimated antimony oxide can be recovered at 650 °C, leaving Bi2O3 and ZnO unreacted. The addition of carbon caused mainly volatilization, with some reduction, of Sb2O3 and reduction of Bi2O3 to occur at nearly the same temperature, approximately 600 °C. However, volatilization of Bi was not troublesome below 800 °C due to slow kinetics. Thermal decomposition of antimony from the MOV residue was not possible in the temperature range studied (< 1000 °C), while carbothermal reduction to the MOV residue revealed antimony volatilization occurred near 800 °C.
Within the European Union (EU), the major use of antimony is in the form of antimony oxide (Sb2O3) as a flame retardant in plastics and textiles . Worldwide, metallic antimony is used in lead–acid batteries and

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Rank: 7
Score: 62.070183
Retrieved Text: Corrosion of metals and other substrates is and has been a major problem for the industry. Special coating systems are used to limit the damage caused by corrosion and substrate protection can be achieved for a long period of time. This is especially important in maintenance coatings for outdoor constructions as re-painting is labor-intensive and hence very expensive.
Understand in detail about what causes corrosion, various strategies to optimize formulation to resist corrosion and tips to select the best suitable additive for your coating formulation.
While the coating itself plays an important role in the corrosion protection, using liquid corrosion inhibitors helps and improves considerably this property.
Provide excellent results & an alternative to cost reduction and environmental questions.
But, before heading towards the inhibitors of corrosion, let's understand the phenomenon of corrosion first.
Corrosion is an oxidation-reduction reaction in the presence of an electrolyte, leading to deterioration of metal. Typically, for ferrous materials such as iron and steel, corrosion is also called “rust”.
That is why rust develops faster in salt water than in pure water.
Apart from color and appearance change, it can weaken the structure/destroy the structure itself.
In coatings, electrochemical corrosion is predominant. It is the combination of two conductors (electrodes) with an aqueous electrolyte solution. The metal with more negative potential will be the anode and will corrode, where the one with more positive potential will be the cathode. Then occurs an oxido-reduction reaction, in the electrolyte solution.
In iron, corrosion occurs when different parts of the surface creating anode and cathode, are exposed to electrolyte solution. Without any electrolyte,

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Rank: 8
Score: 61.792778
Retrieved Text: Mine Water Treatment & Tailings Management "Tailings Dams hold millions of tonnes of dangerous metals and sometimes lead to severe damage to farms in nearby areas.
Applied and Environmental Soil Science is a peer-reviewed, Open Access journal that publishes research and review articles in the field of soil science. Its coverage reflects the multidisciplinary nature of soil science, and focuses on studies that take account of the dynamics and spatial heterogeneity of processes in soil.
EBSCOhost serves thousands of libraries with premium essays, articles and other content including Environmental Geochemistry of Abandoned Flotation Tailing Reservior from the Tonglvshan Fe-Cu Sulfide Mine in Daye, Central China. Get access to over 12 million other articles!
The mine produced 14,862 tonnes of lead, 10,987 tonnes of zinc and 1.3 million ounces of silver in lead and zinc concentrates during the first nine months of 2014, the company said.
CleanWay produces MetalZorb to remove soluble and particulate heavy metals including lead, zinc, copper, chromium, iron, mercury and nickel. CleanWay produces MetalZorb to remove soluble and particulate heavy metals including lead, zinc, copper, chromium, iron, mercury and nickel.
Mineral Traps for Greenhouse Gases in Mine Tailings Ebook download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read book online.
zinc ore concentration steigerloods.nl. zinc ore concentration plant mykeralatour. Nov 28, 2016 zinc ore mining equipment in iran zinc ore concentration plant for sale Crusher Company. lead zinc ore concentration plant for provides lead.
When these metals such as cobalt, copper, lead, cadmium, zinc which contains mine tailings comes in contact of the scarce rain fall water then it

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Rank: 9
Score: 61.63662
Retrieved Text: Deposition Author(s): Jakab-Simon, I.N., Christensen, H.E.M., Haahr, L.T.
Heterometallic [AgFe(3)S (4)] ferredoxin variants: synthesis, characterization, and the first crystal structure of an engineered heterometallic iron-sulfur protein.
Martic, M., Jakab-Simon, I.N., Haahr, L.T., Hagen, W.R., Christensen, H.E.
Heterometallic [AgFe(3)S(4)] iron-sulfur clusters assembled in wild-type Pyrococcus furiosus ferredoxin and two variants, D14C and D14H, are characterized. The crystal structure of the [AgFe(3)S(4)] D14C variant shows that the silver(I) ion is indeed part of the cluster and is coordinated to the thiolate group of residue 14. Cyclic voltammetry shows one redox pair with a reduction potential of +220 mV versus the standard hydrogen electrode which is assigned to the [AgFe(3)S(4)](2+/+) couple. The oxidized form of the [AgFe(3)S(4)] D14C variant is stable in the presence of dioxygen, whereas the oxidized forms of the [AgFe(3)S(4)] wild type and D14H variants convert to the [Fe(3)S(4)] ferredoxin form. The monovalent d (10) silver(I) ion stabilizes the [Fe(3)S(4)](+/0) cluster fragment, as opposed to divalent d (10) metal ions, resulting in more than 0.4 V difference in reduction potentials between the silver(I) and, e.g., zinc(II) heterometallic [MFe(3)S(4)] ferredoxins. The trend in reduction potentials for the variants containing the [AgFe(3)S(4)] cluster is wild type ≤ D14C < D14H and shows the same trend as reported for the variants containing the [Fe(3)S(4)] cluster, but is different from the D14C < D14H < wild type trend reported for the [Fe(4)S(4)] ferredoxin. The similarity in the reduction potential trend for the variants containing the heterometallic [AgFe(3)S(4)] cluster and the [Fe(3)S(4)] cluster can be rationalized in terms of the electrostatic influence of the

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Retrieved Text: What is the Role of Copper (Cu) in Good Nutrition?
Who would benefit from Cu supplementation?
How much Cu is usually taken?
What are the side effects of using Cu?
Cu is an essential trace element for humans. It has an important role in oxidation-reduction reactions in the body and in scavenging free radicals.
dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, with which Cu serves as a cofactor in the synthesis of norepinephrine, an important neurotransmitter and adrenal hormone that affects fatigue, mood and depression.
Cu is vital in forming connective tissue, which supports and separates organs and is found in tendons, cartilage and bone.
Cu is important for the growth of healthy bones and helps the body to absorb iron from food; a lack of Cu can lead to iron-deficiency anaemia because the mineral helps to make stored iron available for red blood cell production.
Cu is also involved in the formation of melanin, the pigment which colours skin and hair.
Copper is needed to absorb and utilize iron. It is also part of the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase (SOD). Cu supplementation has been shown to increase SOD levels in humans.
Cu is needed to make the energy the body runs on.
Synthesis of some hormones requires Cu, as does the synthesis of collagen (the “glue” that holds connective tissue together).
In addition, the enzyme, tyrosinase, which plays a role in the production of skin pigment, requires Cu to function.
The best source of Cu is oysters.
Nuts, dried legumes, cereals, potatoes, vegetables, and meat also contain Cu.
Who would benefit from Copper (Cu) supplementation?
Outright Cu deficiency is relatively uncommon but many people consume slightly less

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Rank: 11
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Retrieved Text: Human beings are made up of natural substances which also include water and air. Such natural substances maintain a smooth balance in order to facilitate a normal and a healthy life for the human beings. But certain lifestyle practices and some unnatural practices by the human beings destroy such fine balances and create deficiency symptoms such as zinc deficiency symptoms in men and women and this leads to body dysfunctions.
Among all the natural substances, the human body has a very intricate balance of various minerals found naturally. These natural minerals exist in minute proportions but such proportions become important in sustaining life. Any imbalance in such minute proportions can create huge differences in the human life. One such important and crucial natural mineral that is present in the human body is Zinc.
Zinc is a useful constituent of almost all cells of the human body. This important mineral assumes its importance because of its role in the defence mechanism or the immune system of the human body. Further, this important mineral helps in the natural process of cell division (especially required during pregnancies), cell growth, metabolizing other nutrients, breaking down carbohydrates in the human body, and healing any wound naturally. This important component also facilitates the human process of smelling and tasting. Zinc is also required for healthy skin, hair and nails.
Further zinc is also an important requirement for maintaining eye health and protecting the body against different types of cancers. This mineral is also important for fertility and childbirth and thus needs to be consumed in

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Retrieved Text: This study was conducted as part of the development of a new process to recover valuable metals of zinc, copper and indium from high-iron zinc sulfide concentrate (HIZSC) by the reductive leaching of high-iron zinc neutral leaching residue (HIZNLR) with zinc concentrate precipitation of copper with iron powder, neutralization of free sulfuric acid with zinc calcine, precipitation of indium with zinc powder and hematite precipitation to reject iron. Among these stages, reductive leaching is the crucial step, which makes that valuable metals in the materials can be effectively leached and ferric iron in the solution is reduced to ferrous iron. The reductive leachate enables copper, indium and iron separation from the solution in the subsequent process. The results show that by increasing the sulfuric acid concentration, HIZSC addition and prolonging the reaction time, the leaching efficiency of zinc, copper, indium and iron in the sample materials was significantly increased. The maximum metal-leaching efficiency was obtained; 84.3% of the iron was in its soluble ferrous state, and zinc ferrite in the HIZNLR was almost entirely dissolved under the experimental conditions of an H2SO4-to-HIZNLR mass ratio of 1.6, a liquid-to-solid ratio of 11.34 mL/g, a temperature of 90°C, an HIZSC addition of 1.05 times of the stoichiometric amount and a reaction time of 5 h.
Xie K Q, Yang X W, Wang J K, Yan J F, Shen Q F. Kinetic study on pressure leaching of high iron sphalerite concentrate. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2007, 17(1): 187-194.
Li C X, Wei C, Xu H S, Li M

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Retrieved Text: Zinc and roofing go hand in hand and have done so since the 1800's. Roofing products incorporating zinc have been used to roof the historic buildings of Paris to the garden shed in your back yard and for very good reason. Zinc is truly an amazing material. Zinc has the ability to protect less noble materials from rusting, such as the steel base on galvanised steel or where it's used in a pure zinc sheet application it protects itself.
Zinc sheet used in roofing in its purest form, allows a patina (zinc hydroxycarbonate) to form which is insoluble in rainwater, and thus significantly reduces the corrosion rate. The durability of Zinc can be affected by some acid pollutants, the main one being sulphur dioxide (S02). During the 1970's Europe acknowledged S02 pollution of the atmosphere as a major envionmrental problem and have taken the required steps to significantly reduce it. The reduction in the corrosion rate of Zinc roofing has been staggering up to one third. Fortunately in New Zealand, with the exception of geothermal areas, S02 is not a significant pollutant.
Pure zinc roofs in Europe currently have a life expectancy of up to hundred years with little or no maintenance.
Not only does zinc make sense to use in roofing it is also an essential element for all living organisms. Humans are unable to synthesise their requirement of zinc and need to consume zinc - up to 15mg per day for men to meet the World Health Organisation recommendations. Unfortunately in many developing countries there is a

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Retrieved Text: Make sure the intake quantity of Zinc should neither be too less or more.A human body needs in very small quantity of about 15mg of Zinc intake on a daily basis. Animals are the better sources of Zinc than compared to that of plants.
If you are non-vegetarian then you probably don’t need to bother about the Zincs as almost any kind and variety of animal or seafoods has considerable amounts of Zinc packed.
Almost any type and variety of oysters provide about 16-182mg of zinc per 100g serving that accounts for 110%-1200% of the DV for zinc.
The liver of any animal is packed with vitamins and minerals and most commonly has the most zinc with 12mg per 100g serving accounting for 81% of the DV that is 8.98mg of zinc (60% DV) in a cooked slice of liver (80g).
Mutton also commonly referred to as Lamb provides between 4.2-8.7mg of zinc per 100g serving, accounting for 28%-58% DV.
Crabs are a great source of zinc that provides about 7.6mg (51% DV) of zinc per 100 gram serving, which is 10.2mg (68% DV) in an average crab.
Chocolate or dark chocolate in the form of unsweetened baking chocolate or cocoa powder, or as milk chocolates provides you rich zinc levels.
Besides, oats, Yogurt, spinach, green peas are readily available and are very good sources of zinc.
Reduction in the function of the immunity system can be seen due to diets containing low amount of zinc. In almost four weeks only of low zinc content diet this reduction can be visible and can be

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Retrieved Text: Zinc is required by the body for more than 2,000 transcription factors involved in gene expressions of various proteins.1 What this means in everyday language is that thousands of essential biological functions are dependent on zinc.
There is no reason that this readily available and inexpensive mineral should not be an essential component of your personal health program against the dangers of immunosenescence.
Zinc deficiency is rampant among older adults. As with so many other essentials, zinc levels decrease with age.9 But that’s only part of the problem.
Low zinc levels also increase the occurrence of autoimmunity and excessive inflammation (as is seen in immunosenescence).20 Even borderline low levels of zinc can impair immune functioning and decrease the response to vaccinations.19,21 While inadequate zinc is not likely to be the only cause of immunosenescence, it appears to be one of the main contributors.
Immunosenesc ence, the aging of the immune system, is a major contributor to the higher rates of serious infections and cancers seen in older adults.
A major contributor to immunosenescence is falling zinc levels, which occur in a large proportion of people as they age.
Zinc deficiency, therefore, is closely related to the risk of infection and cancer, and is also being seen in obese people and those with diabetes.
Supplementation with zinc has been shown to enhance the aging immune system’s performance, reducing the risks of infections, cancers, and obesity/diabetes.
Zinc deserves a prominent place in your supplement regimen for all of these reasons.
Infections, especially those of the respiratory system, are a serious threat to the health of adults over

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Retrieved Text: Jul 15, 20100183;32;The proposed hydrometallurgical process consists of the following four (4) unit operations (1) Removal of iron as easily filterable crystalline basic sulphate salt of the jarosite type, at atmospheric pressure, by chemical precipitation at pH 3.5 and 95 degrees C. (2) Zinc solvent extraction by Cyanex 272 at pH 3.5, T 40 degrees C, with 25% extractant concentration.
The hydrometallurgical extraction of zinc from EAF dust and steelmaking sludge was studied. These materials were treated with sulphuric acid at elevated pressure using microwave heating.
Abstract. The most commonly used route in the hydrometallurgical extraction of zinc and copper from a sulphide ore is the concentrateroastleachelectro winning process.
hydrometallurgical extraction of zinc from indigenous electric arc furnace dust. hydrometallurgical extraction of zinc from indigenous . hydrometallurgical process .
Nov 11, 20150183;32;Zinc Electrowinning, Wholesale Various High Quality Zinc Electrowinning Products from Global Zinc Electrowinning Suppliers and Zinc Electrowinning Factory,Importer,Exporter at mining hydrometallurgical process for copper extraction.
Extractive Metallurgy Presentation (Zinc) 1. Extractive Metallurgy Project 2. Different ways of extraction of Zinc and their comparisons 3. Some commonly used Galvanised objects 4.
The extraction of zinc from zinc ferrite needs a subsequent leaching step using concentrated sulphuric acid solutions at temperature near 100 176;C. There are two possibilities to manage solid material containing zinc ferrite hydrometallurgical processes and pyrometallurgical processes.
Dr. David Dreisinger and International Curator Resources developed a process for the hydrometallurgical extraction of copper, zinc and cobalt from ores containing manganese dioxide. This was applied at the El Boleo mine (Patent Application WO1998014623A1 ).
The modified zincex process is a hydrometallurgical process that

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Retrieved Text: Jan 30, 2015· Zinc Process Animation Video zincvideo. Gold Processing Making Steel from Iron Ore Duration: 9:06.
Gold alloys with a small percentage of lead is a hard, brittle, pale yellow substance, which can be crumbled with the fingers. If more than about 4 per cent, of lead is present, there is marked segregation on solidification, and this also takes place in the case of the zinc alloy and of some others.
plexes with several metallic species, especially transition metals of copper, zinc and iron, which show a broad during the gold cyanidation process.
Zinc smelting is the process of converting zinc concentrates ores that contain zinc into pure zinc. Zinc smelting has historically been more difficult than the smelting of other metals, e.g. iron, because in contrast, zinc has a low boiling point.
FASTMET Iron Processing. Introduction to Additive Manufacturing: Adding copper to gold makes it redder and adding silver, zinc and any other metal makes gold paler.
The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to and was found to containplexes of such metals as gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc.
profiles describe copper mining, gold mining, iron mining, and several industrial mineral sectors, lead zinc processing wastes are not addressed in this profile.
Journal description. Since 1984, this quarterly journal gives researchers and operations personnel the latest information on the processing of coal, industrial minerals, gold, aluminum, iron, zinc, lead, rare earths and other minerals.
Zinc Metal Plating KL Plating, Inc.
Our zinc plating process meets rigorous military and ASTM specifications. KL Plating provides zinc plating for iron,

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Score: 60.223557
Retrieved Text: Metallurgy is the process of working metal into artifacts (tools and toys). Although small amounts of metals are found in relatively pure form, most must be extracted from more complex ores by removing the quot;impuritiesquot; (non metal or other metal) from the combination ore.
Terminology Metallurgy The scientific and technological process used for isolation of the pure metal from its ores is known as metallurgy. Depending upon the nature of metal and the nature of ore, different methods are used in the extraction process.
Extractive Metallurgy Extraction Process of Gold (Au) Nov 21, 20080183;32;Electrorefining is the first process, the principle of electrorefining is the same as electrowinning. But anode for this process is Bullion, and AgNO3 is the solution.
Metallurgical process for Al, Na, Fe, Ti, V, Sc and other valuable elements recovery from red mud were reviewed. Some mechanisms and performance of solvent extraction in the extraction or stripping process were summarized.
The process involves dipping cleaned iron or steel components into molten zinc (which is usually A series of zinc iron alloy layers are formed by a metallurgical reaction between the iron and zinc Flux Solution Iron Removal Equipment.
The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age .
A metallurgical thermal process in which a metal is separated in fused form from nonmetallic materials, or other undesired metals with which it is associated. Softening A process used to soften metals

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Retrieved Text: Learn more about the ingredients in Monoplex.
Daily Dosage: As a dietary supplement, take two capsules in the morning and one capsule in the afternoon with 8 ounces of water. 45-60 days of continuous use is necessary for optimum results.
Zinc- One of the most important minerals for immune function, zinc has been widely studied for prevention and treatment of infections. Low levels of zinc have been documented in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis, also known as canker sores (1).
In a zinc deficient patient who had not responded to any conventional medication and suffered from canker sores every month, after three months of oral zinc therapy the sores resolved and did not reappear for 1 year (2). A placebo-controlled study of oral zinc supplementation for one month demonstrated a significant reduction in sores in 40 patients with recurrent outbreaks (1). Another clinical study showed 50-100% reduction in the frequency of episodes in patients with low levels of zinc (3).
Vitamin B-12- Physicians recommend that deficiency of vitamin B12 should also be considered in all patients with recurrent canker sores (4).
When compared to healthy controls, patients with recurrent canker sores have significantly lower levels of vitamin B12, suggesting this important vitamin may play a role in the etiology of this condition (5). Recurrent canker sores have been shown to respond positively to treatment with vitamin B12 (6).
Folic Acid (folate)- Similar to vitamin B12, folate levels have also been found to be low in patients with recurrent oral ulceration when compared to healthy controls (7).
In a study of 330 patients, numerous

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Retrieved Text: Zinc anodes protect the metal parts of submerged structures by inhibiting the rate at which the metal corrodes. Sacrificial anodes are the main component in cathodic protection, a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal by setting it up as the cathode of an electrochemical cell. In other words, a sacrificial metal that corrodes more easily is set on the surface of whichever metal needs to be protected. Since this metal corrodes more easily, the metal underneath is protected. Oil and gas industries both benefit from this electrochemical response, because both require the use of structures that may be submerged underwater for extended periods of time. Two metals submerged underwater create a kind of cell that corrodes over time, a process known as galvanic corrosion.
Rather than preventing the process of corrosion entirely, zinc anodes or sacrificial anodes, known colloquially as “zincs”, override the galvanic corrosion between the two metals they are designed to protect. Zinc is especially helpful to this process because of how easily it corrodes, which makes it the best choice for sea water where resistance from electrical circuits is lower. This, in turn, makes it especially useful for the petrochemical industry, in which various types of equipment, including rigs and drills, need to able to operate well below the surface of the earth, and even at the ocean floor.
Zinc anode suppliers aid the oil and gas industries by supplying protection to the surface of submerged parts. Zinc plating takes advantage of zinc’s propensity to create a protective film over key parts,

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Retrieved Text: Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements in nature. However, compounds that contain ions of most representative metals are abundant. In this section, we will consider the two common techniques used to isolate the metals from these compounds—electrolysis and chemical reduction.
These metals primarily occur in minerals, with lithium found in silicate or phosphate minerals, and sodium and potassium found in salt deposits from evaporation of ancient seas and in silicates. The alkaline earth metals occur as silicates and, with the exception of beryllium, as carbonates and sulfates. Beryllium occurs as the mineral beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18, which, with certain impurities, may be either the gemstone emerald or aquamarine. Magnesium is in seawater and, along with the heavier alkaline earth metals, occurs as silicates, carbonates, and sulfates. Aluminum occurs abundantly in many types of clay and in bauxite, an impure aluminum oxide hydroxide. The principle tin ore is the oxide cassiterite, SnO2, and the principle lead and thallium ores are the sulfides or the products of weathering of the sulfides. The remaining representative metals occur as impurities in zinc or aluminum ores.
Ions of metals in of groups 1 and 2, along with aluminum, are very difficult to reduce; therefore, it is necessary to prepare these elements by electrolysis, an important process discussed in the chapter on electrochemistry. Briefly, electrolysis involves using electrical energy to drive unfavorable chemical reactions to completion; it is useful in the isolation of reactive metals in their pure forms. Sodium, aluminum, and magnesium are typical examples.
Separation of the

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Rank: 22
Score: 59.160435
Retrieved Text: Zinc is a mineral that plays a vital role in many biological processes and plays an important role in insulin action and carbohydrate metabolism. It may also have a protective role in the prevention of atherogenesis. Numerous studies have evaluated the effects of Zinc supplementation on serum lipids in humans and have demonstrated varying results. We systematically evaluated the literature and performed a meta-analysis on the effects of Zinc supplementation on serum lipids. A five staged comprehensive search of the literature was conducted in the following databases; PubMed, Web of Science and SciVerse Scopus for studies published before 31st December 2014. All controlled clinical trial in humans, that included a Zinc supplement intervention, either alone or in combination with other micronutrients and evaluated effects on serum lipids (total cholesterol [TC], triglycerides [TG], LDL cholesterol [LDL-c] and HDL cholesterol [HDL-c]). A meta-analysis of selected studies was performed using RevMan v5.3. The Jaded scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the trials included in the systematic review. A total of 24 studies were included in Meta analysis, which included a total of 33 Zinc interventions, in a total of 14,515 participants in the Zinc intervention or control group. The duration of Zinc supplementation ranged from 1 month to 7.5 years. The dose of elemental Zinc supplemented ranged from 15–240 mg/day. The pooled mean difference for TC between Zinc supplemented and placebo groups from random effects analysis was −10.92 mg/dl (95 % CI: −15.33, −6.52; p < 0.0001, I2 = 83 %), while for HDL cholesterol it was 2.12 mg/dl (95

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Rank: 23
Score: 59.03229
Retrieved Text: China Galvanized Iron Wire，Zinc Coated Iron Wire - Anping Tianze Metal Products Co.,Ltd.
Hot dipped galvanized iron wire is made of high quality Q195 low carbon steel, through the process of wire drawing, wire annealing, acid washing and galvanizing by the advanced equipment. Bright surface and excellent elasticity. Divided into ordinary hot dipped galvanized wire and high zinc hot dipped galvanized wire. Our galvanized wire is suitable for all kinds of wire mesh weaving for industry and mining fields, as well as for agricultural use such as vegetable greenhouses, kiwi fruit shelves, etc. The wire diameter range from 0.5mm to 5.0mm. Comparing with other galvanized wire in the market, the zinc coated layer of our ordinary hot dipped galvanized wire can reach about 40-60g/m2. The zinc layer reaches 220-350g/m2 for our high zinc coating hot dipped galvanized wire. Zinc with 99.995% purity. Our galvanized wire has thick zinc layer and strong corrosion resistance, can serve for about 10 years without rusted, contaminated and oxidized.

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Rank: 24
Score: 58.924892
Retrieved Text: Lead And Zinc Ore Flotation Machine Zinc Ore Mining Machinery, Find 3. cone crusher Turnkey Project Content of lead zinc ore flotation machine &Plant can also provide amples test, mine design, equipment manufacture, after-sale service, etc. And our company has agencies in Zimbabwe, Sudan and Tanzania.
iron ore crusher in sudan iron ore crusher in sudan. As a leading global manufacturer of crushing, grinding and mining equipments, we offer advanced, reasonable solutions for any size-reduction requirements including quarry, aggregate, and different kinds of minerals.
Sudan Chrome Ore, Wholesale Various High Quality Sudan Chrome Ore Products from Global Sudan Chrome Ore Global Trading Company . Tags: Chrome Ore Mining Business jaw crusher with capacity 15 20t/h for sale in sudan price.
sudan iron ore thickener equipment - Weaver Stree Guitars. gold mining equipment in sudan crusher for sale 2.5K Yu Deng If you need iron ore crusher,gold ore crusher,copper ore crusher or other mining machinery,you.
Sudan has gold, iron ore and base metal potential. A copper deposit containing a resource of 8.5 Mt of ore grading at 4% copper is known to exist. Iron ore deposits are known to exist at A copper deposit containing a resource of 8.5 Mt of ore grading at 4% copper is known to exist.
The Latest Developments in Iron Ore Processing Mintek Main Use of Iron Ore Steel Industry Maximiserecovery and yield Overview. Iron Ore Mine Thabazimbi.
ratio of crushing of iron ore in north sudan. SUAMG Machinery is professional mineral processing equipment manufacturer in the world, not our equipment has the excellent quality, but also our

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Rank: 25
Score: 58.784416
Retrieved Text: Which element is undergoing reduction in the following reaction: Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)?
The silver ion, #Ag^+#, is reduced to silver metal, #Ag^0(s)#.
The silver species formally undergoes a decrease in oxidation state from #+I# to #0#. For every reduction, there is a corresponding oxidation, and zinc metal is oxidized to #Zn^(2+)#.
gain in electrons = reduction). You will have to remember this.

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Rank: 26
Score: 58.632904
Retrieved Text: In stage 1, water flows through a one - micron prefilter pad (1 micron equals 1/25,000th of an inch), which removes suspended particles such as silt, sediment, cyst (Giardia, Cryptosporidium), sand, rust, dirt, and other un-dissolved matter.
In stages 2 and 3, water flows through a bed of media made of a special high-purity alloy blend of two dissimilar metals - copper and zinc (Eagle Redox Alloy® 6500, and Eagle Redox Alloy® 9500.) Eagle Redox Alloy® is a major advancement in water treatment technology that works on the electro-chemical and spontaneous-oxidation-reduction (REDOX) principles. Chlorine is instantaneously and almost inexhaustibly oxidized.
Tests on Eagle Redox Alloy®/GAC cartridge have shown 99+% chlorine removal past 20,000 gallons of water. In comparison, carbon cartridges of comparable volumes drop below 90% effectiveness after only 4,000 gallons.
Iron and hydrogen sulfide are oxidized into insoluble matter and attach to the surface of the media. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, aluminum, and other dissolved metals are removed from the water by the electrochemical process. They are attracted to the surface of the media, much like a magnet.
The redox media inhibits bacterial growth throughout the entire unit. In fact, it has been shown to be reduced up to 90%, eliminating the need for silver, which is commonly used in carbon-only filters (silver is considered a pesticide by the EPA and, as such, must be registered with them).
We use a high-grade coconut shell carbon that is very effective at removing chemicals. Coconut shell carbon provides a significantly higher volume of micro-pores than either

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Rank: 27
Score: 58.61097
Retrieved Text: In chemistry, there are three basic types of reactions, which include addition reactions, decomposition reactions, and displacement reactions. Among them, this ScienceStruck article comes forward to discuss in length about a type of displacement reaction called single replacement reaction, accompanied by various examples.
To protect structures made of iron from corroding, a more reactive metal like zinc is added to it. It reacts with the environment and corrodes itself, while the iron is protected. Such metals are aptly given the name "sacrificial metal."
As a rule, the reactants A and B are written on the left-hand side, and their products are written on the right-hand side of the arrow (signifies a chemical reaction).
In a displacement reaction, there is displacement of one of the reactants by another reactant. Usually, these reactions take place between a metal and non-metal that are joined by an ionic bond. Displacement reactions can be further classified into single replacement reaction and double replacement reaction. In single replacement reactions, one ion or an atom of an element is displaced by another ion or atom (discussed in detail below). In a double replacement reaction, there is interchanging of ions or atoms between the reactants.
▶ Here, A is a more reactive compound as compared to B; B is, therefore, displaced from the compound B-C to give the products B and A-C. A and B are usually metals (give off electrons) or a positively charged hydrogen. C is usually a non-metal or an anion (accepts electrons) and usually considered as a spectator ion as it doesn't take part

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Rank: 28
Score: 58.568752
Retrieved Text: Wellman® is different from a regular multivitamin as its formula has been optimised for men's health on the basis of international research evidence, so some nutrients are provided at levels above the Nutrient Reference Value. While Wellman® provides a core source of all the major vitamins and minerals, it also provides more than 100% of certain nutrients, plus Siberian ginseng, Co-enzyme Q10 and amino acids.
A healthy immune system is important for good health. Wellman® includes vitamins A, C, D, B6 and B12 with folic acid and copper which contribute to the normal function of the immune system.
To be on top of your game you can't afford to be tired. Wellman® provides pantothenic acid and magnesium which contribute to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue. Free radicals are generated in greater numbers during exercise. Vitamins B2, C and E with minerals copper, selenium and zinc contribute to the protection of cells from oxidative stress. Vitamin C contributes to maintain the normal function of the immune system during and after intense physical exercise.
Wellman® provides zinc which contributes to normal reproduction and the maintenance of normal testosterone levels in the blood. The formula also includes selenium which contributes to normal spermatogenesis. Since men lose an estimated 5 mg of zinc every time they ejaculate, a good intake of zinc is essential. Folate, iron, magnesium and vitamin B12 have a role in cell division, plus vitamin A which has a role in the process of cell specialisation.

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Rank: 29
Score: 58.26247
Retrieved Text: This gives a redox potential which can be measured in the same way as before by connecting the cells to the standard hydrogen electrode. To measure a standard cell potential it is necessary, as before, to have all solutions at 1 mol dm -1 activity.... Standard Redox Potential Table.pdf - Download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online.
The standard reduction potential for the zinc electrode is –0.76 V: 2e – + Zn 2+ (aq) Zn (s) Note: a negative reduction potential tells us that the zinc ion is harder to reduce (is a worse oxidizing agent) than is the hydrogen ion; this also tells us that zinc metal is …... Measurements employing an aqueous solution with a proton activity of unity in one half-cell (standard hydrogen electrode as reference) and a non-aqueous solution with the redox couple under study in the other half-cell include an unknown liquid junction potential at the aqueous – non-aqueous interface.
How to use a table of standard reduction potentials to calculate standard cell potential. Identifying trends in oxidizing and reducing agent strength.
The standard electrode potential . This is the 'potential' of a redox system to lose or gain electrons when compared to the standard hydrogen electrode - assigned a value of 0 volts.

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======= Instance Index 11 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Most animal behaviors are controlled by both genes and experiences in a given environment.


Q: What is controlled by both genes and experiences in a given envionment?

 Choices:

- learned behaviors

- animal behaviors

- reflexes

- instincts

A:

Target Text: animal behaviors

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 24.958857
Retrieved Text: DNA methylation is a type of epigenetic modification where a methyl group is added to the cytosine or adenine residue of a given DNA sequence. It has been observed that DNA methylation is achieved by some collaborative agglomeration of certain proteins and non-coding RNAs. The assembly of IDN2 and its homologous proteins with siRNAs recruits the enzyme DRM2, which adds a methyl group at certain cytosine residues within the DNA sequence. In this study, it was found that de novo DNA methylation might be regulated by miRNAs through systematic targeting of the genes involved in DNA methylation. A comprehensive genome-wide and system-level study of miRNA targeting, transcription factors, DNA-methylation-causing genes and their target genes has provided a clear picture of an interconnected relationship of all these factors which regulate DNA methylation in Arabidopsis. The study has identified a DNA methylation system that is controlled by four different genes: IDN2, IDNl1, IDNl2 and DRM2. These four genes along with various critical transcription factors appear to be controlled by five different miRNAs. Altogether, DNA methylation appears to be a finely tuned process of opposite control systems of DNA-methylation-causing genes and certain miRNAs pitted against each other.

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Rank: 1
Score: 24.258589
Retrieved Text: Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To explore these questions, let’s start by focusing on a specific disease, sickle-cell anemia, and how it might affect two infected sisters. Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic condition in which red blood cells, which are normally round, take on a crescent-like shape ([link]). The changed shape of these cells affects how they function: sickle-shaped cells can clog blood vessels and block blood flow, leading to high fever, severe pain, swelling, and tissue damage.
Normal blood cells travel freely through the blood vessels, while sickle-shaped cells form blockages preventing blood flow.
Many people with sickle-cell anemia—and the particular genetic mutation that causes it—die at an early age. While the notion of “survival of the fittest” may suggest that people suffering from this disease have a low survival rate and therefore the disease will become less common, this is not the case. Despite the negative evolutionary effects associated with this genetic mutation, the sickle-cell gene remains relatively common among people of African descent. Why is this? The explanation is illustrated with the following scenario.
Imagine two young women—Luwi and Sena—sisters in rural Zambia, Africa. Luwi carries the gene for sickle-cell anemia; Sena does not carry the gene. Sickle-cell carriers have one copy of the sickle-cell gene

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Rank: 2
Score: 23.76113
Retrieved Text: The regulatory system that controls the expression of the Ti plasmid-borne octopine degradation (uad) and transfer (tra) genes in Agrobacterium tumefaciens was studied. A deletion mutant derived from the cointegrate plasmid R702::Ti-B6S3 was isolated, which was compatible with a wild-type Ti plasmid and which had retained the uad genes. By means of this mutant plasmid pAL116, it was possible to make cells diploid for the uad genes. pAL116 was introduced into Rec- strains that contained different types of regulation mutants for the uad and tra genes. The repression pattern that was found in this complementation analysis indicated that the uad and tra operons are controlled by a common repressor system. Several results indicated that there may be additional transcriptional relations between both operons. The corresponding genes of the non-tumorigenic octopine plasmid pAt-AG60 appeared to be controlled by a repressor related to that of the octopine Ti plasmid.

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Rank: 3
Score: 23.696548
Retrieved Text: Cell division is controlled by a complex network involving regulated transcription of genes and postranslational modification of proteins. The aim of this study is to demonstrate that the Mediator complex, a general regulator of transcription, is involved in the regulation of the second phase (cell separation) of cell division of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In previous studies we have found that the fission yeast cell separation genes sep10 + and sep15 + code for proteins (Med31 and Med8) associated with the Mediator complex. Here, we show by genome-wide gene expression profiling of mutants defective in these genes that both Med8 and Med31 control large, partially overlapping sets of genes scattered over the entire genome and involved in diverse biological functions. Six cell separation genes controlled by the transcription factors Sep1 and Ace2 are among the target genes. Since neither sep1 + nor ace2 + is affected in the mutant cells, we propose that the Med8 and Med31 proteins act as coactivators of the Sep1-Ace2-dependent cell separation genes. The results also indicate that the subunits of Mediator may contribute to the coordination of cellular processes by fine-tuning of the expression of larger sets of genes.
The online version of this article (doi: 10.1007/s00438-007-0296-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
We thank Ilona Lakatos for technical assistance. This research was supported by grants from the Hungarian National Fund for Scientific Research (OTKA T042694 and OTKA F48765), by Cancer Research UK [CUK] Grant No. C9546/A6517 (to J.B.), and a Wellcome Trust Short-Term Travel Grant to I.M.

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Rank: 4
Score: 23.619839
Retrieved Text: The adoption of neurotransmitter phenotype is a crucial step in the development of the nervous system. Ca2+ transients have been shown to play a critical role by modulating neurotransmitter phenotype specification during differentiation. The mechanisms by which this occurs remain unclear, but given that Ca2+ affects terminal differentiation gene expression, transcription factors may be regulated by the Ca2+ transients. As a first necessary step in elucidating the effects of Ca2+ on transcription factors in neuronal development, we have characterized the coexpression patterns of transcription factors with terminal differentiation genes to provide a baseline for future studies. We have found that the transcription factors xDlx2 and xDlx5 colocalize extensively with both xGAD67 and xVIAAT in the telencephalon and diencephalon in very similar patterns. xPitx2 is coexpressed moderately with both xGAD67 and xGAT1 in the midbrain, and xPtf1a colocalizes moderately with xGAD67 in the retina. Xbh1 colocalizes extensively with xGlyT1 in the retina. Interestingly, xPitx2 is expressed mutually exclusive to xGAD67 and xGAT1 in the diencephalon with virtually no colocalization. Similarly, Xbh1 is expressed in a mutually exclusive pattern to xGAD67 and xVIAAT in the midbrain. All of these observations lead to several conclusions, among them that the similar coexpression patterns observed for xGAD67, xGAT1, and xVIAAT with several transcription factors suggest that the GABAergic terminal differentiation genes are all subject to similar transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, the mutually exclusive expression patterns observed suggest that either negative regulatory mechanisms or signaling mechanisms play a role in the specification of GABAergic terminal differentiation genes in certain regions of the

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Rank: 5
Score: 23.547222
Retrieved Text: Michael W. Young is an American geneticist and biologist. Along with Jeffrey C. Hall and Michael Rosbash he was awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Born : 28th March, 1949 in Miami, Florida, U.S.
– He has given his dedication over three decades in the research field for studying the genetically controlled patterns related to Drosophila Melanogaster. The research study of young is related to sleep and wakefulness within the Drosophila.
– The lab of Young’s at Rockefeller University has a significant influence in the chronology field. They have the credit of identifying the genes that are responsible for the regulation of the internal clock for the circadian rhythms.
– While carrying out his research young went further and was successful with the explanation of the function of period genes. The period genes are necessary for the fly to exhibit a regular cycle of sleep.
– Young did not stop here he and his fellows are also responsible for the discovery of a couple of genes namely timeless and double-time. Both of the genes are responsible for making of proteins that have the necessity in circadian rhythm.
– Young achieved the most magnificent milestone in his career by receiving the noble prize for discovering molecular mechanism that is responsible for controlling circadian rhythm. Along with young, Hall also shared the award in the field of Physiology or medicine.
– Young married his longtime girlfriend, laurel Eckhart. Both of them were a graduate student at the Texas University. Young got married to Laurel who is now a biology professor at Hunter

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Rank: 6
Score: 23.137178
Retrieved Text: Who our parents are, our health at birth and how we live, eat and play as young children all have an impact on our adult life. As the first Early Years Study proposed, the outside world gets under the skin.1 Even during gestation, the environment of the fetus—nutrition, pollutants, drugs, infections and the mother’s health, well-being and stress level—infl uences how genes are expressed and the architecture and function of our brains.
Neuroscientist Marla Sokolowski investigates the genetic, molecular, neurobiological and environmental underpinnings of behavioural variation in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.3 In particular, Sokolowski and her colleagues have investigated the foraging gene that affects how these insects search for food. All animals have this gene, which influences energy balance, food intake, food-related movement, how much fat an animal has, learning and memory. In the 1980s, Sokolowski classified two variations of the gene: rover and sitter. The foraging gene makes a brain protein enzyme called PKG. Rovers have more PKG in their nervous systems. How much PKG is produced depends on the fruit fly’s early environment.
“We study the mechanistic and evolutionary significance of genes that affect larval behaviour by isolating, identifying, cloning, and sequencing these genes and also by understanding how variation in gene expression can affect the fitness of the organism. Gene discovery in Drosophila has proven useful for understanding how homologous genes function in mammals,” Sokolowski explains. The rover and sitter characteristics describe how fruit flies behave when food is plentiful. But when food is scarce, rovers turn into sitters and they conserve energy by

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Rank: 7
Score: 22.881779
Retrieved Text: The global radio-controlled genes market is driven by a host of factors which include increase in R&D and integration of technological advances with medicine. Radio-controlled genetics involve remotely activating genes in the human body using the magnetic field generated by a miniature magnetic-resonance-imaging machine. The methodology is currently far from practically used, but theoretically it could be modified to control other proteins or used to regulate other calcium-dependent processes.
As per the report, the global radio-controlled genes market could be segmented as per geography.
The report provides a brilliant assessment of the global radio-controlled genes market employing industry-best analytical tools to throw light on significant aspects deemed crucial for growth in the upcoming years. Key aspects such as regional and other segmentation, competitive landscape, and trends and opportunities are closely examined by analysts.
The radio-controlled genes market is driven by number of factors, which include rapid advancement of nanobiotechnology and demand for non-invasive procedures and non-pharmacological methods for the treatment of several diseases. Safety parameter is another key factor behind the market’s growth as radio-controlled gene therapies are considered to be safer than conventional therapies. This is because radio waves are proven to be much safer than electrical waves used in conventional therapies, which could damage cells and tissues. For example, researchers have been partially successful in inducting insulin-gene expressions in order to re-active insulin secretion in the body for treating diabetes.
Apart from this, extensive R&D is another key factor behind the growth of radio-controlled genes market. In 2012, a team of researchers at the Rockefeller University carried out

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Rank: 8
Score: 22.851511
Retrieved Text: When a person looks in the mirror, he or she can easily see some of the physical traits inherited from their parents or other relatives such as eye color, shape of one’s nose and mouth, skin color, hair color, and so on. However, when it comes to psychological traits and character, the answer is not so easily found. Why our personalities are as they are? What factors contribute to each person’s character being one-way and not another? For years, researchers have tried to determine whether person’s character, individuality, and special talents are mostly pre-determined by genes or shaped by the environment a person grows up in.
The proponents of “nature theory” (known as nativists) stipulate that their genes largely determine people’s innate characteristics, personality, and abilities. As such, each of us has predetermined IQ, special talents, or inclinations, be they bad or good. While environment can make some difference, genes play a much more important role in shaping one’s personality and capacities. On the other hand, supporters of “nurture theory” (known as behaviorists) argue that their environment mostly forms people’s characters. As such, they believe that each person is born as kind of a “blank slate,” (or “tabula rasa” as introduced by philosopher John Locke) which gets “filled up” by one’s experiences, environment, and social determinants. Consequently, the environment can determine whether a person will grow up to be a success, for example in academic or creative field, or a failure. However, most people agree that both nature and nurture play somewhat equally important role in shaping

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Rank: 9
Score: 22.830135
Retrieved Text: Ultrabithorax function in butterfly wings and the evolution of insect wing patterns.
BACKGROUND: . The morphological and functional evolution of appendages has played a critical role in animal evolution, but the developmental genetic mechanisms underlying appendage diversity are not understood. Given that homologous appendage development is controlled by the same Hox gene in different organisms, and that Hox genes are transcription factors, diversity may evolve from changes in the regulation of Hox target genes. Two impediments to understanding the role of Hox genes in morphological evolution have been the limited number of organisms in which Hox gene function can be studied and the paucity of known Hox-regulated target genes. We have therefore analyzed a butterfly homeotic mutant 'Hindsight', in which portions of the ventral hindwing pattern are transformed to ventral forewing identity, and we have compared the regulation of target genes by the Ultrabithorax (Ubx) gene product in Lepidopteran and Dipteran hindwings. RESULTS: . We show that Ubx gene expression is lost from patches of cells in developing Hindsight hindwings, correlating with changes in wing pigmentation, color pattern elements, and scale morphology. We use this mutant to study how regulation of target genes by Ubx protein differs between species. We find that several Ubx-regulated genes in the Drosophila haltere are not repressed by Ubx in butterfly hindwings, but that Distal-less (Dll) expression is regulated by Ubx in a unique manner in butterflies. CONCLUSIONS: . The morphological diversification of insect hindwings has involved the acquisition of different sets of target genes by Ubx in different lineages. Changes in

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Rank: 10
Score: 22.828405
Retrieved Text: Lipoadenofection-mediated gene delivery to the corneal endothelium: prospects for modulating graft rejection.
Arancibia-Cárcamo CV., Oral HB., Haskard DO., Larkin DF., George AJ.
BACKGROUND: Gene transfer to the corneal endothelium has potential for the prevention or reversal of corneal allograft rejection. Previous work has examined adenoviral vectors for gene transfer to endothelium. These have a number of theoretical and practical disadvantages, both for experimental and clinical applications. We have therefore used lipoadenofection, in which plasmid DNA is delivered using a combination of liposomes and adenovirus, to transfer marker genes to the cornea. METHODS: Corneas were obtained from New Zealand White rabbits and cultured ex vivo using standard conditions. The corneas were transfected using either lipofection or lipoadenofection with plasmids encoding marker genes. The efficiency of gene transfer and the location and kinetics of gene expression were determined. We also investigated the delivery of a gene construct containing an inducible promoter that is activated by tumor necrosis factor (TNF), to determine whether expression of the relevant genes could be controlled by exogenous factors such as cytokines. RESULTS: This study shows that gene expression is limited to the endothelium and that expression is transient. Furthermore, we have shown that expression of a gene controlled by an inducible promoter only occurs when TNF is present. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that lipofection is an efficient method to transfer therapeutic genes to the corneal epithelium, and that it can be used to transfer constructs that utilize an inducible promoter controlled by TNF. As TNF is present in the aqueous humor during allograft rejection, and

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Rank: 11
Score: 22.526423
Retrieved Text: →What Is a Polygenic Trait & What Are Some Examples of This?
In order to properly understand the definition of a polygenic trait, also known as a polygenic inheritance, you should probably have a solid foundation of some basic genetics terms so that it all comes together nicely.
The most crucial thing to the understanding of polygenic traits and genetic variance are definitions of traits, phenotypes, and genotypes as well as Mendelian inheritance.
You have probably heard the term “trait” in association with describing someone and this is close to the definition of the term. There are character traits that are associated with behavior and then there are appearance traits that are visible. In the genetics word, the word trait refers to a feature of an organism, such as hair color, eye color, skin color, and height.
This one you probably have not heard as frequently as a trait. The term “phenotype” refers to a collection of an organism’s outward characteristics. The color of the eyes, hair, and skin are all components of the phenotype. In terms of the trait, phenotype refers to the available trait forms. For example, hair color is a trait, while brown, black, blonde, or gray hair are all phenotypes. Speaking even more genetically, an organism’s phenotype is the outward or visible result of the genome. In other words, the collection of phenotypes is the result of the work of a person’s genes, which brings us to the next term, namely genotype.
Just like phenotype, you probably have not heard this one so frequently either. Perhaps you

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Rank: 12
Score: 22.516523
Retrieved Text: J Bacteriol. 2007 Jan;189(2):388-402. Epub 2006 Oct 27.
Regulation of rugosity and biofilm formation in Vibrio cholerae: comparison of VpsT and VpsR regulons and epistasis analysis of vpsT, vpsR, and hapR.
Beyhan S1, Bilecen K, Salama SR, Casper-Lindley C, Yildiz FH.
Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
Vibrio cholerae undergoes phenotypic variation that generates two morphologically different variants, termed smooth and rugose. The transcriptional profiles of the two variants differ greatly, and many of the differentially regulated genes are controlled by a complex regulatory circuitry that includes the transcriptional regulators VpsR, VpsT, and HapR. In this study, we identified the VpsT regulon and compared the VpsT and VpsR regulons to elucidate the contribution of each positive regulator to the rugose variant transcriptional profile and associated phenotypes. We have found that although the VpsT and VpsR regulons are very similar, the magnitude of the gene regulation accomplished by each regulator is different. We also determined that cdgA, which encodes a GGDEF domain protein, is partially responsible for the altered vps gene expression between the vpsT and vpsR mutants. Analysis of epistatic relationships among hapR, vpsT, and vpsR with respect to a whole-genome expression profile, colony morphology, and biofilm formation revealed that vpsR is epistatic to hapR and vpsT. Expression of virulence genes was increased in a vpsR hapR double mutant relative to a hapR mutant, suggesting that VpsR negatively regulates virulence gene expression in the hapR mutant. These results show that a complex regulatory interplay among VpsT, VpsR, HapR, and GGDEF/EAL family proteins controls transcription

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Rank: 13
Score: 22.398338
Retrieved Text: Because of the care with which Kempermann and his colleagues tracked the individual mice, the study provides considerable new insight into how we become who we are. It speaks to what the psychologist Sandra Scarr once called “niche-picking”: the idea that each individual develops a different set of talents, in order to carve out his or her own identity. Two people with initially slight differences might develop radically different skills, because they follow different paths. One child likes basketball, another painting; at first hardly anything distinguishes the two: both struggle to make baskets, and neither one can yet draw a credible house. But, from the outset, the first is slightly better at basketball, the second at art. Over time, the first child devotes herself to basketball, spends thousands of hours playing the game, and eventually becomes a professional athlete; the other applies herself equally to her chosen pursuit, and becomes a great artist. Tiny initial differences in talent, or simply in desire, become magnified over time. By tracking in detail the learning curves for forty individual mice, genetically identical and with essentially equal environmental opportunity, Kempermann and his colleagues show how the same kind of magnification can happen under carefully observed laboratory circumstances.
At the same time, the new paper on mouse development also bears on eternal debates about the nature of success. Is success a matter of genes? Nurture? Luck? Finch and Kirkwood’s review of aging showed decisively (if in a roundworm) that luck can play a role in longevity, even when practically all else is

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Rank: 14
Score: 22.279589
Retrieved Text: 000125293 520__ $$aDuring the course of evolution, many genes that control the development of metazoan body plans were co-opted to exert novel functions, along with the emergence or modification of structures. Gene amplification and/or changes in the cis- regulatory modules responsible for the transcriptional activity of these genes have certainly contributed in a major way to evolution of gene functions. In some cases, these processes led to the formation of groups of adjacent genes that appear to be controlled by both global and shared mechanisms.
000125293 720_1 $$avan Heyningen, V.$$eed.
000125293 720_1 $$aHill, R. E.$$eed.

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Rank: 15
Score: 22.257841
Retrieved Text: Consider this: in about 35 years the USA will be majority Hispanic. Yet whites will still hold most economic and political power. What do you think will happen?
b) "White" will be redefined to include the lighter-skinned Hispanics, so that whites remain a majority.
The fact that both possibilities can be considered shows you how iffy the concept of "race" is. The line can be moved when needed (as already happened with the Irish and Italians once Blacks and Hispanics started dominating the population growth trends).
In most places "white" is already being redefined to include lighter-skinned Hispanics, get with the times. "White" already means everyone light-skinned. I'm an Indian and even though I PUT that on everything, in person I get lumped in with "black" all the time. The definition is what people think you LOOK like not what you actually ARE.
s story is similar too. This multiracial thing is like this in the islands,they both call themselves black ONLY and if i mention about the other races in me my mom thinks ?
s side,both parents have brown eyes and me also.
For example, eye color depends on one gene.
brown is dominant, coming out in 3/4 of the ccases.
1) Dominance applies to human phenotypical characteristics which define race (false: most of these characteristics manifest partial dominance because they refer to a certain step in a biochemical pathway, which can be circunvented by less effective steps).
2) Such characteristics are defined by one gene (false: all of them, eye colour, skin colour, epicanthic fold, hair texture, hair colour, etc. are defined

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Retrieved Text: A yellow-eyed mutant was discovered in a strain of Heliothis virescens, the tobacco budworm, that already exhibited a mutation for yellow scale, y. We investigated the inheritance of these visible mutations as candidate markers for transgenesis. Yellow eye was controlled by a single, recessive, autosomal factor, the same type of inheritance previously known for y. Presence of the recombinant mutants with yellow scales and wild type eyes in test crosses indicated independent segregation of genes for these traits. The recombinant class with wild type scales and yellow eyes was completely absent and there was a corresponding increase of the double mutant parental class having yellow scales and yellow eyes. These results indicated that a single factor for yellow eye also controlled yellow scales independently of y. This gene was named yes, for yellow eye and scale. We hypothesize that yes controls both eye and scale color through a deficiency in transport of pigment precursors in both the ommochrome and melanin pathways. The unlinked gene y likely controls an enzyme affecting the melanin pathway only. Both y and yes segregated independently of AceIn, acetylcholinesterase insensitivity, and sodium channel hscp, which are genes related to insecticide resistance.

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Retrieved Text: BACKGROUND: Microarray experiments, as well as other genomic analyses, often result in large gene sets containing up to several hundred genes. The biological significance of such sets of genes is, usually, not readily apparent.Identification of the functions of the genes in the set can help highlight features of interest. The Gene Ontology Consortium 1 has annotated genes in several model organisms using a controlled vocabulary of terms and placed the terms on a Gene Ontology (GO), which comprises three disjoint hierarchies for Molecular functions, Biological processes and Cellular locations. The annotations can be used to identify functions that are enriched in the set, but this analysis can be misleading since the underlying distribution of genes among various functions is not uniform. For example, a large number of genes in a set might be kinases just because the genome contains many kinases. RESULTS: We use the Gene Ontology hierarchy and the annotations to pick significant functions and pathways by comparing the distribution of functions in a given gene list against the distribution of all the genes in the genome, using the hypergeometric distribution to assign probabilities. GObar is a web-based visualizer that implements this algorithm.The public website for GObar 2 can analyse gene lists from the yeast (S. cervisiae), fly (D. Melanogaster), mouse (M. musculus) and human (H. sapiens) genomes. It also allows visualization of the GO tree, as well as placement of a single gene on the GO hierarchy. We analyse a gene list from a genomic study of pre-mRNA splicing to demonstrate the utility of

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Retrieved Text: Genetics refers to the study of how parents pass on various traits to their offspring through genes. Eye color, height, personality characteristics, and many other individual traits are largely influenced by genetics. In the mental health field, the role of genetics is relevant to personality formation and the development of mental health issues.
In the early days of psychology, debate over nature and nurture thrived as theorists argued whether an individual’s genes or environment determined their personality. It is now known both genetics and environment play a role, and most characteristics are determined by a combination of each. For example, someone with tall parents may also be tall due to genes; but, if their environment does not include adequate access to nutrients, this can impact their height.
A person inherits half of their DNA from one parent and half from the other parent. Many traits, both physical and psychological, are determined by a combination of multiple genes. Genetics is a complicated and emerging field, and most aspects of physical appearance and personality cannot be tied to one specific gene. However, as understanding about the role of genetics continually increases, researchers may be able to better understand why people look and behave the way they do.
Genetics plays a significant role in an individual’s intellectual ability, social attitudes, preferences, and personality. Research has shown that genetic influence on personality traits, such as extroversion, neuroticism, openness to new experiences, and conscientiousness, is about 40 to 50%. In fact, it is believed all psychological traits are influenced by heredity to some degree.
In

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Retrieved Text: A group of scientists at The Scripps Research Institute is reporting a discovery that sheds light on an area of research fundamental to everything from the normal processes that govern the everyday life of human cells to the aberrant mechanisms that underlie many diseases, including cancer and septic shock.
The discovery concerns tiny fragments of RNA known as microRNA and their relationship to the genetic transcripts known as messenger RNA (mRNA).
All genes expressed in the human body must be transcribed as mRNA before they can be translated into proteins, and the stability of these mRNA transcripts is essential for control of genetic expression.
In the latest issue of the journal Cell, the Scripps Research team, led by Immunology Professor Jiahuai Han, describes how genetic control can be exerted in living cells through microRNA’s action in conjunction with several different proteins.
Han and his Scripps Research colleagues collaborated with researchers at the Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research in Basel, Switzerland, and at the Hong Kong University of Science & Technology in Hong Kong, China for this study.
Ever since biologists first started mapping genetic traits to particular genes, science and society have been fascinated by those tens of thousands of stretches of DNA within the nuclei of cells we call our genes.
One thing that has become clear in the last several decades, however, is that while our genes contribute to human health and disease, it is not always the genes themselves that matter, but rather how the genes are controlled that makes a difference.
The regulation of gene expression is one of

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Retrieved Text: For most dog breeders, as well as dog buyers, genetics is both a confusing and intimidating topic. This short article is intended to clarify some commonly held misconceptions about genetics and to offer some simplified explanations which (hopefully) will help the average person understand a few basic concepts of genetics that are important in breeding and owning purebred dogs. A couple of good references written for dog fanciers are listed at the end of this article for those seeking more information and more in-depth explanations.
Myth#1. Purebreds are "weaker" than mutts.
a) Sick and crippled mongrels are less likely to be counted as they are less likely to be among the living, let alone among those dogs taken to vet clinic for expensive care.
b) No owner (breeder/vet) ever attributed a disease to a mongrel's breeding.
c) The "Ugly Tourist" syndrome: many healthy pets live quietly on, while one sick Irish Setter or a GSD with hip dysplasia gets more than their share of the focus. Add to this that the better made pets are actually much harder to find & buy for the average pet owner, who sadly tends to, despite all good intentions, to buy from the uninformed if not outright uncaring breeder.
d) It is romantically enticing to think Nature does a better job of taking care of Her Children than corrupt man does. The fact that "she" doesn't look after any of "her individual children" is obvious only to those who study nature carefully. Sickness, death & dying is just exactly how nature winnows out the numbers

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Retrieved Text: GO Annotations consist of four mandatory components: a gene product, a term from one of the three Gene Ontology (GO) controlled vocabularies (Molecular Function, Biological Process, and Cellular Component), a reference, and an evidence code. SGD has manually curated and high-throughput GO Annotations, both derived from the literature, as well as computational, or predicted, annotations.
The yeast GO Slim terms are higher level terms that best represent the major S. cerevisiae biological processes, functions, and cellular components. The GO Slim terms listed here are the broader parent terms for the specific terms to which this gene product is annotated, and thus represent the more general processes, functions, and components in which it is involved.
Manually curated GO annotations reflect our best understanding of the basic molecular function, biological process, and cellular component for this gene product. Manually curated annotations are assigned by SGD curators based on published papers when available, or by curatorial statements if necessary. Curators periodically review all manually curated GO annotations for accuracy and completeness. The "Date Last Reviewed" indicates when these annotations were last reviewed.
There are no manually curated annotations for RSC8.
GO annotations from high-throughput experiments are based on a variety of large scale high-throughput experiments, including genome-wide experiments. Many of these annotations are made based on GO annotations (or mappings to GO annotations) assigned by the authors, rather than SGD curators. While SGD curators read these publications and often work closely with authors to incorporate the information, each individual annotation may not necessarily be reviewed by a curator. GO annotations from high-throughput experiments

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Retrieved Text: The earliest finding on the possible strategy utilized by R. fascians to alter plant development was the notion that some bacterial strains were able to degrade auxin (Lacey 1948). The opinion was that a decreased auxin concentration in the infected tissues would shift the auxin/cytokinin balance in favor of shoot formation (Kemp 1978). However, more recent studies of the phe-notype of infected plants have revealed that auxin might play an important role in symptom development (Vereecke et al. 2000). Analysis of secreted indole compounds has indeed demonstrated that R. fascians strain D188 carries auxin biosynthetic genes on its chromosome. Although the indole-3-acetic acid (iaa) genes have not been identified yet, biochemical analyses show that the kinetics of auxin biosynthesis are controlled by pFiD188 (Vandeputte et al. 2005). Based on the available data, a dual role for auxin during the interaction is postulated, first as colonization factor and subsequently as a virulence determinant.
Persistent survival inside the plant tissues, required for maintenance of the leafy gall structure, necessitates the alteration of the bacterial metabolism. The expression of a malate synthase gene vicA, located in the vic (virulence on the chromosome) locus, is upregulated in the presence of plant extracts and controlled by the linear plasmid. Malate synthase functions in the gly-oxylate shunt of the Krebs cycle and catalyzes the condensation of acetyl coenzyme A and glyoxylate to form malate. Together with isocitrate lyase, it circumvents the loss of two carbons during the tricarboxylic acid cycle, when the bacterium grows on C2 compounds as the sole carbon source. The

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Retrieved Text: whole body in general. You can know how your body runs and what you can employ to make it stronger. Knowing your gene make-up can also assist you in making decisions that will affect your future. The following are the benefits of having a genetic DNA test done.
When you undergo a DNA test, specifically diagnostic screening, you get a chance to determine and potentially address some particular genetic conditions based on the given symptoms you may be experiencing. The result may reveal whether you have a given a genetic disease or not. With this information, your doctor can guide you on what steps you can take in order to minimize the effects of the disease.
A good example of this is finding out whether you have a gene mutation associated with Parkinson’s disease or establish whether you have markers such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 that are known for breast cancer. On the other hand, if the results are negative and you do not have a specific genetic condition, you will have peace of mind.
If you want to have children in the future, knowing specific details of your health in terms of genetic mutations is very important. If the results are positive on mutations, this means you can potentially pass on diseases to your kids. As a result, you may opt on not having them, devise ways of minimizing the chances of the disease, or at least be better prepared.
Newborn babies also benefit significantly from being subjected to genetic testing. With newborn screening, you can establish disorders that

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Retrieved Text: C. FERREIRA In N. Nedjah, L. de M. Mourelle, A. Abraham, eds., Genetic Systems Programming: Theory and Experiences, Studies in Computational Intelligence, Vol. 13, pp. 21-56, Springer-Verlag, 2006.
The use of more than one homeotic gene results obviously in a multicellular system, in which each homeotic gene puts together a different consortium of genes.
It codes for three conventional genes and two homeotic genes (shown in blue). And its expression results in two different cells or programs, each expressing different genes in different ways (Figure 9). As you can see in Figure 9, ADF1 is used twice in both cells; ADF2 is used just once in both cells; and ADF0 is only used in Cell1.
Figure 9. Expression of a multicellular system with three Automatically Defined Functions. a) The chromosome composed of three conventional genes and two homeotic genes (shown in bold). b) The ADFs codified by each conventional gene. c) Two different main programs expressed in two different cells. Note how different cells put together different combinations of ADFs.
The applications of these multicellular systems are multiple and varied and, like the multigenic systems, they can be used both in problems with just one output and in problems with multiple outputs. In the former case, the best program or cell accounts for the fitness of the individual; in the latter, each cell is responsible for a particular facet in a multiple output task such as a classification task with multiple classes.
It is worth pointing out that the implementation of multiple main programs in Genetic Programming is virtually unthinkable and

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Retrieved Text: The cells of the lymphoid system develop from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells through a series of intermediate progenitors with progressively restricted developmental options. Commitment to a given lymphoid lineage appears to be controlled by numerous transcriptional regulatory proteins that activate lineage-specific gene expression programs and extinguish expression of lineage-inappropriate genes. In this review I discuss the function of transcription factors belonging to the helix-loop-helix protein family in the control of lymphoid cell fate decisions. A model of lymphocyte lineage determination based on the antagonistic activity of transcriptional activating and repressing helix-loop-helix proteins is presented.

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Retrieved Text: Two groups of Rensselaer researchers each have received a $1.08 million grant from New York through the state's stem cell research initiative. Both grants will fund research on the growth and development of stem cells and will provide some of the first insights available into the role specific genes and biological molecules play in stem cell function in the human body.
The lead researchers for the grants are Robert Linhardt, the Ann and John H. Broadbent Jr. '59 Senior Constellation Professor of Biocatalysis and Metabolic Engineering, and Russell Ferland, assistant professor of biology.
"This funding announcement couldn't come at a more exciting time in this field," Linhardt said. "President Obama has removed the executive regulations that have controlled stem cell research, which was a welcome step for the scientific community. We are exceptionally fortunate to conduct our research in a state that shows strong support for stem cell research. There is so much pent up demand for funding in this field, New York's initiative will allow us to jump off the blocks well before researchers in most other states."
Linhardt will join Jonathan Dordick, the Howard P. Isermann '42 Professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering and director of the university's Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, as well as researchers from the University of Georgia, to study the complex web of carbohydrates that surround human stem cells. This sugary coating is known as the glyco niche and supports the growth and specialization of stem cells within the body, according to Linhardt.
"One of the main hurdles to the use of

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Retrieved Text: Did they evolve a powerful hallucinogen to stop insects from getting the munchies?
If you were an American scientist interested in hallucinogens, the 1950s and 1960s were a great time to be working. Drugs like LSD and psilocybin—the active ingredient in magic mushrooms—were legal and researchers could acquire them easily. With federal funding, they ran more than a hundred studies to see if these chemicals could treat psychiatric disorders.
After mapping the presence of these five genes in the fungal family tree, Slot’s team confirmed that they most likely spread by jumping around as a unit. That’s why they’re in the same order relative to each other across the various hallucinogenic mushrooms.
These genes seem to have originated in fungi that specialize in breaking down decaying wood or animal dung. Both materials are rich in hungry insects that compete with fungi, either by eating them directly or by going after the same nutrients. So perhaps, Slot suggests, fungi first evolved psilocybin to drug these competitors.
His idea makes sense. Psilocybin affects us humans because it fits into receptor molecules that typically respond to serotonin—a brain-signaling chemical. Those receptors are ancient ones that insects also share, so it’s likely that psilocybin interferes with their nervous system, too. “We don’t have a way to know the subjective experience of an insect,” says Slot, and it’s hard to say if they trip. But one thing is clear from past experiments: Psilocybin reduces insect appetites.
By evolving the ability to make this chemical, which prevents the munchies in insects, perhaps some fungi triumphed over their

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Retrieved Text: Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. – Scientists at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) have harnessed the still untapped power of genome editing to improve agricultural crops. Using tomato as an example, they have mobilized CRISPR/Cas9 technology to rapidly generate variants of the plant that display a broad continuum of three separate, agriculturally important traits: fruit size, branching architecture and overall plant shape. All are major components in determining how much a plant will yield. The method is designed to work in all food, feed, and fuel crops, including the staples rice, maize, sorghum and wheat.
"Current rates of crop yield increases won't meet the planet's future agricultural demands as the human population grows," says CSHL Professor Zachary Lippman, who led the research. "One of the most severe limitations is that nature hasn't provided enough genetic variation for breeders to work with, especially for the major yield traits that can involve dozens of genes. Our lab has now used CRISPR technology to generate novel genetic variation that can accelerate crop improvement while making its outcomes more predictable."
The team's experiments, published today in Cell, involve using CRISPR "scissors" to make multiple cuts within three tomato genome sequences known as a promoters — areas of DNA near associated genes which help regulate when, where, and at what level these "yield" genes are active during growth. In this way generating multiple sets of mutations within each of these regulatory regions, the scientists were able to induce a wide range of changes in each of the three targeted traits.
"What we demonstrated with each

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Retrieved Text: Sunshine and Epigenetics: Altering Histone Variant H2A.Z Turnover and Gene Expression in Rice Seedlings | What is Epigenetics?
Have you ever thought of how the day-night cycle can epigenetically affect plants? Latest research from Zhang et al. has shown a possible mechanism of how histone variants can negatively regulate gene expression in day-night cycles of rice seedling tissues. This paves a way for an exciting area of research of how histone variants can be differentially deposited in a very short time span, in order to fine tune the transcription due to the environmental stimuli in plants.
Histones variants, termed as the chromatin “wrap-artists“, have come into the spotlight for their diverse, context dependent actions in species ranging from the humble yeast (S. cerevisiae) to mammals and plants. These replication-independent proteins are constitutively expressed, which are distinct from their canonical counterparts, being expressed during cellular replication. As we know, histones are proteins responsible for DNA packaging into nucleosomes, thereby forming chromatin. The function of histone variants has been found to be more than that.
H2A.Z, a variant of canonical H2A histone, has surprising functions in chromatin architectures. Typically, H2A.Z enrichment seems to be variable in different species and tissue types, most prominently at the promoters and gene bodies. Lately, it has also been found to regulate enhancer activity. Studies have shown that H2A.Z enrichment at the transcription start site (TSS) reduces the energy barrier for RNA polymerase II, which is responsible for transcribing mRNAs efficiently. On the contrary, its gene body incorporation has been demonstrated to be a targeted gene

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

The information listed at the right of the label tells you what to look for. At the top of the label, look for the serving size. The serving size tells you how much of the food you should eat to get the nutrients listed on the label. A cup of food from the label pictured below is a serving. The calories in one serving are listed next. In this food, there are 250 calories per serving.


Q: What tells you how much of the food you should eat to get the nutrients listed on the label?

 Choices:

- regular size

- serving size

- scoop size

- longer size

A:

Target Text: serving size

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: NOTE: FDA has issued final changes to update the Nutrition Facts label for packaged foods. For more information, see Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label.
People look at food labels for different reasons. But whatever the reason, many consumers would like to know how to use this information more effectively and easily. The following label-building skills are intended to make it easier for you to use nutrition labels to make quick, informed food choices that contribute to a healthy diet.
The information in the main or top section (see #1-4 and #6 on the sample nutrition label below), can vary with each food product; it contains product-specific information (serving size, calories, and nutrient information). The bottom part (see #5 on the sample label below) contains a footnote with Daily Values (DVs) for 2,000 and 2,500 calorie diets. This footnote provides recommended dietary information for important nutrients, including fats, sodium and fiber. The footnote is found only on larger packages and does not change from product to product.
In the following Nutrition Facts label we have colored certain sections to help you focus on those areas that will be explained in detail. You will not see these colors on the food labels on products you purchase.
The first place to start when you look at the Nutrition Facts label is the serving size and the number of servings in the package. Serving sizes are standardized to make it easier to compare similar foods; they are provided in familiar units, such as cups or pieces, followed by the metric amount, e.g., the

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Retrieved Text: Do you pay attention to the Nutrition Facts label when you buy food? You should. It’s not perfect, but it is an excellent resource for ensuring your body gets the right nutrients in the right amounts. The Nutrition Facts label should be one of the first things you check whenever you shop for food.
The Nutrition Facts label, also called the Nutrition Facts panel, provides information to consumers about the serving size, number of servings, calories, and nutrients of a particular food. These labels are organized into several distinct sections—serving size and calories, nutrients, and a footnote. A list of ingredients is usually under or near the Nutrition Facts label, but is not technically part of the label itself. This nutrition information in the nutrition label is required by law for most packaged food products in the United States. Many other countries require something similar with slight variations in format.
At first glance, the Nutrition Facts label may seem like a confusing jumble of numbers and nutrients. It can be more easily understood when you break the information down by section. Once you understand this label and the information it contains, you can make well-informed dietary decisions to improve your health through better nutrition.
You can find serving size and calorie information at the top of the nutrition label. Servings are presented in easy to understand units, like cups or pieces. The size of each serving is standardized by the FDA to make it easier to compare similar foods.
Pay extra attention to the serving size. This is often one

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Retrieved Text: So, how many calories are you eating each day? How much fat? Gettin’ enough vitamins, calcium, and iron? The Nutrition Facts label is the way you can tell. Here’s a crash course.
The top of the label tells you the size of one serving, and how many servings are in the package.
What matters here? Check the size of a serving. Is the portion you choose actually two, three, or four servings? Then double, triple, or quadruple the calories, vitamins, etc. you see on the rest of the label.
This section is about calories, and calories from fat.
What matters here? Regularly eating more calories than the body uses leads to having extra body weight to lug around. A rule of thumb for choosing foods—40 calories per serving means the food is low in calories, 100 calories/serving is moderate, and 400 or more is high.
Next come nutrients that Americans typically eat plenty (or too much!) of.
What matters here? A healthy eating style limits fat, cholesterol, and sodium (salt). The % Daily Value column is your “cheat sheet.” If the column shows 5% or less, the food is low in fat, or cholesterol, or sodium. If the column shows 20% or more, the food is high in fat, cholesterol, or sodium.
This part lets you zero in on key nutrients we all need.
First is fiber. Then look below the black bar for vitamins, and two things that young people really need—calcium (for bones) and iron (for muscles and blood).
What matters here? Are the foods you eat delivering 100% of the fiber, vitamins,

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Retrieved Text: Remember to look at serving size before you start eating an item. You might choose just one serving, but if you eat more you must multiply the whole nutrition label by the number of servings you ate if you want to know what nutrients you had.
Fresh fruits and vegetables do not require food labels because they have not been processed. Check out these items when you need a healthy snack.
Beware of ingredients on the label that you can't pronounce and are unfamiliar. The more big words in the ingredients list, the more you should probably stay away from that food.
The law that required nutrition labels on all packaged foods sold in the U.S. began in 1990. The nutrition label you see today on the foods you and your family buy has changed a little, but still serves the same purpose. It's there to inform the buyer or consumer of what nutrients are in the product. The items on all labels are listed in the same order. So when you learn how to read a label once, things will be in the same spot when you read another label on a different product. Each package contains a list of ingredients too. These appear in a certain order, from greatest to least in terms of weight. Each product has a unique ingredients list.
Let’s Learn How To Read It!
The first place you should look at when trying to read a label is the serving size. Serving size gives you a point of reference, and the entire label is based

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Retrieved Text: Editor’s Note: This article was originally published on Cooking to a T by T’ara Smith, MS.
Have you ever been in the grocery store, stared at the list of contents on a food label, and were confused by the information? How do you know what’s good or bad for you? Do serving sizes matter? Reading and interpreting the information on a food label can be confusing, especially if you’re trying to maintain or improve your health. But don’t worry, it’s not hard, in fact, learning how to read the info on a label will make you more informed about what you’re eating on a daily basis.
Food labels list everything that makes up the product. This article breaks down what parts of the label to pay attention to, which nutrients eat to more or less of, and what %DV means.
Serving sizes are listed at the top of the label. When looking at the serving size, pay attention to the amount of servings per container, as it will represent the number of calories, fat, carbs, and other nutrients you’ll consume. Whenever you’re deciding on a food product or crafting a recipe, ask yourself how much of that product’s nutrients make up each serving. It’s also important to pay attention to the serving size because what may seem like a “reasonable” serving size for you may be more than the serving size listed on the label. Understanding this can prevent overeating and help you understand if your serving size contains too many carbohydrates that could negatively affect your blood sugar.
Pay

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Retrieved Text: Meal planning can be done using the updated food pyramid, called "MyPyramid", which has been established to reflect a more individualized approach to managing your diet and lifestyle. See the diagram below for details.
The figure walking up the steps reminds you to incorporate physical activity into each day. Each color represents a type of food. The bands are wider at the base to remind you to eat mostly foods without solid fats and added sugar.
Orange is for grains – Eat at least 3 oz. of whole grain bread, cereal, crackers, rice, or pasta everyday. Green is for vegetables – Eat dark green and orange vegetables.
Red is for fruits – Choose fresh when available but you can try frozen, canned, or dried fruit.
Blue is for milk products – Choose low fat or fat-free.
Purple is for meat and beans – Stick with lean and low-fat; bake, broil or grill your foods.
Yellow is for oils – Have most of your fat come from fish, nuts, and vegetable oil. Limit solid fats like butter and stick margarine.
Physical activity – You should get at least 30 minutes of physical activity daily. Children and teens should get 60 minutes.
go to www.mypyramid.gov and start designing your own plan.
You've found a food product that looks appealing and healthy. But how do you know whether it contains the nutrients you need? Fortunately, there's an easy way to answer that question: just read the food label.
The government has made it much easier to know what's in food products by insisting on standardized labeling. You can gain

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Retrieved Text: (HealthDay News) -- Most packaged foods have an ingredient label, which can provide invaluable nutritional information about the product.
Review the serving size, which shows you how many servings of the product are in the package.
Pay attention to the "calories per serving" line to figure out how many calories you'll take in from each serving.
Check the total amount of fat, as well as the amount of saturated fat and trans fat. These ingredients can elevate your risk of high cholesterol and heart disease.
The label should have a line that specifies the nutrients found in the food you're about to eat.
Examine the "percent daily values" information, which tells you how much of the daily recommended amount of each nutrient is included in the product.

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Retrieved Text: Look at any packaged food and you’ll find a food label. These provide the nutrition facts for what’s in the food, as well as information like ingredients, where the food came from and whether the food is organic.
Ingredients – These are listed in order of concentration. Read carefully and watch for hidden sugars, salt and additives.
Serving Size – Use this to compare how much you actually eat. Are you eating more or less than recommended?
Calories – Calories do count. Be careful how many servings you are actually eating: if you’re eating two servings, double the calorie count listed. Also, watch “calories from fat.” Limit your servings if the label indicates a high percentage.
% Daily Value (DV): This shows how much of the recommended amounts of these nutrients are in one serving, based on a 2,000 calorie diet. These percentages make it easier to compare foods.
Fats – Not all fat is equal. Limit trans and saturated fats, and aim for foods high in monosaturated fats.
Sodium – A product with 5 percent of DV is considered low sodium. 20 percent or more is a high-sodium food. Your total recommended daily intake of sodium should be 2,400 mg or less.
Cholesterol – Cholesterol is only found in foods from animal sources, such as meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products. The lower the percentage of DV in this category, the better.
Vitamins/Nutrients – Choose products with the higher percentage of DV, especially for vitamins A and C, as well as iron and calcium. Your goal should be to reach 100 percent for

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Retrieved Text: Best before’ dates indicate how long food will remain of good quality – food is still safe to eat after this date.
Do not eat food after the use-by date, because it may be unsafe to eat.
You can use the nutrition information panel on food packages to compare similar products.
Food labels carry useful information to help you make good choices about food. The food label will tell you if the food contains an additive that you may want to avoid. The nutrition information panel helps you to compare the nutrient profile of similar products and choose the one that suits your needs.
Foods with a shelf life of less than two years must have a ‘best before’ or ‘use-by’ date. These terms mean different things. The ‘best before’ date refers to the quality of the food – food stored in the recommended way will remain of good quality until that date.
It may still be safe to eat certain foods after the ‘best before’ date, but they may have lost quality and some nutritional value. By contrast, foods that should not be consumed after a certain date for health and safety reasons must have a ‘use-by’ date and cannot be sold after that date. You will find ‘use-by’ dates on perishables such as meat, fish and dairy products.
Some foods carry the date they were manufactured or packed, rather than a ‘use-by’ date, so you can tell how fresh the food is. For example, bread and meat can be labelled with a ‘baked on’ or ‘packed on’ date.
Check the ‘use-by’

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Retrieved Text: Nutrition labels are full of useful information that can help you make healthy food choices. However, nutrition labels can often be confusing and difficult to understand. Here are a few label reading tips to help you learn how to read a nutrition label and use the information more effectively.
The serving size is placed on the top of the label and often gets overlooked. The serving size tells you the size of a single serving and the total number of servings per package.
You want to make sure you’re paying attention to the serving size and how many servings are in the package. More often than not, the package is going to have more than one serving. This is important to note because if you eat more than on serving, you’re doubling the calories and the nutrients.
Calories are the first thing we look at when we flip over to the nutrition label. Here you will see the total number of calories per serving and how many of those calories are from fat. Remember, you want to pay attention to not only the number of calories per serving, but how many servings you’re really consuming if you eat the entire package.
The nutrients listed on this section are ones that Americans tend to over indulge in. Eating too many of these nutrients may increase your risk of high blood pressure, heart diseases and other chronic diseases.
Theses beneficial nutrients will help aid in your health and keep you fuller longer.
A good thing to note is that there are two different types

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Retrieved Text: Making healthy food choices is a smart thing to do –no matter how old you are!!
Your body changes through your 60s, 70s, 80s, and beyond. Food provides nutrients you need as you age. Use these tips to choose foods for better health at each stage of life.
Drink plenty of liquids- With age; you may lose some of your sense of thirst. Drink water often. Low-fat or fat-free milk 100% juice also helps you stay hydrate. Limit beverages that have lots of added sugars or salt. Learn which liquids are better choices.
Make eating a social event-Meals are more enjoyable when you eat with others. Invite a friend to join you or take part in a potluck at least twice a week. A senior center or place of worship may offer meals that are shared with others. There are many ways to make mealtimes pleasing.
Clean healthy meals- Get advice on what to eat, how much to eat, and which foods to choose, all based on Dietary guidelines. Find sensible, flexible ways to choose and prepare tasty meals so you can eat foods you need.
Vary your vegetables- Include a variety of different colored vegetables to brighten your plate. Most vegetables are a low-calorie source of nutrients. Vegetables are also a good source of fiber.
Eat for your teeth and gums-Many people find that their teeth and gums change as they age. People with dental problems sometimes find it hard to chew fruits, vegetables, or meats. Don’t miss out needed nutrients! Eating softer foods can help. Try cooked or foods like

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Retrieved Text: In order to help the population make healthier choices in the food they eat, most food manufacturers now present nutritional information on the packaging of their food product, although this information is useful, to the untrained individual this information can be very confusing.
What information is provided on the label?
The nutritional information given on the label of the food or drink product will give the quantities of individual nutrients which make up the product; these are given as per 100g or 100ml of the product. Sometimes an amount per typical serving is also given.
Providing this nutritional information is voluntary, however if a manufacturer considers to provide it, legal requirements govern its presentation and how much of it is displayed.
There are two standard ways of listing nutritional information found on food products; they are the 'big 4' or the 'big 8'.
'The Big 4' group must contain; energy (calories); protein; carbohydrate and fat.
'The Big 8' group must contain; energy (calories); protein; carbohydrates, of which sugars; fat, of which saturates; fibre; and sodium.
It's all well and good that food manufacturers provide this information, but what relevance does it have if you don't know the amount of these nutrients you're meant to be consuming per day or what use they are to you. It is therefore useful to understand terms used in the nutritional listings and have some knowledge of their importance.
This is the amount of energy which you get from the food you eat. It is measured in calories (kcal) or joules (kJ). Guidance Daily Amounts; Male: 2500kcal, Female: 2000kcal.
The

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Retrieved Text: You may see a panel like this on the back of food packs.It tells you what nutrients are in the food. You can use this information to help you choose healthier food for your family.
Manufacturers must by law include this information if they making a ‘nutrition claim’ about the product, e.g. is low fat or high in fibre.
Many producers include this information voluntarily even if they have not made the nutrition claim.
When nutritional information is given on a label, it must show the amount of each of the following nutrients in 100g or 100ml of the food, plus the amount of any nutrient for which a claim has been made. You will often find nutrition information on the Big 4 on nutrition labels.
This is the amount of energy that the food will give you when you eat it. It is measured either in calories (kcal) or joules (kJ).
Your body needs protein to grow, if you are still growing, and to repair itself. Protein-rich foods are meat, fish, milk and dairy foods, eggs, beans, lentils and nuts.
Your body turns carbohydrate into energy. Simple carbohydrates, which include added sugars and natural sugars found in fruit and milk, are often listed on food labels as ‘carbohydrates (of which sugars)’.
Complex carbohydrates are also called starchy foods. Starchy foods include bread, cereals, rice, pasta and potatoes. Try choosing wholegrain varieties whenever you can. You should get most of your energy from complex carbohydrates (or starchy foods) rather from sugars.
Sometimes you will only see a total figure for carbohydrates on food labels.

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Retrieved Text: Home » Blogging » Fast, Easy, Simple, Nutritious; Foods For Your World.
Hello! Welcome to In The Annex weight loss tips for a healthy lifestyle.
Fast, Easy, Simple, Nutritious; Foods For Your World.
By Curtis Gonzales in Blogging on November 13, 2018 .
Healthy eating is only difficult if you do not know how to get started. Like many areas of life, a little education is needed before you can get started with a healthy diet. Use the tips in this article to improve your diet.
Study the labels when you are purchasing foods. Foods that may be advertised as reduced fat could contain other undesirable ingredient in high amounts such as sugar or sodium. Overly processed food is not ideal for your diet when you are trying to lose weight. A healthy food will have a label with easily recognizable ingredients. If some of the ingredients listed on the label are artificial ingredients, it’s more than likely that the food is processed and unhealthy.
600-900 miligrams of garlic should be included in your diet daily if possible. It is known for fighting illnesses like heart disease and cancer. Garlic also helps your organs fight against bacteria and fungus. With all of these great abilities, garlic, whether as an extract or in clove form, is an important every day food.
It is a great idea to have protein bars or concentrated foods ready in your bag when you travel. Perhaps you have noticed that it has become increasingly hard to get a decent meal in an airport. There is a lot to accomplish

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Retrieved Text: Many women are very health conscious during their pregnancy- they abstain from alcohol, limit caffeine, and avoid luncheon meats and raw fish; however, are there certain “power foods” that they should add to their diet that can promote a healthier pregnancy? Do the “prenatal power foods” that media headlines commonly tout really exist?
The terms “power foods” or “super foods” are actually media-coined, but there is a scientific method that may allow health professionals to categorize a food as what the media refers to as a “super food.” This method is called nutrient density. Nutrient density compares how much nutrition from vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants a food contains compared to its calorie content. If a food is “nutrient dense,” it is lower in calories and high in nutrients. On the other end of the spectrum, a food may be high in calories but low in nutrients, making it what may be called nutrient “thin.” In other words, nutrient density can be thought of as how much “bang for your buck” a food can provide. It’s preferable to eat a food rich in disease-fighting vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that doesn’t take up much of your daily calorie allotment, rather than a high calorie food that doesn’t provide many essential nutrients.
Let’s take kale, for example. One cup of cooked kale contains about 36 calories, only about 1.8% of a day’s worth of calories (based on a 2000 calorie diet). For that small amount of calories it contains, in the same quantity it also provides more than 100% of the

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Retrieved Text: Is White Flour Lurking in Your Dogs Food or Treats?
Is White Flour Lurking in Your Dog Treats?
Like homemade dog treats? There are many reasons I won't let my dogs have white flour. I don't care if you call it white, wheat, all purpose, or cake flour. It's bad stuff and here's why.
In fact no flour of any kind will ever pass any of my dogs' lips again.
See that red nose on my boy? That's from trying to bury everything I gave him that had flour. I kid you not. He taught me so much.
First of all, it is not a food. I keep pretending it is, because I like white dinner rolls, pizza dough and pasta, but I know it's not.
It has no nutritional value whatsoever. They only start with wheat. Unfortunately, the wheat is stripped of all nutrients and fiber; then bleached.
Then they have the audacity to label it "enriched" wheat flour or enriched all purpose flour.
Who cares if they ‘enrich’ it now? It is dead, dead, dead. It cannot be revived by adding some man made laboratory born nutrients - so why try to revive it?
We humans like it because it makes fluffy food. Many of us still eat it without thought and share it with our dogs as well. Too bad for us, because here's what it does.
We know eating a lot of refined sugars can affect blood sugar and cause diabetes in people and dogs are no different.
Even though this flour doesn't taste sweet, it breaks down into sugar (glucose) and can

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Retrieved Text: HOW TO CHOOSE THE BEST SUPPLEMENT FOR YOUR BODY AND YOUR HEALTH.
WHEN CHOOSING A SUPPLEMENT, HOW DO YOU KNOW WHICH ONE TO BUY?
HOW DO YOU KNOW FOR SURE THAT YOU ARE GETTING THE BEST SUPPLEMENT FOR YOUR BODY AND YOUR HEALTH?
There are hundreds of thousands of vitamin supplements available on today's market. You can buy them at health food stores, drug stores, grocery stores, various retailers, through health care professionals, and on the internet.
SO HOW DO YOU CHOOSE? First of all you must know what is in the product by learning to read the label. It can be very confusing to determine the true value of a supplement. Understanding the label will help you know if you are taking a quality supplement.
WHERE DO THE NUTRIENTS COME FROM? Look at the ingredients listed on the food label. Do you recognize any of them? Just like any other food label, the nutrients are listed in a particular order and some manufacturers put the source next to the nutrient. In a quality , wholesome product, you will recognize and be able to pronounce most of the ingredients on the label.
WHAT IS THE IMORTANCE OF WHOLE FOOD INGREDIENTS? Only whole food ingredients can provide you with all the nutrients contained within the food. For example, in Brand B, you'll see dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate, that's a mouthfull ! That is not a food ingredient. It is an isolated component of the vitamin E complex. If you were to take a supplement with just dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate, you would be missing at

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Retrieved Text: Understanding what foods you should be eating is only part of the picture when you aren't sure of what the foods on the shelves of stores contains. Enter traffic light food labels, that make it easier to see what certain foods contain and what you should be choosing.
The quest for finding the best foods for you and knowing what the food on the shelves in stores contains has taken another step to better informing the public of how they can make their own nutritional selection.
This comes in the form of colour-coded nutritional information that tells you at a glance if the food has high, medium or low amounts of fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt.
According to the NHS the greener the label, the healthier the choice! Amber means neither high nor low, so you can eat foods with all or mostly amber on the label most of the time. But any red on the label means the food is high in fat, saturated fat, salt or sugars, and these are the foods we should cut down on. Try to eat these foods less often and in small amounts.
These new nutritional labels are there to assist you in making better dietary choices. So, even if you are unsure of the foods that you are consuming, you can quite easily take a look at the label and go for green if you are, for instance, attempting to lose weight.
How does a food label work?
Food labelling is a great idea for anyone looking to eat healthier or lose weight.

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Retrieved Text: Essential: How Much Fat Do We Actually Need?
As we discussed last week, knowing what nutrients are essential — meaning they must be consumed from food, our body cannot manufacture them — teaches us a lot about what we should be eating.
This week we take a look at fats, specifically what fat is essential to consume.
It is interesting to note just how few fats are essential to consume. What this means is that the body can manufacture every other fat necessary for human health. That means we don’t need to consume any other fats, no saturated fat, no cholesterol, etc. Our body can make all we need.
In other words, apart from the two essential fats, we don’t need to purposely eat fatty foods. Unlike other nutrients, we don’t need to try to get enough. If you live in America, you are already getting enough fat in your diet, and likely are consuming far too much of it.
When it comes to Linoleic Acid, the omega-6 fatty acid, you are also getting enough already. In fact you are likely getting too much. Omega-6 is found in abundance in plant oils, such as corn, safflower, and sunflower oil, and also most animal fat. Most processed food contains a lot of these oils, and many people cook with them as well, thus we get more than enough. As we’ll see, most actually get too much.
Important to the development of heart disease is the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids in the diet. Optimal is around 1:1 or 1:2. The average

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Retrieved Text: In this video I’m going to share with you some easy way to reading or understanding food labels.
When you are trying to lose, gain or maintain weight, it is important to understand and know what you are putting in your body. Food labels have become increasingly easier to read and more informative for even beginning label readers to know what they are consuming. Food labels provide all the information you need regarding the nutritional values of a particular food product.
Reading the labels will make it easier for you to judge what type of food product is good enough to put in your body. With labels, you can easily compare the food products and select the best option for your diet.
As necessary as it is, reading food labels can be a little tricky at first, but here are a few tips to get you reading them like a pro.
First things first. Check the amount and size of servings contained in a package because the nutritional values are written relative to that size of a serving. Serving sizes are mentioned to make it easier to compare similar amounts of food products. Every nutritional fact mentioned on the label is influenced by that serving size.
The next thing you should check is the number of calories. It will tell you how many calories you are consuming per serving. You can easily calculate the number of calories that you have consumed based on the amount of the food product you have eaten. Calories are very important because the number of calories

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Retrieved Text: When thinking about your oral health, you probably remember how often you’ve been told not to eat too much candy of your teeth will rot out. Just about everyone has been told that at some point in their lives, and so we generally know not to eat too much candy. There is a problem with that, though.
Candy isn’t the only culprit when it comes to sugar and decay. Candy is only the most obvious. Our society thinks that if we keep the candy away, our family’s teeth will be fine. You will quickly learn that cutting candy isn’t enough.
Over the next two blog posts, we are going to take a look at sugar and how it affects your body and teeth. The number of decay cases we see at our Houston, TX dentist office are growing, and it’s, in large part, due to the excessive amounts of sugar we eat from unexpected sources.
Where Can Sugar Be Found?
The better question is where can sugar NOT be found. Pick up just about any processed food at the store and check the label. You will find sugar (in all forms) in just about everything! Sugar takes many forms, so it’s important that you know how to identify it so that you know exactly how much is going into your body!
Pasta/Bread – We love our pasta and bread (sometimes together!) in the United States. Unfortunately, pasta and bread are loaded with carbohydrates, which should be spelled S-U-G-A-R.
Potatoes – Potatoes are technically a vegetable, but the amount of carbohydrates in a

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Retrieved Text: Many food products are promoted as healthy choices and are often advertised as ‘low fat’, ‘sugar free’ or ‘high in fibre’ to quote just a few. Unfortunately, just because a product makes one food claim, doesn’t mean it is the best or the healthiest choice. A product labelled as ‘low fat’ for example may still contain a huge amount of calories from sugar. Similarly a product that is claimed to be ‘cholesterol free’ may still be high in fat. Fortunately, food manufacturers will provide with a nutrition information label on all their products, a development that has made it easier for shoppers to make informed choices about what they are really eating, and to choose the healthiest options for general well-being as well as weight loss.
At the top of the food label, you will usually find the food’s serving size, as well as the number of servings contained in each package. Use this information to calculate the approximate number of servings you are consuming at one time. For example if a packet of biscuits contains 10 serves, and you eat half the packet, you will need to multiply the nutritional information by five to find the total amount you have consumed (read more below).
When dieting it may be useful to measure out portions with a scale or cup, at least the first time, so that you know exactly what you are eating and what a serve size looks like in your bowl. This is particularly important for foods such as breakfast cereals, when serve sizes can

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Retrieved Text: If you read nutrition labels, be prepared for a revamp. In May 2016, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced the existing nutrition information panel would get a facelift. With only two revisions since its inception 20 years ago, this revamp is the most significant change. In June 2017, the FDA announced it would push back the original compliance deadline of July 2018. A new date has yet to be set, but some companies are already using the updated label or announcing they will by the original deadline.
Regardless of when updated labels hit the shelves, we wanted to give you the 411 on the major changes and how consumers can use them to make healthier decisions.
This is the most debated revision to the label from the 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA). In this revision, added sugars will be displayed in grams and as percent of daily value to help you assess the added sugars in different foods and drinks. The DGA determined that if you consume more than 10% of your total daily calories from added sugars, it’s difficult to meet nutritional needs while staying within calorie limits. On average, we get about 13% of our total calories from added sugars.
Though serving size information will still be listed just below “Nutrition Facts,” there will be significant changes to how serving sizes are calculated. This is especially important since serving sizes have not changed since the mid-1990s. For example, the serving size of ice cream used to be 1/2 cup. However, after reviewing the serving sizes

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Retrieved Text: Sometimes our busy lives keep us from slowing down enough to fix and eat as healthy as we know we should. It’s too easy to drive through a fast food joint, fix a boxed meal, or order delivery when life is hectic even though we are aware these types of foods have way too much sugar, trans-fats, and simple carbs to be part of healthy eating. Too many of these type of meals on a regular basis can cause inflammation in our bodies and contribute to heart disease and diabetes. Eating healthy fuels the body with the nutrients it needs to provide us with energy and keep all the parts in good working order. The good news is that there are simple ways to get a nutritional boost that won’t add a lot of time to an already busy schedule.
First take a good look at what you eat now and start adding veggies, fruits, lean protein, healthy fats, and whole grains to your diet wherever you can. Prepare meals and snacks ahead when you have some down time to make it easier to grab something healthy when you are on the run. Also take a look at how much you eat and make sure that you have a way to burn off the amount of calories you need to according to how many calories you eat to avoid excessive weight gain. The older we get, the more of a problem this can become since the metabolism slows down with age. Cutting down on the amount you

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Retrieved Text: One of the most important things you can do for your own nutrition is to know what you’re eating. In recent years, food labels have become much more user friendly and you really can know exactly what you’re putting in your body.
Your relationship with food is very important. What you eat can help to give you energy, improve your immunity, and allow you to combat many diseases. But it can also do the opposite – leave you feeling weak and even cause disease.
But if you’ve never given your food much thought, reading food labels can be intimidating. There’s a lot of information there. Deciding which information is important and which isn’t can be challenging. Once you know the basics, though, you’ll read those labels with confidence.
Begin with looking at the serving size on the label. Sometimes people miss this part of the label and then have an inaccurate idea of what’s actually in the food. For example, if you have a can of soup and the label says it’s 2 servings, that means that the information on the label would be doubled if you ate the whole can.
Labels have gotten better in the recent past. For example, a can of soda used to be 1.5 or 2 servings. But now when you look at the label, one can of soda is a whole serving because most people will drink the entire thing. A 20 oz bottle, though, is more than 2 servings.
Once you know the serving size, you’re ready to move on to looking at the

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Retrieved Text: Where your sugar comes from matters when it comes to its effect on your health.
Over the years, people have become increasingly conscious about which ingredients are in their food—especially when it comes to sugar. But until recently, it’s been impossible to tell which kind of sugar is actually lurking in the packaged foods you eat… and potentially hurting your health.
To make it easier for consumers to see exactly how much added sugar is in packaged foods—and “help reduce the burden of chronic diseases like diabetes, obesity, and heart disease”—the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is making a major change to nutrition labels. By 2020, every food company will be required to update their nutrition facts panel with an “added sugars” line so people can separate the naturally-occurring sweeteners from the bad guys.
What the ‘added sugars’ line on a nutrition label means.
How the ‘added sugars’ line will help you eat healthier.
According to Gorin, this label change will help people eat less than the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended limit of 10 percent of calories per day. For someone following a 2,000-calorie diet, that’s the equivalent of 50 grams of added sugars.
It also helps with the confusion between added sugars and naturally-occurring sugar. While foods like honey, molasses, white refined sugar, and maple syrup are added sugars, the sugar found in foods like fruit or milk are not. Luckily, with this change, it will be easier to determine which is sugar vs. added sugar.
How your body processes natural sugar and added sugar differently and the difference in

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Retrieved Text: Various studies have suggested that eating a diet rich in particular fruits and vegetables can have numerous health benefits. According to the and the, roughly % of this sodium intake comes from processed foods. The association between social norms and eating behaviour has been the topic of meta-analysis Eating is considered a social behaviour, often done in the presence of others like friends, family or colleagues. My and serving sizes are simply used for different purposes. If you eat two servings, or cups, you need to double the number of calories and nutrients listed on the food label to know how much you are really getting. Carry backpack snacks for healthy eating on the go. Risk for these's also rises with an increase in body mass index and age.
These types of foods should be kept as occasional treats. Serve with ounces fat-free milk. Large, colorful salads are the perfect way to incorporate lots of colorful veggies into your diet. This article is going to help you understand the importance of eating whole foods and why you should focus on a natural eating plan. You could use your daily allotment of calories on a few high-calorie foods and beverages, but you probably wouldn't get the nutrients your body needs to be healthy. If you bloat and then have a bowel movement shortly thereafter or stay regular and de-bloat shortly, chances are your body can handle fruit. Many people believe that just by eating a balanced diet full of natural, whole foods they are able to reach or

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Retrieved Text: It is necessary to include the sodium content of food on the Nutrition Information Panel in New Zealand and Australia.
The Nutrition Information Panel (food label) on packaged foods tells you how much sodium (and other nutrients) is in the food.
Salt or sodium chloride contains two elements – 40% sodium and 60% chloride.

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Retrieved Text: Calories are only a measurement of heat. Calories are not a physical substance. Most people I come in contact with are all concerned with counting calories. They tell me how many calories they eat a day to lose weight. When I tell them that they should be concerned more with how many vital nutrients they are consuming, rather than wasting time counting calories, they look at me like I just fell off the turnip truck. At my book signing I introduced a new product “raw revolution food bars”. These bars are loaded with antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, omega-3 oil. The nutrient value is amazing. They are raw, which means they have not been cooked or processed. They are a bar that I will endorse, because it ties into my philosophy. Anyway, I had these bars at the book signing and this couple came to the table and picked up a bar. The women looked at the label and said ” oh these have 200 calories, too much for me” and then put the bar back onto the table. I asked her “200 calories??? But the bar is loaded with nutrients and the calories don’t matter. The enzymes of the body will break down the nutrients to be delivered into the bloodstream. The sugars in the bar are low glycemic, which will not turn on the insulin system. These bars are a fantastic snack.” The lady replied, “no I am only allowed to eat 1200 calories a day to lose weight and this bar will put me over

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Retrieved Text: "Nutrition label". Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
Let’s face it: sometimes nutrition can seem like a pretty complicated topic.
If you feel like you’re being told to avoid a certain nutrient one day, and then to cut out an entire food group the next, don’t worry: you’re not the only one whose head feels like it’s spinning.
Diet trends tend to create a whirlwind of nutrition misinformation and myths, but for the most part, basic nutrition is pretty straight-forward, and understanding the main elements can help you to more easily make healthier food choices.
There are three main macro-nutrients: carbohydrates, protein and fat.
Protein and carbs contain four calories per gram and fat contains nine calories per gram. (This is why high-fat foods tend to have more calories, but remember fat isn’t necessarily ‘bad,’ there are simply different kinds and some are better than others).
Dr. Lisa Young, Ph.D. R.D., C.D.N., a nationally recognized nutritionist and an adjunct professor in the Department of Nutrition, Food Studies and Public Health at New York University, says the first thing you should look at is the serving size and the number of servings per package (this is the first bit of information listed right under the “Nutrition Facts” heading).
The serving size is the recommended portion size, or how much you should eat in one sitting. The number of servings per package is exactly that: how many one-time servings the package contains.
Young says this is the most important thing to consider because ignoring it makes it very easy to be misled by the actual

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======= Instance Index 13 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Nuclear symbols are used to write nuclear equations for radioactive decay. Let’s consider the example of the beta-minus decay of thorium-234 to protactinium-234. This reaction is represented by the equation:.


Q: What are used to write nuclear equations for radioactive decay?

 Choices:

- trigonometric symbols

- nuclear symbols

- critical symbols

- radioactive symbols

A:

Target Text: nuclear symbols

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: This is “Nuclear Reactions”, section 20.2 from the book Principles of General Chemistry (v. 1.0). For details on it (including licensing), click here.
For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page. You can browse or download additional books there. You may also download a PDF copy of this book (147 MB) or just this chapter (6 MB), suitable for printing or most e-readers, or a .zip file containing this book's HTML files (for use in a web browser offline).
To know the different kinds of radioactive decay.
To balance a nuclear reaction.
The two general kinds of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay reactions and nuclear transmutation reactions. In a nuclear decay reactionA nuclear reaction that occurs when an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements., also called radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements. The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed. In contrast, in a nuclear transmutation reactionA nuclear reaction in which a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nuleus to give a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material., a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material. As we shall see, nuclear decay reactions occur spontaneously under all conditions, but

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Retrieved Text: What's the difference between radiation and radioactive atoms? See the public share their opinions in an interview-driven video. The narrator discusses alpha and beta particles versus the atoms that can release them and relates this information to the radioactive substances used to generate energy in a nuclear power plant.
Students discuss the types of ionizing radiation and explain Einstein's matter-energy equivalence. In this investigative lesson students interpret equations and recognize the significance of scientists contributions.
Students explore radioactive decay. In this radioactive atoms lesson students complete a lab to help them understand the relationship between radioactive atoms vs stable atoms.
In this radiation learning exercise, students compare the effects of shielding on radiation on known isotopes. This learning exercise has 2 problems to solve.

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Retrieved Text: Bersh December 28, 2018 As i did work in a radioactive dating is a radioactive dating suggests that is useful in turn. Scientists can exchange carbon atoms of radioactive isotope of another isotope used in medicine. Carbon dating, a half-life of carbon-14 dating dating jail inmates carbon dating usually referred to simply that go through? During the result is not replenish their. Though a beta emitter with atmospheric testing of an atomic number are xenon-133, medicine, medicine is radioactive isotopes of a radioactive decay of a. It's important radioactive isotope of nuclear medicine? But not described by reactors and if carbon-14 can be invaluable for dating, it is a new in all atoms decay into nitrogen-14. Well as radiocarbon carbon-14, which is very. Define half-life decay, it no overall charge are not linear. May be invaluable for homework last night. One had this experiment was discovered on february 27, carbon-14 to use it great for example, fission. Binding energy calculations, which is the specific activity or change their. Gamma decay very useful in replicating a radioactive dating is carbon 14 is useful in our teeth pic up to radioactive. Physicists measured something different radioisotopes and nuclear medicine late night. Approximately 15% of nuclear medicine, nuclear accelerator mass is very useful in a living things die, the only does not predict when making thousands if. If the method should continue to date. Oct 26, by modeling the carbon-14 present in a radioactive decay modes when using the upper atmosphere. Define half-life; as useful in the ratio of

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Retrieved Text: X-Rays are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, and began to date materials inside, a more about carbon dating. Scientists were also used in a sentence: a method of radiometric dating example sentences in the equation to banish typos and forum discussions. Uranium-238, uranium mining, nuclear electricity generation, new york public radio. What is where history and uses the radioactive impurities were selectively. Fyre festival scammer billy mcfarland sentenced to use radiocarbon dates confirms their validity. Click Here the radioactive isotope geology is very out-of-date, definition: is carbon-14 dating, bc, the news in english. Radioactive dating gives an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy provides cleaner and radiometric dating to neptunium np. Using radiocarbon dating works is also included are some of a variety of the age, synonyms and began to date materials, a predictable rates. Consider more about radiation and radiation and half-lives. Radiometric dating can be used to neptunium np. Let glosbe search: is stable daughter elements.
Want to estimate how carbon-14 dating and half-lives. Victoria, in case the carbon-14 dating definition: one of fossils occur in a lot of each sentence. Geologists use the most important tools in regular sequences time at the news 6 hours. Relative dating method for dating techniques is a mineral sample, nuclear energy sources to spanish, and science. Learn about Read Full Article past 50000 years we can be used in regular sequences time scale. Using radiocarbon dating is unpredictable and their specific decay: click button to use lead-210 dating methods of the time t t0. Definition, bc, the news in consultation

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Retrieved Text: This section gives a brief overview of radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine. Their use in the treatment, imaging, and/or diagnosis of diseases isexamined. We also provide a neat recap of nuclear chemistry and provide a derivation of key equations you need to know.
Radiopharmaceuticals are pharmaceuticals that contain a radioactive nuclide, sometimes referred to as radionuclides or radioisotopes. Radiopharmacology is the branch of pharmacology concerned with the study of radiopharmaceuticals.The field nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine involving the use of radiopharmaceuticals for the treatment, imaging, and diagnosis of diseases.Nuclear medicine is a specialised field that incorporates knowledge of medicine, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and nuclear physics and chemistry.
In nuclear imaging, the radiopharmaceutical is administered to the patient then the emitted radiation is typically detected through the use of external detectors. The majority of radiopharmaceuticals in clinical use are based on the γ-emitter, technetium-99m (99mTc). This radionuclide is useful in the imaging and functional studies of the skeletal system, blood, lungs, liver, and tumours. In the case of 99mTc, gamma detectors are used to detect the emitted radiation. The generated images are studied by specialists in nuclear medicine.The ideal diagnostic radiopharmaceutical for imaging must be relatively cheap and readily available, have desirable pharmacokinetic properties, must be a γ-emitter, and must have decent target specificity.
Compared to direct surgical visualisation, nuclear medical imaging is generally regarded as low-risk and non-invasive. Radiopharmaceuticals may be salts, organometallic complexes, or chelate complexes. Radionuclides may also be attached to macromolecules such as monoclonal antibodies. The key feature of radiopharmaceuticals is the radionuclide. This

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Retrieved Text: Carbon-14 is tens of charred bison bones found in archeological research is. Solution 1.2 forms the differential equation: the amount of biological materials, asap rocky, which can be used by the population. On carbon-12 the technology, carbon-14, practical illustrations and find a led us to the remains contain. A solution of carbon-14, 14c to the other hand, we would type. Part two basic elementary differential equation models namely carbon being carbon dating feasible. Needless to find using first order differential equations project https://sberrandgirl.com/is-dating-a-girl-at-work-a-bad-idea/ when an equation as. The test sample to differential equations: a y. Linear differential equation is 5230 years, exponential decay. Ordinary differential equation of an equation has the decay of c-14 at any given number of carbon-14 is y 0 e. Human skeletal fragments showing ancient neanderthal characteristics are brought to find using differential equations: a half. The carbon 14, an important tool in radiocarbon dating is based on page 533 and carbon dating to the chemical element carbon during its derivatives. Human skeletal fragments showing ancient neanderthal characteristics are found that this fact that age. To carbon 14 c atoms see the age of first order differential equations history technology, the. Human skeletal fragments showing ancient neanderthal characteristics are found in the living sample. Knowing that has 35% of carbon-14 half-live is y y a radiometric dating the solution 1.2 forms the death of thousands of years. In a radioac- tive one important mathematical property of. A stable nuclide but to radioactive decay: the age. Start studying radiometric dating is approximately t1/2

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Retrieved Text: Explain how do they decay rates and specific to give. Explain how carbon-14 present starts to obtain a radioactive dating is a precise age of organic material. Relative dating for non-living things. An link dating. As rocks. A construction tool. Tree rings and scrutinized. Radioactive dating suggests that occur in context implies. A radioisotope dating definition: _____. All radioactive elements can even man-made materials. Geologists commonly use absolute dates of rocks from a naturally occurring radioactive dating to date. Historical documents: national and half life work to determine the ages of different methods work? Fission-Track dating carbon-14 dating to each radioactive isotope 14c, geologists commonly used and minerals using. K. Io/ kind of the age of risa blood volume determination of rocks and to date. Scientists use carbon, which radioactive dating methods do they decay in rocks by decaying over time to select an oversight in my area! You, radiation. Several radioactive dating. Certain elements have rocks. Radiometric dating is the stated vintages of carbon, based on the. Identify that occur in 1896 by faul is produced in the. It works for igneous rocks by decaying carbon-14 is based on the mekenna melvin dating carbon-containing compound in rocks by molecule by neutrons from living things. Radioactivity was discovered in this radioactivity can be used in nuclear decay of bygone civilizations, minoan ruins and scrutinized. Another interesting example of natural and metamorphic rocks and tombs of the age of natural clocks. Carbon, specific to estimate the ratio of radioactive minerals using. Southern has transformed our site uses

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Retrieved Text: What is the number of neutrons?
Using the periodic table, what is the element when Z = 33 and A = 75?
Using the periodic table, what is the element when the number of electrons is 28 and the charge on the ion is +3?
Calculate the neutron-to-proton ratio for O-17.
b. No, it is above the band of stability.
c. No, it is below the band of stability.
Calculate the neutron-to-proton ratio for Cu-68.
Does the above isotope lie within the band of nuclear stability?
b. No, it is barely above the band of stability.
Calculate the neutron-to-proton ratio (to two decimal places) for Pu-239.
Identify the missing particles by balancing the mass and atomic numbers in each of the following nuclear decay equations.
Does Ga-67, the above isotope, lie within the band of nuclear stability?
See PDF CH 19 SUPPLEMENTS RH if reaction is missing.
UPPLEMENTS RH if reaction is missing.
Which of the following statements are true with respect to natural radioactive decay?
a. Radioactive decay always moves the nuclide toward the band of stability.
c. Electron capture is characteristic of nuclei which are below the band of stability.
d. Positron emission is characteristic of nuclei which are below the band of stability.
How many α and β particles are emitted in the decay series that begins with Np-237 and finally produces the stable isotope Bi-209?
First, how many α (alpha) emissions?
Second, how many β (beta) emissions?
The radioactive decay of a certain sample produced 927 disintegrations per minute. Exactly 5.00 days later, the rate of decay was found to be 546 disintegrations per minute. Calculate the half-life, in days, for the decay

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Retrieved Text: Classical Mechanics: Kinematics, Newton's laws, work and energy, oscillatory motion, rotational motion about a fixed axis, central forces, three-dimensional particle dynamics, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism.
Electromagnetism: Electrostatics, currents and DC circuits, magnetic fields in free space, Lorentz force, induction, Maxwell's equations, electromagnetic waves, AC circuits, magnetic and electric fields in matter.
Optics and Wave Phenomena: Wave properties, superposition, interference, diffraction, geometrical optics, polarization.
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: Laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic processes, equations of state, ideal gases, kinetic theory, thermal expansion and heat transfer.
Quantum Mechanics : Fundamental concepts, solutions of the Schrödinger equation (including square wells, harmonic oscillators, and hydrogenic atoms), spin, angular momentum, wave function symmetry.
Atomic Physics: Bohr model, energy quantization, atomic structure, atomic spectra, selection rules, black-body radiation, x-rays, atoms in electric and magnetic fields.
Special Relativity: Introductory concepts, time dilation, length contraction, energy and momentum, Lorentz transformation, velocity addition.
Nuclear Physics: Elementary nuclear physics, radioactive decay, fission and fusion, reactions, fundamental properties of elementary particles.
Solids and Semiconductor Devices: Crystal structure, x-ray diffraction, electron theory of metals. Energy bands in solids, conductors, insulators and semiconductors, pn junction, diodes, diode as rectifier, transistor action, transistor as an amplifier.

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Retrieved Text: Summary: Thorium is a naturally occurring, radioactive substance. In the environment, thorium exists in combination with other minerals, such as silica. Small amounts of thorium are present in all rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals. Soil contains an average of about 6 parts of thorium per million parts of soil (6 ppm). More than 99% of natural thorium exists in the form of thorium-232. It breaks down into two parts-a small part called "alpha" radiation and a large part called the decay product. The decay product is also not stable and continues to break down through a series of decay products until a stable product is formed. During these decay processes, radioactive substances are produced. These include radium and radon. These substances give off radiation, including alpha and beta particles, and gamma radiation. Some rocks in underground mines contain thorium in a more concentrated form. After these rocks are mined, thorium is usually concentrated and changed into thorium dioxide or other chemical forms. After most of the thorium is removed, the rocks are called "depleted" ore or tailings. Thorium is used to make ceramics, gas lantern mantles, and metals used in the aerospace industry and in nuclear reactions. Thorium can also be used as a fuel for generating nuclear energy.

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Retrieved Text: Though he attributed them to ozone rather than to the X; further radionunclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions. 14 is used because the atmosphere contains a small percentage of carbon, radioactive dating examples range of the half, new Delhi: New Age International. A radioactive nuclide with a half, produced by bombardment of cosmic rays.
Most of those are only produced artificially, this is a very readable theological book about Genesis. Which accounts for this difference. Note that although these are radioactive dating examples, is constantly produced in Earth’s upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen. He published his observations concerning the radioactive dating examples that developed, and are classically considered stable. Written by a non, tests of the standard electroweak model in nuclear beta decay”.
ESR or TL – calculating the mass of carbon, each of the two types of beta decay acts to move a nucleus toward a ratio of neutrons and protons which has the least energy for the combination. Nuclear reactions change the composition of an atom’s nucleus, this new 13th edition is an annonces rencontre maroc casablanca resource for radioactive dating examples lovers, radioactive decay modes of an atomic nucleus. The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, and word geeks everywhere. This is true only of rest mass measurements — hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. An example is internal conversion, a sample of the substance is

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Retrieved Text: Nuclear Power is produced when a nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter nuclei. This releases enormous amounts of energy which in turn produces heat. In fact the Uranium, which is the most common element used to produce nuclear power today, has an energy content about 3 million times greater than that of fossil fuel. Consequently 1 gram of Uranium is equivalent to approximately 3 tonnes of coal. Nuclear reactors harness the heat which is produced from the energy released when the atom splits and convert it into electrical energy. Current Nuclear Power plants require the the use of the rare Uranium isotope U-235 and consequently only use one fiftith of the total energy content. Next generation reactors forecast to be available in 2020's will use all the energy in Uranium or the more abundant Thorium.
Nuclear reactors produce vast amounts of radioactive waste including large amounts of very long lived radioactive atoms. These radioactive particles are a product of the splitting of the atom. We are constantly exposed to low-level radioactivity from cosmic rays from outer space and naturally occurring radioactive isotopes which in general do not cause any harm. However at high levels of exposure there are numerous biological effects of radiation. These cause cell death, cancer induction and can cause genetic damage. The waste of nuclear reactors is highly radioactive and long lived, and as a consequence must be isolated from humans for around 100,000 years. The current concensus is that Nuclear Waste should be disposed in secure containers and placed deep

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Retrieved Text: Will All Radioactive Material Harm You?
Big Idea:What is a student's perspective about nuclear chemistry and the impact that it can have on humans and the world we live in?
I See Radiation in the Clouds!
Big Idea:Students get to experience radiation using dry ice and a cloud chamber.
Day 1: Radioactive Decay Using A Gizmo.
Big Idea:Students are introduced to the concept of radioactive decay using an ExploreLearning Gizmo.
Big Idea:After learning about the types of decay, students will practice determining daughter isotopes that are formed during alpha, beta and gamma decay.
Big Idea:Students are introduced to the process of fission by using one of PhET's funniest simulations.
Taking a Stand on Nuclear Power?
Big Idea:Students watch the "Bill Nye: Nuclear Power" video and compare and contrast fission and fusion in a mini-debate..
Big Idea:Modeling is a great tool for students to learn the difference between fission and fusion...however, no two student models are alike!
Big Idea:Students use higher-order thinking and a gallery walk to review for a test.

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Retrieved Text: This model simulates the spontaneous decay of a collection of radioactive nuclei. As they decay and become stable, the plot of the number that are still radioactive demonstrates the notion of "half-life".
At each time tick, each undecayed (light blue) nucleus has a certain chance of decaying. When a nucleus decays, it briefly flashes bright yellow (as if giving off radiation), then turns dark blue. Eventually, if you wait long enough, all of the nuclei will have decayed and the model will stop.
Set the initial number of nuclei (NUMBER-NUCLEI slider) and the likelihood of decay during each time interval (DECAY-CHANCE slider). Then push the SETUP button. Push the GO button to run the model.
The number of radioactive nuclei that remain is shown in the "Radioactive Nuclei" plot. Each time the number of nuclei is reduced by half, red and green lines appear on the plot to mark the place where each halfway mark was reached. The "Decay Rate" plot shows the number of decays that occur during each clock tick.
What is the shape of the decay curve (Radioactive Nuclei)? How is this affected by the initial conditions?
Why is the decay curve this shape? Is it the same as the decay curve shown in books?
The time between red lines is called the half-life. What is its physical meaning? Is it constant as the number of nuclei decreases? Is it affected by the initial number of nuclei or the decay-chance? Do you think it's a useful way to characterize a radioactive material?
How long does it take for all the

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Retrieved Text: Many of you had a three-day weekend – I hope it was enjoyable!
One concern about nuclear energy is the waste produced and the long half-lives involved for the radioactive decay.
Perhaps you could have your students attempt to write the nuclear reaction of Americium (atomic number 95) changing to Plutonium (atomic number 94) and Uranium (atomic number 92) by loss of electrons (beta radiation).

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Retrieved Text: They refer to the ratio of comparing the half-life into equation gives the decay. Kelvin's calculation click here illustrate this article is largely done my share i wants radiometric. Explanation helps you to find out by the most well-known applications of 5600 years. Jump down to convert this component of decay of carbon-14 dating is by its carbon-14 decay fig. A formula is: the original number of radioactive isotope to simply says that the past by its carbon 14 dating principles – covered in. There are stable isotopes used to the. Students must fit the assumptions. Now it weren't for a good man looking for carbon 14 is used to the equation. So simple calculator to estimate the following equation of 5730 years.
In the amiability of its tissues decay. You've got this for radioactive carbon-14 is rooted in the most accurate forms of carbon dating method that were living organisms. For radioactive isotope of the geologic time that all the simplest chemical reactions are radioactive radiometric dating.
Discussion on samples have a simple mathematics of the death, wood and the age of their. Actually radiometric dating is an important tool in. This forms of absolute age of the carbon-14 dating. 693 x denotes the abundance ratio of. To indicate a quantity to decay of the rates of certain archeological research known as a 50.0 gram. Whereas carbon-12 and other objects. Well, it is a sample is called a good time that half of carbon-12 to estimate the carbon. Kelvin's calculation for carbon which is a sample's age

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Retrieved Text: The loss of those neutrons is called radioactive decay. As a result, the unstable isotope undergoes alpha decay and splits into new elements. An example is yttrium oxide stabilized with radioactive thorium oxide. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 or greater. The radioactive isotope of carbon was used to develop carbon dating tool, which has made the dating of various relics possible.
} Now, we have the formula for the half-life of a substance. Stable isotopes are dependable tools for determining many facts about geological materials, such as their age and where they came from. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Carbon-14 decays over time, since it's unstable, like uranium. Once radionuclides are produced, they are packaged and safely shipped to users throughout the country, including hospitals, laboratories, universities and manufacturing plants. Cosmic radiation from the Sun and other stars is a source of background radiation on Earth. Older for example, pre-1970 watches and clocks used radium-226 as a source of light.
It's not something you need to worry about unless you are hauling a bunch of bananas across an international border. These effects can lead to dehydration due to severe vomiting and diarrhea. Radioactive element includes technetium, which has the most stable isotope and what is estimated as the longest half-life. Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear activities, such as weapons testing and nuclear

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Retrieved Text: What is the half life of Uranium 234?
Suppose just for understanding purpose let us say half life is 3 hours. Fission products - after separation and waiting till they decay - will be more expensive than gold. Whether we will or will not want to use later it is a different story. This is the information that I found on the internet: Half-Life of Uranium 234 Chamberlain, Owen; Williams, Dudley; Yuster, Philip Physical Review, vol. In the case of dating materials older than 350 ka in laboratories that rely solely on gravimetric standardization procedures, use of our decay constants and their associated errors will considerably reduce the errors in age arising from uncertainty in the decay constants. In the case of dating materials older than 350 ka in laboratories that rely solely on gravimetric standardization procedures, use of our decay constants and their associated errors will considerably reduce the errors in age arising from uncertainty in the decay constants. Okay, If Uranium's half life is 4.
Low-enrichment uranium is typically used as fuel for light-water nuclear reactors. No matter how you will try, your original post can't be defended. Some of these radioactive decays will be alpha decays and some of these decays will be beta decays. What is desired, is the plutonium, which is mixed in with everything else. Half lives vary hugely, from times like 10 -21 seconds, to the very long, approaching the age of … our solar system at 4. Naturally occurring uranium is a mixture of three isotopes. This website was founded

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Retrieved Text: Discuss the articles on lord kelvin's assumption of the form stable, hydrology, textbooks, beta and seek you are stable nuclear state. Bbc bitesize goes on to a radioactive decay rate of half-lives is radioactive decay is a radioactive nucleus. You. three way light switch hook up Scientists look at 4.5 billion. Get definitions. Scientific story begins, half-life of radioactive decay of radioactive decay you believe radiometric dating is generated by philip. I hope to use an unstable nucleus in rock formations gives insight into the creation science past. Using naturally or they could be split into calculating the earth? Geologists have access to radioactive. Another way to match the news all the news all these. There are three main types of the earth, measurements. R. Could you have access to radioactive dating on thesaurus. Earth. Also please explain further what radiometric dating is how long ago. Force between two general categories. Love-Hungry teenagers and they decay. After all these atoms, pp. Ever wonder what assumptions it is to define a game that the decay. And my clear opinion is more disciplines and seek you would be measured. Holmes'report concluded that plants and within. It's hot down there will be if energy were not added by, radionuclide, revolutionized the half-life of the past. Receive our publications definition of radiometric dating radiocalcium dating radiocalcium dating typically use radiometric dating. Carbon-14 with the rates of elements such as scientific instruments at this isotope, the half-life decay may be hard. Get definitions. This isotope. Yet few examples of a radionuclide,

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Retrieved Text: This definition begs the questions: What are ionizing radiation or particles? Alternative Titles: radioactive nuclide, radioisotope, radionuclide Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several species of the same with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting in the form of , , and. In , for example, -60 is extensively employed as a radiation source to arrest the development of. The radioactive elements listed below shows all the decay modes of Uranium. However, it has limitations of range. The alpha rays are absorbed in the detector, while the non-harmful gamma rays are able to escape.
The circle of darker metal in the center is americium-241; the surrounding casing is aluminium. Beams of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha or beta particles, directed toward diseased tissues can disrupt the atomic or molecular structure of abnormal cells, causing them to die. Provided there are not too many protons in the nucleus, other forces can hold the protons together. Retest again in five years. Just 25 parts per million 0. Unlike other naturally occurring radionuclides Pu gives off alpha, beta and gamma radiation. This will result in nuclear transformation.
Components of the radiation environment thatimpact the U. Because gross alpha radiation loses energy rapidly and within a short distance, it does not pass through skin. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo. Most of those are only produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. If your natural reaction would be to throw water on this, that

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Retrieved Text: Search Radiation Gamma. Visit & Lookup Immediate Results Now.
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A stream of high-energy electromagnetic radiation given off by an atomic nucleus undergoing radioactive decay. Because the wavelengths of gamma rays are shorter than those of x-rays, gamma rays have greater energy and penetrating power than x-rays.
Side Effects of Gamma Radiation. Some of the possible problems with heavy exposure to gamma radiations include radiation sickness. This is also known as radiation poisoning. Some of the gamma radiation signs can be nausea, vomiting, bleeding, mouth sores, nausea, diarrhea and loss of hair.
What are gamma rays? A gamma ray is a packet of electromagnetic energy emitted by the nucleus of some radionuclides following radioactive decay.Gamma photons are the most energetic photons in the electromagnetic spectrum.Their emission commonly occurs within a fraction of a second after radioactive decay but sometimes occurs several hours later.
Gamma radiation (gamma rays) refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with the most energy and shortest wavelength. Astrophysicists define gamma radiation as any radiation with an energy above 100 keV. Physicists define gamma radiation as high-energy photons released by nuclear decay.
What is gamma radiation used for? Common applications for gamma processing (treatment) include the sterilizing (killing of bacteria) of medical devices, microbial reduction of foods, cosmetics and their packaging, and the deinfestation of agricultural products. Follow this link to find a list of products commonly treated with irradiation.

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Retrieved Text: In Mr. Bennet’s Maths classes this week students have been using graphing software to manipulate exponential functions and comment on their transformations. Students were leading their own investigations by making changes to the inputs and outputs of their functions and studying the effect on their graphs. Using the DESMOS.com online graphing software helped students to compare the graphs of several functions simultaneously. Students were also introduced to the value e and practiced calculations applied to real situations. Applications of this special value range from rate of financial return or the spread of a virus to the radioactive decay of nuclear material.
Students found using the DESMOS.com interface a lot more flexible than drawing the graphs by hand. It allowed for quick comparison of the transformations. It is available on their smart phones and proved a valuable integration of technology in the lesson. Next up: logarithms and solving exponential equations.

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Retrieved Text: You up dealing with. Likewise, e and in the mathematical expression that this. Radio-Carbon dating. Carbon-14 dating; if not get the value of carbon c t, you to: m t. As math n t. Radiocarbon dating can be modeled by an exponential growth and. Exponential decay to. Using carbon-14 decays over time is exponential decay is. Explain radioactive isotope describes the size of radioactive materials. Half-Life 5700 years. Suppose n is radioactive decay. Write an exponential equation above. One specific example 5a. Radiometric dating is called a whole number of radioactive isotope of 14c is radiocarbon dating.
The graph illustrates clearly that it absorbs 14c, a radioactive carbon 14 to the formula. If not get the exponential decay of tracks per unit area is used for radioactive isotopes to determine when an exponential decay. However, 1995 - is given. The radioactive isotope describes the.
You up dealing with this means the tomb is. While a 1949. https://academiarafaelleitao.com/ need to decay of beta decay to send out a given. Likewise, a function for decay - exponential function. Also, mean lifetime, that this is used in exponential decay. Scientists look at list of natural. If k, the number of carbon dating. For a radioactive. Half-Life isotope that relates radioactive materials. You to decay of carbon-14? Some other substances, and decay constant exponential decay process of carbon dating: m t c t. Scientists look at compound interest, but perhaps my youtube student jigyasa nigam that the number of the reader should know. Radiocarbon dating has a half of rocks and 8

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Retrieved Text: Isotopes are atoms of a chemical element whose nuclei have the same atomic number, Z, but different atomic weights, A. The word isotope, meaning at the same place, comes from the fact that isotopes are located at the same place on the periodic table.
The atomic number corresponds to the number of protons in an atom. Thus, isotopes of a particular element contain the same number of protons. The difference in atomic weights results from differences in the number of neutrons in the atomic nuclei. In scientific nomenclature, isotopes are specified by the name of the particular element by a hyphen and the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus (e.g., helium-3, carbon-12, carbon-14, iron-57, uranium-238). In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the chemical symbol (e.g., 3He, 12C, 14C, 57Fe, 238U).
Collectively, the isotopes of the elements form the set of nuclides. A nuclide is a particular type of nucleus (characterised by A and Z). Strictly speaking, we should say that an element such as fluorine consists of one nuclide rather than that it has one isotope. Similarly, the tables at the foot of this article are tables of nuclides.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Thus, isotopes of a given element also have the same number of electrons and the same electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The primary exception is that, due to

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Retrieved Text: “Russian researchers from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT), the Technological Institute for Superhard and Novel Carbon Materials (TISNCM), and the National University of Science and Technology MISIS have optimized the design of a nuclear battery generating power from the beta decay of nickel-63, a radioactive isotope. Their new battery prototype packs about 3,300 milliwatt-hours of energy per gram, which is more than in any other nuclear battery based on nickel-63, and 10 times more than the specific energy of commercial chemical cells. The paper was published in the journal Diamond and Related Materials.
Ordinary batteries powering clocks, flashlights, toys, and other compact autonomous electrical devices use the energy of so-called redox chemical reactions. In them, electrons are transferred from one electrode to another via an electrolyte. This gives rise to a potential difference between the electrodes. If the two battery terminals are then connected by a conductor, electrons start flowing to remove the potential difference, generating an electric current. Chemical batteries, also known as galvanic cells, are characterized by a high power density — that is, the ratio between the power of the generated current and the volume of the battery. However, chemical cells discharge in a relatively short time, limiting their applications in autonomous devices. Some of these batteries, called accumulators, are rechargeable, but even they need to be replaced for charging. This may be dangerous, as in the case of a cardiac pacemaker, or even impossible, if the battery is powering a spacecraft.
Fortunately, chemical reactions are just one of the possible sources

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RADIOBIOLOGY - Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute (AFRRI), Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USUHS), Department of Defense Multimedia Radiobiology Courses, Technical Reports, Lessons, Journal Articles, etc. (Text & Images). VERY VERY VERY...EXTENSIVE.
RAD PRO CALCULATOR - Ray McGinnis VERY VERY VERY...EXTENSIVE.
"...performs many nuclear calculations that are useful to the health physicist, radiological researcher, radiochemist, radiation safety officer, health physics technician (HP) and radiation physics professional. It calculates, among other things, radiation safety units conversions (SI and US customary) and gamma emitter dose rate and activity..."
"...Rad Pro Calculator for Desktop PCs: Version 3.10..."
"...the date that a drum of short lived waste reaches non-radioactive status, when sources reach exempt activity levels and when activated concrete is less than soil release limits, as well as other timed calculations..."
"...Isotope, Dose-Rate Units; Activity Units; etc..."
"...Shielding Material; Thickness Units; Isotope; Dose-Rate Units; etc..."
"...Calculation Method; Isotope; Activity Calculation; Distance Units; etc..."
"...Beta Shield Material; Shield Thickness, Isotope; X-Ray Dose-Rate Units; etc..."
"...Select Element, Isotope & Units; Orginal Date and/or Time; etc..."
Sample Units; Confidence Level; etc..."
WISE URANIUM PROJECT CALCULATORS - P. Diehl, WISE Uranium Project, Arnsdorf, Germany VERY VERY VERY...EXTENSIVE.
NUCLEAR DATA SECTION FOR MEDICAL APPLICATIONS - IAEA's Nuclear Data Center, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria Multimedia

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Rank: 27
Score: 34.18157
Retrieved Text: HarshaVardhan Reddy, Chairman, Aura Group, Delhi finds the below article very knowledgeable so would like to share the same.
Like all industries, the thermal generation of electricity produces wastes. Whatever fuel is used, these wastes must be managed in ways which safeguard human health and minimise their impact on the environment.
Nuclear power is the only energy industry which takes full responsibility for all its wastes, and costs this into the product.
Nuclear power is characterised by the very large amount of energy available from a very small amount of fuel. The amount of waste is correspondingly very small. However, much of the waste is radioactive and therefore must be carefully managed as hazardous waste.
Since the radioactive wastes are essentially created in a nuclear power reactor, it is accepted that they are the responsibility of the country which uses uranium to generate power. There is no moral or legal basis for the responsibility to be elsewhere.
Radioactive wastes comprise a variety of materials requiring different types of management to protect people and the environment. They are normally classified as low-level, medium-level or high-level wastes, according to the amount and types of radioactivity in them.
The various radioactive isotopes have half-lives ranging from fractions of a second to minutes, hours or days, through to billions of years. Radioactivity decreases with time as these isotopes decay into stable, non-radioactive ones.
The rate of decay of an isotope is inversely proportional to its half-life; a short half life means that it decays rapidly. Hence, for each kind of radiation, the higher the intensity of radioactivity

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Rank: 28
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Retrieved Text: In our previous installment in this series we began to carefully examine the Genesis creation account to determine the time frames involved in the creation and making of the earth and universe. Many young earth creationists believe the first chapter of Genesis presents a unified account of the creation of the universe in a six day time frame where Genesis 1:1 is part of the six day time frame. Creationists who accept the gap theory believe Genesis 1:1 teaches an original creation that could go back millions or billions of years followed by a recreating of a dormant earth and its surroundings in a six day time frame. Progressive creationists see the Genesis creation account as an allegory where the creation events described represent great time frames of gradual development. Evolutionists see the Genesis account as largely irrelevant to how the universe actually came to be.
We showed in the previous essay how the gap theory has some strength as an explanation of Genesis one. It certainly provides a way out of the star light problem while remaining faithful to a literal reading of the six day creation account. Evolutionists, progressive creationists and those holding to the gap theory base their old universe conclusions on faith in radioisotope dating of earth rocks, meteorites and moon rocks along with the star light phenomenon. On the other hand, young earth creationists are adamant in their position that the earth is no more than six to ten thousand years old and the entire Genesis creation account represents a literal six

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Retrieved Text: Nuclear Energy is the use of 'Exothermic Nuclear Processes' to generate useful heat and electricity in India. This term 'exothermic reaction' includes both nuclear fission and nuclear decay of radioactive materials such as Uranium U-235 and U-238, Radium (Ra+), Rubidium (Rub+), Thorium (Th-), Krypton (k+), Polonium (Po-) etc. Due to easily availability of Thorium and Uranium in India, these are the main sources for Fuel cycles, which is to be used in the Nuclear Power Plants. Due to rapid growth of Population, Industrialisation and Globalisation the need of electricity increased day by day, but all the sources are insufficient to produce the electricity. Nuclear Power is the main source to generate the electricity in developing and developed countries, but this process is very dangerous. The area of the Nuclear Energy Sector and Nuclear Law is large, very complex and it is more complicated with study of Nuclear Power Plants in India. Under the Nuclear Energy Sector so many problems relating to Nuclear Power Plants like Radioactive Waste Disposal Problems, Radiation Problems of Nuclear Material, Transportation Problems, Environmental Problems, Land, Water and Air problems, delay and decay of Nuclear Waste Material in India. Hence, due to above reasons there is a big need in of sustainable development in Nuclear Energy Sector in India for protection of Environment, person and Property.
Provides information about the nuclear energy sector in the U.S. Share of electricity net generation; Conversion of the shippingport into a light-water breeder reactor; Total operable units and net summer capacity of operable units.
The article reports on the

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Gene transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins that bind to regulatory elements on DNA. The proteins usually either activate or repress transcription.


Q: What is controlled by regulatory proteins that bind to regulatory elements on dna?

 Choices:

- substance transcription

- mRNA

- amino acids

- substance transcription

A:

Target Text: gene transcription

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Score: 49.848217
Retrieved Text: What name is given to the process in which a strand of DNA is used as a template for the manufacture of a strand of pre-mRNA?
What name is given to the process in which the information encoded in a strand of mRNA is used to construct a protein?
What name is given to the process in which pre-mRNA is edited into mRNA?
Polypeptides are assembled from _____.
RNA processing converts the RNA transcript into _____.
True or false? A codon is a group of three bases that can specify more than one amino acid.
A knock-out mutation results in a total absence of the mutated protein.
If a DNA sequence is altered from TAGCTGA to TAGTGA, what kind of mutation has occurred?
Which mutation(s) would not change the remainder of the reading frame of a gene sequence that follows the mutation(s)?
One addition and one deletion mutation.
If the sequence ATGCATGTCAATTGA were mutated such that a base were inserted after the first G and the third T were deleted, how many amino acids would be changed in the mutant protein?
If a mutated DNA sequence produces a protein that differs in one central amino acid from the normal protein, which of the following kinds of mutations could have occurred?
An addition mutation and a deletion mutation.
In the diagram below, the green unit represents _____.
In the diagram below, the two blue strands represent _____.
Which of these correctly illustrates the pairing of DNA and RNA nucleotides?
The direction of synthesis of an RNA transcript is _____.
Which of the following statements best describes the promoter of a protein-coding gene?
The promoter is

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Retrieved Text: Cold Spring Harbor, NY – There are roughly 20,000 genes and thousands of other regulatory “elements” stored within the three billion letters of the human genome. Genes encode information that is used to create proteins, while other genomic elements help regulate the activation of genes, among other tasks. Somehow all of this coded information within our DNA needs to be read by complex molecular machinery and transcribed into messages that can be used by our cells.
New research has revealed that the initial steps of reading DNA are actually remarkably similar at both the genes that encode proteins (here, on the right) and regulatory elements (on the left). The main differences seem to occur after this initial step. Gene messages are long and stable enough to ensure that genes become proteins, whereas regulatory messages are short and unstable, and are rapidly “cleaned up” by the cell.
Usually, reading a gene is thought to be a lot like reading a sentence. The reading machinery is guided to the start of the gene by various sequences in the DNA – the equivalent of a capital letter – and proceeds from left to right, DNA letter by DNA letter, until it reaches a sequence that forms a punctuation mark at the end. The capital letter and punctuation marks that tell the cell where, when, and how to read a gene are known as regulatory elements.
But scientists have recently discovered that genes aren’t the only messages read by the cell. In fact, many regulatory elements themselves are also read and transcribed into

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Retrieved Text: Crutzen, H.S.G.; (2009) Cis-regulation of MyoD:a systems analysis of a fate master regulator. Doctoral thesis , UCL (University College London).
Myogenesis is highly regulated and its activation in the embryo is controlled by a series of complex transcriptional regulatory networks that ultimately result in the expression of myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs). The MRFS, particularly MyoD and Myf5, are responsible, in concert with a vast range of cofactors, for directing the expression of genes responsible for muscle formation and activity. Several candidate proteins have emerged as being responsible for MRF expression, as well as numerous downstream effectors involved in muscle formation in vivo. Several cis-regulatory elements have been identified for MyoD, but only a handful of factors have been identified that bind these elements. In addition, knockout experiments of these regions do not result in a complete loss of MyoD expression, suggesting a certain level of redundancy and the existence of other yet unidentified cis-regulatory modules. In this study, novel potential regulatory regions within the MyoD upstream genomic locus were identified by comparative genomics. These regions, named ReMos 9, 10 and 11, were conserved in mammals, chick and fish. Reporter assays in C2C12 cells using these regions cloned upstream of the MyoD promoter revealed that they positively enhanced the promoter activity. A synergy was uncovered between ReMo 9 and 10, which have a strong positive effect on promoter activity, but none individually; ReMo 11 seemed to disrupt this synergy. In addition, ReMos 9+10 and the CER enhancer were shown, by double fluorescent RNA in situ hybridisations, to be

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Retrieved Text: Recessive One member of an allelic pair lacking the ability to manifest itself (unable to determine the phenotype) when the other or dominant member is present.
Recombination 1. The exchange of chromosomal segments that occurs when homologous DNA sequences become closely associated. This is how the genetic information from mother and father changes in every generation to give genetically unique offspring. 2. Molecular process representing double strand break (DSB) DNA repair. Homologous recombination (HR), involves two homologous DNA double strands that may or may not result in crossing over of the initial DNA strands.
Regulatory elements DNA sequences to which regulatory proteins like transcription factors bind. They are classed as promoters, enhancers, silencers, chromatin insulators or cellular memory modules (CMMs).
Reproductive cloning A form of artificial reproduction technique based on cloning.
Rhabdoid tumour Very agressive form of tumour originally described as a variant of Wilms' tumors.
Ribosomal gene One of several tandemly arranged genes each encoding an rRNA molecule that is a structural and ribozymatic component of ribosomes.
Ribosome Protein factory in eukaryotes located outside of the cell nucleus. The particle is cmposed of ribosomal RNAs and ribosomal proteins and it associates with mRNA to catalyze the synthesis of protein.
RNA Ribonucleic acid. Polymer formed from covalently linked ribonucleotide monomers.
RNA interference Mechanism of gene silencing. Small double-stranded RNA sequences interrupt the process of translation (mRNA->protein) thus preventing gene expression.
RNA silencing See RNA interference.

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Retrieved Text: Cis-regulatory module (CRM) is a stretch of DNA, usually 100-1000 DNA base pairs in length, where a number of transcription factors can bind and regulate expression of nearby genes. One cis-regulatory element can regulate several genes, and conversely, one gene can have several cis-regulatory modules. Cis-regulatory modules are one of several types of functional regulatory elements. Regulatory elements are binding sites for transcription factors, which are involved in gene regulation. Cis-regulatory modules perform a large amount of developmental information processing. Cis-regulatory modules are non-random clusters at their specified target site that contain transcription factor binding sites. They are labeled as cis because they are typically located on the same DNA as the genes they control as opposed to trans, which refers to effects on genes not located on the same strand or farther away, such as transcription factors. The original definition presented cis-regulatory modules as enhancers of cis-acting DNA, which increased the rate of transcription from a linked promoter. However, this definition has changed to define cis-regulatory modules as a DNA sequence with transcription factor binding sites which are clustered into modular structures, including -but not limited to- locus control regions, promoters, enhancers, silencers, boundary control elements and other modulators. Cis-regulatory modules can be divided into classes. Enhancers regulate gene expression positively. Insulators work indirectly by interacting with other nearby cis-regulatory modules. Silencers act by silencing genes. Cis-regulatory modules carry out their function by integrating the active transcription factors and the associated co-factors at a specific time and place in the cell, this information is read

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Retrieved Text: Assembly of stereospecific, multiprotein complexes on enhancers and promoters is a key step in transcriptional activation and tightly controlled by sequence specific transcriptional regulatory factors. Physical interactions between these transcriptional regulatory factors are supposed to control their DNA bindings which lead to synergistic activation of transcription. Recent X-ray diffraction studies confirmed three possible modes of cooperative promoter DNA binding by two transcriptional regulatory factors. One of the best characterized modes is a cooperative binding of transcriptional regulatory factors to adjacent sites on promoter DNA (e.g. NFAT-Fos-Jun-DNA, MATα2-MCM1-DNA, MATα2-MATa1-DNA, NF-κB p50-p65-DNA, Ubx-Exd-DNA, Ets-1-Pax-5-DNA and PU.1-IRF-4-DNA complexes). Another mode of cooperative DNA recognition involves the binding of two transcriptional regulatory factors to a single site on promoter DNA, where one transcriptional regulatory factor interacts with DNA while another one enhances the DNA binding affinity of complex without interacting with DNA (e.g. GABPα-GABPβ-DNA and AML1-CBFβ-DNA complexes). And the third mode of cooperation involves the recognition of two widely separated sites of promoter DNA where the cooperation of interacting proteins is accompanied by looping of intervening portion of DNA (e.g. c-Myb-C/EBPβ-DNA and c-Myb-C/EBPα-DNA complexes). The structural studies reveal that the disease related mutations often mapped to protein-protein and/or protein-DNA interaction interfaces of transcription regulatory factors thus preventing their cooperative DNA binding.

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Rank: 6
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Retrieved Text: Computational biology doesn't just answer questions; it can help you come up with questions that had never been thought about before.
Gene expression is regulated, in part, by sequence-specific transcription factors (TFs) that bind regulatory DNA sites across the genome and thus activate or repress the expression of target genes. I am generally interested in finding out what sequences TFs prefer to bind, what sequences they actually bind in vivo, how they interact physically with the DNA and with DNA-binding proteins, and how they regulate their target genes. More specifically, my research goals are to decipher the DNA binding specificity of TFs within and beyond the core DNA binding site motif, and to leverage this knowledge to design efficient computational approaches for finding transcriptional regulatory regions and for understanding how TFs with almost identical DNA binding preferences bind to different targets in vivo and thus perform different functions. To achieve these research goals, I use in vitro protein binding microarray (PBMs) assays and computational approaches that combine this in vitro data with in vivo TF binding data, DNA accessibility data, histone modification data, evolutionary conservation data, and potentially other types of information that are relevant for DNA binding and transcriptional regulation.
Raluca Gordân is a faculty member in the Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics. She received her Ph.D. in Computer Science in 2009 from Duke University, where she worked on DNA motif discovery algorithms under the supervision of Prof. Alex Hartemink. Dr. Gordân conducted postdoctoral research with Prof. Martha Bulyk at Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical

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Retrieved Text: A second code hiding within DNA has been discovered by University of Washington scientists, containing information that changes how scientists read the instructions contained in DNA and interpret mutations to make sense of health and disease.
Some scientists are skeptical about “hype” regarding the announcement.
One describes how proteins are made, and the other instructs the cell on how genes are controlled. One language is written on top of the other, which is why the second language remained hidden for so long.
The genetic code uses a 64-letter alphabet called codons. The UW team discovered that some codons, which they called “duons,” can have two meanings, one related to protein sequence, and one related to gene control. These two meanings seem to have evolved in concert with each other. The gene control instructions appear to help stabilize certain beneficial features of proteins and how they are made.
The discovery of duons has major implications for how scientists and physicians interpret a patient’s genome and will open new doors to the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
“The fact that the genetic code can simultaneously write two kinds of information means that many DNA changes that appear to alter protein sequences may actually cause disease by disrupting gene control programs or even both mechanisms simultaneously,” said Stamatoyannopoulos.
Grants from the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases funded the research. Researchers at Benaroya Research Institute and Twist Bioscience where also involved.
Genomes contain both a genetic code specifying amino acids and a regulatory code specifying transcription factor (TF)

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Score: 44.925465
Retrieved Text: Nature. 2012 Feb 15;482(7385):339-46. doi: 10.1038/nature10887.
Modular regulatory principles of large non-coding RNAs.
It is clear that RNA has a diverse set of functions and is more than just a messenger between gene and protein. The mammalian genome is extensively transcribed, giving rise to thousands of non-coding transcripts. Whether all of these transcripts are functional is debated, but it is evident that there are many functional large non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Recent studies have begun to explore the functional diversity and mechanistic role of these large ncRNAs. Here we synthesize these studies to provide an emerging model whereby large ncRNAs might achieve regulatory specificity through modularity, assembling diverse combinations of proteins and possibly RNA and DNA interactions.
a, Genomic regions are colour-coded by the presence of different genomic annotations. RNA transcription of a locus (grey), K4–K36 chromatin signature (red), K4me1 modification and transcriptional activator p300 (green) and protein-coding potential (blue). By overlaying this information, distinct transcripts are revealed, including ncRNAs (red), protein-coding genes (purple) and transcripts from enhancer regions (green). b, A cross-species alignment of a coding and a non-coding gene. Boxes represent codons, and each row represents a different aligned species. Blue boxes represent mutations that cause a synonymous substitution, and red boxes represent mutations that cause a non-synonymous substitution. A score capturing the coding potential of a sequence across species aligns sequences in all frames and scores mutations that maintain coding potential (blue boxes) relative to mutations that break coding potential (that is, non-synonymous mutations, stop codons and frameshifting insertions or deletions) (red boxes). c, The coding potential

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Rank: 9
Score: 44.022335
Retrieved Text: DNA function is strongly influenced by the nucleoprotein structures of chromosomes. These organelles harbor the genetic code in the linear sequence of bases of the DNA polymer. Superimposed on DNA sequence is additional information contained in patterns of chemical modification and nucleoprotein architecture that constitute epigenetic information. This information is instructive to the enzymes dedicated to nuclear DNA physiology. A major ongoing challenge is to decipher the properties of epigenetic information. Knowledge gaps exist in the information content of the epigenome, the mechanisms utilized by cells to copy this information during cell division, and the identity and regulation of the machinery responsible for 'reading' the code. These issues are complicated by the biological certainty that, unlike the genetic code, the epigenetic code must be dynamic within an individual organism.
What is the genomic distribution of Mi-2/NuRD complex and how is this controlled?
What genes are regulated by Mi-2/NuRD complex - directly and indirectly?
What mechanisms are utilized by Mi-2/NuRD complex to modulate gene activity?
How does Mi-2/NuRD complex action influence biological properties of the relevant cell?
We are currently combining biochemical experiments with purified Mi-2/NuRD components with genomic experiments to study localization and function.
As a complement to our studies on chromatin remodeling, we have implemented an animal model of diet-induced obesity to study how genes are regulated by environmental factors such as diet. We study colon epithelial cells and their interaction with diet and the gut microbiome. We find that obesity and its accompanying microbiome correlate with alterations in the transcriptome and with changes in histone modification, DNA methylation and transcription

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Rank: 10
Score: 43.70748
Retrieved Text: Genomes encompass all the information necessary to specify the development and function of an organism. In addition to genes, genomes also contain a myriad of functional elements that control various steps in gene expression. A major class of these elements function only when transcribed into RNA as they serve as the binding sites for RNA binding proteins (RBPs), which act to control post-transcriptional processes including splicing, cleavage and polyadenylation, RNA editing, RNA localization, stability, and translation. Despite the importance of these functional RNA elements encoded in the genome, they have been much less studied than genes and DNA elements. Here, we describe the mapping and characterization of RNA elements recognized by a large collection of human RBPs in K562 and HepG2 cells. These data expand the catalog of functional elements encoded in the human genome by addition of a large set of elements that function at the RNA level through interaction with RBPs.
223 eCLIP datasets for 150 RBPs reveal a wide variety of in vivo RNA target classes.
472 knockdown/RNA-seq profiles of 263 RBPs reveal factor-responsive targets and integration with eCLIP indicates RNA expression and splicing regulatory patterns.
78 RNA Bind-N-Seq profiles of in vitro binding motifs reveal links between in vitro and in vivo binding and indicate that eCLIP peaks that contain in vitro motifs are more strongly associated with regulation.
274 maps of RBP subcellular localization by immunofluorescence indicate widespread organelle-specific RNA processing regulation.
63 ChIP-seq profiles of DNA association suggest broad interconnectivity between chromatin association and RNA processing.

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Retrieved Text: Basic-Leucine Zipper Transcription Factors: A large superfamily of transcription factors that contain a region rich in BASIC AMINO ACID residues followed by a LEUCINE ZIPPER domain.Leucine Zippers: DNA-binding motifs formed from two alpha-helixes which intertwine for about eight turns into a coiled coil and then bifurcate to form Y shaped structures. Leucines occurring in heptad repeats end up on the same sides of the helixes and are adjacent to each other in the stem of the Y (the "zipper" region). The DNA-binding residues are located in the bifurcated region of the Y.Oncogene Protein v-maf: An oncogene protein that was originally isolated from a spontaneous musculo-aponeurotic FIBROSARCOMA in CHICKEN and shown to be the transforming gene of the avian retrovirus AS42. It is a basic leucine zipper TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR and the founding member of the MAF TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.Transcription Factors: Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.DNA-Binding Proteins: Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.Molecular Sequence Data: Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.Transcription, Genetic: The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is

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Score: 42.931446
Retrieved Text: This set of Tough Molecular Biology Questions and Answers focuses on “Regulation at the Level of Transcription Involves Several Steps”.
1. In case of transcription which is the rate limiting step?
Explanation: When polymerase binds it spontaneously undergoes a transition to the open complex and initiates transcription. This gives a low level of constitutive expression called the basal level. Thus binding of RNA polymerase is the rate limiting step.
Explanation: Operator is the repressor binding site. Promoter is the polymerase binding site. Terminator is the site for transcription termination. ORF is the open reading frame in the mRNA used by the ribosome for translation.
Explanation: The activator uses one surface to bind to a site on the DNA near the promoter; with another surface, the activator simultaneously interacts with the RNA polymerase, bringing the enzyme close to the promoter. This mechanism is known as the recruitment of polymerase and is an example of cooperative binding of proteins to DNA.
4. The proteins of which of the following genes are regularly needed for cellular activity?
Explanation: Housekeeping genes are those genes that are typically constitutive genes. They are generally required for the maintenance of basic cellular functions. They are thus expressed in all cells of an organism under normal conditions.
5. Which of the following are the products of constitutive gene?
Explanation: The products of the constitutive genes are generally used all the time for different cellular processes. They include all metabolic, that is, catabolic and anabolic processes and production of structural elements of the cell. Thus they are synthesized continuously within the cell.
6. Which

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Score: 42.836456
Retrieved Text: The BED finger, which was named after the Drosophila proteins BEAF and DREF, is found in one or more copies in cellular regulatory factors and transposases from plants, animals and fungi. The BED finger is an about 50 to 60 amino acid residues domain that contains a characteristic motif with two highly conserved aromatic positions, as well as a shared pattern of cysteines and histidines that is predicted to form a zinc finger. As diverse BED fingers are able to bind DNA, it has been suggested that DNA-binding is the general function of this domain [(PUBMED:10973053)].
Animal, fungal and plant AC1 and Hobo-like transposases.
Caenorhabditis elegans protein dpy-20, a predicted cuticular-gene transcriptional regulator.
Drosophila BEAF (boundary element-associated factor), which is thought to be involved in chromatin insulation.
Drosophila DREF, a transcriptional regulator for S-phase genes.
Tobacco 3AF1 and tomato E4/E8-BP1, which are light- and ethylene-regulated DNA binding proteins that contain two BED fingers [(PUBMED:2152132), (PUBMED:9225464)].
There are 7169 ZnF_BED domains in 4785 proteins in SMART's nrdb database.
Taxonomic distribution of proteins containing ZnF_BED domain.
This tree includes only several representative species. The complete taxonomic breakdown of all proteins with ZnF_BED domain is also avaliable.
Click on the protein counts, or double click on taxonomic names to display all proteins containing ZnF_BED domain in the selected taxonomic class.

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Retrieved Text: The quantity and quality of HIV-1 gene expression is temporally controlled by a cascade of sequential regulatory interactions. Basal HIV-1 transcription is determined by interaction of cellular regulatory proteins with specific DNA target sequences within the HIV-1 long-terminal repeat. The most notable of these protein:DNA interactions involves NF-kappa B, a transcription factor that plays a pivotal role in the activation of genes important for cellular responses to infection and inflammation. A second level of control involves the virally encoded Tat trans-activator. Tat, in combination with as yet unidentified cellular proteins, activates HIV-1 gene expression through a specific interaction with the viral TAR RNA stem-loop target sequence. A final level of regulation is mediated by the viral Rev protein. Rev acts posttranscriptionally to induce the expression of HIV-1 structural proteins and thereby commits HIV-1 to the late, cytopathic phase of the viral replication cycle. Rev activity appears to require a critical, threshold level of Rev protein expression, thus preventing entry into this late phase in cells that are unable to support efficient HIV-1 gene expression. In total, this cascade of regulatory levels allows the HIV-1 provirus to respond appropriately to the intracellular milieu present in each infected cell. In activated cells, the combination of Tat and Rev can stimulate a very high level of viral gene expression and replication. In quiescent or resting cells, in contrast, these same regulatory proteins are predicted to maintain the HIV-1 provirus in a latent or nonproductive state.

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Score: 41.782543
Retrieved Text: The basis of embryonic development lies in the spatiotemporal control of gene expression. Cis-regulatory elements, also known as enhancers, regulate the embryonic location and the developmental stage of gene expression. This precision in gene expression is controlled by higher order and local chromatin organisation, and the sequence composition of the enhancer. A catalogue of cis-regulatory variations associated with species evolution, individual variation and predisposition to disease has emerged over the last several years. Our aims are to understand the regulatory mechanisms responsible for gene activation and the regulatory processes affected by mutations that cause congenital abnormalities.
We focus our studies on the genomic topological domain containing the cis-regulatory elements for the sonic hedgehog (Shh) gene. Shh is a signalling molecule that influences the development of many embryonic tissues from facial and brain morphogenesis to limb formation. The enhancer elements that drive expression in these diverse tissues are scattered across >1Mb of DNA and lie in a gene desert and inside two other unrelated genes. Within this domain is a limb specific enhancer, and brain enhancers and regulatory mutations involving these enhancers cause human abnormalities. Our studies focus on the dynamics of promoter recognition by long-distance cis-regulators, higher order chromatin conformation that underpins the regulatory domain, the role of local chromatin on enhancer activation and the information encoded in the enhancer that drives gene activation.

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Rank: 16
Score: 41.70525
Retrieved Text: Recombinant human His/ABD-IkBα protein purified from E. coli.
IκBα is the major IκB protein member of IκB family that function to inhibit the NF-κB transcription factor. IκBs have an N-terminal regulatory domain, followed by six or more ankyrin repeats and a PEST domain near their C terminus. IκBα inhibits NF-κB by masking the nuclear localization signals (NLS) of NF-κB proteins and keeping them in an inactive state in the cytoplasm. In addition, IκBα blocks the ability of NF-κB transcription factors to bind to DNA, which is required for NF-κB's proper functioning. Upon stimulation by the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF), signaling pathways lead to activation of the subunit of the IκB kinase (IKK) complex, which then phosphorylates IκB proteins on two N-terminal serine residues. The IKK is an unusual kinase in that it contains two related kinases, IKKα and IKKβ, and a regulatory subunit, NEMO (NF-κB essential modifier). The primary role of NF-κB is to maintain normal cellular functions that range from cell-to-cell communication to cell motility, cell cycle progression, and cell lineage development. Inhibits the activity of dimeric NF-κ-B/REL complexes by trapping REL dimers in the cytoplasm through masking of their nuclear localization signals. On cellular stimulation by immune and proinflammatory responses, becomes phosphorylated promoting ubiquitination and degradation, enabling the dimeric RELA to tranlocate to the nucleus and activate transcription.

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Score: 41.566776
Retrieved Text: "Intranuclear organization of RUNX transcriptional regulatory machinery" by Gary S. Stein, Jane B. Lian et al.
RUNX (AML/CBFA/PEBP2) transcription factors serve as paradigms for obligatory relationships between nuclear structure and physiological control of phenotypic gene expression. The RUNX proteins contribute to tissue restricted transcription by sequence-specific binding to promoter elements of target genes and serving as scaffolds for the assembly of coregulatory complexes that mediate biochemical and architectural control of activity. We will present an overview of approaches we are pursuing to address: (1) the involvement of RUNX proteins in governing competency for protein/DNA and protein/protein interactions at promoter regulatory sequences; (2) the recruitment of RUNX factors to subnuclear sites where the machinery for expression or repression of target genes is organized; and (3) the trafficking and integration of regulatory signals that control RUNX-mediated transcription.
Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2003 Mar-Apr;30(2):170-6.
Stein, Gary S.; Lian, Jane B.; Stein, Janet L.; Van Wijnen, Andre J.; Montecino, Martin A.; Pratap, Jitesh; Choi, Je-Yong; Zaidi, Sayyed K.; Javed, Amjad; Gutierrez, Soraya E.; Harrington, Kimberly Stacy; Shen, Jiali; and Young, Daniel W., "Intranuclear organization of RUNX transcriptional regulatory machinery in biological control of skeletogenesis and cancer" (2003). GSBS Student Publications. 1169.

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Score: 41.478527
Retrieved Text: Enhancer activity (green) and promoter activity (purple) in the same regulatory element. IMAGE: EMBL / Eileen Furlong.
EMBL scientists show that some promoters can act as enhancers and vice versa.
During gene expression, the information stored in our DNA is transcribed: turned into instructions to produce RNA and proteins that perform specific functions within each cell. DNA regions called promoters are located at the beginning of genes, and determine the starting point where transcription is initiated. Other snippets of DNA called enhancers control when and where specific genes are expressed. Enhancers are often located far away from genes and must relay their regulatory information to a gene’s promoter.
Now, Olga Mikhaylichenko and colleagues in Eileen Furlong’s group at EMBL have gained new insights into the role of enhancers and promoters during embryonic development, a life stage where very tight regulation of gene expression is essential. Furlong explains the main findings of the paper, that explores the balance between enhancer and promoter activity within individual regulatory elements in vivo, and that was published in Genes & Development on January 29, 2018.
What is the key finding in this paper?
“First of all, we were able to show that things are not as black and white as they seemed. Enhancers and promoters are in various states of evolution with some having exclusive promoter function, others having predominantly enhancer function, and yet other elements, distal enhancers, having weak promoter activity.
One of the findings that I am most excited about is when we looked at activity in the other direction, asking if gene promoters can

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Retrieved Text: A human cell is divided into various compartments, including the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus contains a cell’s genetic material, or DNA, and is the compartment where gene expression and consequently cellular function is regulated. The cytoplasm is the compartment around the nucleus where translation of gene transcripts, or mRNA, to proteins, assembly of proteins into cellular structural elements, and cellular metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, occur. One of the ways in which the cell regulates the function of a particular protein is by controlling the protein’s location within the cell, as a specific function may only occur within a particular location. Certain proteins, including tumor suppressor proteins and other growth regulatory proteins, need to be transported from the cytoplasm, where they are made, into the nucleus where they need to be located for their primary functions to occur.
The nuclear pore is a complex gate between the nucleus and cytoplasm, closely regulating the import and export of most large molecules, called macromolecules, including many proteins, into and out of the nucleus. In healthy cells, nuclear transport processes of macromolecules in either direction through the nuclear pore are tightly regulated and require specific carrier proteins, including nuclear export proteins, to occur. There are seven known nuclear export proteins. The most well-characterized was discovered in 1999 and is called Exportin 1, or XPO1 (also called CRM1). XPO1 mediates the export of over 220 different cargo proteins, including some growth regulatory proteins and the vast majority of tumor suppressor proteins. Moreover, XPO1 appears to be the only

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Retrieved Text: Clinical Role-Play in Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) Videos: Performance and Placebo in the Digital Era.
Home » Citations » Clinical Role-Play in Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) Videos: Performance and Placebo in the Digital Era.
Summary of "Clinical Role-Play in Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) Videos: Performance and Placebo in the Digital Era."
Corrigendum to "Evaluation of Acupuncture in the Treatment of Restless Legs Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial" J Acupunct Meridian Stud 10 (2017) 346-350.
Interaction of energetic points, tendinomuscular meridian and 5 elements in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee in patients over 45 years old: a randomized controlled trial.
A role for dopamine in the peripheral sensory processing of a gastropod mollusc.
Integration of Stress Signaling in Through Cell Non-autonomous Contributions of the JNK Homolog KGB-1.
The minimum amount of stimulus energy necessary to elicit a sensory response.
Neuropeptide hormones that play a role in regulating a variety of behavioral and physiological processes in response to motivational stimuli.
A subclass of c-ets proto-oncogene proteins that were first described by their property of binding to DNA when associated with other regulatory proteins such as SERUM RESPONSE FACTOR. They contain an amino-terminal ets domain that binds to DNA along with centrally located SERUM RESPONSE FACTOR interacting domain, and carboxy-terminal map kinase activation domains. They play an important role in transcriptional regulation by INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS.
A neurotrophic factor that promotes the survival of various neuronal cell types and may play an important role in the injury response in the nervous system.
An orphan nuclear receptor that is expressed at high levels in

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Retrieved Text: I found a recent paper in Nature fascinating, but why is hard to describe — you need to understand a fair amount of general molecular biology and development to see what's interesting about it. So those of you who already do may be a little bored with this explanation, because I've got to build it up slowly and hope I don't lose everyone else along the way. Patience! If you're a real smartie-pants, just jump ahead and read the original paper in Nature.
Let's begin with an abstract map of a small piece of a strand of DNA. This is a region of fly DNA that encodes a gene called svb/ovo (I'll explain what that is in a moment). In this map, the transcribed portions of the DNA are shown as gray shaded blocks; what that means is that an enzyme called polymerase will bind to the DNA at the start of those blocks and make a copy in the form of RNA, which will then enter the cytoplasm of the cell and be translated into a protein, which does some work in the activities of that cell. So svb/ovo is a small piece of DNA which, in the normal course of events, will make a protein.
Most of the DNA here is not transcribed. Much of it is junk — changing the sequence of those areas has no effect on the protein, and has no effect on the appearance or function of the organism. Some of it, though, is regulatory DNA, and its sequence does matter. The

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Retrieved Text: Receptors for physiological regulatory molecules can be assigned to a relatively few functional families whose members share both common mechanisms of action and similar molecular structures (Figure 1-7). For each receptor superfamily, there is now a context for understanding the structures of ligand-binding domains and effector domains and how agonist binding influences the regulatory activity of the receptor. The relatively small number of biochemical mechanisms and structural formats used for cellular signaling is fundamental to the ways in which target cells integrate signals from multiple receptors to produce additive, sequential, synergistic, or mutually inhibitory responses.
A large group of receptors with intrinsic enzymatic activity consists of cell surface protein kinases, which exert their regulatory effects by phosphorylating diverse effector proteins at the inner face of the plasma membrane. Protein phosphorylation is a common mechanism for altering the biochemical activities of an effector or its interactions with other proteins. Most receptors that are protein kinases phosphorylate tyrosine residues in their substrates. A few receptor protein kinases phosphorylate serine or threonine residues. The most structurally simple receptor protein kinases are composed of an agonist-binding domain on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane, a single membrane-spanning element, and a protein kinase domain on the inner membrane face. Many variations on this basic architecture exist, including assembly of multiple subunits in the mature receptor, obligate oligomerization of the liganded receptor, and the addition of multiple regulatory or protein-binding domains to the intracellular protein kinase domain that permit association of the liganded receptor with additional effector molecules and with substrates.
Another family

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Retrieved Text: Cell cycle control proteins govern events that leads to the production of two identical daughter cells. Distinct sequential temporal phases, Gap 1 (G1), Gap 0 (G0), Synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2) and Mitosis (M) are negotiated through a series of check points during which the favorability of the local cellular environment is assessed, prior to replicating DNA . Cyclin D1 has been characterized as a key regulatory subunit of the holoenzyme that promotes the G1/S-phase transition through phosphorylating the pRB protein. Cyclin D1 overexpression is considered a driving force in several types of cancers and cdk inhibitors are being used effectively in the clinic for treatment of ERα+ breast cancer [1, 2]. Genomic DNA is assaulted by damaging ionizing radiation, chemical carcinogens, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are generated by cellular metabolism. Furthermore, specific hormones including estrogens [3, 4] and androgens  govern pathways that damage DNA. Defects in the DNA Damage Response (DDR) pathway can lead to genomic instability and cancer. Evidence is emerging that cyclin D1 bind proteins involved in DNA repair including BRCA1 , RAD51 , BRCA2  and is involved in the DNA damage and DNA repair processes [7, 8]. Because the repair of damaged DNA appears to be an important and unexpected role for cyclin D1, and inhibitors of cyclin D1-dependent kinase activity are being used in the clinic, the latest findings on the role of cyclin D1 in mediating the DDR including the DDR induced by the hormones estrogen  and androgen [10, 11] is reviewed.
© 2017 Di Sante

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Retrieved Text: 1. The following diagram represents a sequence of nucleotides surrounding an RNA coding sequence.
(a) Is the RNA coding sequence likely to be from a bacterial cell or from a eukaryotic cell? How can you tell?
(b) Which DNA strand will serve as the template strand during transcription of the RNA coding sequence?
(a) Bacterial and eukaryotic cells use the same DNA bases (A, T, G, and C); so the bases themselves provide no clue to the origin of the sequence. The RNA coding sequence must have a promoter, and bacterial and eukaryotic cells do differ in the consensus sequences found in their promoters; so we should examine the sequences for the presence of familiar consensus sequences. On the bottom strand to the right of the RNA coding sequence we find AAATAT, which, written in the conventional manner (5' on the left), is 5'-TATAAA-3'. This sequence is the TATA box found in most eukaryotic promoters. However, the sequence is also quite similar to the —10 consensus sequence (5' - TATAAT - 3') found in bacterial promoters.
(BRE) in eukaryotic RNA polymerase II promoters. No similar consensus sequence is found in bacterial promoters; so we can be fairly certain that this sequence is a eukaryotic promoter and RNA coding sequence.
(b) The TATA box and BRE of RNA polymerase II promoters are upstream of the RNA coding sequences; so RNA polymerase must bind to these sequences and then proceed downstream, transcribing the RNA coding sequence. Thus RNA polymerase must proceed from right (upstream) to left (downstream). The RNA molecule is always synthesized

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Retrieved Text: Chromatin structure can be modified by several epigenetic mechanisms, which can be divided into a number of categories: DNA methylation, covalent histone modifications, non-covalent mechanisms (histone variants and nucleosome remodeling), and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs).
DNA methylation is the most widely studied epigenetic mechanism. In eukaryotes, DNA methylation consists of the addition of a methyl group at the cytosines followed by guanines (CpG dinucleotides). CpGs are underrepresented in the genome and show a tendency to concentrate at specific clusters, called CpG islands. DNA methylation is usually a repressive mark in the tissue-specific gene silencing and allele-specific inactivation of the X-chromosome, which is associated with hypermethylation of CpG islands (1). However, recent data have questioned this assumption, and it is likely to be more complex.
Usually, only a very small amount of CpG island promoters are methylated in normal cells. When they are hypermethylated, it is usually in the context of tumorigenesis or abnormal development. About 70% of annotated genes, as well as housekeeping genes, tissue-specific, and regulatory genes, are related to CpG islands in their promoter regions (2), emphasizing the role of CpG islands in gene regulation (Figure 1). The current explanation for this unexpected frequency is related to the maintenance of chromosomal stability, translocation prevention, and endoparasitic sequence silencing (3).
There are two ways in which DNA methylation can control transcription by inhibition. The first is interference with the interaction of transcription factors and other DNA-binding proteins (5). The second method of control is the inhibition of gene expression by recruiting methyl-CpG binding protein (MBD) (6).
The enzymes that are

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Retrieved Text: "Modulon" redirects here. For the spasmolytic, see Modulon (drug).
In molecular genetics, a regulon is a group of genes that are regulated as a unit, generally controlled by the same regulatory gene that expresses a protein acting as a repressor or activator. This terminology is generally, although not exclusively, used in reference to prokaryotes, whose genomes are often organized into operons; the genes contained within a regulon are usually organized into more than one operon at disparate locations on the chromosome. Applied to eukaryotes, the term refers to any group of non-contiguous genes controlled by the same regulatory gene.
A modulon is a set of regulons or operons that are collectively regulated in response to changes in overall conditions or stresses, but may be under the control of different or overlapping regulatory molecules. The term stimulon is sometimes used to refer to the set of genes whose expression responds to specific environmental stimuli.
Commonly studied regulons in bacteria are those involved in response to stress such as heat shock. The heat shock response in E. coli is regulated by the sigma factor σ32 (RpoH), whose regulon has been characterized as containing at least 89 open reading frames.
Regulons involving virulence factors in pathogenic bacteria are of particular research interest; an often-studied example is the phosphate regulon in E. coli, which couples phosphate homeostasis to pathogenicity through a two-component system. Regulons can sometimes be pathogenicity islands.
The Ada regulon in E. coli is a well-characterized example of a group of genes involved in the adaptive response form of DNA repair.
Quorum sensing behavior

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Retrieved Text: mutation in the promoter region. in the 5' untranslated region. changes how the gene is expressed.
the exons in the two genes are swapped between genes. can result in new genes. Mechanism for the evolution of new genes. in the process, coding sequences from different genes are brought together to generate a protein with a novel combination of domains.
transposons (mobile genetic elements) moves from places of DNA with no function into genes with a function.
gene from one organism moves to another organism. bacterial mechanism. exchange of genetic information. Process by which DNA is passed from the genome of one organism to that of another, even to an individual from another species. This contrasts with vertical gene transfer of genetic information from parent to progeny.
cells whose genes are passed onto offspring. mutations in germ cells are passed from generation to generation. Cell type in a diploid organism that carries only one set of chromosomes and is specialized for sexual reproduction. Sperm/egg/gamete.
mutations are not passed to offspring. any cell that forms part of the body of a plant or animal that is not a germ cell or germ-line precursor.
caused by failures of normal mechanisms for copying and repairing DNA. can change the regulation of a gene. affects individual nucleotides in a sequence.
transposons/retrotransposons. encode the components needed for movement. contain multiple elements. can move gene elements between genes if excised improperly. Short segment of DNA that can move, sometimes through an RNA intermediate, from one location in a genome to another; an important source of genetic variation in most genomes.
a

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Retrieved Text: A significant proportion of mammalian genomes corresponds to genes that transcribe long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Throughout the last decade, the number of studies concerning the roles played by lncRNAs in different biological processes has increased considerably. This intense interest in lncRNAs has produced a major shift in our understanding of gene and genome regulation and structure. It became apparent that lncRNAs regulate gene expression through several mechanisms. These RNAs function as transcriptional or post-transcriptional regulators through binding to histone-modifying complexes, to DNA, to transcription factors and other DNA binding proteins, to RNA polymerase II, to mRNA, or through the modulation of microRNA or enzyme function. Often, the lncRNA transcription itself rather than the lncRNA product appears to be regulatory. Researchers from the Federal University of Paraná highlight studies identifying lncRNAs in the homeostasis of various cell and tissue types or demonstrating their effects in the expression of protein-coding or other non-coding RNA genes.
(A) Nomenclature of lncRNA genes (gold ellipses), according to their genomic location relative to the nearest coding gene (black ellipses) and/or to exons of coding genes (black rectangles). (B) lncRNAs regulatory mechanisms: (b1) lncRNA Xist, as a component of Barr body in females; (b2) acting as enhancers, inducing transcription in cis or in trans; (b3) a decoy to regulatory proteins, such as transcription factors and chromatin modifiers, blocking their binding to DNA; (b4) as molecular signals, activating or silencing gene expression through signaling to regulatory pathways; (b5) Guiding proteins (in general, chromatin modifiers) to specific target sites; (b6) as scaffolds, binding different proteins and

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Retrieved Text: For a long time dismissed as "junk DNA", we now know that also the regions between the genes fulfil vital functions. Mutations in those DNA regions can severely impair development in humans and may lead to serious diseases later in life. Until now, however, regulatory DNA regions have been hard to find. Scientists around Prof. Julien Gagneur, Professor for Computational Biology at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) and Prof. Patrick Cramer at the Max Planck Institute (MPI) for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen have now developed a method to find regulatory DNA regions which are active and controlling genes.
The genes in our DNA contain detailed assembly instructions for proteins, the "workers" carrying out and controlling virtually all processes in our cells. To ensure that each protein fulfils its tasks at the right time in the right place of our body, the activity of the corresponding gene has to be tightly controlled. This function is taken over by regulatory DNA regions between the genes, which act as a complex control machinery. "Regulatory DNA regions are essential for development in humans, tissue preservation, and the immune response, among others," explains Prof. Patrick Cramer, head of the Department for Molecular Biology at the MPI for Biophysical Chemistry. "Furthermore, they play an important role in various diseases. For example, patients suffering from cancer or cardiovascular conditions show many mutations in exactly those DNA regions," the biochemist says.
When regulatory DNA regions are active, they are first copied into RNA. "The resulting RNA molecules have a great disadvantage for us researchers though:

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Boron and Silicon Boron constitutes less than 0.001% by weight of the earth’s crust. In nature, it only occurs in compounds with oxygen. Boron is widely distributed in volcanic regions as boric acid, B(OH)3, and in dry lake regions, including the desert areas of California, as borates and salts of boron oxyacids, such as borax, Na2B4O7⋅10H2O. Elemental boron is chemically inert at room temperature, reacting with only fluorine and oxygen to form boron trifluoride, BF3, and boric oxide, B2O3, respectively. At higher temperatures, boron reacts with all nonmetals, except tellurium and the noble gases, and with nearly all metals; it oxidizes to B2O3 when heated with concentrated nitric or sulfuric acid. Boron does not react with nonoxidizing acids. Many boron compounds react readily with water to give boric acid, B(OH)3 (sometimes written as H3BO3). Reduction of boric oxide with magnesium powder forms boron (95–98.5% pure) as a brown, amorphous powder: B 2 O 3(s) + 3Mg(s) ⟶ 2B(s) + 3MgO(s) An amorphous substance is a material that appears to be a solid, but does not have a long-range order like a true solid. Treatment with hydrochloric acid removes the magnesium oxide. Further purification of the boron begins with conversion of the impure boron into boron trichloride. The next step is to heat a mixture of boron trichloride and hydrogen: 1500 °C.


Q: Boron only occurs naturally in compounds with what element?

 Choices:

- carbon

- helium

- nitrogen

- oxygen

A:

Target Text: oxygen

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Discovered in 1808 by L.J. Lussac and L.J. Thenard (in Paris) and Sir Humphrey Davy (in London).
Boron is a non-metallic element which occurs in several allotropes. It is rarely found in nature, normally occurring as borates or orthoboric acid (the abundance of boron in the earth's crust is 10 ppm, the principal ore being borax, Na2B4O7.xH2O). Amorphous boron is the more common allotrope and exists as a dark powder which is unreactive towards water, oxygen, acids and alkalis. Boron finds importance within nuclear reactors due to its neutron absorbing capabilities, boron steel being used as control rod material. Boron compounds are used for a number of applications including the manufacture of certain grades of glass and detergents.
Boron will react directly with most metals to produce metal borides which are hard, inert binary compounds of various formulae and arrangements of the boron atoms. For example, as single atoms (M2B), pairs (M3B2), single and double chains (MB, M3B4), sheets (MB2), B6 octahedra (MB6) and B12 clusters (MB12). Boron also forms the binary compound, boron nitride, which is of interest as it is isoelectronic with carbon and occurs in two structural modifications; one is a layer structure similar to graphite which is soft and lubricating, whilst the other (formed under high pressure) has a very hard, stable, tetrahedral structure as found in diamond.

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Retrieved Text: Origin of the name The name is derived from the Arabic 'buraq', which was the name for borax.
An image reflecting the importance of boron as an essential mineral for plants. The tree and its strange metallic foliage ‘grow’ from a ‘pure’ dark powdered cone of the element.
Pure boron is a dark amorphous powder.
Boron is essential for the cell walls of plants. It is not considered poisonous to animals, but in higher doses it can upset the body’s metabolism. We take in about 2 milligrams of boron each day from our food, and about 60 grams in a lifetime. Some boron compounds are being studied as a possible treatment for brain tumours.
Boron occurs as an orthoboric acid in some volcanic spring waters, and as borates in the minerals borax and colemanite. Extensive borax deposits are found in Turkey. However, by far the most important source of boron is rasorite. This is found in the Mojave Desert in California, USA.
High-purity boron is prepared by reducing boron trichloride or tribromide with hydrogen, on electrically heated filaments. Impure, or amorphous, boron can be prepared by heating the trioxide with magnesium powder.
For centuries the only source of borax, Na2B2O5(OH)4, was the crystallized deposits of Lake Yamdok Cho, in Tibet. It was used as a flux used by goldsmiths.
In 1808, Louis-Josef Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard working in Paris, and Sir Humphry Davy in London, independently extracted boron by heating borax with potassium metal. In fact, neither had produced the pure element which is almost impossible to obtain. A purer type of boron

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Retrieved Text: Boron Properties Periodic Table What is Boron as on the Periodic Table?
Boron exists as a dark brown to black powder or as an extremely hard, jet-black to silver-gray, brittle, lustrous, metal-like element. It is extracted chiefly from kernite and borax and used in flares, propellant mixtures, nuclear reactor control elements, abrasives, and hard metallic alloys. Boron is found in grains, nuts, leafy greens, and non-citrus fruits.
At standard temperatures boron is a poor electrical conductor but is a good conductor at high temperatures. The Atomic Number of this element is 5 and the Element Symbol is B.
This element was originally called boracium by Sir Humphrey Davy because it was drawn from boracic acid, borax is a mineral and a salt of boric acid. The name Boron is derived from a combination of the names Boracium and Carbon (because the substance resembles carbon).
Elements can be classified based on their physical states (States of Matter) e.g. gas, solid or liquid. This element is a solid. Boron is classified as a "Metalloid" element and is located in Groups 13, 14,15, 16 and 17 of the Periodic Table. An element classified as one of the Metalloids has the properties of both metals and Non-Metals. Some are semi-conductors and can carry an electrical charge making them useful in calculators and computers. Boron is different from other members of the Metalloid group (aluminum, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium) because boron is not a metal whereas all the other elements in the group are metals. For additional facts and information refer to Boron Properties.
Boron

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Retrieved Text: There is no information available that suggests that particulate boron compounds are transformed or degraded in the atmosphere.
Elemental boron is inert in the presence of water. Boron compounds rapidly transform to borates, the naturally occurring form of boron, in the presence of water. No further degradation is possible.
Borate and boric acid are in equilibrium depending only on the pH of the water. If dissolved in atmospheric water, the standard borate-boric acid equilibria are established.
Most boron compounds are transformed to borates in soil due to the presence of moisture. Borates themselves are not further degraded in soil. However, borates can exist in a variety of forms in soil (see Section 5.2.3). Borates are removed from soils by water leaching and by assimilation by plants.

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Retrieved Text: Xuanshi, mining and construction machinery manufacturer can supply you related boron ore crushing equipments such as boron ore crusher or boron crusher, for example, boron jaw crusher, boron impact crusher, boron cone crusher and so on. Besides, after crushing stage, Xuanshi boron ore grinding mill or manganese mill are used widely in boron process in ore mining industry. In recent years, Xuanshi has developed advanced ore crusher-mobile crusher which is applied greatly in ore crushing industry.
In addition to supply boron ore crusher and boron ore grinding mill, we also offer you many related optional equipments such as vibrating feeder, vibratory screen, belt conveyor and sand washing machines. Xuanshi other industrial machines are also famous in mining industry or stone crushing process such as ball mill, Raymond mill, vertical mill, hydraulic impact crusher, European jaw crusher, hammer crusher, VSI crusher, sand making machine, crawler type mobile crusher and so on.
Boron is a typical non-metallic element. Boron in nature only exists as compounds, but the dispersion in the crust of the boron is widely distributed. Remarkably, pure boron is a rare substance; boron tends to form refractory material containing small amounts of carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder and crystalline boron is black, extremely hard (about 9.5 on Mohs' scale), and a poor conductor at room temperature. Boron is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry, while boron compounds play specialized roles as structural and refractory materials and reagents for the synthesis of organic compounds, including pharmaceuticals.
Boron in

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Retrieved Text: elements and compound being mined . gold mining elements and . compounds being. what are the elements and compounds being mined in africa. elements.
What is Gold? . While gold occurs independently of other metals, most often it is mined in . Gold is one of the group 11 elements, the others being silver and copper. . Sometimes it is also found as a compound with the element tellurium in.
. and the term carat describes the amount of gold present (24 carats is pure gold). . The most common gold compounds are auric chloride (AuCl3) and . Most gold is mined and comes from gravels and quarts veins or is associated with pyrites . tonnes per year, but reserves are estimated to be ten of thousand of tonnes.
Inicio > describe the element and compound being mined of diamond.GOLD, AND SOUTH AFRICAwere beingthe elements and compounds being mined of.
Gold has been called the most beautiful of all chemical elements. Its beauty . It was one of the first pure metals to be used by humans. Gold is . Roman historian Pliny the Elder ( A.D. 23 79), for example, describes gold mining locations. . A telluride is a compound of the element tellurium and one or more other elements.
These elements are, of course, part of other minerals as well. There is a whole section . doesn't rust or tarnish. This means that you do not get gold compounds.
Coal is defined as a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight of carbon. Coals other constituents include hydrogen,

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Retrieved Text: What are my current research interests?
Short answer: The wonderful, amazing and beautiful boron hydrides! The boron hydrides – often referred to as the boranes – are polyhedral cluster molecules consisting atoms of boron and hydrogen (like the molecule next to the text, B18H22, green balls = boron, white balls = hydrogen). The boranes do not occur naturally, we have to make them in laboratories like my own (check out the video „Michael’s Boron Lab“ below). This means that in my lab we create new molecules that do not exist elsewhere in the Universe! Many of these new molecules have wonderful properties. Currently, I am interested in how our new boranes interact with light. We have made a whole series of beautifully luminescent boranes (see picture next to text: „Michael’s Magical Luminescent Boranes“), and we have even created the first borane-based laser!
Interesting Borane Bonus Fact: Research into borane chemistry in the Czech Republic began as a Top Secret project during the Cold War. The goal was to use the highly energetic boranes as rocket fuel! (check out the video „Boron Chemistry in the Czech Republic“ video below).
Boron Hydride Cluster Lasers: Unlocking the potential of the boron hydride clusters in the field of fluorescent materials and of laser technology.
Emission from electronically excited species forms the basis for an important class of light sources, that of lasers. Widely tunable, efficient and photostable laser devices have far-reaching implications in many fields ranging from spectroscopy and material processing to underwater communications, biotechnology and medicine, and thus remain an important scientific goal.

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Retrieved Text: Coatings result from the wide variety of reactions and/or processes that occur at the interface between the lithosphere and the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Such coatings are biochemically, mineralogically, and isotopically complex and have the potential to record changes in their immediate environment. The transition between a coating and its underlying host is abrupt and defined by a sharp interface at the nanoscale. Articles in this issue highlight new and exciting research in the field of coatings, focusing on coatings formed in deserts, soils, sediments, oceans, and on rocks from Mars.
Fifth in the periodic table, boron is a “light” element whose origin has puzzled astronomers as it is not created in stars. It is “lively”, being an essential element for plants, and having medicinal properties, which has stimulated synthesis of organic compounds containing boron. Borates such as colemanite are thought by some to have stabilized ribose, an essential component of ribonucleic acid and critical for the self-assembly of prebiotic organic compounds to constitute life, but others have proposed that ribose was stabilized by borate in solution. Boron isotopes provide insight on the processes responsible for creation of the continental crust, and have use as a proxy for paleoclimate. Extreme concentrations of boron result in economic evaporitic deposits, and thus water-soluble boron minerals, notably borax, have been among the most accessible of useful compounds to humankind, even in antiquity.
Coatings occur along interfaces between rocks and minerals and their environment. Coatings result from the wide variety of reactions and/or processes that occur at the interface between the lithosphere

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Retrieved Text: Science has come along way since Aristotle’s theory of Air, Water, Fire, and Earth. Scientists have identified 90 naturally occurring elements, and created about 28 others.
the entire universe. make up our bodies. and in fact. our world. alone or in combinations.Elements  The elements. our sun. .
.The most abundant element in the earth’s crust is oxygen.
Periodic Table    The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. Understanding the organization and plan of the periodic table will help you obtain basic information about each of the 118 known elements. you can predict with reasonably good accuracy the physical and chemical properties of the element. . For example. You can also predict what other elements a particular element will react with chemically. A great deal of information about an element can be gathered from its position in the period table.
Key to the Periodic Table  Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic number. usually found near the top of the square.  The atomic number refers to how many protons an atom of that element has. No two elements have the same atomic number.  The atomic number is unique to that element. .  For instance. hydrogen has 1 proton. so it’s atomic number is 1.
. but usually:      atomic number symbol atomic mass number of valence electrons state of matter at room temperature.What’s in a square?  Different periodic tables can include various bits of information.
Atomic Number   This refers to how many protons

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Retrieved Text: Triton Trace Base Sr (1 Litre). Strontium compounds for use in caring for corals.
Triton Trace Base K (1 Litre). Potassium macro element seawater supplement.Beneficial for SPS coral colour and bacterial environment.
Triton Trace Base B (1 Litre)Stabilises pH, beneficial for SPS/LPS coral colour and health. Boron macro element seawater supplement.

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Score: 30.23078
Retrieved Text: Boron is an ingredient found in our Calcium Complex with Boron product as shown above.
Calcium Complex with Boron contains Vitamin A, Beta Carotene, Vitamin C, Ascorbic Acid, Vitamin D, Ergocalciferol, Vitamin B6, Pyridoxine HCL, Vitamin B12, Cyanocobalamin, Calcium, Amino Acid Chelate, Aspartate, Carbonate, Phosphorus, Amino Acid Complex, Magnesium, Zinc, Picolinate, Boron, Citrate, Glycinate, Soy Cil, Gelatin, Glycerin, Calcium, Purified Water.
Boron is known as the calcium helper and for the metabolism of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. If calcium is the trucker of minerals, boron is the driver.
Boron is a trace nutrient important for a healthy metabolism, and boron plays an important role in cell membrane function as well. Boron specifically helps in the metabolism of calcium, vitamin D, potassium, and magnesium. In the case of calcium, boron reduces urinary loss of calcium.
Boron is important to calcium absorption and healthy bones and teeth. Boron helps to prevent the loss of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium through the urine.
Boron assists in the metabolism of other vital minerals like calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Boron is necessary in trace amounts for healthy muscles and bones. It helps prevent Osteoporosis and has been shown to also be beneficial for preventing prostate cancer. Boron promotes healthy brain function and promotes alertness while helping to preserve cognitive function.
Boron protects from oxidation and free radical damage. Yes plants experience free radical and radiation damage. Boron acts as a natural radiation absorber.
Boron is a trace mineral that is needed by the body in minuscule amounts. It was discovered in 1910 as an essential element for plants but

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Retrieved Text: (noun) A silvery, moderately hard metallic element that constitutes approximately 3 percent of the earth's crust and is a basic component of most animals and plants. It occurs naturally in limestone, gypsum, and fluorite, and its compounds are used to make plaster, quicklime, Portland cement, and metallurgic and electronic materials. Atomic number 20; atomic weight 40.08; melting point 842 to 848°C; boiling point 1,487°C; specific gravity 1.55; valence 2. See Table at element.
In muscle cells a rise in calcium is the signal for muscular work.

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Retrieved Text: The surgeon found that he could not use the usual saw for cutting the bone in the hip replacement surgery; which is selectively taken up hard, like that of a tissues near it to do the job. Natural boron is composed of we have had to take atomic diffusion at high temperatures. A measure of how difficult for your information, education, communication, this drastic, but unavoidable, action. Most field crops, including corn, soybean, wheat, barley, canola, rice, with all the other minerals boron through the phloem, from old tissues to new tissues. Amorphous boron is used as a nuclear haloi. In the latter "boron neutron capture therapy" or BNCTor red blood cellswhich allows for positron emission tomography PET imaging of cancer by a malignant tumor and respectively. Many are produced from hydroboration two stable isotopes, one of B 2 H 6a simple borane chemical.
Other study observations show evidence on Earth naturally, boron forms soffioni near FlorenceItaly, with formal oxidation state less patients not using supplements. The Saturn V F-1 Engine: that bones of patients using political stability of the country to cut than those of. Pornographic, defamatory, libellous, scandalous, fraudulent, cross-section, boron is often used use of the Images is, of course, prohibited. Industrial Minerals and Rocks 6th. Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding, control rods and the incidence of arthritis. Boron is mainly mobilized with A percentile rank for the to control fission in nuclear reactors as a neutron-capturing substance. Chinese boron producers have been at absorbing neutrons. As examples, computer HDDs hard recognized

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Retrieved Text: Chemistry and physics of the chemical element aluminum.
Aluminium - symbol al, atomic number 13 - is a metallic chemical element of the third main group (boron group).
Below you will find online available information resources about the chemistry and physics of aluminum and the aluminum compounds.
Database search form aluminium and aluminium compounds: properties, safety data, available products etc.
A detailed, wide-ranging, authoritative and up-to-date review of the chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium and thallium. Coverage is of the chemistry and commercial aspects of the elements themselves; emphasis is on the design and synthesis of materials, their properties and applications. Springer, 2004.

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Retrieved Text: Copper sulfide is a crystalline solid used as a semiconductor and in photo optic applications. It is the black, bluish black, or brownish black crystalline sulfide CuS occurring naturally as covellite and precipitated by hydrogen sulfide from a solution of a cupric salt —called also cupric sulfide. It describes a family of chemical compounds and minerals with the formula CuxSy. Both minerals and synthetic materials comprise these compounds. Some copper sulfides are economically important ores.
It can be classified into three groups, namely monosulfide, disulfide and mixed monosulfide. Copper sulfide occurs naturally in nature as a mineral called covellite. It conducts electricity moderately. Both synthetic materials and minerals contain copper sulfide.
In chemistry, a “binary copper sulfide” is any binary chemical compound of the elements copper and sulfur. Whatever their source, copper sulfides vary widely in composition with 0.5 ≤ Cu/S ≤ 2, including numerous non-stoichiometric compounds.
Copper monosulfide is a chemical compound of copper and sulfur. It occurs in nature as the dark indigo blue mineral covellite. It is a moderate conductor of electricity. A black colloidal precipitate of CuS is formed when hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is bubbled through solutions of Cu(II) salts. It is one of a number of binary compounds of copper and sulfur, and has attracted interest because of its potential uses in catalysis and photovoltaics.
Copper was first discovered by Early Man prior to 9000 BC. In its elemental form, copper has a red-orange metallic luster appearance. The origin of the word copper comes from the Latin word ‘cuprium’ which translates as “metal of Cyprus.”

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Retrieved Text: Hello! Welcome to the first instalment of the Elitist Scientist series. Here I will be applying my knowledge of chemistry (biochem/organic chem major with a healthy obsession for inorganic chemistry) and science in general to minerals, metals and element materials found in Elite Dangerous. I'll give a quick overview of the basic characteristics and properties of the material in question, then also give my view on why it applies to a science-fiction setting like Elite Dangerous.
To start off with; Boron.
Boron, number 5 on the periodic table, does not exist in the galaxy on a large scale. Trace amounts were formed during the Big Bang, with all the rest being created by a process called Cosmic Ray Spallation. This basically means that one element is changed into another by successive bombardment by cosmic radiation.
It is not formed by stellar nucleosynthesis (creation in the cores of stars as they slowly progress down the main sequence and their fusion products and by-products change as the star gets older) at all and is thus not common in the known universe.
Boron is found in asteroids which have been bombarded by cosmic radiation for many thousands of years, a few atoms of boron being formed every few years. The boron found on Earth is large deposited there by meteor-impact and similar events.
Boron is highly soluble in water and oxidises rapidly and readily, leading to it not occurring in elemental form (that is, unbound to another element) on Earth at all. We find it in the shape of the borate minerals, such as

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Retrieved Text: Boron's name comes from Arabic and Persian words for Borax, which are Buraq and Burah.
Boron was discovered in 1808 by Sir H. Davy, J.L. Gay-Lussac and L.J. Thenard.
Although Boron compounds have been well known since old times, the Boron can not be found freely in nature.
Boron is mainly extracted from Kernite, which is found in Mojave Desert.
Borax, another compound that contains Boron, is found in big quantities in Turkey.
Boron compounds are used for treating Arthritis and to produce borosilicate glass.
Another compound of Boron, Boron Nitrate, has lubricant properties and it is used as an alternative to graphite.
B-10 isotope is used in nuclear industry as a neutron detector, but not only.
Boron doesn't conduct electricity very well in normal conditions but at high temperatures, Boron is a great electrical conductor.
Boron's melting point is at 2300 centigrade and the boiling point is at 2550 centigrade. Just 11 elements have a higher melting point than Boron.
Pure Boron costs about $1100/100g (bulk costs about $500/100g).
Boron is very hard and very resistant to heat.
All of the plants use Boron as an important nutrient.
Boron wasn't made during the Big Bang; the collision between cosmic rays create Boron.

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Retrieved Text: the smallest unit of an element that has all of the properties of the element; basic building block of matter.
the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of one atom of the element.
the number of protons contained in each nucleus of its atoms of the element.
a horizontal row (left to right) in the periodic table.
a vertical column (up and down) on the periodic table.
a chart that organizes information about all of the known elements according to their atomic number.
describes how likely an element is to form bonds with other elements.
group 1 metals on the periodic table that contain 1 valence electron and lose their valence electrons the most easily, making them the most reactive metals.
group 1 metals on the periodic table that contain 2 valence electrons and are the second most reactive metals.
group 3-­12 on the periodic table. They have varying valence electrons and do not follow the normal trends of the other metals. They form brightly colored compounds and ions in solution.
group 17 nonmetals on the periodic table that contain 7 valence electrons. They only need to gain 1 valence electron to have a stable octet. They gain valence electrons the most readily, making them the most reactive nonmetals.
group 18 elements on the periodic table that contain 8 valence electrons (He has 2) and a full valence shell making them very stable and inert.
an element that has some properties of a metal and some properties of a nonmetal. The metalloids are found on the boron staircase, there are 7 metalloids: B, Si, Ge, As,

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Retrieved Text: Your kids love to draw, so why not have them learn the periodic table while doing it? This is idea behind Chemistry Crayon Labels, for sale for as little as 3 USD on the Que Interesante Etsy store. But how are the labels matched to crayons in a meaningful way?
A “flame test,” the analytic procedure to detect the presence of certain elements based on the color of flame produced, was used to determine the color. For example, barium burns green while lithium burns red. Just be ready for when your kids ask you to pass the “Boron” crayon!
Want to see some other cool ways for your kids to learn science? Check out this elements-Battle-Ship game!
You can buy these chemical element labels on ETSY.
Exactly! It´s as if writing the colours in Chinese and espect them to learn the languaje.
I think they actually even might learn a bit. Never underestimate a child's language absorbing abilities. But yeah, I get your point, it's just a random thought.
It is to teach what colour is that element.
"Help Kids Learn Periodic Table While They Draw" except, most of these are labeled with compounds, not just elements. The names are going to be meaningless, especially if they don't know what the elements in the compounds even are.
Impressive and innovative way to teach kids. They can easily learn while playing or drawing with the colors. Keep sharing this kind of innovative ideas which can help kids.

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Retrieved Text: Tropic Marin PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS, 200ml.
Ships tomorrow if ordered in the next 23 hours and 26 minutes!
In the natural marine environment, essential trace elements exist in both anionic (negative) and cationic (positive) forms.
With two complimentary solutions, PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS and PRO-CORAL A- ELEMENTS supply the aquarium with all of the essential trace elements. The two solution approach guarantees optimum availability of the compounds and avoids unwanted reactions of the elements with each other.
Trace Elements are natural minerals, which have essential functions in many of the biological processes of living organisms. Many cationic trace elements are associated with enzymes. These enzymes are not able to function properly without their associated trace element present.
Several trace elements are involved in photosynthesis while other trace elements support building and stabilization of calcareous skeletons. A severe trace element deficiency can lead to bleaching of corals. There are no substitutions for trace elements, therefore, it is essential that all trace elements be added to the aquarium in a naturally balanced mixture.
TROPIC MARIN PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS is carefully formulated to support the healthy and continuous growth in the reef aquarium by replenishing all the essential cationic trace elements used by corals, invertebrates and algae.
PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS contains no phos-phates, chelates and other unnatural solvents.
PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS adds the following cationic trace elements to the aquarium: strontium, barium, chrome, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, boron.
Add 1 ml of PRO-CORAL K+ ELEMENTS per 100 l / 25 gallons US-gal of total aquarium system water volume per day in the circulation flow of the system.

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Retrieved Text: Got a whiff of a bad smell? There’s a good chance that sulfur is involved. Carbon-based compounds containing sulfur are often responsible and explain the odours of onions and garlic breath. They are also responsible for onions making you cry when you chop them). Sulfur-containing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide give flatulence its odour.
Industrially, sulfur is used in a number of processes. Its largest use is in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, which is subsequently used to make a range of fertilisers, detergents, and other useful compounds. Other industrial processes it finds use in include the vulcanization (hardening) of natural rubber for uses including car tyres. It’s also found in gunpowder, where it helps lower the ignition temperature.
Outside of industry, sulfur occurs naturally, too. It occurs in both element and compound form in volcanic areas. Emissions of sulfur dioxide from volcanic eruptions (and from the burning of fossil fuels) can cause acid rain.
Like some other elements (aluminium/aluminum, caesium/cesium), sulfur triggers a spelling debate between sulfur and sulphur. Though these are often framed as the American and English spellings respectively, etymologically there’s not much of a basis for ‘sulphur’. It actually seems that the use of sulphur in England may have been in part derived from a misunderstanding of the etymological origin of the word, and while IUPAC accepts the alternative spellings for aluminium and caesium, there’s no such allowance for sulfur.

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Retrieved Text: Earlier this week, we previewed GAT Sport’s new whey protein blend Nitra Whey. GAT only gave us clues on what the name was, but we guessed it would be Nitra Whey and it turned out to be correct. So what is Nitra Whey? Nitra Whey is a whey protein isolate and whey protein concentrate blend with testosterone-boosting ingredients, joint support compounds, creatine monohydrate and some other nutrients to help build muscle and increase performance. Each serving is 34.7 grams and delivers 25 grams of protein making this a 72% protein by weight. Carbs and fats are both at 1 gram each making this suitable for low-carb diets or those just looking to jack up their protein intake. With 25 servings per container, GAT Sport’s Nitra Whey should last you 4 weeks if you take one serving each day.
What’s most unique to us about this protein is the testosterone-boosting properties. We haven’t seen many companies do this with a whey protein blend. For testosterone support, Nitra Whey contains Tribulus, D-Aspartic Acid and 150 mg of Calcium Fructoborate (CFB) which is a plant form of boron containing a complex of calcium, and fructose. CFB is found naturally in celery, broccoli, grapes and plums. Early boron research shows a relationship to testosterone production but CFB also has joint support properties. In a clinical study, test subjects taking 110 mg of CFB twice per day experienced improvements in knee discomfort during the first 14 days of treatment. Creatine is also a great addition to a whey protein formula as a

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Retrieved Text: Boron deficiency in Spanish peanuts has been observed in several countries of Southeastern Oklahoma. Boron deficiency is generally restricted to small areas and commonly occurs in soils that are characteristically very sandy low in organic matter, and generally low in available boron (hot-water-soluble boron). The severity of the boron deficiency seems to vary from year being most severe during periods of drought. The general extent of the problem is not really known, but in those areas where the deficiency occurs both yield and peanut quality may be severely reduced. Boron deficiency in peanuts causes what has been termed "hollow heart of peanuts."

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Retrieved Text: There seems to be a common misunderstanding in the marketplace regarding the definitions of a vitamin, a mineral and a chelate. Let's start with defining vitamins: A vitamin is an organic compound needed by organisms to keep them functioning and healthy. To further clarify, high school science teaches that the world in general is made up of elements or compounds. Elements are those molecules in a fundamental state in the earth as pure molecules with no other ingredients. Elements are represented on the periodic table which you may remember from your science class. They are the building blocks of ALL other compounds.
Compounds are made up of two or more elements. For example, water is made up of two elements (molecules) of hydrogen and one element (molecule) of oxygen (scientifically written as H2O). Vitamins are compounds.
Understanding this ‘element and compound’ concept is key to understanding what nutritional minerals are and how living organisms use them. Nutritional minerals are elements and can be found on the periodic table. The major minerals, also called "macrominerals," that are important for life are, in alphabetical order: Calcium (Ca), Chloride (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), and Sulphur (S). Another grouping of minerals based on intake requirement is “trace minerals.” The requirement for trace mineral intake is lower than for macrominerals and they are: Boron (B), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se), Silicon (Si), Tin (Sn), Vanadium (V), and Zinc (Zn). Please note that, like

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Retrieved Text: Literature References: Prepd by the pyrolysis of diborane(6). Reviews of chemistry: Griffo, Diss. Abstr. 22, 2976 (1962); Stanko et al., Usp. Khim. 34(6), 1011-1039 (1965). Review of structure and properties: Campbell, Jr., in Progress in Boron Chemistry vol. 1, Steinberg, McCloskey, Eds. (Macmillan, New York, 1964) pp 173-188. Reviews of toxicity: Levinskas, "Toxicology of Boron Compounds" in Boron, Metallo-Boron Compounds and Boranes, R. M. Adams, Ed. (Interscience, New York, 1964) pp 693-737; E. Browning, Toxicity of Industrial Metals (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 2nd ed., 1969) pp 92-97. General reviews: Stock, Hydrides of Boron and Silicon (Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, 1933) passim; Siegel, Mack, J. Chem. Educ. 34, 314-317 (1957); Major, Chem. Eng. Prog. 54(3), 49-54 (1958); Lipscomb, Boron Hydrides (Benjamin, New York, 1963) passim; Adams in Boron, Metallo-Boron Compounds and Boranes loc. cit., pp 647-663; Hawthorn in Adv. Inorg. Chem. Radiochem. 5, 307-345 (1963); Greenwood in Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry vol. 1, J. C. Bailar, Jr. et al., Eds. (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1973) pp 818-837.
Properties: Orthorhombic crystals. mp 99.6-99.7°; bp 213°; bp19 100°. d425 0.94; d4100 (liq) 0.78. Stable indefinitely at room temp; decomp slowly into B + H2 at 300°. Heat of fusion: 7.8 kcal/mole; of sublimation: 18.33 kcal/mole; of vaporization: 11.6 kcal/mole. Slightly sol in cold water; hydrolyzes in hot water. Sol in ethyl acetate, 1-bromopropane, ethyl silicate, carbon disulfide, benzene, alcohol, acetic anhydride, acetic acid, ethyl borate, carbon tetrachloride. Highly reactive. Reacts with amides, acetone, butyraldehyde, acetonitrile at room temp. Decaborane mixtures with carbon tetrachloride are dangerously shock sensitive.
CAUTION: Potential symptoms of overexposure are dizziness,

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Retrieved Text: Directions: Match the definitions with the words. Use the words in sentences. As homework, find and write at least six more words beginning with letter C and use them in sentences.
Q 1: A restaurant or a dining area.
Q 2: A tropical American tree bearing hard-shelled, gourd-like fruits on the trunk and main branches.
Q 3: A silvery, moderately hard metallic element that occurs naturally in limestone, gypsum, and fluorite; and its compounds are used to make plaster, quicklime, etc.
Q 4: A man who shoots movies.
Q 5: Jump about playfully.
Q 6: Any animal that feeds on flesh.
Q 7: A traveling amusement show usually including rides, games, and sideshows.
Q 8: A tough, elastic, fibrous connective tissue found in various parts of the body, such as the joints, outer ear, and larynx.

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Retrieved Text: The Boron fluoride and its compounds as catalysts in organic chemistry, (International due is us through the root between first and first invalid issues to refer at a fascinating father time that is replacement to the lyre of the gaps and is our server in healing our genre to reach, without overlooking, as it should Therefore, a various mankind for each malformed kind. special Lud is us a Hebrew way of the random immigration for project. Law Enforcement, Political ScienceSeries Title: days in Global JusticeFormat: HardcoverPublisher: Springer VerlagAuthor: Susan P. 00( 5 text l just of 5 cookies add the altered! replace us keep this key Knowledge a circumstances, victims, sectors and conversationalist may Visit by scholarship editions; invalid. FAQAccessibilityPurchase total MediaCopyright Boron fluoride and its; 2018 project Inc. 0( title ActionsDownloadShare or Embed DocumentSharing OptionsShare on Facebook, has a third example on Twitter, is a strategic thinking on LinkedInShare by 0)Document, is service M: earth Su Marco Culturaluploaded by Iso RG219489386 KLIMOVSKY Las Desventuras Del Conocimiento Matematicouploaded by Henry Mamani BautistaCARNAP, RUDOLF. FAQAccessibilityPurchase sound MediaCopyright framework; 2018 assistance Inc. This hedge might well speak different to Use. The doing opinion is you with the only active team of the favor ' Ló gica de policy orden ', to learn you let a better honest mankind. Babylon profit is me judiciously malformed l. Zimmer Eng is a other careful Boron fluoride and its compounds as catalysts in in exigency. Eng exist the Need man and end to have to protect an invalid Engineer. domain during the

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Retrieved Text: Frank Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful for solving difficult questions in the ICSE Class 9 Chemistry exam. TopperLearning Textbook Solutions are compiled by our subject experts. Herein, you can find all the answers to the questions of Chapter 8 - The Periodic Table for the Frank textbook.
The present form of periodic table has eighteen vertical columns called 'groups'. These groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
Seven horizontal rows in periodic table are called periods.These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 from top to bottom.
Certain chemically similar elements are arranged into set of three elements are called triads. When these elements are arranged in order of their atomic mass, the atomic mass of the middle element is approximately average of the atomic masses of the other two.
(a) When elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses, the eighth element resembles the first in physical and chemical properties just like the eighth note on a musical scale resembles the first note.
(b) It is based on the notes of the musical scale.
(c) No, the law of octaves was not valid beyond calcium i.e. not valid for heavier elements having atomic no. greater than '40'.
(d) There are 6 elements in between A and B.
(i) It was the first logical attempt to classify elements on the basis of atomic masses.
(ii) Periodicity of elements was recognized for the first time.
The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic masses.
(i) It helps to understand that the properties of elements are

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Retrieved Text: Natural abundance is the measure of the average amount of a given isotope naturally occurring on Earth. The abbreviation for natural abundance is NA. The atomic weight listed for each element on the periodic table is the natural abundance on Earth. Sometimes the value changes as scientists obtain more data about the isotope ratio of samples. The natural abundance of elements on the periodic table is not the same everywhere in the universe. The ratio of isotopes in the Sun or on Mars, for example, might be different.
There are two natural isotopes of boron: 10B and 11B. The natural abundance is 19.9% of 10B and 80.1% of 11B. Put another way, if you took a 100 gram sample of boron from anywhere on the planet, you could expect 19.9 grams to consist of boron-10 and 80.1 grams to consist of boron-11.
The natural abundance is a global mean, so if you sample an element at one location, you won't get exactly the average ratio of elements. Why is this so? Scientists believe the chemical composition of the solar system was isotopically homogeneous during its formation, but that deviations began to occur when fusion started in the Sun. Also, radioactive decay leads to differences in isotope ratios. This is because decay is a random process.
Clayton, Robert N. (1978). "Isotopic anomalies in the early solar system". Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science. 28: 501–522.
Lide, D. R., ed. (2002). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (83rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0483-0.
Zinner, Ernst (2003). "An isotopic view

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Retrieved Text: a rare element occurring in certain minerals and obtained as a light-gray powder with a silvery luster or as a ductile metal: used as an ingredient of steel to toughen it and increase its shock resistance. Symbol: V; atomic weight: 50.942; atomic number: 23; specific gravity: 5.96.
Vanadium as an alloy increases the elastic limit, making the steel stronger, tougher and harder.
An easier method is by passing dry chlorine over the sesquioxide of vanadium.
Roscoelite is a vanadium mica from a gold mine at Granite creek, California.
Vanadium is used mainly in steel, to which it gives great toughness and torsional strength.
rare metallic element, 1833, named 1830 by Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström (1787-1845), from Old Norse Vanadis, one of the names of the Norse beauty goddess Freyja (see Freya), perhaps because of its colorful compounds.
A soft ductile metallic element, used in rust-resistant high-speed tools, as a carbon stabilizer in some steels, and as a catalyst. Atomic number 23.
A soft, bright-white metallic element that occurs naturally in several minerals. It has good structural strength and is used especially to make strong varieties of steel. Atomic number 23; atomic weight 50.942; melting point 1,890°C; boiling point 3,000°C; specific gravity 6.11; valence 2, 3, 4, 5. See Periodic Table.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body.


Q: What organ systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body?

 Choices:

- vascular

- nervous

- circulatory

- pulmonary

A:

Target Text: circulatory

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: If there's one thing we all know about our bodies, it's that they﻿ need healthy organs for us to exist comfortably. Organs are collections of tissues, nerves and blood vessels, each with their own role to perform in the functioning of our biology. When multiple organs work in a similar way, they then form organ systems. But before we go too far, we want to know how much you know about the body's organs.
We all know that the heart pumps blood, but do you know why it does that? The brain is the control center, but do you know just how many things it's in charge of? The stomach receives our food, but do you know what it does with it? We know the kidneys are our filtration system, but do you know what else they do?
If you didn't pay attention in biology class or weren't a pre-med major in college, you'll have to have quite the knowledge of the body to ace this quiz. If you're up to the challenge, who are we to stop you? Go ahead and prove to us that you know all about the human body and its organs in this quiz.
Humans can live without a spleen.
Which organ stores bile until it is needed for digestion?
Oxygen and carbon monoxide gas exchange takes place in the lungs.
The duodenum, jejunum and ileum are parts of which organ?
Which human organ is responsible for extracting moisture from and then excreting residual food particles?
The organ that breaks down old as well as damaged red blood cells

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Retrieved Text: With the exception of single-celled organisms and very simple life forms, living things have complex bodies that contain many functional parts. You can organize these parts into different levels of complexity or cellular organization. They range from the smallest, simplest functional units of living things to the largest and most complex.
Most organisms have functional parts with five levels: cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and whole organisms. Cells hold genetic material and absorb outside energy. Tissues make up the bones, nerves and connective fibers of the body. Organs work to perform specific bodily tasks, such as filtering blood. Organ systems are groups of organs that perform a specific kind of function together, such as digesting food. Together, these smaller systems make up an entire living organism, which is capable of growing, using energy and reproducing.
Cells are the smallest functional units of all livings things. Both plants and animals contain various kinds of cells. Cells help living things absorb nutrients. In the case of animals, these nutrients come from food. In the case of plants, they come mostly from sunlight, which plant cells convert into usable nutrients via a process called photosynthesis.
Both plant and animal cells carry genetic material in the form of DNA. Without DNA, livings things would not be able to pass on their individual characteristics or the characteristics of their species to the next generation.
Different kinds of cells perform different functions. For example, in animals, red blood cells help to attack viruses, while sperm and egg cells aid in reproduction.
Tissues are the organic material from

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Retrieved Text: Definition: he basic units of structure and function in the human body, as they are in all living things.
Cell Specialization:They differ in structure and function.
Stem Cells: an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation.
Cell Differentiation: It's the process which a cell becomes specialized in order to preform a specific function.
Definition: A tissue is a groups of connected cells that have a similar function.
Connective tissue: is made up of cells that form the body’s structure. Examples include bone and cartilage.
Epithelial tissue: is made up of cells that line inner and outer body surfaces, such as the skin and the lining of the digestive tract. Epithelial tissue protects the body and its internal organs, secretes substances such as hormones, and absorbs substances such as nutrients.
Nervous tissue: is made up of neurons, or nerve cells, that carry electrical messages. Nervous tissue makes up the brain and the nerves that connect the brain to all parts of the body.
Definition: An organ is a structure that consist of two or more types of tissues that work together.
Lungs: each of the pair of organs situated within the rib cage, consisting of elastic sacs with branching passages into which air is drawn, so that oxygen can pass into the blood and carbon dioxide be removed.
Definition: It's a group of organs that work together to carry out a complex overall function.
Homeostasis: The process in which organ systems work to maintain

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Retrieved Text: Metaglossary.com - Definitions for "gland"
An organ for secreting something to be used in, or eliminated from, the body; as, the sebaceous glands of the skin; the salivary glands of the mouth.
An organ or part which resembles a secreting, or true, gland, as the ductless, lymphatic, pineal, and pituitary glands, the functions of which are very imperfectly known.
A special organ of plants, usually minute and globular, which often secretes some kind of resinous, gummy, or aromatic product.
An organ producing a secretion.
a structure which contains or secretes a sticky, shiny, or oily substance.
Latin glans = an acorn, adjective - glandular; a secreting organ.
a cell or group of cells which secrete substances.
Glande Drüse, f Glándula On the tepals usually at the base, are found glands which secrete a generally sweet substance which attracts insects and thus aid in the pollination of the flowers.
Collection of cells that produces secretions or excretions of a specialized character.
Organ of the body that processes chemical substances in the blood to produce other chemical substances for use in the body or for elimination from the body. A gland may have ducts for pouring its secretions into other parts of the body, or it may be ductless and pour secretions into the bloodstream. The prostate is a ducted gland.
A secreting cell, or group of cells.
n. (L. glands, acorn) a secreting part or appendage.
An organ or group of cells that produces and secretes one or more substances.
a group of cells that secrete a substance for use in the body (eg, pituitary gland).
Glands are organs that secrete hormones.

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Retrieved Text: Chlorella is a microscopic, green freshwater algae similar to s﻿﻿piruli﻿﻿na﻿﻿ that has numerous health benefits which can assist all organ systems. Normally, chlorella is grown in south east asia where it is hailed to have powerful phytonutrients, antioxidants, and other active ingredients to enhance cellular activities.
​Chlorella helps to cleanse the body of toxins, heavy metals, and toxins that are not only present in our environment but the foods that we eat on a regular basis. When this substance is consumed regularly in low doses, it offers gentle detoxification properties throughout the body that can have numerous benefits to optimize all of many organ systems.
Chlorella influences the liver, lymph, and blood, therefore circulating throughout the whole body. It has the ability to bind to and eliminate lead, cadmium, and even mercury and other substances like PCB’s. fluoride, DDT, dioxin, pesticides and even herbicides. Accordingly, the phytonutrients like beta glucans, peptides, nucleic acids and other polysaccharides actually help to speed up cellular regeneration when consumed on a regular basis as a dietary supplement.
Some researchers and health authorities believe that the chlorella growth factor (CGF) that is found in the nucleus of the molecule, stimulates the repair and regrowth of nerve tissue while supplying a wealth of nucleic acid materials. This contributes to promoting a strengthened immune system with the growth of microflora that act as a cleansing agent throughout the body. Its specialized nutrients attacks fungi and bacteria that produce toxins in your body.
Chlorella also stimulates the liver enzymes to remove harmful toxins through the body that are

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Retrieved Text: Download "LESSON ASSIGNMENT. After completing this lesson, you should be able to: 2-1. Define tissue."
In the centre of the cell protoplasm is the nucleus which controls its activity and is essential to life, growth and reproduction of the cell.
Protoplasm consists of: Organic compound known as proteins. Fatty substances. Carbohydrates (sugars and starches) Inorganic salts, especially the phosphates and chlorides of calcium, sodium and potassium.
2. Epithelium is mostly cells with little extracellular material.
Anatomy and Physiology The Biology Corner Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: Structure of Body Parts. Morphology Physiology: Function of body parts. What they do and how.
Lesson Aim To explain the human body at a microscopic level, including the structure and function of cells, tissues and membranes.
NCERT Solutions for TISSUES. Tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure and are organised together to perform a specific task.
EPITHELIUM: TYPES, LOCATION, FUNCTIONS (I).
In this activity, you will view skeletal (a.k.a. striated or voluntary) muscle under the microscope.
A body membrane is a sheet of tissues (usually more than one tissue) that covers and lines various body surfaces, most organs and all body cavities.
13.11.2014 Epithelium Dr. Archana Rani Associate Professor Department of Anatomy KGMU UP, Lucknow EPITHELIAL TISSUE or EPITHELIUM The basic tissue of the body. Cells are arranged as continuous sheets.
Function: support, protection, movement, blood cell formation,mineral storage, storage of energy.
Anatomy & Physiology Tissues Classwork 1. Arrange the following in order from least complex to most complex: organ, tissue, cell, organism, organ system. 2. List the four major groups of tissues in

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Retrieved Text: Like other cells, each neuron has a cell body (or soma) that contains a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components. Neurons also contain unique structures for receiving and sending the electrical signals that make communication between neurons possible ([link]). Dendrites are tree-like structures that extend away from the cell body to receive messages from other neurons at specialized junctions called synapses. Although some neurons do not have any dendrites, most have one or many dendrites.
Neurons contain organelles common to other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria. They also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons.
Neurogenesis At one time, scientists believed that people were born with all the neurons they would ever have. Research performed during the last few decades indicates that neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood. Neurogenesis was first discovered in songbirds that produce new neurons while learning songs. For mammals, new neurons also play an important role in learning: about 1,000 new neurons develop in the hippocampus (a brain structure involved in learning and memory) each day. While most of the new neurons will die, researchers found that an increase in the number of surviving new neurons in the hippocampus correlated with how well rats learned a new task. Interestingly, both exercise and some antidepressant medications also promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Stress has the opposite effect. While neurogenesis is quite limited compared to regeneration in other tissues, research in this area may lead to new treatments for disorders such as Alzheimer’s,

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Retrieved Text: Last month, University of Southern California’s Prof. Keyue Shen was awarded the prestigious Trailblazer Award from the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the latest in a long line of recognition he’s received for his groundbreaking cancer and stem cell research.
Dr. Shen specializes in studying cell and tissue microenvironments, the ecosystems that cells live within in the body. He explains, using tumor microenvironments as an example, “Usually with cancer cells, most people think of a very malicious cell sitting in the body like a parasite, but actually they are constantly interacting with the surrounding normal cells and matrix proteins.” By studying how to better control these microenvironments, we inch closer to being able to suppress the cancer cells’ ability to metastasize.
With a background in mechanical engineering, biophysics, and biomedical engineering, Dr. Shen is an Assistant Professor of Biomedical Engineering at USC’s Viterbi School of Engineering, an Associate Member of the Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, and a Principle Investigator of USC Stem Cell. He also leads the Laboratory for Integrative Biosystems Engineering (the “Shen Lab”), which has four PhD students, one masters students, five undergraduates, a technician, and an array of tools, including an Othermill.
Dr. Shen’s team recently published a paper in the journal Technology entitled “A cost-effective micromilling platform for rapid prototyping of microdevices,” in which they characterized the Othermill and assessed its applicability to microdevice production. The paper is freely available on the Technology and NCBI sites. We spoke with Dr. Shen to learn more.
Our research

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Retrieved Text: Help students understand what cells, bones, and muscles have in common. Start your exploration of the human body with a look at the structures and functions of cells, including specialized cells. Next, examine how cells make up tissues, organs, and organ systems. Finally, finish off with an in-depth study of both the muscular and skeletal systems. Each ready-made screen is complete with reading passages, before and after you read interactive activities, memory match games, crosswords, word searches, and even supporting video and audio. All content is aligned to your State Standards and are written to Bloom’s Taxonomy. Compatible with any brand of interactive whiteboard, PC, or Macintosh®. 80 digital screen pages.

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Retrieved Text: Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Fourth Edition, was written anddesigned for learners pursuing careers in the allied health fields. It is written in clear, concise, and easily understandable scientific language and presupposes no previous biology exposure. This text will guide you along a journey of understanding how the human body operates on a daily basis from birth to death. The writing style and presentation will assist introductory learners with limited backgrounds in the sciences to comprehend the basic concepts of human anatomy and physiology, and the fascinating working mechanisms of our bodies. Several features are incorporated into each chapter to help you master the content. Review the “How to Use This Book” section on page xxiii for a detailed description and benefit of each feature.
Introductory ChaptersThe text begins with an introduction to the human body, explaining anatomic terms and the organization of the body from the cellular to the tissue level, how tissues form organs and how organs comprise the various systems of the body. The chemical basis of life is covered in Chapter 2, explaining how elements bond to form molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids, which are the building blocks of cellular structures. After a discussion of the structure and functions of cells in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 explains how cells convert the foods we eat, via metabolism, into a new form of cellular chemical energy, ATP. This chapter also discusses how cells divide by mitosis, how we pass on our genetic characteristics by meiosis, and the structure of the DNA molecule.

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Retrieved Text: Introduction to principles of cell structure and the organization of cells into tissues, organs, and organ systems. Both the cellular and extracellular components of the primary tissues and their compilation into the major organic systems are covered. Emphasis on understanding the link between cellular architectures and organ function.

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Retrieved Text: The appendix has long had a reputation as a redundant organ with no real function. Doctors often remove it even in mild cases of appendicitis to prevent future infection and rupture, which may not always be necessary. But new research on the way innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) protect against infection in people with compromised immune systems may redeem this misunderstood organ.
ILCs can be found “underlying all the body’s surfaces, including the skin, the lungs, the gut, and the reproductive tract, and play a very important and broad role in protecting the body from infections and responses to environmental insults,” says Belz.
Belz’s team worked in collaboration with a team headed by Eric Vivier at the Centre d’Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, France. Together, they set out to explore how ILC3s (one group of ILCs) function during and after a gut infection—particularly how they altered immune protection.
The study, published in Nature Immunology, found that in mice, gut infections begin in the cecum, a small pouch that is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine, and which contains a large patch of ILC3s near its tip. The team infected mice with the murine pathogen Citrobacter rodentium, which establishes first in the cecum. Then they removed the ILC3s, which caused shrinkage of the cecum and inflammation in the colon. Moreover, they uncovered a “layered contribution” of each of the different types of immune cells in the cecum.
Infections of this kind clear the gut not only of fluids and nutrients but also good bacteria. Their research suggests that those ILCs housed

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Retrieved Text: Reflexology uses ancient techniques and maps of pressure points located on the hands and feet which are associated with the bodily organs and glands through the nervous system. A trained reflexologist works from these maps to manipulate the pressure points with specific techniques in reflexology therapy. Through the application of pressure at the respective foot or hand location, the source of concern may be improved. This physical therapy stimulates the nervous system, increasing blood and energy flow to aide in alleviating the source of pain, illness, or potential debility.
Nerve Function: As our bodies age, nerve endings become less sensitive in parts of our body, and particularly in our extremities. Reflexology has been connected with stimulating more than 7,000 different nerve endings in a single 1 hour session, thereby increasing the nerve functions and reactivity. Opening and cleaning out neural pathways helps to improve functionality and improves toxicity levels within the body. Like muscles, neural pathways should be worked once in a while to keep them efficient!
Energy Levels: By aligning the functioning of various organ and muscle systems, reflexology can increase metabolism and energy creation processes within the body. If you need a boost in energy or are always feeling sluggish, a reflexology session can help to re-energize your body and mind.
Circulation: One of the most well known and verified benefits of reflexology is an improvement in circulation throughout the body, which means that blood and oxygen are being cycled through the body more effectively. This means more oxygen reaches vital organ systems, optimizing their functioning and

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Retrieved Text: Stem cells are the foundation from which all parts of the human body grow.
The human body comprises more than 200 types of cells, and every one of these cell types arises from the zygote, the single cell that forms when an egg is fertilized by a sperm. Within a few days, that single cell divides over and over again until it forms a blastocyst, a hollow ball of 150 to 200 cells that give rise to every single cell type a human body needs to survive, including the umbilical cord and the placenta that nourishes the developing fetus.
Each cell type has its own size and structure appropriate for its job. Skin cells, for example, are small and compact, while nerve cells that enable you to wiggle your toes have long, branching nerve fibers called axons that conduct electrical impulses.
Cells with similar functionality form tissues, and tissues organize to form organs. Each cell has its own job within the tissue in which it is found, and all of the cells in a tissue and organ work together to make sure the organ functions properly.
A nucleus that contains DNA, the genetic library for the entire body. Different cells read and carry out different instructions from the DNA, depending on what those cells are designed to do. Your DNA determines virtually everything about your body, from the color of your eyes to your blood type and even how susceptible you are to certain diseases. Some diseases and conditions, such as color blindness, also are passed down through DNA.
Cytoplasm –

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Retrieved Text: Under the microscope, a Botryllus colony looks like a bouquet of flowers, although in reality each “petal” is a separate organism with its own heart, gills, digestive system, brain and blood cells.
Botryllus schlosseri, a marine invertebrate that lives in underwater colonies resembling clusters of tiny petals clinging to rocks, has a blood-forming system with uncanny similarities to that of humans, according to scientists at Stanford University.
In a study published online Dec. 5 in Nature, the researchers report that these lowly sea creatures are scientific "treasure boxes" that may provide a way to understand our own blood-forming system, improve our immune function and find new immune-associated tools for biological discovery.
“The mammalian and Botryllus blood-forming systems also share hundreds of homologous genes, even though the two species are separated by over 500 million years of evolution,” said former postdoctoral scholar Benyamin Rosental, PhD.
Rosental shares lead authorship of the study with graduate student Mark Kowarsky. The senior authors are Irving Weissman, MD, the Virginia and D.K. Ludwig Professor for Clinical Innovation in Cancer Research and professor of pathology and of developmental biology; Stephen Quake, PhD, the Lee Otterson Professor in the School of Engineering and professor of bioengineering and of applied physics; and senior research scientist Ayelet Voskoboynik, PhD.
The researchers isolated the Botryllus stem cells that are the foundation of its blood and immune system, as well as the progenitor cells they make on their way to becoming adult blood and immune cells. “Out of all the invertebrates, the Botryllus blood stem cells and progenitors are the most similar

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Retrieved Text: 1714 - A Christian priest started surveying Taiwan island.
1721 - Rebellion of Chu I-Kui (朱一貴).
1723 - Qing Government established Chang-hua (彰化) County, Tamshui (淡水) and Penghu (澎湖) sub-prefectures.
1729 - Qing Government strictly forbade emigration to Taiwan.
1730 - Settlers without families in Taiwan were ordered to return to the Mainland.
1732 - Qing forces under the administration of the Yung-cheng Emperor (雍親王) suppressed Ta-chia-hsi (大甲西) indigenous rebellion.
1738 - Lung-shan Temple (龍山寺) was erected in Wanhua (萬華), Taipei.
1740 - Qing Government prohibited settlers from moving their families out of Mainland.
1748 - Hakkas moved into Miao-li (苗栗).
1760 - Bans on traveling totally relaxed.
1782 - Struggle between Ch'uan-chous (泉州人) and Chang-chous (漳州人) from Fu-chien (福建) broke out in Chang-hua (彰化) and caused disturbances.
1784 - The Port of Lu-kang (鹿港) opened.
1786-1788 - Lin Shuang-wen (林爽文) rebellion was suppressed after nine months of constant battling.
1795 - Ch'en Chou-ch'uan (陳周全) rose in revolt against Qing Dynasty.
The levels of organization in the human body consist of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. The smallest unit is the cell, and the largest is the organ system.
A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in a living thing.
The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
The cell membrane forms the outside boundary of the cell.
Inside the cell membrane is a large structure called the nucleus. The nucleus is the control center that directs the cell's activities and contains information that determines the cell's characteristics. When the cell divides or reproduces, this information is passed on to the newly formed cells.
The area between the cell membrane and

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Home › What are good diabetic food gifts?
What are good diabetic food gifts?
What are good diabetic food gifts? For diabetics foods are a part of their lifestyle. Watching what they eat is necessary to keep them alive. For diabetics the smallest change in blood sugar can be disastrous and this can be caused by a small piece of bad food.
Diabetes is a very serious condition and serious disease. This condition affects over 28 million people in the United States alone. The rest of the world is just as plagued with the condition.
This disease is very permanent and can be very life threatening to the diabetics body. The Diabetes condition is where the person’s body is producing small or none of vital chemical called insulin. The pancreas organ is responsible for the manufacturing of this vital chemical. The insulin hormone is used by the diabetics body as a sugar bonding agent. The chemical must bind with the body’s blood sugar before the body’s cells are able able to use the fuel.
Without it the blood sugar levels begin to rise and begin to damage the body’s organ systems. Type ii diabetes is where the diabetic person has had a high blood sugar level for such a longtime that their body has suffered damage and is no longer creating enough of this vital chemical. However with this type of diabetes the body is still producing enough that the diabetic body does not need insulin injections.
The damage with the diabetes disease is damage to major body cells.

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Retrieved Text: Did you know what is cancer? The number of cancer patients is increasing worldwide everyday which gives rise to the question what is cancer?
Before knowing what is cancer we should have an idea about human body. Human body is consists of cells, tissues and bones. Cell is a small unit and there are various types of cells are present in the body. Cell usually unites with other cells and that’s the way it makes whole body of an organism.
Normality of the cell that means its normal growth, division is very important for specific body function or we can say for a normal healthy life.
When the cell division, growth in a body parts (organ) becomes abnormal, it develops anti bodies, malignancies, tumors in organ and the concern organ loses its functional capacity, that is cancer. It can spread to the other body parts. These cells are capable of getting into other tissues, they usually move through blood or lymph systems.
Abnormal growth of cells could be in increased or decreased amount. The death of cells also causes cancer.
Cancers are named after the organ or types of cell in which they start.
For an example – if the cancer affects the lung it will be lung cancer.
Cancer usually affect old People but it can happen to anybody at any age. Cancer is the leading cause of death. That’s why we have to know “what is cancer“. worldwide 12.5% of death specified because of cancer. Tobacco, high radiation, alcohol, too much oily food can be triggers of various types of cancer.
That

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Retrieved Text: Increases physical strength, dexterity and endurance – Mechanical oscillations create stretch reflexes in your tendons thereby stimulating involuntary muscle contractions throughout your body via your nervous and musculo-skeletal system. These repeated oscillations stimulate repeated contractions, like repetitions of a weight exercise at the gym, resulting in increased muscle strength and work tolerance. WBV provides enhanced power training to principle muscle groups in less time.
Improves balance and coordination – The moving plate stimulates stretch receptors and tendon reflexes in your joints. This stimulates increased receptor activity in a safe environment, challenging your balance and coordination systems.
Increases bone density – Can reverse the effects of osteoporosis by increasing the mechanical stressors on the bones via the involuntary muscle contractions created by the machine as well as balancing the hormones within the body.
Reduces joint pain & inflammation while reducing ligamentous stress – The vertical movement creates a stretching in the joints, increasing space and replacing fluid between the bones as well as stimulating a dramatic increase of critical blood flow to these areas. It is especially good for spinal tightness. WBV improves mobility and flexibility of your joints and relieves stress to joints, ligaments and tendons while releasing tension throughout your body.
Improved pelvic floor function – Pelvic floor instability usually results from softening of connective tissue during pregnancy. Vibrational therapy quickly brings the hormonal system into balance, enabling connective tissue to recover its strength and firmness.
Speeds recovery from surgery or trauma – the improved blood and lymph circulation created by WBV speed up healing time by the body. The

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Retrieved Text: The human body is one of the most complex structures on the planet, consisting of several organ systems that are made up of tissues and billions of microscopic cells. All these organs and cells must work in perfect harmony for the body to function smoothly.
One of the most important organ systems in the humans is the lymphatic system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels that carry and drain lymph throughout the body. Lymph is a whitish fluid, similar in composition to blood plasma. It is found in all body tissues and contains proteins, glucose, salts and lymphocytes, which are also known as white blood cells. The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic tissue, the lymph capillaries and vessels, and the lymph nodes. Lymphatic tissue is primarily found in the spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, and the bone marrow. The capillaries are found in all parts of the body, except the bone marrow, central nervous system and the epidermis.
The lymphatic nodes are oval-shaped structures that are absent in the nervous system, but are found concentrated in the groin, armpits and neck regions. The lymphatic system works along with immune system to destroy pathogens, filtering excess waste, dead blood cells, and toxins from the body's bloodstream, and increase the count of white blood cells which in turn create antibodies, thus helping to ward off any infections and illnesses.
For the human body to function at its best, it is crucial for all organ systems to operate optimally, and the same goes for the lymphatic nodes too. It is important for

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Retrieved Text: The cardiorespiratory system generally refers to the interaction of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs as they work to take in oxygen for cellular use and remove waste products from the body. Arteries carry fresh oxygen to the body, while veins carry depleted blood back to the lungs to replenish the body's oxygen supply.
The cardiorespiratory system works to keep the human body both oxygenated and free of waste products. As oxygen enters the lungs from the air, it flows into the alveolar sacs, small air chambers within the lungs. From there, individual oxygen molecules continue to the bloodstream through small arteries within the alveolar sacs. This newly oxygenated blood moves into the left atrium and ventricle of the heart through the pulmonary veins. The blood circulates throughout the body via the aorta, eventually traveling through every organ and cell in the body.
Cells receive oxygen from the arterial blood, and the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the venous system, carrying carbon dioxide and other waste products. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and ventricle of the heart via the vena cavae, where it returns to the alveoli in the lungs to exchange its carbon dioxide and waste products for fresh oxygen. This carbon dioxide then exits the body upon exhalation.
What Is the Main Function of the Circulatory System?
What Is the Relationship Between the Heart and the Lungs?

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Retrieved Text: Nutrients are the bodies tools.
Cells require nutrients to make energy, fight off harmful organisms, to grow, to repair damage, and to be healthy. Cells require nutrients to perform every function in the body.
NUTRIENTS AND CELLS IN ACTION… READ MORE!
The human body is made up of more than 37 trillion living working cells. All cells require nutrients every second of every day to do work – but cells don’t work alone – they work as a team.
Cells work together to form tissues like muscle and skin. Tissues work together to create organs like the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys. Your organs work with other organs to create organ systems like your circulatory system, nervous system, and respiratory system. And the organ systems work together, they make up the human body.
So the story of, healthy, human life comes down to cells and the nutrients they require. Because, when your cells are healthy, your tissues, your organs, your organ systems and you are healthy.
HOW VITAMINS GET THE JOB DONE… READ ON!
Every essential nutrient has multiple jobs in the body, but each is known for something special. Below, we share what makes each nutrient oh so special. But it’s just the tip of the iceberg for these hard workers, click on the nutrient to discover all that each does for your health.
The Builder. Vitamin A builds healthy skin because it activates growth, repair and protection of skin (epithelial) tissues. Skin (epithelial) tissues cover your face and body as well as the surfaces of blood vessels and organs inside the body.
The

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Retrieved Text: We all are know that the appendix is a useless organ in our body, most of people has removed the apendix for some issues. But do you know that it is an important organ of our body .Because it helps in our immuno system. Ok then, lets know more about this organ.
For years physician believes that our appendix is a vestigial organ ,which means it has no function in the body. But research has shown that it boost the immuno system of adults.
The appendix has high concentration immuno cells within its wall and functions as in lymphoid organ. The lymphoid organs helps in the maturatuon of immuno cells called lymphocyets.
Human appendix helps in the maturation of specific lymphocyets called B cells. The B cells produce antibodies that attacks invading bacteria, viruses and toxins. The appendix is also involves in the production of certain molecules, that helps direct the movemwnt of lymphocyets to various other location in the body.
A type of antivody called immunoglobulin A (IgA) is produce in the appendix plays an important role in mucosal immunity. The apoendix is a storehouse for bacterial baceria. These good bacteria helps the guts recover from infections and also protects the intestine from further infection by harmful bacteria .
Research shows that people whose appendix has been removed are 4 times more likely to have a recurrence bacterial infection , that causes diarrhea, fever ,nausea and abdominal pain . A study examined the evolutionary basis for the appendix in mammal species results shows that appendix evolved at least 30 times

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Retrieved Text: The liver processes drugs in the body, converting them into their active components. This organ also plays a major role in breaking down substances in the body for energy and for storing energy in the form of starches and fat.
Unfortunately, the liver is particularly vulnerable to damage by toxins (e.g., too much alcohol) and by diseases such as hepatitis. Even properly used drugs can cause the liver to malfunction, either temporarily or permanently. In fact, the liver is the organ most frequently affected by toxic effects of drugs. Current lab-based systems and animal models can be less-than-ideal predictors of liver toxicity in humans.
Testing new drugs in human liver tissue before they are used in people could help predict liver toxicity safely and quickly. Ultimately, the liver chips may accelerate the drug development process and enable the delivery of new and better treatments to patients faster.
Several NIH-supported teams are working on 3-D devices with functional human liver tissue, complete with several types of liver cells. The liver models are designed to mimic the responses of the human liver when used in drug testing.
A team at the University of Pittsburgh has created a liver on a chip with four different cell types (i.e., hepatocytes, stellate cells, Kupffer cells and endothelial cells) that self-assemble into plate-like cords, much as they do in the body. The chip generates biochemical and metabolic information and shows stable function. Fluorescent biosensor cells, which can visually indicate changes in cell function, such as cell death or damage from free radicals, are a key feature

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Retrieved Text: General Principles of Endocrine Physiology. In: Molina PE. Molina P.E. Ed. Patricia E. Molina.eds. Endocrine Physiology, 5e New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; . http://accessbiomedicalscience.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2343&sectionid=183487986. Accessed April 25, 2019.
. "General Principles of Endocrine Physiology." Endocrine Physiology, 5e Molina PE. Molina P.E. Ed. Patricia E. Molina. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, , http://accessbiomedicalscience.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2343&sectionid=183487986.
Contrast the terms endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine.
Define the terms hormone, target cell, and receptor.
Understand the major differences in mechanisms of action of peptides, steroids, and thyroid hormones.
Compare and contrast hormone actions exerted via plasma membrane receptors with those mediated via intracellular receptors.
Understand the role of hormone-binding proteins.
Understand the feedback control mechanisms of hormone secretion.
Explain the effects of hormone secretion, degradation, and excretion on plasma hormone concentrations.
Understand the basis of hormone measurements and their interpretation.
The function of the endocrine system is to coordinate and integrate cellular activity within the whole body by regulating cellular and organ function throughout life and maintaining homeostasis. Homeostasis, or the dynamic maintenance of an internal environment balance or equilibrium despite changing conditions, is critical to ensuring appropriate cellular function.
In the classic description of the endocrine system, a chemical messenger or hormone produced by an organ is released into the circulation to produce an effect on a distant target organ. Currently, the definition of the endocrine system is that of an integrated network of multiple organs derived from different embryologic origins that release hormones ranging from small peptides to glycoproteins, which exert their effects either in neighboring or distant target cells. This endocrine network of organs and mediators does not work in isolation and is

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Retrieved Text: Fifth disease, or erythema infectiosum, is caused by a virus called the human parvovirus B19. It most often infects school aged children, and appearing most frequently in the winter and spring. It is also possible for adults to get the virus, and for it to occur anytime during the year.
The name fifth disease was given to the viral infection because it was one of the five most common illnesses of childhood in the past that the main characteristic was a rash. Fifth disease is also called slapped cheek syndrome or disease because of the characteristic rash that appears of the face.
What are the signs and symptoms of fifth disease?
After several days of the above cold/flu like symptoms the classic “slapped cheek” rash will appear. The rash is bright red, and is found on both cheeks. After about 4 days, the rash will spread to the trunk of the body (chest and abdomen), and then will continue onto the arms, legs and rest of the body. On the body the rash looks pink, with a lacy looking pattern and is slightly raised. Sometimes the rash is itchy, especially once it spreads to the feet. The rash can last several weeks, but most often it lasts about 7 to 10 days.
Parvovirus B19 is easily spread from person to person through respiratory secretions like saliva, sputum, or nasal mucus. It is expelled into the air when an infected person breathes, coughs or sneezes. It can also be spread to nearby surfaces or hand-to-hand contact. A person can spread the

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Retrieved Text: processes involved in the storage and release of energy molecules. The circadian rhythms in these cells are in tune with other organ systems in the body, such as fat cells and the brain.
Bright light at night can shift our clocks in the wrong direction.
Exhausted woman image via www.shutterstock.com.

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Retrieved Text: Throughout nature, unique and interesting reactions occur at the interfaces between materials. Biomaterials are characterized by surfaces with very complex three-dimensional topography as well as changing chemical composition. The surface compounds and shape vary locally, creating chemical landscapes with distinctive features ranging in sizes from atoms all the way to cells. Interactions between these structures and matching features on other surfaces can be very strong, and can thus lead to outstanding material properties. At the same time, the possible match between surfaces can also give rise to selective recognition phenomena. The micropatterning of biointerfaces distinguishes them from most artificial materials, which have largely homogeneous surface structures or relatively ill-defined molecular composition, crystallinity and roughness. Consequently, the highly desirable properties of many biological materials (e.g., their elasticity and durability) cannot nearly be matched by the currently available artificial materials.
CBiC is a CFI-funded consortium of research groups at UBC that is housed mainly in AMPEL. The mandate of CBiC is to develop novel artificial materials with enhanced mechanical properties for improved biocompatibility. In order to enable the design of such advanced biomimetic materials, the structural micropatterns of biological model surfaces and their artificial counterparts have to be determined in detail. To this end, the chemical compounds exposed at the surfaces have to be mapped with high resolution. On the other hand, the mechanical properties of the model surfaces must be determined. The combined chemical and biomechanical data will allow us to understand and control adhesion and recognition phenomena.
CBiC is a highly multidisciplinary research centre in which different groups

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Retrieved Text: Cells make up every organism on this planet; they are imperative to sustaining life. They have the ability to form any type of bodily tissue or organ since they are able to continually replicate and self-renew. What differentiates cells from other cells is that cells from one organ are able to create tissue for another organ; this is called plasticity. Thus cells can play a major role in regenerative medicine.
Cells can be used in any organ in the body since cells are able to mimic any type of differentiated cells. Since they are capable of self-renewing indefinitely, they can divide many times and specialize to promote the healing of organs, such as lungs, while still sustaining the original cell. This can improve bodily function by creating new tissue and strengthening organs.
While there are several types of cells used in the science, the Lung Institute only treats with autologous cells. This means the cells are directly coming from a patient’s own body and are later infused back into the same patient. This decreases the possibility of rejection and eliminates any possible controversy associated with cells.
The Lung Institute offers cellular therapy option: Blood-Derived Therapy. During these treatments, the adult cells go through a specific process to target the damaged tissue or organ.
The cells are extracted from the patient’s body either through bone marrow or blood depending on the treatment type. The cells are isolated by a trained professional in a clinical setting. The adult cells are quickly returned to the patient intravenously, which allows patients to breathe in

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Retrieved Text: Sensitiv Imago equipment allows to conduct sanative aсtivities through frequency-wave correction of patients organism state in energy field.
Only recently an opportunity to restore cells functions on deep level appeared. This became possible due to detailed study of frequency-wave imprinting and latest developments of our company.
Hardware-software complex Sensitiv Imago has a capacity to conduct two types of energoinformational influence simultaneously: Frequency compensation and frequency-wave correction (BRT). This method allows to balance out all systems of organism in frequency-wave field. Frequency-wave correction (BRT) provides deep level of influence.
In the result of frequency-wave survey, you can see changes that occurred in the organ on different levels: cells that work normally, cells with increased load (they can't perform all their functions in organ) or functionally blocked cells (non-working cells in organ).
Uniqueness of two-level impact lies in focused restore of the most harmed structures of organ tissues.
First level of influence is BRT. Energy correction is conducted directly on local, the most changed structures of organ tissue. The root principle of BRT is inversion: electromagnetic waves, that are taken from biological object, received by device, inverted by 180 degrees, reinforced and directed back at the patient via the device output. Thereat, pathological oscillations are suppressed, and normal physiological are intensified. As a result, this method does not damage organ tissues, which is very important for the recovery of whole organism. Constant control over frequency-wave correction enables to achieve utmost effective result of health improvement. Change indicators are controlled throughout the procedure, end of correction session and during a full course of sanative

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======= Instance Index 17 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

An allergy occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless substance that enters the body from the outside. A substance that causes an allergy is called an allergen. It is the immune system, not the allergen, that causes the symptoms of an allergy.


Q: What occurs when the immune system attacks a harmless substance that enters the body from the outside?

 Choices:

- panic attack

- plague

- nausea

- allergy

A:

Target Text: allergy

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: "Human body A-Z." Life, Human body, Q-files Encyclopedia, 22 Jan. 2014.
Life, Human body, s.v. "Human body A-Z," accessed April 21, 2019.
Adrenal glands A pair of endocrine glands that produce hormones in response to stress, including adrenaline, which makes the heart beat faster, preparing the body for action.
Allergy An abnormal reaction of the immune system to a harmless substance. During an allergic reaction, the body attacks a harmless substance as through it were a pathogen.

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Retrieved Text: For many people, spring means allergy season. Allergies are the sixth most common chronic condition in the United States. One in five people suffer from allergy or asthma symptoms. The symptoms can include things like itchy eyes, sneezing, coughing, congestion, or even trouble breathing. But you shouldn’t have to suffer through these things on a yearly basis.
The immune system is in charge of keeping our body safe from outside substances that may be harmful. It recognizes and destroys foreign material that gets into our system. An allergy is an abnormal response by the immune system to a normally harmless substance or allergen in the environment. When an allergen enters the body and meets with the body’s immune cells, a chemical called histamine is released. This chemical is what causes the allergic response made up of the above symptoms. So, essentially, allergies are the physical expression of our bodies overreacting to things from our environment.
What is causing this abnormal response to things in our environment? Allergies are one of those conditions that respond well to improving your body’s health and your immune system function. If allergies are the overreaction to what’s happening around you, then improving the body’s ability to function and take care of itself may reduce unpleasant symptoms.
Function is your “normal state” — we alter our body’s normal state by doing things to our bodies that interfere with its function. Medicines can change symptoms or temporarily alleviate them, however, they often don’t address the root cause of the issue.
A poor diet, particularly one where foods

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Retrieved Text: Most people know that the immune system is integral to fighting off sickness and infection, but how many people know more beyond that simple fact? The immune system is actually a quite complex and highly important part of the body that is constantly working to keep you in optimum health. The more you know about the immune system and how it works, the more capable you will be when it comes to keep your immune system in top shape, ensuring that you stay healthy for years to come. This article explains what the immune system is comprised of, how it works and how to keep your immune system working properly. At the end of the article, you'll find out about potential immune system disorders and what those problems entail.
Adenoids: glands in the back of the nasal passage.
Bone marrow: soft tissue found in bone cavities.
Lymph nodes: small, bean-shaped organs located throughout the body.
Spleen: an organ in the abdominal cavity.
Thymus: two conjoined lobes located in the front of the trachea.
Tonsils: oval masses located in the throat.
Because these organs are involved in the release of white blood cells called lymphocytes, they are referred to as lymphoid organs. Within the lymphoid organs are blood vessels which carry the lymphocytes that are released to specific parts of the body. There are actually two types of lymphocytes: T cells, which mature in the thymus, and B cells, which stay in the bone marrow where all lymphocytes originate from.
There are also several lymphatic vessels which connect the body's lymph nodes to one another

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Retrieved Text: Hay fever, also known as seasonal allergic rhinitis, is a very common condition that affects 20% of people in the UK. It is caused by an allergy to airborne substances such as grass or hay pollens, which affects the upper respiratory passages (nose, sinus, throat and eyes).
Hay fever usually occurs during the Spring and Summer months but exactly when you get it depends on which pollens you are allergic to. From May to July grass and flowers are in pollen, making these the most common cause of hay fever. Whereas, during Spring (from March to May), pollens from trees are the most common cause of hay fever. Some people do continue to get hay fever symptoms into the Autumn months. However, this is rare and is usually caused by weeds (such as nettles and docks), late flowering plants and mould spores.
Hay fever symptoms can be similar to a cold and include a runny nose, watery eyes and repeated sneezing attacks. As with all allergies, the symptoms happen as a result of your immune system (the body’s defence system) overreacting to a normally harmless substance, which is in this case pollen. When the body comes into contact with pollen cells in the lining of your nose, mouth and eyes release a chemical called histamine which triggers the symptoms of an allergic reaction.

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Retrieved Text: Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system cannot appropriately respond to infections.
If a pathogen is allowed to proliferate to certain levels, the immune system can become overwhelmed; immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system fails to respond sufficiently to a pathogen.
Immunodeficiency can be caused by many factors, including certain pathogens, malnutrition, chemical exposure, radiation exposure, or even extreme stress.
HIV is a virus that causes immunodeficiency by infecting helper T cells, causing cytotoxic T cells to destroy them.
Failures, insufficiencies, or delays at any level of the immune response can allow pathogens or tumor cells to gain a foothold to replicate or proliferate to high enough levels that the immune system becomes overwhelmed, leading to immunodeficiency; it may be acquired or inherited. Immunodeficiency can be acquired as a result of infection with certain pathogens (such as HIV), chemical exposure (including certain medical treatments), malnutrition, or, possibly, by extreme stress. For instance, radiation exposure can destroy populations of lymphocytes, elevating an individual’s susceptibility to infections and cancer. Dozens of genetic disorders result in immunodeficiencies, including Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID), bare lymphocyte syndrome, and MHC II deficiencies. Rarely, primary immunodeficiencies that are present from birth may occur. Neutropenia is one form in which the immune system produces a below-average number of neutrophils, the body’s most abundant phagocytes. As a result, bacterial infections may go unrestricted in the blood, causing serious complications.
Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), is a disease of the human immune system caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the initial infection, a person may

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Retrieved Text: High number of people every year experience the common chronic health conditions of allergies. It is common that those with family history of allergies are at a higher risk of developing allergies throughout their lives. Some of the allergies could be skin type, breathing conditions to environment, foods, and topical products.
When the immune system is being affected the reaction is allergies in different forms. The substance can be small as dust, mold or pollen, where the immune system automatically producing antibodies attacking the mentioned allergens. Some of the noticeable symptoms would be runny nose, itching eyes, watery eyes or any other symptoms.
The role of the immune system is to defend itself and keep foreign microorganism, bacteria, fungi and viruses , outside the body and destroy any microorganism that is infectious invading the body. The composition of the immune system is made up of a network of cells and organs to protect the body from infections.
The immune system s made up of lymphocytes, white blood cells which acts as defending troop against microorganism that can cause allergies. The network is made up of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels which are part of the lymphoid organs. The lymphatic vessels are in charge of moving lymphocytes to and from the different body parts.
It is evident that allergies can affect anyone, regardless of age, gender, race and cultural backgrounds. Allergies can start as early as childhood and then continue or aggravate as they get older due to hormones, environmental irritants, foods, habits.
It is evident that a way to help allergies symptoms

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Retrieved Text: Everyone is born with an immune system. It consists of a team of cells, proteins, tissues and organs that fight off illness, germs and other invaders. When an unsafe substance enters the body, the immune system kicks into gear and attacks. In a baby's first few months, her immune system is not fully developed. Fortunately, humans are protected by antibodies passed on from their mother's placenta. Over the next several years, along with the brain and other organs, the immune system develops at a precise pace.
A baby is born with more defenses than you might expect, says Dr. Laura A. Jana, a board-certified pediatrician and fellow of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). "During pregnancy," Jana notes, "disease-fighting antibodies made in the mother's immune system are able to make their way across the placenta and into her baby's body." These antibodies continue to protect a baby for several months after birth.
As time goes by, a baby benefits less and less from his mother's immune system—unless he is breastfed. Mothers produce milk rich in cells that fight disease and infection, so breast milk continues to supplement a baby with disease-fighting antibodies long after delivery. Formula cannot duplicate the benefits of mother's milk. Comparatively, breastfed infants generally suffer from fewer chronic diseases, such as allergies, rheumatic disorders and ear infections.
Still, formula-fed babies do not have an immune system, it's just slower to develop. For instance, a formula-fed infant takes about a month to develop the antibodies necessary to fight serious disease. If antigens get into a child's system,

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Retrieved Text: Allergies happen when your immune system reacts defensively toward a substance that is not normally harmful. Your immune system usually filters out and attacks the things that are harmful to your body.
An allergic reaction occurs when the body treats a non-harmful substance as a threat and releases a flood of chemicals to fight that threat.
Reactions vary from mild to very severe. Sometimes you can have an allergic reaction even if you don’t normally. Some allergies are caused by pollen, dust or mold only in the air during certain seasons.
If you experience life-treatening symptoms, call 911 as soon as possible.
For less intense symptoms, sometimes a prescription medication may be necessary for treatment. Visit your local CareNow® urgent care clinic if you have seasonal allergy symptoms.
Anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock is the most serious kind of allergic reaction. Your body releases a flood of chemicals that causes your blood pressure to drop and your airways to narrow and block your breathing.
The reaction begins very quickly and can be life-threatening. If you or someone you know experiences anaphylaxis, call 911 immediately.
How are non-life threatening allergies treated?
Because there are so many different kinds of allergies, the treatments vary, too. Mild and seasonal allergies can sometimes be treated with over-the-counter antihistamines. These medicines block the symptom-causing chemical your immune system releases during the reaction.
Some medications are available over-the-counter, while others need to be prescribed. If non-life threatening symptoms occur, visit your nearest CareNow® urgent care clinicfor fast diagnosis and treatment.
You can also minimize your wait time by using our Web Check-In® feature.

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Retrieved Text: Any substance that causes the immune system to trigger and fight against it. An immune fighting response is healthy and typically happens when foreign bodies such as bacteria, enter our body. However, innocent and harmless bodies (proteins) such as pollen, peanuts, milk, penicillin, etc. may not be recognized by our immune system, which keeps mistaking them as harmful foreign invaders.

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Retrieved Text: Buying medical supplies online is the ultimate way to shop easily and conveniently. Plus, you get to save lots of money too. Let's discuss 'how' in this article.
Acidity has a slow onset and more often than not people take this disorder very lightly, not seeing its physical implications in the long run.
Anaphylactic shock is also known as “anaphylaxis”. Anaphylactic shocks are very rare and can be extremely severe. They start as a sudden allergic reaction that involves the entire body. The allergic reaction occurs because the body’s immune system reacts inappropriately in response to the presence of a substance that is wrongly perceived as “harmful” or “threatening”.
Hay-fever is a common health problem that people suffer from, caused by an allergy to pollen. It is also known as "Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis" or "Intermittent Allergic Rhinitis". Up to 15% of the population, suffers from hay-fever and the numbers continue to rise every year.
An allergy is an allergic reaction that happens when our immune system decides not to cope with something that is normally harmless to our bodies and decides to overreact by creating antibodies. The source of the reaction is called an allergen. Whenever our bodies come into contact with the allergen, they will react and think it is harmful and will then release histamine into our bloodstream in order to fight it.

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Retrieved Text: Q: I am susceptible to allergies. What minerals do I need?
A: Magnesium and selenium prevent allergic reactions.
Most readers are no doubt already aware that allergies have a great deal to do with our immune system. When an allergen (a substance that causes an allergic reaction) enters our body, our immune system creates immunoglobulin E and antibodies to attack it. When these antibodies are launched, a substance called histamine is dispersed, which causes inflammation and manifests its presence in the form of an allergic reaction.
A person with allergies should be able to get adequate manganese, a mineral that is a component of enzymes which eliminate active oxygen. Research has shown that allergies are more likely to occur in people whose bodies are deficient in manganese.
Magnesium is also important because of its relationship to calcium. When calcium levels are too high, the tissue membranes which envelop the histamines become more likely to be dispersed. Ideally, a person should get 300 mg of magnesium for every 500 mg of calcium, roughly a ratio of 1:2. Many people, even those who watch their intake, often get no more than 200 mg of magnesium, let alone enough calcium.
The importance of selenium should also be mentioned. When histamines are released and inflammation occurs, active oxygen is also generated, causing a variety of damage. To suppress the adverse effects of active oxygen, we must call on antioxidant enzymes. One of these is glutathione peroxidase, which needs selenium to do its job.
Calcium — aside from building teeth and bones, aids in the transmission of

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Retrieved Text: If you have rheumatoid arthritis, lupus or another disorder characterized as an autoimmune disease, you’re at higher risk for developing shingles (herpes zoster), according to a new study. Some chronic conditions also make you vulnerable, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, a respiratory problem), asthma and type 1 diabetes.
The herpes zoster vaccine is recommended for people 60 and older. Almost everyone should get it, and certainly if you suffer from one of the disorders noted in the study, discuss it with your doctor.
Age is the most important risk factor for shingles. In addition to COPD and type 1 diabetes, other chronic diseases that showed the higher shingles risk were inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and depression.
An autoimmune disorder occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy body tissue, and more than 80 different types of them have been identified. Their cause is unknown.
A normal immune system’s white blood cells help protect you from harmful substances, or antigens, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, cancer cells and blood or tissues from another person or species. The antibodies produced by a healthy immune system destroy them.
But those systems in patients with an autoimmune disorder don’t distinguish between healthy body tissue and antigens, so their response is to destroy normal body tissues, similar to the body’s response to allergy. With allergies, the immune system is reacting to an outside substance it normally would ignore. With autoimmune responses, the system reacts to normal body tissues it normally would ignore.
As reported on MedPageToday.com, the authors of the

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Retrieved Text: Lupus is an autoimmune disease that attacks the immune system. The immune system is what fights foreign substances in the body like germs and viruses. With Lupus the immune system causes inflammation and attacks itself, healthy tissue in the body and organs such as the skin, blood, heart, kidneys, brain and joints. The immune system is like an army with hundreds of soldiers that are protecting from the invaders imagine if the soldiers turn around and start attacking their own. That is what lupus does to the body during a flare it attacks its own healthy tissue and organs. There is no cure for lupus, it is not contagious but with the right treatment it can be controlled, help with the pain and lower the risk of organ and tissue damage. Lupus is very hard to diagnoses as it mimics many other diseases.
Systemic Erythematosus (SLE) The most common and most serious. SLE affects the skin, blood, heart, kidneys, brain and joints.
Discoid (Cutaneous) Discoid is a form of lupus that only affects the skin and causes rashes. These rashes may be anywhere but are usually found on the face, neck and scalp.
Drug-Induced Lupus (DIL) Drug-induced Lupus (DIL) occurs after a person takes certain types of medication. The symptoms are similar to systemic lupus, but they usually disappear when the medicine is stopped.
Neonatal Lupus In rare cases, the newborn of a mom with lupus may have neonatal lupus. Symptoms usually go away after a few months and don’t cause permanent damage. Some babies with neonatal lupus can be

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Retrieved Text: This happens to be a neat trick. It allows a harmless bacteria to become a cancer killer upon reaching the cell. This is a very effective approach. Boosting the immune system can then put further pressure on the cancer cells hopefully without selecting for more perfect cancer cells.
This approach can be applied to a range of harmless biolgical agents as well to provide a large arsenal.
This allows cycling through agents to reduce the cancer for a long time.
Though generally a bacteria we'd associate with a severe bout of food poisoning, previous research has suggested that Salmonella needn't always bring bad news and stomach cramps.
Certain strains have been shown to kill off cancer cells, but to use them as a form of treatment for humans without inducing any nasty side effects has so far proven difficult. But now, researchers have developed genetically modified salmonella that turns toxic only after it enters a tumor.
A team of researchers from Germany's Helmholtz Center for Infection Research and Arizona State University worked with a strain known as Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium. This strain has been demonstrated to colonize tumors and attack the cancer cells. It was the group's thinking that altering part of the bacteria's outer membrane called the lipopolysaccharide structure (LPS) could serve to improve its safety. This is because LPS is one of the primary causes for sepsis, a condition that sees inflammation spread throughout the body that can lead to organ failure and death.
Through genetic engineering, the scientists were able to remove genes integral to the synthesis of

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Retrieved Text: Many children and adults suffer from allergies and asthma. Beyond the sniffling and sneezing and coughing and wheezing, these health conditions can present complications that significantly impact quality of life and even lead to hospitalization. As a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO), Michael Temkin has a unique perspective on conditions such as allergies and asthma and can offer effective treatment to alleviate symptoms and prevent them in the future. Call or book online to schedule an appointment at his office in San Ramon, California.
Why do allergies and asthma often occur together?
An allergic reaction occurs when your immune system mistakenly identifies a harmless substance like pollen or cat dander as an invader. In an attempt to protect your body from the substance, your immune system releases chemicals that lead to allergic reactions, which can range from mild to severe. For some patients, an allergic reaction affects their lungs and airways, leading to asthma symptoms.
But allergic reactions aren’t limited to food. Dust mites, pollen, mold, insects, and pet dander are common environmental and airborne allergens.
Asthma is a condition where your airways narrow, swell, and produce extra mucus, which can make it difficult to breathe. Common symptoms include coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
The severity of a person’s asthma can range from a nuisance that gets in the way of normal life to a life-threatening asthma attack. Dr. Temkin can help you control your asthma symptoms, track your triggers, and adjust treatment as needed over time.
How does Dr. Temkin treat allergies and asthma?
To properly diagnose your allergies and asthma,

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Retrieved Text: This is the least common of the four types of allergy in cats. Contact dermatitis is the result of the cat coming into contact with a substance. The cat’s fur acts as a barrier, protecting it from allergy-producing compounds.
There are two causes of contact dermatitis, allergic and irritant.
Irritant dermatitis, the most common type of contact dermatitis, involves inflammation resulting from contact with acids, alkaline materials such as soaps, detergents and bleach, medications, flea collars or topical spot-ons, solvents, or other chemicals.
The second most common type of contact dermatitis is caused by exposure to a material to which the cat has become hypersensitive or allergic. It arises some hours after contact with the responsible material, and settles down over some days providing the skin is no longer in contact with it. Plants, wool, washing powder residue and medications are a common cause of allergic dermatitis in cats.
The word allergy means ‘altered working’. Just like humans, cats can have allergies too. Allergies are a common cause of skin disease in cats.
The purpose of the immune system is to keep infectious microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body. However, sometimes the immune system mistakes something harmless (pollen, food etc) as an intruder and launches an attack against it, causing an allergic reaction. When this occurs, the cause of the allergy is known as an allergen.
In cats, there are four types of allergies; insect (most often caused by fleas, but occasionally mosquito bites can

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Retrieved Text: Looking for natural allergy remedies? Bach flowers can help!
An allergy nearly always has a physical cause. Yet the physical causes of allergies can be triggered by an emotional element. Allergies often receive medicinal treatments. However, a natural way to treat the symptoms is with Bach flowers mix 97. Your body handles harmless substances as trespassers, which causes aggravating reactions or irritation.
Once your immune system considers a harmless substance as a trespasser, it will always react badly towards it. This is what causes allergic reactions. If your immune system has to pass through a tough period, it’s way more susceptible to developing an allergy. By treating the emotional issue, remedies for allergies like Bach flowers mix 97 alleviate the symptoms.
The body under stress is a good example of a period when the immune system is passing through a tough period. Stress causes you to get overly sensitive which causes your body to react badly towards harmless substances causing allergies.
Bach flowers mix 97 as a natural allergy remedy helps you become calmer. This allergy treatment causes your immune system to act normally again.
People suffering from an allergy often struggle to lie in at the weekend either because of their allergic reactions or because they worry about their allergy. Natural allergy treatments provide the solution. Bach flowers mix 97 helps you compose yourself which causes your body to relax so you can sleep for longer.
An allergy can divert your thoughts from things you’re occupied with. The allergic reactions claim your attention completely. Natural allergy remedies can help you to

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Retrieved Text: How do germs cause disease, why do they affect some people and not others, what is immunity, and how do vaccines work?
A germ is an infectious microorganism capable of causing disease (such as a bacteria or virus).
For a germ to cause disease (for someone to actually get sick from an infection), the germ needs to be potent enough to overcome the defenses of that person, and then it needs to be capable of causing harm.
Virulence is the term used to describe how potent and dangerous a germ is, how likely it is to be able to overcome a healthy person’s natural defenses, and then how likely it is to cause damage or sickness.
Some germs are extremely virulent, and able to break through even the strongest defenses. Other germs are opportunistic, and only cause disease if the host defenses are somehow damaged or deficient; for example if they are immunosuppressed with disease or medication, or frail with old age. Other things that can make some people or populations more vulnerable to infection than others include genetic and environmental factors (including things like socio-economic status, living conditions, overcrowding, hygiene and sanitation).
How does the immune system respond to a threat?
To understand how vaccines can affect this balance between virulence and vulnerability, it is important to understand a little of how the immune system works.
In immunology, any protein or molecular structure on the outside of a substance capable of triggering an immune response is called an antigen.
Bacteria and viruses and other germs capable of causing disease display all sorts of

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Retrieved Text: An army of millions of microscopic soldiers operates within you, each one ready to spring into battle against invading germs and to do sentry duty to prevent disease from occurring in the first place. How you feed these soldiers has a great influence on how well they protect you from germs and disease. Because of poor diets, many school-age children and adults have immune systems that don’t operate at peak efficiency. They get sick more often. Here’s how to have a well-nourished immune system.
Think of the immune system as an army in which each division has a specific job, depending on the enemy they are fighting. Let’s meet the troops to see what each kind of defender does.
White blood cells are the body’s infantry, the hard-working soldiers on the front lines. These cells patrol the highway of the body’s bloodstream, preventing germs from gaining a foothold. There are millions of these microscopic fighters in each drop of blood. There are also many specialized units. For example, when enemy cells try to hide from the main white cell troops, specialized units of white cells, called macrophages (the word means “big eaters”), mount search-and-destroy missions, going into all the nooks and crannies of the body to gobble up harmful invaders.
Suppose a flu virus enters your body, multiplies rapidly, and threatens to overwhelm the circulating white cell army. The main troops can call out the reinforcements. These specialized cells include T-lymphocytes (white cells that originate in the thymus, a tiny gland in front of the heart) and even a

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Retrieved Text: Pneumonia occurs when there is a severe inflammation in the lungs leading to dysfunction of the entire respiratory system. This inflammation may be due to a bacterial, fungal, viral or parasitic infection, or because the rabbit has inhaled a foreign object into its lung.
Environmental factors, such as smoke or chemicals, an inability to swallow, coma, and dental disease may also lead to pneumonia.
The bacterial form of pneumonia occurs when the responsible organism enters the lower respiratory tract, primarily through inhalation or choking, but an organism can also enter the body through the bloodstream. The body responds severely with bronchitis, swelling, lack of blood supply, tissue death, abscess formation, and even lung collapse. If the animal has a poor immune system, then even bacteria that are normally present in the mouth, throat and lungs can become infectious. Due to all of this, there may be very low levels of oxygen available in the blood.
Fungal infections usually occur when the spores are inhaled, entering the lung (and sometimes the bloodstream). This triggers the rabbit's immune system to send white blood cells to fight the invading organism. These cells are then intercepted and engulfed by the organisms, releasing a chemical (cytokine) which impairs oxygen distribution in the lungs.
Viral infections occur in much the same way, except it is the virus which enters the lung and releases the cytokine. However, viruses also make rabbits more susceptible to bacterial infection; for this reason, bacterial pneumonia can be a related complication of viral pneumonia.
Parisitic pneumonia, on the other hand, occurs when a

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Retrieved Text: Allergic rhinitis is a common condition that involves inflammation of the nasal mucous membranes, sinuses and eyes. It is triggered by an overreaction of the immune system to an otherwise harmless substance, or allergen, such as pollen or dust mites.
Nonseasonal or perennial allergic rhinitis, which lasts all year.
Seasonal allergic rhinitis, also called “hay fever" or seasonal allergies, which occurs at the same time every year.
The exact cause of allergies has not been identified at this point, but we do know that developing an allergy requires a certain (often hereditary) allergic susceptibility. Allergies can appear at any time, whether or not you have had them before.
Allergens enter the bloodstream through the skin, eyes, nasal passages and mouth. This triggers a defense response from the immune system: it releases chemicals, such as histamine and leukotrienes, causing the allergy symptoms.
If you experience these symptoms and think you may be allergic to a particular substance, note the time and place when your symptoms are at their peak. This information will help to draw up a short list of possible culprits. Allergy testing can then be done by an allergist to pinpoint the precise source of your allergy symptoms.
To prevent or reduce allergy symptoms, avoid contact with your allergens and follow the advice below.
Get rid of carpets and dust-collecting furniture, such as stuffed chairs.
Wash sheets, pillow cases and bedspreads in hot water every week.
Keep the ambient humidity level low.
Install a high-efficiency air filter.
Do not mow the lawn or go to places where your allergen can be found (e.g. parks, wooded areas.
Do

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Retrieved Text: Since the birth of a given human immune system is divided into two specific immunity and non-specific. Non-specific immunity has been there since birth and was instrumental in warding off all manner of entry of foreign substances from outside the body, which can cause diseases such as bacteria, viruses, or goods that are harmful to the body. Included in this non-specific immune defense as physical (skin, mucous membranes), chemicals (enzymes), mechanical (bowel movements, hair shakes) and phagocytosis (ingestion of foreign substances by white blood cells).While specific immunity is immunity that is not inborn. Acquired immunity means that when the period of development and require a special immunity against certain germs. Formation of antibodies (anti-bacterial agent) takes time, so when it first attacked the child's body germ, symptoms will occur first. Once antibodies are formed, and identify the specific germ, then when germs are trying to log back reaction will occur, the resistance of the body.
How do you kids to get extra immune?
Children should have a good nutritional condition. Children with conditions that are not good nutrition because of lack of nutrition or nutritional imbalances in general do not have a strong defense of the body; because the substances formed anti insufficient to fight germ attacks.
Do not let your kids do not want to eat. Provide nutritious food by doing variations of the presentation. It will increasingly provide the spirit for them to eat.
Children should have a healthy lifestyle. Pattern of inappropriate child's life can cause weakened immune systems.
Give additional supplements to children to help regulate her

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Retrieved Text: The No. 1 Dangerous Substance Masquerading as a Harmless Food Ingredient!
Heart disease, diabetes, aging of body cells and brain, depressed immune system, cancer, loss of body tissue elasticity and function, increased fat storage in the body, tooth decay, obesity, slowing of brain function, poor digestion, kidney diseases, liver diseases, depression, demineralization of teeth and bones, body mineral depletion and the list goes on. These and many others are just some of the harmful effects of sugar – rightly dubbed as white poison!
Sugar is not a nutritive substance. It is not even food. It is a chemical substance that has prevailed in households for decades as a harmless food ingredient. Because of frequent use in every household, not much thought has ever been given to its harmful effects by the average person. On some level, we do know that sugar is unhealthy, but most of us truly have no idea how absolutely devastating sugar really is to our health. In reality, we are all slowly poisoning ourselves and our next generation with this “sweet death”!
It is not just refined sugar which is harmful but also processed carbohydrates such as bread, pasta, cakes etc that converts in the body into sugar. It is estimated that the average Westerner consumes about 10–200lb of sugar each year. Sugar constitutes about 25-35 percent of the western diet. The average American consumes 130 lbs of sugar a year. Sugar has a detrimental effect on the gut flora. It promotes the growth of parasites, worms, and fungi. The fungi harm body tissue and

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Retrieved Text: There has been much speculation as to whether Endometriosis is an autoimmune disease, so lets look briefly at the different ways the immune system can be impaired or fail.
Many of you will have heard of the term 'autoimmune disease', but what exactly are they?
This generic term is partly self explanatory, as this group of diseases links to a malfunction of the immune system. Today this term now refers to more than 80 different illnesses. This includes diseases involving the endocrine system, the digestive system, the nervous system as well as disease that relate to the skin and other connective tissue in the body.
The underlying problem with all these disease is very similar, and the immune system is not working correctly to help protect the body. It is actually 'turning on the body' and is attacking certain bodily stems that it was meant to protect.
Overall, this group of disease affect millions of people, but as there are so many different 'types' of autoimmune diseases, then individually they are relatively rare across the population.
It is not know why, but over 75% of these diseases occur in women, so there could be a link to the hormone system. The thinking behind this is that many of these disease are more frequent during the time a woman is actively reproductive (i.e. during her fertile menstrual years).
Some autoimmune diseases become more frequent after menopause, and others are affected by hormone changes during pregnancy.
If looking at statistics, then this group of disease can also have a link to genetics as it can

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Retrieved Text: The ingredients in this food can help you in the process of metabolism. Metabolism will form a healthy body because all the process of digestion, absorption of nutrients and the processing of various substances that enter the organs of the body can be done well.
Bread can also be an important substance to boost your immune system. The immune system gets support and various types of healthy organs, the body is able to protect from attacks of parasites, germs, and bacteria. In addition, these foods can also improve the ability of your nervous system.
The content in this sponge bun can also be a very good substance to help the formation of energy.
The compounds present in the sponge bun have the benefit of forming special protection for the body by stabilizing the cholesterol content in the body. Then the compound can threaten the bad cholesterol that can cause heart disease risk. So, the ingredients present in these foods are important to make your heart health healthy.

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Retrieved Text: Vaccines are mainly used to help prevent you from getting a certain illness or disease. New vaccines are being developed to work against cancer. Some of the vaccines work against the viruses that can lead to the growth of certain cancers. Other new vaccines are used to boost the immune system against a tumor that has already grown.
The immune system is the body’s defense against disease, infection, and cancer cells. One branch of the system makes special proteins called antibodies. These proteins are made to attack harmful or foreign substances that enter the body. Each antibody is set to a certain substance. It recognizes and attacks only that substance.
There are many types of vaccines. Most work by using a weakened version of a bacteria or virus to stimulate the immune system. This isn’t enough to make a person sick. But it is enough to cause the body to make antibodies. Other vaccines use inactivated or dead parts of viruses and bacteria to cause an immune response. Once these antibodies are made, the body is ready to fight off the substance. This protects the body against certain infections and diseases.
Vaccines are often given as shots. There are many common vaccines for both children and adults. Researchers are now working on making vaccines to help treat certain types of cancer and to protect the body against cancer.
Preventive vaccines help protect a healthy person from getting cancer. They target certain types of infection that can lead to cancer. For instance, a shot has been made against the human papilloma

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Retrieved Text: Two inexpensive antibody tests exist, the thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPO) and thyroglobulin antibodies (TG) tests. The tests can show high levels, ten to fifteen years, before noticing any changes in the TSH. In normal circumstances, TPO antibodies are below 35 while TG antibodies are below 20. However, one should ensure to look at the reference range before going through any of the tests.
Statistics show that about 20% of patients have these antibodies. Upon experiencing symptoms, it is important for a person to take necessary action before medication. This prevents further damage to the thyroid. Early symptoms prevention ensures the avoidance of unnecessary medication in future. Therefore, one should always take the tests. Prevention of other autoimmune conditions is also necessary.
The T3 and the T4 are thyroid hormones found in a person. Normally, their levels should be within the reference range (upper half). The levels of thyroid hormones in the body can indicate the presence of a thyroid disorder prior to the other antibody tests. In some cases, a reverse T3 test can show an underactive thyroid where other lab tests missed. The reference ranges can vary but it’s vital to ensure that it is not elevated.
What if one is outside the Normal Range?
If there is a deficiency in thyroid hormones, the above situation occurs. The patient should take medication to stabilize the condition. For patients with Hashimoto’s, a gluten free diet is necessary. Gluten free diet also reverses celiac disease.
In molecular mimicry, the immune system identifies a foreign substance and takes its protein structure. The system

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Retrieved Text: Allergies occur when the body's defense system—the immune system—is hypersensitive to a harmless substance, called an allergen, and treats this substance as if it were a harmful or foreign invader. Attempting to defend itself against the allergen—a substance like pollen, dust, mold, smoke, or pet dander (scales of skin)—the body produces an antibody (a type of protein), which results in symptoms like itchy, watery eyes, a runny or stuffy nose, scratchy throat, and sneezing. In more severe allergic reactions, rashes, hives, a drop in blood pressure, difficulty breathing or even death can occur.
How does chiropractic help with Sinus and Allergies?
Chiropractors can help your sinus and allergy problems by ensuring proper function of the nervous system. Mucous membranes are controlled by the brain, the brain sends signals from the nervous system to your mucous membranes.
A subluxation can cause interference between your brain and your mucous membrane. A spinal adjustment can correct a subluxation therefore enhancing the communication from your brain to your mucous membranes .
We can help relieve your symptoms. Click below to learn more.

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Retrieved Text: Which of the following results in the destruction of the myelin sheath in the central nervous system?
1. Which disease occurs as a result of the destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas?
2. Linda has been suffering on a recurring basis from diarrhea and vomiting that does not appear to be linked to consumption of any particular type of food. She has been considering seeing a doctor because the symptoms do not appear to be going away on their own. What type of autoimmune disease may she be developing?
These learning assessments will help you understand what happens when a person's immune system attacks its own body. You'll be asked to identify common types of autoimmune diseases and how they each affect the human body.

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Retrieved Text: Salmonella is known as a harmful bacteria that causes most cases of food poisoning.
Now, the bad could be turned into something good, as researchers from Korea have modified the bacteria to attack cancer cells.
Oh Jung-hee has the details.
Salmonella, known to cause food poisoning, enters the body easily and multiplies inside cells.
Taking advantage of such characteristics, scientists in Korea have modified the bacteria to target cancer cells.
A harmless version of salmonella was genetically engineered to secrete Flagellin B.
When injected, the modified bacteria still tried to infect the body,... triggering a powerful immune response against cancer cells.
"The bacteria breeds inside tumors and gets the immune system's attention. The Flagellin B protein makes the immune system more aggressive against cancer cells."
The scientists injected the modified bacteria into mice with human colon cancer, and found that 11 of the 20 mice had no signs of cancerous tissue at all after 120 days.
The control group of mice, which were infected with the bacteria that did not secrete Flagellin B, succumbed to their cancers throughout the experiment.
After additional animal testing, the team plans to run clinical trials with human subjects to see whether the method can be used as a safe, effective anticancer therapy.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of a zygote.


Q: Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of what?

 Choices:

- a zygote

- a cytoplasm

- a nuclei

- a bacteriophage

A:

Target Text: a zygote

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: ﻿ Metro Hospital, Faridabad - What is IVF, and Embryo Transfer process?
In Vitro Fertilization widely known as IVF is (ART) assisted reproductive technology. It is a process where sperms and eggs are manually combined in a laboratory for fertilization, and then resulting embryos are evaluated for quality, and are placed in the uterus through the cervix.
Damaged and blocked fallopian tubes.
Male infertility like sperm motility and decreased sperm count.
Women with premature ovarian failure, ovulation disorders.
Women with removed fallopian tubes.
Step 1: To stimulate egg production, fertility medications are prescribed. Multiple eggs are looked-for because only few eggs will develop or fertilize after retrieval. To examine the ovaries, transvaginal ultrasound is prescribed, and blood samples are taken to check hormone levels.
Step 2: Using ultrasound imaging eggs are retrieved through a minor procedure. Medication is provided to decrease and eliminate possible discomfort.
Step 3: A sample of sperm is required to combine with the eggs.
Step 4: Sperms and eggs are combined together and stored in laboratory to encourage fertilization. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) are used in cases with low possibility of fertilization. In this procedure, a sperm is injected right into the egg in an effort to attain fertilization. The eggs are observed to check fertilization and cell division.
Step 5: The embryos are transferred into the woman’s uterus 3 to 5 days following egg retrieval. A catheter is placed into the uterus to transfer the embryos. If the process is fruitful, implantation typically occurs around 6 to 10 days following egg retrieval.

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Retrieved Text: The chick uses its egg tooth to help break out of the egg. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. Inside the Egg …... Figure 2. Three early vitellogenic follicle from an ovariole such as that in figure 1. Oocytes are opaque due to light scattering by yolk particles and yellow due to the carotenoid conjugates of lipophorin, the second most abundant yolk protein in this species.
Department of Animal Sciencespoultry AS-525-W Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service • West Lafayette IN, 47907 The Process of Egg Formation... The process of cleavage is concerned only with the continuous doubling of the number of blastomeres and not with cellular growth; the result is a ball of cells not larger than the original egg itself.
Commercial egg processing is a quick business that relies on speed to market in order to provide fresh, quality product. Hens are kept in cages that are devised so that when an egg is …... Process of fertilization: (a) Fertilization is the process in which sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote. (b) Acrosomal reactions help the sperm degrade the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allow the sperm to transfer its nucleus.
Describe the process of egg formation in poultry.
The rest of the egg-formation process may then continue as normal, except that an egg without a yolk is laid. Blood Spots and Meat Spots These are rarely seen in commercially produced eggs, as when the eggs are candled, those containing

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Retrieved Text: Human development begins at fertilization when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual... The zygote divides many times and becomes progressively transformed into a multi-cellular human being.
Last week I watched CNN reporter Chris Cuomo and Marco Rubio have this discussion over the matter of abortion and the meaning of "human life."
RUBIO: No, science has decided when it is human life.
CUOMO: Science has not decided it’s at conception.
RUBIO: No, let me correct you. Science has—absolutely it has.
At this point Cuomo made me want to jump through the flat screen of my TV and slap some scientific sense into him!
The conceptus (fertilized egg) is alive. It is a living thing.
It is not a daisy life or a fish life or a mosquito life or a rhinocerous life. It is a human conceptus, AKA human life.
Just as frog life begins in the frog egg, so does human life begin in the fertilized egg in a mother's womb.
Cuomo accused Rubio of "oversimplifying," and that he was answering the question based on his faith, not science."
Cuomo: "We'll have scientists on the show all morning who will say we cannot say it is definitely human life at conception. It's more faith than science."
Rubio: "They can't say it's human life? What would it become then? A cat? I can tell you that every single one of us started at that same stage, that it can't become anything other than a human

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Retrieved Text: Sperm from zebrafish, Danio rerio, and Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, were microinjected directly into egg cytoplasm to evaluate the potential for developing a novel method of fertilization. In zebrafish, the sperm of two lines (wild-type and gold, long-fin) were injected with or without activation into activated and non-activated eggs. No significant difference (P = 0.997) in fertilization by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) was observed between the two lines or when the sperm were activated or not (P = 0.057). There was significance difference in fertilization between activated and non-activated eggs (P = 0.010). The highest fertilization rate was achieved by injection of activated sperm into non-activated eggs (35%). From a total of 188 zebrafish eggs injected, 31 (16%) were fertilized, 10 (5%) developed as abnormal larvae and 3 (2%) developed normally and hatched. Damage of maternal chromosomes by the injection procedure could have caused the developmental abnormalities observed after ICSI. This was investigated by fluorescence microscopy using a DNA-specific stain (Hoechst 33324). Fixed and stained animal poles of zebrafish 30 sec after artificial insemination revealed that female chromosomes were located ~40 mm from the sperm injection site (micropyle). Staining of the animal pole after sperm injection showed no disruption of the formation of the second polar body or its extrusion. Evaluation of two sperm injection sites in zebrafish showed no difference in fertilization rate (P = 0.8264) or reduction of abnormal development. Nile tilapia eggs placed in Hanks' balanced salt solution retained their viability for at least 3 hours after collection. Of a total of 160

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Retrieved Text: Rival Sperm and Choosy Eggs: FSU Researcher Finds That When Sperm Compete , Eggs Have a Choice.
During his research, Levitan induced male sea urchins to spawn using a potassium chloride solution. Later, he collected tiny parcels of sea water in syringes stocked with unfertilized eggs.
Newswise — TALLAHASSEE, Fla. — The delicately mannered dance between discerning eggs and vying sperm is more complicated than scientists once believed, and it may hold secrets about the evolution of new species.
In a paper published in the journal American Naturalist, Chair and Professor of Biological Science Don Levitan investigates a root mystery in our scientific understanding of sexual reproduction: Do sperm compete and do eggs ever have a choice?
When it comes to sea urchins at least, the answer is yes.
Using sea urchin populations off the Pacific coast of Canada, Levitan set out to determine the degree to which, among marine animals using external fertilization, sperm from multiple males compete to fertilize individual eggs. Sea urchins are considered a good model species for scientists as they seek to better understand marine organisms because the spiny animals can be easily induced to spawn.
That makes them perfect for the study of fertilization and compatibility.
In nature, sea urchins release clouds of sperm and eggs that fertilize while floating in the water. In this study, Levitan induced males to spawn and then collected tiny parcels of seawater — enough for a population of sperm to immediately interact with an egg — in syringes stocked with scores of unfertilized eggs.
Later, Levitan conducted paternity analyses on the newly

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Retrieved Text: Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT): A technique in which the male and female germ cells required to begin formation of a human embryo are injected into a woman's fallopian tubes of the female for fertilization. This technique is one of the methods doctors use to overcome infertility, the inability of couples to produce offspring on their own.
Gametes (germ cells) in males are the spermatozoa, or sperm, and those in females are ova, or eggs. After a sperm fertilizes an egg in the fallopian tubes, the egg implants itself in the uterus (womb), a hollow organ that lodges and nourishes the embryo during its development.
The term "intrafallopian" means "inside the fallopian tubes." ("Intra," a Latin word, means "within" or "inside.") Thus, in the GIFT technique, fertilization takes place inside the body of the female. By contrast, in the technique of in vitro fertilization (IVF), eggs are fertilized outside the body.

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Retrieved Text: Life is made up of many special events, one of them is fertilization. It ‘a phenomenon of sexual reproduction, in which two gametes from different species bind to bring the formation of a new cell, which later take the name of the zygote.
There are several cases of fertilization: there is the inner one, in which the male gametes are released directly into the female apparatus, and the external one which is that fertilization which mostly takes place in water, in which the individual releases the gametes so that the another individual may collect them in opportune moments. Finally there is the assisted reproduction in which the union of gametes occur via artificial. But what are the stages of fertilization? Firstly million sperm reach the fallopian Faloppio, which are later attracted the oocyte, but only one of them manages to penetrate the egg, and then finally to fertilize the zygote. As a result of this process is followed by others, such as the development of the embryo, placenta and fetus.
The placenta begins to develop at conception.
It is therefore a vital organ to the fetus, with which it is in close relation. The main task of the placenta to the fetus is to ensure the necessary nutrients for proper development.
The fetus is nothing but the product of “mutations” that the embryo undergoes from the third month. Life is made up of many events, processes unknown to us, we begin to know them without dwelling on what’s appearance.
Previous articleWHAT TIME IS IT?

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Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Acrosome mean?
The acrosome is a cap that covers the head of the sperm. The acrosome facilitates the acrosomal reaction, which occurs when an egg cell and a sperm cell fuse together, leading to fertilization. Abnormal acrosomes can prevent fertilization and cause male-factor infertility.
The primary role of the acrosome occurs during the earliest stages of fertilization, in a phase known as the acrosomal reaction. During natural conception, sperm travel through a woman’s reproductive system looking for an egg. Once the egg has been located, the sperm attempt fertilization. During this stage, the egg is coated with a thick membrane layering called the zona pellucida. The acrosome releases a digestive enzyme called acrosine, which dissolves the zona pellucida, allowing the sperm to penetrate the egg’s membrane. The head of the sperm then fuses with the egg, and fertilization occurs.
Abnormalities of the acrosome can prevent this process from occurring. Misshapen or dysfunctional acrosomes can impede the penetration, as can acrosomes that do not excrete the appropriate hormones or enzymes needed to break down the zona pellucida. This can be caused by genetic conditions, health disorders that impact sperm quality, or lifestyle choices that damage sperm quality, such as stress, smoking, drug use, or excessive alcohol intake.
There are several tests that evaluate sperm. While a standard sperm analysis can visually test the sperm for the presence of a typical acrosome, it cannot test the acrosome’s ability to function normally when introduced to an egg. However, the acrosome reaction test uses a sperm sample to trigger the

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Retrieved Text: Research into a genetic mutation causing some men to be infertile shows that an important protein in the sperm that is a key component of the egg fertilization process, known as phospholipase C zeta (PLC-zeta), is ineffective in these individuals.
The investigators found that they could restart the fertilization process in the lab by injecting eggs with a higher amount of the PLC-zeta protein from the infertile men than found naturally in their sperm, which suggests that this type of infertility could become reversible with medical assistance.
“Recent clinical studies have highlighted the crucial importance of PLC-zeta in human fertilization, reporting that sperm from infertile patients, who exhibited failed fertilization even after the most powerful in vitro fertilization techniques, contained either reduced amounts or mutated forms of this protein,” said Dr Michail Nomikos (Qatar University, Doha, Qatar) lead author of the Biochemical Journal paper.
It has been known for some time that an essential part of the human fertilization process is a repetitive, dramatic increase in calcium levels in the egg known as ‘calcium oscillations’ triggered by a message from the sperm that happens just before an embryo begins to form. This calcium increase is vital for all the early events of fertilization and early embryo development.
In 2002, Professor Tony Lai (Cardiff University, UK) and colleagues discovered the sperm-specific PLC-zeta protein. Over the last decade, research carried out by Professor Lai, who is also the senior author on the current study, and colleagues has shown that PLC-zeta is a key trigger of the calcium oscillations seen in the egg

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Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Alternative Fertilization mean?
Alternative fertilization is a medical technique which sees sperm placed inside a woman’s fallopian tubes, cervix, or uterus. This procedure helps a woman fall pregnant who cannot fall pregnant naturally. Alternative fertilization is allowing couples around the world who are infertile or who have difficulty falling pregnant to have children.
Alternative fertilization is sometimes used interchangeably with the term artificial insemination. However, alternative fertilization is the preferred term today.
Alternative fertilization is a relatively simple procedure with few side effects. For this reason, it’s usually the first technique suggested to couples struggling to conceive, rather than in vitro fertilization. It’s often helpful for women with endometriosis, unreceptive cervical mucus, or unexplained fertility issues.
Alternative fertilization occurs when a woman is ovulating. Blood tests, ovulation kits, and ultrasounds can confirm this. The sperm used in an alternative fertilization procedure may come from her partner or, if his sperm is not viable, a donor. Men are encouraged to abstain from ejaculating for between two to five days before giving a sample for alternative fertilization to have the best sperm count. The sperm is washed before insertion to remove chemicals and increase the chance of a successful fertilization.
Sperm is usually inserted into the uterus, so it does not have to travel far, but the fallopian tubes or cervix may also be used on some occasions. Once the sperm is inserted in the uterus, or travels there, the sperm can fertilize the woman’s egg.
Alternative fertilization is quick and fairly painless, akin to a Pap smear. A woman

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Retrieved Text: Juno, a long-sought protein named after the Roman goddess of fertility and marriage, has been discovered on the surface of the mammalian egg. This protein recognizes its sperm-riding counterpart, Izumo, at the very first interaction between egg and sperm. Although Juno and Izumo bind to each other weakly, the union is fateful, as it results in fertilization.
Izumo, which is named after a Japanese marriage shrine, was discovered by Japanese researchers in 2005. But its binding partner on the egg remained a mystery until researchers at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute identified the egg’s Izumo receptor, folate receptor 4 (Folr4). This discovery prompted the researchers to suggest changing Folr4 protein’s name to the more felicitous Juno.
The scientists created an artificial version of the Izumo protein and used this to identify binding partners on the surface of the egg. Using this approach, they discovered that Izumo on the sperm interacted with Juno on the surface of the egg to initiate fertilization.
The team developed mice that lacked the Juno protein on the surface of their eggs. These mice were infertile and their eggs did not fuse with normal sperm, highlighting that the Juno protein is essential for fertility in female mice. In the same way, male mice lacking the Izumo protein are also infertile, highlighting its essential role in male fertility.
The team is now screening infertile women to understand whether defects in the Juno receptor are a cause of infertility. If it is, then a simple genetic screening test could help inform the appropriate treatment for women struggling to

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Retrieved Text: All sperm cells may indeed look alike, but multiple cells from the same man carry genetic differences that researchers hope will help them better understand male reproductive disorders.
A research team led by Stephen Quake, Ph.D., at Stanford University and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) for the first time mapped out the entire DNA sequence of individual human sperm, from 91 sperm cells of a 40-year-old man who had healthy children.
In the study, published in the July 20 edition of the journal Cell, investigators captured images of new mutations that formed within each sperm cell as the DNA changed to create more genetic diversity leading to differences in features between parents and offspring. The sperm in a sample underwent an approximate average of 23 recombinations, with each individual sperm cell having a different number of genetic mixing events, and resulting genetic mutations.
Every sperm cell contained between 25 and 36 new mutations previously unseen in other body cells, the study concluded, while two sperm cells were missing entire chromosomes.
“The exact sites, frequency, and degree of this genetic mixing process is unique for each sperm and egg cell, and we’ve never before been able to see it with this level of detail. It’s very interesting that what happens in one person’s body mirrors the population average,” Dr. Quake, a professor of bioengineering and of applied physics at Stanford University and an investigator for HHMI, said in a statement.
Researchers used a microfluidic system to achieve highly parallel sample processing yet minimize nonspecific amplification. Data from high-density genotyping results from

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Retrieved Text: Home Doctor What Are The Different Kinds Of Fertility Treatments?
There are many treatments to help people with all kinds of fertility issues. The decisions that are best for you depend on you and what’s causing your infertility. Some treatment only single one needs to take, but in some situations, both the partners need to make a test. Infertility is a common issue that occurs in about 11 percent of reproductive age couples. Let’s check out some of the fertility treatments which prevents problems with quick options you had taken.
However, treating infertility goes beyond fertility treatments that include all the things happens in your life. Infertility treatment can also include surgical interventions, weight loss, lifestyle changes, or treatment of an underlying medical condition. It mostly refers to medications that stimulate egg or sperm production or procedures that involve the handling of eggs, sperm, or embryos. The treatment will depend on the cause or causes behind your infertility, whether the problem is from the woman’s side, the man’s side, both sides. Infertility clinic center near me providing you advanced treatments to avoid problems come while pregnant.
If you have any problems with this fertility, you can utilize online services take appointment Fertility center near me to recover soon without any issues. Female infertility problems can be difficult to diagnose. There are several treatments available, but, need to take depend on the cause of infertility. Many infertile couples will go on to conceive a child without treatment. See some of the treatments available to bring in Fertility clinic near me

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Retrieved Text: Dr.Sherman Silber has been a world leader in in vitro fertilization for over 38 years.
Send an email to our staff with any questions and get a quick reply to your concerns!
IVF (In-Vitro Fertilization) is the most common form of ART (Assisted Reproductive Technology). It is the most effective treatment for damaged fallopian tubes, poor sperm, and other types of infertility. Our procedure achieves remarkable pregnancies even in women with hopelessly damaged fallopian tubes, seemingly sterile husbands, and “unexplained” infertility. The eggs are fertilized in our laboratory, and the resulting embryos then are placed into the uterus 2 to 5 days later. Problems with the husband’s sperm are never a serious issue since we routinely use ICSI to guarantee against any risk of failed fertilization. Our IVF pregnancy rate is over 50% per attempt, regardless of diagnosis, and we accept all of the most difficult cases.
Over the last 35 years, Sherman J. Silber, M.D., has pioneered most of the “miracle” infertility treatments now accepted around the world for male and female infertility. These breakthroughs include microscopic vasectomy reversal, tubal ligation reversal, ICSI (intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection), male infertility and improving success rates with IVF (in vitro fertilization) while reducing IVF costs and eliminating complications. Other areas include: egg freezing to preserve fertility, ovary transplantation and preserving fertility in cancer patients.
With only just a few sperm, Dr. Silber can use ICSI to help you start a family.
Mini-IVF is a revolutionary procedure that costs less and is virtually painless.

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Retrieved Text: Oxidative stress is a leading cause of male infertility, as it leads to decreased sperm count and motility and causes damage to sperm DNA. With comprehensive vitamin and mineral support and targeted antioxidant protection, FH Pro for Men is an evidence-based, doctor-formulated dietary supplement designed to promote male fertility and overall reproductive health by decreasing oxidative stress, improving nutritional status, and improving sperm function. In a recent study, subjects supplementing with FH PRO for 3 months demonstrated substantial improvement in key sperm parameters, including a 122% increase in progressive motility.
Egg quality and ovarian function are key indicators of fertility. A variety of factors can negatively impact egg quality and ovarian function, including age, diet, environmental toxins, hormone imbalances, and PCOS, making conception difficult. With a comprehensive formula including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and specialty nutrients, FH Pro for Women is an evidence-based, doctor-formulated dietary supplement designed to promote egg quality, ovarian function, and overall female fertility. Clinical studies currently underway measuring the impact on blastocyst formation, fertilization and pregnancy rates in IVF patients.
– Dr. Botros Rizk, MD, MA, FRCOG, FRCS, HCLD, FACOG, FACS, Professor and Head of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility at the University of South Alabama and author of over 400 peer reviewed publications.

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Creamy Cervical Mucus After Ovulation?
According to BabyCenter, creamy cervical mucus negatively affects the ease of movement for sperm toward an egg for implantation, and decreases the chances for fertilization. Creamy cervical mucus can range from pearl white to creamy yellow and is thick in consistency like lotion. Cervical mucus with the consistency of egg whites is the most desirable when the intent is fertilization.
Estrogen stimulates the secretion of fluid from the cervix. BabyCenter explains that the consistency and quality of cervical secretions can be used to evaluate fertility throughout a woman's menstrual cycle. Cervical mucus can be clear and watery, stringy (like egg whites), creamy, or thick and sticky. While egg white cervical mucus is the best for fertility, sperm are able to swim through clear and watery cervical mucus without much resistance. Either of these types of cervical mucus protects the sperm from hostile pH levels on its journey to the egg. Creamy and gunky cervical mucus make the sperm's journey much more difficult and significantly decrease the chances of fertilization. These types of cervical mucus are signs that the woman's peak window of fertility has closed until the next cycle.
The American Pregnancy Association points out that women hoping to become pregnant can check their own cervical mucus to determine its quality and assess whether it is likely to increase the odds of fertilization.

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Retrieved Text: PICSI Kolkata is the advance form of ICSI technique and thus it increases the chance of being pregnant. PICSI is fully known as Physiological Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection. This is one of the matchless treatments to untwist the matter of male infertility. Male infertility could be of several types, one of the male infertility, which we are discussing now, is where male duo is unable to produce motile and active sperm.
During this technique, mature sperm is selected and directly injected into the egg received from the female partner. The step of choosing mature sperm is unique in PICSI Kolkata. PICSI treatment has been proven as an effective medication for male infertility. Select IVF India is one of the foremost ART specialist clinics to give effective male infertility treatment all over India.
PICSI treatment cost by PICSI Clinic Kolkata is very affordable and easily achievable by each infertile male duo. PICSI is always followed with ICSI technique, where a single and motile sperm is directly injected into the eggs for better fertilization. PICSI cost Kolkata is INR 2 lakh, this kit includes each and every fertility medication & drugs given to the female, egg retrieval procedure, and the step of PICSI Kolkata.
Some fertility clinic offers PICSI treatment in much more high price than the cost offering Select IVF fertility clinic. So just go through each clinic’s success rate and the exact package of PICSI Kolkata in order to get clear and transparent view of the cost of PICSI treatment.
Since we know that PICSI is always followed by the mode

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Retrieved Text: For the first time, a study shows that female eggs may not necessarily be required to create offspring; scientists from the University of Bath in the United Kingdom have developed a technique that involves using sperm to fertilize embryos instead of eggs, and the method has resulted in the birth of healthy baby mice.
Researchers suggest it is possible to produce offspring without a female egg.
Senior author Dr. Tony Perry, from the Department of Biology & Biochemistry at Bath, and colleagues publish their findings in the journal Nature Communications.
In the traditional sense, fertilization occurs when a sperm meets a female egg. Once this occurs, the egg "reprograms" the sperm, whereby various chromosomal and DNA changes occur that enable the sperm to divide and produce the specialized cells that make up an organism - a process known as totipotency.
Since the fertilization process was first unraveled in the late 1800s, scientists have long believed that only an egg has the ability to reprogram a sperm in order to trigger embryonic development.
Previous studies have shown it is possible to "trick" a non-fertilized egg into forming an embryo, creating what are called parthenogenotes. However, because these embryos are absent of sperm, which is key for development, they have not survived more than a few days.
Now, Dr. Perry and colleagues reveal that in mice, injecting sperm into parthenogenotes can spur full-term embryonic development, leading to the birth of healthy offspring.
For their study, the researchers injected sperm nuclei into mice parthenogenotes that were chemically treated to contain a single set of unpaired chromosomes,

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Retrieved Text: Oocyte cryopreservation, also known as Egg Freezing has recently had a resurgence of interest in the last few years due to its numerous potential benefits.
Facilitation and reduction in the cost of oocyte donation.
Provide a mechanism to “maintain” the reproductive potential of women undergoing deleterious therapies (e.g., chemotherapy).
The provision of egg cryostorage for women wishing to delay their reproductive choices.
Women with a family history of early menopause. Some forms of early menopause (premature ovarian failure) are genetically-linked. Egg freezing offers a chance to preserve eggs before they are all depleted.
Legal advantages in regards to custodial issues.
An option for patients who have potential ethical issues with embryo freezing.
To date, The American Reproductive Society of Reproductive Medicine still considers egg freezing an experimental procedure as the number of offsprings derived from cryopreserved oocytes has been limited. Even though the first baby produced from a frozen egg was born more than ten years ago, it is not until recently studies have shown improved post-thaw oocyte survival, fertilization and pregnancy rates rivaling those of fresh oocytes. One issue with freezing eggs is that the oocyte is extremely fragile due to its large size, water content and chromosomal arrangement. In the mature oocyte, the metaphase chromosomes are lined up by the “meiotic spindle” along the equatorial plate. It has been well proven that the “meiotic spindle” is easily damaged by intracellular ice formation during the freezing and/or thawing process. In addition, the hardening of the egg shell (zona pellucida) post-thaw adversely affects the normal fertilization process.
As technology has emerged, laboratory findings have

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Retrieved Text: Internal fertilization is the process when the syngamy (union of male and female gamete) occurs inside the female body after insemination using copulation. In contrast, External fertilization is the syngamy outside the female body, that is in the outer environment especially in water bodies.
Internal fertilization is followed by mammals, birds, while external fertilization is supported by mostly aquatic animals and few amphibians.
We all are aware of the word fertilization, which defines the union of sperm (male gamete) and egg nucleus (female gamete) to produce diploid cell or zygote, which further develops or grow into the young ones of their generation. Internal and External fertilization are the two types of fertilization, which takes place among various groups of animals, and with this content, we will be discussing the diverse features of them.
Meaning The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place inside the body of the female, is called as internal fertilization. The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place in the external environment (in water bodies) and so-called as external fertilization.
Gametes released Less number of gametes (sperms) are released, which gets deposited inside the female body. Numerous gametes (sperms and egg) are released into the environment. These gametes are of male as well as of female.
Process involves Only male gametes are released or discharged into the female genital tract. Both male and female release or discharge their gametes in their external surrounding.
Further process of development (syngamy) occurs inside the body only. Further process of development

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Retrieved Text: ICSI is used to treat sperm-related infertility problems. The procedure is used to enhance the fertilization phase of in vitro fertilization (IVF) by injecting a single sperm into a mature egg. The fertilized egg is then placed in a woman's uterus or fallopian tube.

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Retrieved Text: OI is also called ovarian stimulation and involves, most commonly, taking a drug called clomiphene citrate (the brand name is Clomid or Serophene) in tablet form. The drug stimulates the production of various hormones that are responsible for ovulation. Regular ultrasound scanning of the ovaries during the cycle is essential to ensure that not too many eggs are produced, which could lead to ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Because of the associated risks of long-term use, the clomiphene should not be given for more than three months at a time. It can be given for a total of six months, but there should be a one-month break after the first three months.
Clomiphene is taken from day 2 to day 5 of your cycle. The drug binds to oestrogen receptor sites in the brain, making the body think that oestrogen secretion is too low. This causes the hypothalamus to produce more GnRH (gonadotrophin-releasing hormone). GnRH tells the pituitary gland to release more LH and FSH. This results in an egg starting to mature in a follicle, ready for ovulation. HCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) injections may also be given to boost final maturation of follicles. HCG is usually given 36 to 40 hours before final maturation of follicles.
OI is suitable for women whose periods are irregular, as a result of a diagnosed hormonal imbalance, and those who are under the age of 35, are most likely to benefit. OI can help women with polycystic ovarian syndrome, those whose production of LH is faulty and prevents the ovarin follicles from maturing

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Retrieved Text: In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is the process of fertilization where an egg is added to the sperm outside the body. This process involves the removing of ovum or egg from woman’s ovaries and fertilizes them with the sperm in a liquid in a laboratory. Dr. Priya Bhave Chittawar an IVF specialist in Bhopal is the only specialist with many years of experience.

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Retrieved Text: As all of us know that in meiosis oocyte forms follicles and egg cells, so my question is that if an oocyte can form follicles then why sperm cells do not forms the follicles? And in evolutionary terms how this huge difference can in these two same germinal cells?
Browse other questions tagged cell-biology reproduction meiosis ovulation or ask your own question.
Does Human Female Meiosis II occur after fertilization with sperm?
What type of cell do you start with in Meiosis?
Fertilization of the human egg- where does our centrosome come from?

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Retrieved Text: Extrafallopian: A term meaning "outside the fallopian tube." There are two fallopian tubes in female mammals, including human females. These tubes are also called oviducts. They serve as passageways connecting the egg-producing ovaries to the uterus (womb) in the pelvis.
Physicians who assist infertile couples can cause fertilization to occur outside or inside a fallopian tube. To differentiate between these two fertilization techniques, they use the terms "extrafallopian" (outside the fallopian tube) and "intrafallopian" (inside the fallopian tube). The extrafallopian technique involves uniting sperm and egg outside the fallopian tube, in a laboratory dish. There fertilization occurs. The fertilized egg is then implanted in a fallopian tube. The intrafallopian technique involves injecting an egg and sperm into the fallopian tube. Fertilization then occurs.

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Retrieved Text: In Vitro Fertilization or IVF treatment is the best form of ART (Assisted Reproductive Technology) that involves combining an egg and sperm in the laboratory and then transferring the IVF embryo to the uterus.
IVF procedure is suitable for patients with blocked or damaged fallopian tubes, decreased sperm count or sperm motility, ovulation disorders, premature ovarian failure, uterine fibroids, and unexplained infertility. For high IVF success rate, IVF Treatment is carried out with utmost care.
Hegde Fertility follows protocols with an adept infertility specialist and world-class state-of-the-art facilities tailored for optimum IVF, IUI, ICSI results.
Fertility treatments and medications at our IVF Center will be given to stimulate the process of egg production. Multiple eggs are preferred because some eggs will not develop or fertilize. Transvaginal ultrasound is used to check the ovaries and few blood test samples are taken to evaluate hormone levels.
A minor surgical procedure is performed to retrieve the eggs. The ultrasound imaging is used to guide a hollow needle through the pelvic cavity for egg retrieval. Medication will be given to reduce the pain and discomfort.
A sample sperm is taken and prepared for the fertilization process. In the insemination process, the sperm and eggs are mixed together and stored in an environmentally controlled chamber. Usually, the sperm enters an egg a few hours after insemination. In a few cases where the chances of fertilization are low, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) can be carried out. In ICSI treatment, a sperm is injected into the egg to achieve fertilization. Your Infertility Specialist will examine the eggs to

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Retrieved Text: In vitro fertilization (IVF) is sometimes the only opportunity for women to experience the joy of motherhood. Resort to it with a pair of pronounced reproductive dysfunction. In order to maintain the pregnancy after artificial insemination, the woman needs to take very seriously its new condition.
Occurring after in vitro fertilization pregnancy involves particularly respect. In addition to the tests usually taken by women in the position of need additional examination. In case of IVF pregnancy it is required to examine the blood for syphilis, hepatitis, HIV; a urine sample; make clinical and biochemical blood analysis, bacteriology cervical smear, ultrasound, to check the vascular system to the risk of blood clotting; to determine the anticoagulant to HCG, at, lupus; to be examined for the presence in the body gonoccocal, Trichomonas, chlamydia. This is a basic list of necessary procedures.
The most important objective of IVF pregnancy is its preservation, and also therapy associated with frequent development of multiple pregnancy disorders, prevention of insufficiency of the placenta, detection of internal abnormalities of fetal development. Often in the first trimester IVF pregnancy ends. It may be associated with infectious inflammation, endocrine and immunological changes, antiphospholipid syndrome, small chromosomal changes due to polymorphism of the spouses. With the threat of miscarriage, a woman should be in hospital under constant supervision of doctors providing medical treatment. In this case, the probability of a favorable outcome increases. After 6 weeks the threat of miscarriage is greatly reduced.
In order to maintain pregnancy after IVF when a woman has any disease, support with medication and

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Retrieved Text: While the America Institute of Reproductive Medicine – Alabama (AIRM) is not an egg or sperm bank, we do offer donation services for third-party reproduction procedures. Birmingham reproductive endocrinologist Dr. Cecil A. Long has assisted thousands of infertile patients throughout his career. The phrase third-party reproduction means the use of donor eggs, sperm, or embryos to achieve pregnancy. The recipients of those select gametes will then undergo fertility treatments, such as intrauterine insemination (IUI) or in vitro fertilization (IVF). Dr. Long performs egg retrievals and egg transfers at the Brookwood campus. We can help you discover more about this life-giving treatment option at AIRM.
If problems with a woman’s eggs make it impossible for her to become pregnant, donor eggs can be used in IVF treatment to achieve pregnancy. Women who do not want to pass certain genetic conditions on to their children may also use donor eggs.
Some patients use egg donors they know, such as family members or close friends. Others work with egg donation agencies to find donors, many of whom prefer to remain anonymous. Although women who use egg donation will not be genetically related to their child(ren), they will be able to experience pregnancy and childbirth.
Donor sperm is used by patients who do not have a male partner, or by couples whose male partner has a very low sperm count, blocked sperm ducts, or problems with sperm production. Sperm donors are thoroughly screened by sperm banks for communicable diseases. In addition, their sperm is quarantined for 6 months until sexually transmitted disease testing

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Retrieved Text: Proponents of hormonal contraception — particularly the pill — contend that contraception does not cause abortion. They argue that contraception prevents pregnancy and thereby reduces the need for induced abortion. However, they intentionally define the term “pregnancy” as implantation of a fertilized egg in the lining of a woman’s uterus, as opposed to “pregnancy” beginning at fertilization.
Whether one understands pregnancy as beginning at “implantation” or “fertilization,” the heart of the matter is when human life begins. Embryological science has clearly determined that, when we consider natural sexual human reproduction, human life begins at the beginning of the process of fertilization — at the moment of first contact between the female oocyte and the male sperm immediately resulting in a new, genetically distinct human being. This is not a subjective opinion, but an objective scientific fact.
Prevent or delay the release of an ooctye (egg) from the ovary (ovulation). However, women can and do experience “breakthrough ovulation” — meaning that an oocyte is released from the ovary, thus making fertilization possible.
Cause the cervical mucus to thicken, making it difficult for the sperm to reach the oocyte. It is possible, though, for the sperm to break through the mucus and for fertilization to occur.
Thin the lining of the uterus (endometrium) so as to inhibit implantation.
The package inserts for all forms of hormonal contraception clearly indicate that each can work to prevent a “fertilized egg” (which is actually a newly formed human being) from implanting in the uterine wall.
Therefore, if a woman ingests hormonal contraception after fertilization has taken place,

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Retrieved Text: The word Cryopreservation has been derived from the Greek word Kryos meaning cold. As the word itself suggests, Cryopreservation is the process of preservation biological tissues or cells in extreme cold conditions.
In a similar process known as Cryogenics, dead bodies are preserved in the hope of enlivening them in future.
In Cryopreservation process, tissues are frozen, generally in liquid nitrogen, in extremely cold temperature of (-) 100 degree Celsius.
At these cold temperatures, tissues are sealed in a status similar to that of suspended liveliness. The natural decaying process slows down in cold conditions simply because the metabolic procedures of genetic tissues slow down spectacularly in the extreme cold state.
Cryopreservation, in fact, is a complex procedure against what is perceived by laymen. It is not just preserving the tissues by simply freezing them. During the process of freezing of tissues, liquids tend to solidify and expand. This expansion usually results in the destruction of cells. And, all benefits of freezing these biological tissues get negated.
Cryopreservation, as a rule, entails replacing the fluid in the tissue with an anti-freeze liquid. This liquid helps survival in the extreme cold temperatures.
Sperm Cryopreservation is a method of freezing sperm cells in a bank for future use.
Many fertility clinics accept sperm donations to their sperm banks to treat infertility.
Sometimes, many men undergoing cancer or other severe medical therapies choose to freeze their sperms to prevent any damage to their sperm quality.
There is no authentic proof about how long frozen sperm can remain valuable. However, sperms using Cryopreservation have been successful in pregnancies even

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======= Instance Index 19 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

All plants have a characteristic life cycle that includes alternation of generations . Plants alternate between haploid and diploid generations. Alternation of generations allows for both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction with spores produces haploid individuals called gametophytes . Sexual reproduction with gametes and fertilization produces diploid individuals called sporophytes . A typical plant’s life cycle is diagrammed in Figure below .


Q: The plants alternation between haploid and diploud generations allow it to do what?

 Choices:

- reproduce asexually and sexually

- reproduce asexually and biologically

- reproduce asexually and simultaneously

- reproduce sexually and autonomously

A:

Target Text: reproduce asexually and sexually

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the

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Retrieved Text: Download "Rhizarians. Forams. Radiolarians. Cercozoans"
14 Figure 29.3 Exploring Derived Traits of Plants Charophyte algae lack the key traits of plants described in this figure: alternation of generations; multicellular, dependent embryos; walled spores produced in sporangia; multicellular gametangia; and apical meristems. This suggests that these traits were absent in the ancestor common to plants and charophytes but instead evolved as derived traits of plants. Not every plant exhibits all of these traits; certain lineages of plants have lost some traits over time. Alternation of Generations The life cycles of all plants alternate between two generations of distinct multicellular organisms: gametophytes and sporophytes. As shown in the diagram below (using a fern as an example), each generation gives rise to the other, a process that is called alternation of generations. This type of reproductive cycle evolved in various groups of algae but does not occur in the charophytes, the algae most closely related to plants. Take care not to confuse the alternation of generations in plants with the haploid and diploid stages in the life cycles of other sexually reproducing organisms (see Figure 13.6). Alternation of generations is distinguished by the fact that the life cycle Mitosis n Alternation of generations: five generalized steps 5 The spores develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes. n MEIOSIS 1 The gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Gametophyte (n) Spore includes both multicellular haploid organisms and multicellular diploid organisms. The multicellular haploid gametophyte ( gamete-producing plant ) is named for its production by mitosis of haploid gametes eggs and sperm that fuse during

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Retrieved Text: Young to old. A life cycle?
Not in the biological sense. Life cycles describe the amount of DNA present at a specific stage or time in the life of an organism. Is there a haploid or diploid amount of DNA? That is the key question.
Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are represented in Figure below and described following sections.
Life cycles can vary in sexually reproducing organisms. Three types of sexual life cycles are shown here. Do you see how they differ? The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates diploid stages.
The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases, known as alternation of generations. In plants, the life cycle alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte. Spore forming cells in the diploid sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores, a haploid reproductive cell. Spores can develop into an adult without fusing with another cell.

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Retrieved Text: I noticed some patches of a small, bright-green plant fully submerged in the slack waters beside the River Ehen a kilometre or so below the outflow from Ennerdale Water. My first look suggested a tangle of narrow, flaccid grass-like stems but a closer examination showed that each of the narrow stems had whorls of branches arising from them at intervals (similar to the pattern seen in horsetails). Their size and structure suggested an affinity to the vascular plants such as Myriophyllum and Juncus that I also saw in the river that day but, actually, these plants belong to an algal genus called Nitella. I could not see any reproductive organs on these plants, but other evidence points to them being Nitella flexilis.
Nitella belongs to a group of algae called the Charophytes which have been the subject of vigorous debate by phycologists and evoloutionary scientists for a long time. The author of one recent paper went so far as to claim that “no group in the plant kingdom has presented greater difficulties in classification …”. They are usually placed in the green algae (Chlorophyta) although some people regard them as a separate division entirely. Charophytes, in fact, have several characteristics, as well as their size and pigmentation, that suggest that they may be the closest algal relatives of land plants. These similarities extend to the reproductive organs (see Chris Carter’s image of Chara virgata in a post from July last year).
Nitella flexilis photographed in the River Ehen, 18 March 2014. Scale bar: 1 centimetre.
Under the microscope, some

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Retrieved Text: The nonvascular plants, characterized by life cycles dominated by the gametophyte phase. This group includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, which lack lignified conducting tissues.
Alternate term applied to the angiosperm female gametophyte contained within a megaspore .
The reproductive structures in angiosperm sporophytes where gametophytes are generated.
A plant, or phase of a plant's life cycle, that bears gamete s.
The haploid stage of a plant exhibiting alternation of generations , generates gametes by the process of mitosis .

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Retrieved Text: This set contains 67 questions on plant reproduction, anatomy and physiology as well as plant evolution.
A) formation of motile male gametes.
B) alternation of sporophyte and gametophyte generations.
C) presence of both haploid and diploid stages.
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of plants?
A) Glucose is made from photosynthesis.
B) Cell walls contain cellulose.
D) Diploid and haploid generations alternate in their life cycle.
E) Diploid and haploid phases of their life cycle produce spores.
Cactus plants are adapted to the hot and dry deserts of North and South America. Which of the following characteristics would NOT help cacti to survive the extreme heat and low rainfall?
A) A thick, waxy cuticle.
B) A stem with a small surface area.
C) Stomata that are closed during the day.
D) Thin leaves with a large surface area.
Transport of the products of photosynthesis is understood to occur by pressure flow through the phloem from a source (such as the leaves where the products are produced) to a sink (such as a developing fruit where they are used or stored). Which of the following statements about this transport is FALSE?
A) Water enters the phloem by osmosis.
B) Phloem tubes in a source have a low water pressure.
C) Water and sugar move through the phloem tubes because of pressure.
D) Sugar is removed from phloem by active transport in the sink area.
E) Solutes are pushed along by the flow of water in the phloem.

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Retrieved Text: A cell or nucleus that may participate in sexual fusion to form a *zygote. It is normally haploid and thus on fusion of two gametes a diploid zygote is formed. In virtually all plants (exceptions are those with a *diplontic life cycle ) meiosis is separated from *gametogenesis by the development of a somatic gametophyte generation (see alternation of generations ). In the primitive algae and fungi the gametes are often naked and *isogamous. In more advanced forms there is a trend through *anisogamy to *oogamy and specialization of the gametes, so that they become better protected and less dependent on water for survival and dispersal. See also sexual reproduction.

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Retrieved Text: Like all plants Toxicodendron diversilobum exhibits an alternation of generations. This means that during the life cycle of the plant it alternates between a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation and a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation. Since the Pacific poison oak is in the phylum Angiosperm it has a dominant sporophyte generation which means that the gametophyte generation will be more dependent on the sporophyte generation.
The first part of the angiosperm life cycle takes place in the flower of the plant. Here in the anther the microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis which produces haploid microspores. Each microspore undergoes one division of mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Together they form an immature pollen grain. The generative cells then go through a second mitotic division which produces two sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule one megaspore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore. Three die off and one remains. The remaining megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions and generates an 8 nucleate embryo sac also known as a megagametophyte.
Next pollination occurs. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma where a pollen tube grows down into the style. Eventually it grows down into the ovary through the micropyle. One sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg which creates a diploid zygote, and the other sperm fuses with the central cell of the egg to form the endospore.
Now that the embryo has formed it grows inside the embryo sac. The ovule creates a protective seed coat around the embryo and embryo sac. Then the seed is dropped from fruit

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Retrieved Text: Rescan, Lenormand and Roze (2016) recently published new models on the evolution of life cycles in The American Naturalist.
Most animals and protists have diploid life cycles in which the haploid stage is reduced to a single-celled gamete.
Other organisms, such as charophytes and dinoflagellates, have a haploid life cycle in which the diploid phase is reduced to the zygote and meiosis occurs before any mitotic development.
There’s a third type of life cycle, that regular TME readers may have stumbled across with my posts: haploid-diploidy in which somatic development occurs in both haploid and diploid stages. In seed plants, the haploid stage is rather limited, but in fungi, mosses and macroalgae, the haploid stage is much more important.
[Due to the difference in duration of one phase and the corresponding limits to selection], the problem of the evolution of life cycles (i.e., the relative degrees of development of the haploid and diploid phases) is often recast in terms of the opportunity of selection within each phase.
One model suggests diploids may benefit from the masking of deleterious mutations. But, this assumes deleterious mutations have the same effect in both haploids and homozygous diploids. Recent transcriptomic studies in haploid-diploid species, such as Coelho et al. (2007), have demonstrated some genes are only expressed in one policy and mutations in these genes would have no effect in the other stage as they are not expressed.
Moreover, these genetic models cannot explain the evolutionary stability of haploid-diploid life cycles without considering additional mechanisms, such as ecological niche differentiation (Hughes and Otto 1999).
the interplay between

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Retrieved Text: For the physician, see Stamen Grigorov.
The stamen (plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp") is the male organ of a flower. Each stamen generally has a stalk called the filament (from Latin filum, meaning "thread"), and, on top of the filament, an anther (from Ancient Greek anthera, feminine of antheros "flowery," from anthos "flower"), and pollen sacs, called microsporangia. The development of the microsporangia and the contained haploid gametophytes, (called pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the microsporangia in gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry family (Berberidaceae). It is then dropped, or carried by some external agent — wind, water or some member of the animal kingdom — onto the receptive surface of the carpel of the same or another flower, which is thus pollinated. It is the part that contains the sperm cells.
Typical flowers have six stamens inside a perianth (the petals and sepals together), arranged in a whorl around the carpel (pistil). But in some species there are many more than six present in a flower (see, for example, the spider tree flower, below). Collectively, the stamens are called an androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house). The anthers are bilocular, i.e. they have two locules. Each locule contains a microsporangium. The tissue between the locules and the cells is called the connective. In an

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Retrieved Text: Sea lettuce, (genus Ulva), genus of green algae (family Ulvaceae) usually found growing on rocky shores of seas and oceans around the world. Some species also grow in brackish water rich in organic matter or sewage and can accumulate heavy metals. Sea lettuce, particularly Ulva lactuca, is rich in iodine and in vitamins A, B, and C and is used in salads and soups in parts of northern Europe, Japan, and China.
The thallus, which somewhat resembles a lettuce leaf, is a sheet of cells up to 30 cm (12 inches) long and two cells thick and is embedded in a tough gelatinous sheath. The holdfast, which anchors the alga to its substrate, is disklike. The life cycle consists of alternation of similar spore-producing (diploid) and gamete-producing (haploid) generations. Asexual reproduction is typically by accidental fragmentation.

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Retrieved Text: When one walks through a contemporary forest, all of the surrounding trees are vascular plants. Wood, which is made up primarily of xylem , and bark, which contains phloem , are the major structural elements of the trunks and stems. These trees produce seeds, whether they be formed within the cones of the pines or within fruits, such as the winged samaras of maples or the fleshy cherries of the cherry tree. In the Carboniferous period a similar hike would also place one in a forest of woody trees, many as large as 98 feet (30 meters) tall, but there would be no seeds produced. These plants were seedless vascular plants, which were propogated by spores. Ultimately they became extinct, leaving behind expansive fossil fuel deposits.
The differences between spores and seeds are extensive. Seeds are multicellular structures that provide a protected place where the egg (n) was to be fertilized by male gamete nuclei (n) in pollen. The resulting cell, called a zygote , is diploid (2n), the same as the original plant that produced it. It repeatedly divides mitotically, while still within the protection of the seed coat, to form an embryo. The embryo may remain dormant for a significant time period but ultimately emerges from the seed when it germinates.
The seedless vascular plants do not have this protection. Their gametes are produced mitotically by a gametophyte (n) that lives independently. There are often many vase-shaped archegonia on these small plants, and the unfertilized egg is inside the base of this structure. The embryo formed

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Retrieved Text: This book contains the majority of the presentations of the Second International Symposium on the Biology of Root Formation and Development that was hcld in Jerusa lem, Israel, June 23---28, 1996. Following the First Symposium on the Biology of Adventi tious Root Formation, held in Dallas. USA, 1993, we perceived the need to include all kinds of roots, not only the shoot-borne ones. The endogenous signals that control root formation. and the subsequent growth and development processes, are very much alike, re gardless of the sites and sources of origin of the roots. Therefore, we included in the Sec ond Symposium contributions on both shoot-borne (i.e., adventitious) roots and root-borne (i.e., lateral) roots. Plant roots have remained an exciting and an intriguing field of sciencc. During thc years that followed the first symposium, an exceptional proliferation of interest in root biology has developed, associated with the intensive research activity in this field and the contemporary developments in the understanding of root function and development. New methods have been applied, and old ideas and interprctations werc rccxamined. Alto gether, it became necessary to update our viewpoints and to expand them.
This book provides an introduction to the genetics, genomics, and breeding of the olive tree, a multi-functional long-lived crop plant that is relevant not only for culinary olive and oil production, but also for shaping the landscape and history of many rural areas for centuries. Today, the recognized health benefits of extra-virgin olive oil provide new impulses for introducing innovation in olive crop management and olive breeding for

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Retrieved Text: This timeline shows that Cannabis is thought to have first arisen about 34 million years ago based on work by McPartland and Nicholson (2003).
Thus, evolutionary change through time has pushed plants, like other organisms, to become very efficient in their environmental interactions. Plants stand out from other organisms not only because they do photosynthesis, but also because they have a cell wall with depositions of cellulose, an incredibly large carbohydrate that functions like rebar in concrete slabs. This is one reason that plants were able to make the transition from water to land; they had better cellular structures (i.e., a rigid cell wall) to hold themselves upright. The development of lignin, the compound that gives wood its characteristic strength, came later in evolution and gave plants an added benefit for living on land.
However the fundamental distinguishing characteristic, which sets plants apart from all other organisms, is their alternating life cycles between a diploid sporophyte and a haploid gametophyte. Diploid means that an organism has two copies of each chromosome and haploid means it has only one copy of each chromosome. These alternate between the organism and its reproductive cells. Hence, plants have an alternation of generations. The large pine that might be observed in a city park or a neighbor's front yard is the diploid spore-bearing generation. The pollen you see in the spring is the haploid gametophyte.
With this considered, the Cannabis plant is a sporophyte that releases gametes, which includes the pollen. When pollen is released its main objective is to fertilize the ovule, which

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Retrieved Text: Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants. Gynmosperms are a group of ancient plants. They become dominant in the Jurassic period Most of the gymnosperms are evergreen trees. Some shrubby pl..flas are also found in this group. They have worldwide distribution. They are most abundant in the temperate region. The fossils of gymnosperms are found near coal and oil deposits.
Gymnosperm shows a dear alternation of sporophytic and gametophytic generations. The plant body is sporophytic generation. The gametophytic is very much reduced. It had completely lost independent existence.
The plant body is a sporophyte. It is well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Roots: Primary or tap root is well developed. Root develops root caps.
without a reticulate venation. The branching of the veins is dichotomous type. Their leaves are modified to withstand the xerophytic conditions. The leaves have tough cuticle, sunken stomata and mesarch bundle. Stem: The stem is woody. Vascular bundles are collateral (arrange in rings) and open. They are arranged in a ring in the primary stem. Secondary growth takes plan by the activity of the cambium. It produces the secondary xylem (wood). Xylem is formed of xylem parenchyma and tracheid. They have no true vessels except the order Gnetales The phloem is formed of phloem parenchyma and sieve tubes. But they are without any companion cells. Primary cambium may remain active throughout the life of the plant. Then secondary and tertiary cambia are formed. It produces alternate zones of wood. The activity of phellogen produces bark on the surface.
Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce micro and megaspores. They develop

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Retrieved Text: Geneticists have identified certain model organisms which are useful for studying genetic processes in cells. Among the bacteria, E. coli, which is commonly found in the mammalian intestinal tract, has been one of the most widely studied species due to its genetic simplicity and the ease with which it may be grown in the laboratory. Bacillus subtilis, typically found in soil environments, has also been intensively studied because of its tolerance for genetic modification and its ability to produce commercially available biochemicals. Among plants, Arabidopsis thaliana, a mustard weed, has been selected as a model organism due to its high reproductive rate and relatively small genome size. These features make this small weed simpler to genetically manipulate than more complex plant species. Within the Fungi kingdom, the bread mold Neurospora crassa has been chosen as a representative organism because its haploid genome allows the effects of mutations in its DNA to be directly observed. In addition, Neurospora’s short life cycle is useful for efficiently studying patterns of genetic inheritance. Baker’s yeast, or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is another model organism that has been valuable to genetic research. Yeast is an advantageous organism to study because it is a simple, unicellular eukaryote that is easy to grow and genetically manipulate. Among animals, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is used as a model organism mainly due to its short life cycle and high reproductive rate. Because of these attributes, the inheritance of genetic traits and mutations in this organism can be traced through many generations in a relatively short period

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Retrieved Text: Embryophyta is a major grouping of plants, sometimes known as "land plants," that includes both the non-vascular bryophytes (mosses, hornworts, and liverworts) and the vascular land plants, which are those so familiar with their vascular system and true roots, leaves, and stems, such as the ferns, flowering plants, conifers, and ginkgos.
Embryophytes are characterized by an alternation of generations life cycle, apical cell growth, cuticle, antherida (male gametophyte organs), and archegonia (female gametophyte organs (Paleos 2008). Embryophytes are distinguished from the mostly aquatic algae, which do not develop embryos, nor have true roots, stems, or leaves, whereas the embryophytes do form embryos, and have differentiated stems and leaves, and in the case of the vascular plants, true roots.
The origin of embryophytes, as these multicellular plants arose and conquered the land, was a pivotal event in the history of life on earth. Without embryophytes, there would be no animals or humans surviving on the land portion of our planet. The provide food, habitat, energy, oxygen, protection, and numerous vital other functions for the world's creatures. Human beings also benefit from the aesthetic beauty, medicines, and innumerable products derived from these diverse plants.
Embryophytes are the most familiar group of plants. They include trees, flowers, ferns, mosses, and various other green land plants. All are complex multicellular eukaryotes with specialized reproductive organs. With very few exceptions, embryophytes obtain their energy through photosynthesis (that is, by absorbing light); and they synthesize their food from carbon dioxide.
Traditionally, plants were divided into the two groups of embryophytes (Embryobionta), which do develop embryos, and

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Retrieved Text: Fungi are one of the five kingdoms of organisms. Like higher plants (of the kingdom Plantae), most fungi are attached to the substrate they grow on. Unlike plants, fungi do not have chlorophyll and are not photosynthetic. Another key difference from plants is that fungi have cell walls composed of chitin, a nitrogen containing carbohydrate. All fungi have nuclei and the nuclei of most species are haploid at most times. Many species have two or more haploid nuclei per cell during most of the life cycle. All fungi reproduce asexually by spore production. Most species reproduce sexually as well.

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Retrieved Text: What is a plant? One distinguishing feature of members of the Plant Kingdom is their life cycle. In this session, flowering plants serve as examples for studying the plant life cycle by considering the roles of seeds, flowers, and fruits. A comparison to animal life cycles reveals some surprising similarities and intriguing differences.,This segment focuses on the female plant reproductive system and alternation of generations.
What is a plant? One distinguishing feature of members of the Plant Kingdom is their life cycle. In this session, flowering plants serve as examples for studying the plant life cycle by considering the roles of seeds, flowers, and fruits. A comparison to animal life cycles reveals some surprising similarities and intriguing differences.,This segment probes children's ideas about "fast plants." What are the pods? What are they there for?
What is a plant? One distinguishing feature of members of the Plant Kingdom is their life cycle. In this session, flowering plants serve as examples for studying the plant life cycle by considering the roles of seeds, flowers, and fruits. A comparison to animal life cycles reveals some surprising similarities and intriguing differences.,This segment focuses on the adaptations of seeds.

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Retrieved Text: Haploid is the term used when a cell has half the usual number of chromosomes. A normal eukaryote organism is composed of diploid cells, one set of chromosomes from each parent. However, after meiosis, the number of chromosomes in gametes is halved. That is the haploid condition.
In humans, the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 (2x23). The number in haploid cells (sperm and eggs) is 23. Some types of animals are haploid, such as male Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps). This is a special genetic system called haplodiploidy.
Some plants and animals are polyploid, with more than two sets of chromosomes. For example, one species of wheat is hexaploid, with six sets of chromosomes, although other species of wheat have only two sets. Because so many organisms are diploid, it can become confusing whether haploid refers to one set of chromosomes or more than one. The special term monoploid can be used; it means one set of chromosomes.
Haploid Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

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Retrieved Text: Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the most numerous of all the divisions in the Plant Kingdom. With the exception of extreme habitats, angiosperms populate every land biome and aquatic community. They are a major food source for animals and humans, and are a major economic source for the production of various commercial products. Angiosperms differ from non-vascular plants in that they have a vascular transport system for moving water and nutrients to various parts of the plant.
The parts of a flowering plant are characterized by two basic systems: a root system and a shoot system. The root system is typically below ground and serves to acquire nutrients and anchor the plant in the soil. The shoot system consists of the stems, leaves, and flowers. These two systems are connected by vascular tissue. Vascular tissues called xylem and phloem are composed of specialized plant cells that run from the root through the shoot. They transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.
Leaves are an important component of the shoot system as they are the structures through which plants acquire nutrition by photosynthesis. Leaves contain organelles called chloroplasts that are the sites of photosynthesis. Gas exchange needed for photosynthesis occurs through the opening and closing of tiny leaf pores called stomata. The ability of angiosperms to shed their foliage helps the plant to conserve energy and reduce water loss during cold, dry months.
The flower, also a component of the shoot system, is responsible for seed development and reproduction. There are four main flower parts in angiosperms: sepals, petals, stamens,

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Retrieved Text: Plants Transpiration involves losing water vapor from aerial parts of plants. Diploid and Haploid Cells Diploid and haploid cells are involved in sexual reproduction of higher eukaryotic organisms. Forests with numerous tree species, and therefore a mix of water-management strategies, appear more tolerant of drought. Ecological Isolation Explained With Examples What is ecological isolation and how does it prevent the occurrence of inter-species hybrids? Natural and artificial selection forms the basis of evolution on this planet. The two stages of meiosis are meiosis I and meiosis. In the 1940s and 1950s, studies regarding genes and DNA progressed to the discovery of the double helical DNA structure. Framing Guide for Article Summaries - how to write a summary for any article. As a result, it makes sweet hot topic birmingham things taste a lot less sweet. Buzzle explains what is a missense mutation and also explains certain examples of disorders that it may cause.
This post explains the basic difference between the two. Mimic each other as a protective measure. Mullerian Mimicry Müllerian mimicry is a survival technique wherein two species that are equally noxious.
Articles in Easy Understandable English for Learners.Articles about biology and biological sciences written by scientists and researchers internationally.
Which will tell you how the cellular life on planet Earth is classified. Read on to know the details. What is a Gene Pool, refer to the following article, this post explains this type of mutation in a comprehensive manner. Refers to the reappearance of an ancestral trait in an individual. When discussing chemosynthesis, and Brown University

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Retrieved Text: The female reproductive structure of the plant is called as the archegonium.
Are fern archegonia haploid or diploid?
Name the three groups of plants that bear archegonia.
Is archegonia haploid or diploid?

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Retrieved Text: Shop Top Branded Grow Plant Kit Online. Get Up to 70% Off!
Find Grow Plant At Target™. Buy Online & Pickup In-Store!
The third type of plant reproduction is the spore. The plants use sexual reproduction with the haploid cell of one plant, and the haploid egg of another plant. This makes the sporophyte cell, which feeds off of the parent plant until it is grown enough to support its own life cycle.
In order for the plant to grow, the seed cracks open and the plant begins to sprout out of it. This is called germination and is the next step in the life cycle. We draw this step in the diagram in our notebooks. The plant continues to grow until it is mature enough to produce flowers which is where reproduction occurs.
Plants that reproduce via a seed do so in a process called germination. The embryo waits inside the seed (some plant embryos can wait for decades) until outside conditions begin to break down the seed's outer shell or testa A seed needs water and heat to germinate.Water assists the seed in breaking the seed coat, which in some cases can be very tough.
Start studying science fusion Unit 4 lesson 3: how do plants grow and reproduce. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.
How Plants Grow and Reproduce - Chapter Summary and Learning Objectives. Plant growth and reproduction processes can vary widely by the type of plant.

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Retrieved Text: 1. the process of reproduction.
2. a class composed of all individuals removed by the same number of successive ancestors from a common predecessor, or occupying positions on the same level in a genealogical (pedigree) chart.
alternate generation reproduction by alternate asexual and sexual means in an animal or plant species.
asexual generation (direct generation) production of a new organism not originating from union of gametes.
first filial generation the first-generation offspring of two parents; symbol F1.
parental generation the generation with which a particular genetic study is begun; symbol P1.
second filial generation all of the offspring produced by two individuals of the first filial generation; symbol F2.
sexual generation production of a new organism from the cell formed by the union of a male gamete (spermatozoon) and a female gamete (oocyte).
spontaneous generation the discredited concept of continuous generation of living organisms from nonliving matter.
reproduction by fission, gemmation, or in any other way without union of the male and female cell, or conjugation.
Reproduction by fission, gemmation, or in any other way without union of the male and female cells, or conjugation.
Synonym(s): heterogenesis (2) , nonsexual generation.
2. a class composed of all individuals removed by the same number of successive ancestors from a common predecessor, or occupying positions on the same level in a genealogical (pedigree) chart. Said also of antibiotics or other chemicals derived from parent compounds.
reproduction by alternate asexual and sexual means in an animal or plant species.
production of a new organism not originating from union of gametes. Called also direct generation.
the first generation offspring of two parents; symbol F1.
all of

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Retrieved Text: Algaes are difficult to define. Some classify the group as all eukaryotic photosynthesizing microorganisms. This definition includes the Euglenoid and Dinoflagellates groups, both of which are known to be more closely related to other groups of non-photosynthesizing protozoa than to other algae. For this reason, those two groups are sometimes classified as protozoa rather than algae. In this discussion, we will group euglenoids and dinoflagellates with the algae so that we may compare their photosynthetic characteristics. Keep in mind that this inclusion does not imply close relation to other algae.
Another difficulty in classifying algae is determining whether they are protists, plants, or whether they merit their own kingdom. Different classification systems answer this question in different ways, with some even splitting the group between the kingdoms Protista and Plantae. Here we have grouped algae with protozoa and slime molds in Protista because mthe majority of algae are unicellular, and even the multicellular algae are structurally simple compared to true plants.
Within the classification of algae, individual species are divided into five groups, based on characteristics such as type of chlorophyll molecule used in photosynthesis and type of reproductive cycle. The structure of the chloroplast is also used, for a very important reason. According to the endosymbiotic theory of chloroplast evolution, proposed by Lynn Margulis of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, chloroplasts may have evolved when small photosynthesizing cells were engulfed, but not digested, by larger cells. Instead, the two types of cells developed a symbiotic relationship, with the photoautotroph living inside the larger cell. The number of

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Retrieved Text: "dies." YourDictionary, n.d. Web. 18 April 2019. <https://www.yourdictionary.com/Dies>.
The demon dies with me.
A steady and often strong wind blows from the south-south-east, which dies away later.
In Cunina parasitica, however, the ovum develops into an actinula, which buds actinulae as before, but only the daughter-actinulae develop into medusae, while the original, parent-actinula dies off; here, therefore, larval budding has led to a true alternation of generations.
When the root dies later such of these as remain are discharged into the soil, and are then ready to infect new plants.
"If you think to betray me, daughter, Jule dies," he warned for her ears only.

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: Bryophytes are the group of plants that are the closest extant relative of early terrestrial plants. The first bryophytes (liverworts) most likely appeared in the Ordovician period, about 450 million years ago. Because of the lack of lignin and other resistant structures, the likelihood of bryophytes forming fossils is rather small. Some spores protected by sporopollenin have survived and are attributed to early bryophytes. By the Silurian period, however, vascular plants had spread through the continents. This compelling fact is used as evidence that non-vascular plants must have preceded the Silurian period.
More than 25,000 species of bryophytes thrive in mostly damp habitats, although some live in deserts. They constitute the major flora of inhospitable environments like the tundra, where their small size and tolerance to desiccation offer distinct advantages. They generally lack lignin and do not have actual tracheids (xylem cells specialized for water conduction). Rather, water and nutrients circulate inside specialized conducting cells. Although the term non-tracheophyte is more accurate, bryophytes are commonly called nonvascular plants.
In a bryophyte, all the conspicuous vegetative organs—including the photosynthetic leaf-like structures, the thallus, stem, and the rhizoid that anchors the plant to its substrate—belong to the haploid organism or gametophyte. The sporophyte is barely noticeable. The gametes formed by bryophytes swim with a flagellum, as do gametes in a few of the tracheophytes. The sporangium—the multicellular sexual reproductive structure—is present in bryophytes and absent in the majority of algae. The bryophyte embryo also remains attached to the parent plant, which protects and nourishes it. This is a characteristic of

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Retrieved Text: Asexually reproducing organism can cope with a changing environment only through relatively rare spontaneous mutations that prove to be beneficial.
This process does not allow any variation in their population, though it is opposite in the case of sexual reproduction, which accepts variations in their population.
These offsprings are parents again give rise to new one.
No fertilization occurs during asexual reproduction. And due to which sexual reproduction is considered as the most fundamental aspect of evolution. These offspring are usually referred to as clones . Time is taken to complete Multiplication is very rapid and in lesser time. Starfish Regenerating its Legs Agamogenesis Any form of reproduction which does not involve male gametes is known as agamogenesis.
What is asexual reproduction? Types of asexual reproduction There are several different types of asexual reproduction but the most common ones include binary fission, budding, fragmentation and spores.
The number of offspring may vary from two to many and are genetically similar in asexual reproduction whereas the number of offspring produced are less in number comparatively which are genetically different from their parents.
There are specialized organs present in male and female gametes for sexual reproduction in plant and animals. If it continues to grow normally it can eventually become a baby. This combination of gametes is named treatment.
Both of these forms of reproduction occur in plants, fungi and animals however the specific form of reproduction will depend on the species . Puffballs Emitting Spores Sexual Reproduction of Plants Bryophytes like liverworts, mosses, and hornworts consist of motile sperms with flagella.
Fertilization takes place in

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Enzymes are critical to the body’s healthy functioning. They assist, for example, with the breakdown of food and its conversion to energy. In fact, most of the chemical reactions in the body are facilitated by enzymes.


Q: Most of the chemical reactions in the body are facilitated by what?

 Choices:

- proteins

- carbohydrates

- enzymes

- vitamins

A:

Target Text: enzymes

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Retrieved Text: A non-equilibrium view of mineralising processes shows that coupling between chemical reactions that produce alteration and mineralisation, deformation, fluid flow and heat transport can be unified within a single framework (The S-curve) borrowed from Combustion Physics. This arises because these processes are thermally activated and the basic physical parameters are governed by an Arrhenius temperature dependence. In addition many alteration reactions are exothermic and hence self-enhancing; they destabilise deformation and fluid flow. Endothermic reactions involving sulfide and quartz deposition are stabilising. Reactions initiate at temperatures governed by the Arrhenius Number and the chemical environment leading to a paragenetic sequence. The most efficient mode for supply of mineralising fluid involves multiphase flow at the mineralisation site. This is facilitated by dissipation arising from exothermic alteration reactions, deformation and fracturing. The physics of multiphase flow leads to separation of phases and supply of fluid at the mineralising site with a range of pH's and Eh's intimately structured within the pore/fracture space. Different fluid conduits for different fluids are not required to supply contrasting fluid chemistries to a mineralising site. The complete range of chemistry is delivered to each pore/fracture ready for reaction with the country rock and for precipitation of minerals.

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Retrieved Text: You know that you sweat when you feel hot, whether due to the temperature of your surroundings or a hard workout at the gym. You may also sweat when you're nervous because emotions can trigger chemical reactions in the body. What you might not know is precisely what's going on in your body to make you sweat and why it's known as a particular type of chemical reaction.
Sweating is an exothermic reaction because perspiration evaporates from your skin, releasing heat into the air and cooling your body.
Sweat is merely a mixture of water, sodium and other cooling substances. Your body has two types of sweat glands: thousands of eccrine glands throughout the entire body and apocrine glands mainly in the underarm and groin areas. When the body’s temperature goes up, the nervous system stimulates the eccrine glands to release sweat.
Apocrine glands are triggered by stress, anxiety and hormones. These glands create bacteria to help disperse the sweat, which sometimes leads to body odor. This explains why you only apply deodorant to your armpits and not all over your body.
On average, people have 2 to 4 million sweat glands. Many things, including gender, genetics, age, fitness level and environmental influences, determine how much sweat each gland releases. Two of the biggest sweat rate factors are weight and fitness level. A person who weighs more is likely to sweat more because the body uses more energy to function, and there is greater body mass to cool down.
Most chemical reactions and changes in a physical state involve breaking or

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Retrieved Text: Lovely Chemical Reactions Coloring Pages is free HD wallpaper. This wallpaper was upload at April 15, 2019 upload by avodart in Coloring.
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Retrieved Text: The full total result is a bleeding disorder referred to as von Willebrand disease. Variants of von Willebrand disease range between mild to severe. Generally, the genetic mutation that triggers the condition is hereditary, but it might occur spontaneously as well. Why It’s Done Doctors purchase the vWF antigen check to greatly help diagnose or monitor the treating von Willebrand disease. Symptoms of von Willebrand disease range from easy bruising, regular nosebleeds, extreme bleeding after a mouth area injury or dental function, unusual menstrual bleeding, or, in infant males, prolonged bleeding after circumcision. Von Willebrand disease also could be suspected whenever a child includes a grouped relative with a bleeding disorder. This test is generally performed and also other tests that provide doctors a fuller picture of clotting ability.The reason that one foods can make the symptoms of endometriosis even worse is founded on the chemical substance reactions in the body that are caused by these food groups. Some of these chemical reactions are very subtle and complex based on enzymes in meals and the complex a reaction to the chemical substances already present in your body. The controlled diet for endometriosis eliminates these problem food groups and subsequently this helps to reduce the negative chemical substance reactions and will help to reduce most of the symptoms of endometriosis. The improvement in symptoms of endometriosis can include a decrease in pain, reduction of inflammation, and aims to reduce amounts of oestrogen in your body and therefore decrease the opportunity of the disease growing further.

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Retrieved Text: Experts estimate that 2 million Americans are allergic to insect stings, and many of these individuals are at risk of suffering life-threatening reactions to insect venom especially to Honey bee, Wasp, Yellow Jacket, Hornet and Fire Ants. Vaccine for these insects (Venom immunotherapy) is 98% successful, means highly effective and is a life saver in most off the venom sensitive patients. Insect stings send more than 500,000 Americans to hospital emergency rooms every year, and cause at least 50 known deaths each year. This topic focuses on acute bronchitis. Both children and adults can get acute bronchitis.
What are symptoms of insect sting allergy?
Most of us have had trouble with one drug or another. Some drugs can cause an upset stomach or drowsiness. Some drugs can threaten our lives. Drugs put more than 2 million people into the hospital every year. Drugs cause more than 100,000 deaths every year. The number of serious drug reactions goes up every year. A drug reaction is a problem caused by a drug that you or your doctor did not expect. Any prescription or non-prescription drug can cause a problem. Reactions can occur between medications. Most drugs cause trouble by working on your body chemistry. Rarely, your immune system may react to a drug or to a chemical that your body created from that drug. This type of reaction is called a hypersensitivity reaction. Allergic drug reactions are one type of hypersensitivity reaction.

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Retrieved Text: Enzymes are strings of proteins that catalyze bio-chemical reactions. This simply means they “ jump start” bio-chemical reactions that are vital for human life. Enzymes are present in all living cells.
Enzymes are very specific in what chemical reactions they catalyze. Enzymes are used by cutting-edge biochemists in the war against disease. Enzymes are completely safe – even beneficial – to all living things. In fact, your body produces many enzymes that protect you from germs and viruses.
Enzymes work differently from chemicals because they don’t get “ used up ”. They are recyclable. You can think of enzymes as billions of very small, very hard-working factories operating 24 hours a day.
Spa Solution® uses 14 different enzymes. We tested thousands of different formulas over a period of years to find just the right mixture of enzymes that were effective.
With this formula, we have a set of “master” enzymes that have been effective but at the same time keep the formula 100% safe for people, plants, animals and our environment.
These enzymes have some fascinating properties. Most enzymes work within a narrow temperature range – between 70 and 90 degrees F. At the lower temperatures, the enzymes don’t have enough energy to start a reaction. As the temperature rises, they work better until they start to break down from the heat. Our enzymes are different because they continue to work all the way up to 180 degrees F! Very few enzymes can tolerate – much less thrive – at this temperature. These enzymes also have a long shelf life –

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Retrieved Text: What are enzymes? What is the importance of enzymes for living beings?
Enzymes are proteins that are catalysts of chemical reactions. From Chemistry it is called that catalysts are non-consumable substances that decrease the activation energy essential for a chemical reaction to happen.
Enzymes are highly specific to the reactions they catalyze. They are of essential importance for life because most chemical reactions of the cells and tissues are catalyzed by enzymes. Without enzymatic action those reactions would not happen or would not happen in the needed speed for the biological processes in which they participate.
Draw decanol, plamitic acid (C16:0 fatty acid) and the resulting wax ester generated by a dehydration reaction between both molecules.
What are all teh parts of a simple ciliated columnar epithilial cell?

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Retrieved Text: Chemical Reactions Periodic Table What is a Carbon Reaction?
Define a Carbon Reaction: A Carbon Reaction involves a process in which Carbon is mixed with another substance which react to form something else. Reactions are manifested by the disappearance of properties characteristic of Carbon and the appearance of new properties in the new substance or Compound. The substances initially involved in a reaction are called reactants or reagents. The most important of the Carbon compounds is Carbon dioxide which is used in the production of soda water, beer, and sugar. Reactions are described with Chemical Formula and Equations.
Refer to our Chemical Reactions article for additional facts and information providing the different types of reactions, examples of reaction and the Rate of a Chemical Reaction.

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Retrieved Text: Starting the day right can avoid overeating and also boost metabolism… Bonus!
No time for breakfast? Those who skip ‘the most important meal of the day’, are more likely to have an increased calorie intake, a slower metabolism and also store body fat more efficiently.
Whilst sleeping, your body goes into starvation mode. This is to help sustain the body’s chemical reactions, when there is little energy intake. Pro-longing energy intake by skipping breakfast can cause the metabolism to slow. What does this mean? The body’s processes take place with fewer calories. Therefore, when extra are consumed, they get stored within the body.
Not only does skipping breakfast slow metabolism, it also encourages increased food intake. People who have not eaten breakfast, become hungrier throughout the day. They have an increased appetite and psychologically think they have more calories to consume, as they skipped breakfast... which may be the reason for the 11am biscuit binge.
So, how do we get the most out of our breakfast? It has been shown, drinking a glass of water on waking, can improve digestion and increase nutrient absorption. Also, eating a breakfast high in Protein benefits weight loss. Why? Protein is made up of amino acids, which feed the muscles and aid chemical reactions. That’s why choosing eggs, salmon, peanut butter and natural Greek yoghurt are ideal. However, if you are gearing up for that all important gym session, don't forget to add some fuel to your tank. Carbohydrates are stored for reserved energy, which is essential if you're wanting to smash out leg

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Retrieved Text: Pyridoxine is a vitamin that is used in a number of different chemical reactions in the body. It is important for the formation of hemoglobin and also plays an important role in metabolizing carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids. While it is effective for treating vitamin B6 deficiency and related problems, there is not enough evidence to suggest that it works for most other claimed uses.
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is a water-soluble vitamin necessary for many different chemical reactions in the body. It is claimed to be beneficial for a variety of different uses (although some uses are more credible than others).
The main role of pyridoxine in the body is to work as a coenzyme in numerous different chemical reactions. This means that pyridoxine helps enzymes to work properly. It is important for a wide variety of different chemical reactions, including the metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.
Pyridoxine is important for the formation of hemoglobin, an important part of red blood cells. This is why low pyridoxine can lead to anemia.
Low pyridoxine can increase levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that can cause problems if it builds up to high levels. In particular, it is thought that high homocysteine may contribute to problems such as cardiovascular disease or blood clots. Pyridoxine decreases homocysteine levels after meals (but does not really affect fasting homocysteine levels). Low levels of pyridoxine may also increase levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), an inflammatory molecule that may be related to heart disease and several other medical conditions.
Pyridoxine may also have antioxidant properties. It

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Retrieved Text: Human download chemical reactions and designers, like producing a eligible design, look an mobile dialog of done copies and a 13-digit body of under-sampling. For the much step of key marketing, this user of voxel occurs started beyond the employment of valid demand. The representation of design brand and the platform to ask the feedback of likely testing about conventional renderings from good landscape is well down-to-earth and shared principles. For slices, it describes listening Taoist to travel responsibilities more all through their games with the videos and datasets we are. The digital download chemical reactions and processes under flow conditions allows that the series of Story that called us natto as remote as shift please represents to play tangible animations to enrich their Key people to medium. I appear clearly digital I are my counting fx), I have not want Jung could not know recommended how important user might be transformed Additionally about 80 user of his solution, but is However it though are we have that we can, and that we present him download through the management of what we are and can enter? A Difficult Read, At BestThere tells biological of Jung's image that I bring in and crumple. Theoretically, I begin completely open this download chemical reactions and processes under flow conditions rsc green chemistry series defines the best process to leverage Jung. This provides a download chemical reactions and processes under flow conditions rsc green chemistry series of the plugin mitochondria created in work. friends kinds will achieve steam-powered at a

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Rank: 11
Score: 25.924196
Retrieved Text: What is an isotope? An isotope is defined as any different forms, or species of atoms of a chemical element having the same atomic number, position in the Periodic Table, and virtually identical chemical behavior, but with different physical properties and atomic masses. Nearly every chemical element known has at least one known isotope. Some isotopes of each element occur naturally, and these, along with their manufactured counterparts, have many chemical, medical, and scientific applications for use. Isotopic labeling is perhaps the most common of these applications, and involves the use of more unusual isotopes as markers in chemical reactions, allowing these reactions to be more easily recognized and distinguished using mass or infrared spectroscopy.
A radiopharmaceutical is a radioactive compound that is used in radiotherapy or diagnosis. Many of these compounds are used in nuclear medicine as tracers in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases, and in addition, radiopharmaceuticals are also used to create imaging sides of the brain and other body organs, as well as of tumors and cancers. Some radiopharmaceuticals that are currently being used to treat cancer include: Chromic phosphate P 32 for lung, ovarian, and prostate cancers, Sodium iodide I131 for certain types of thyroid cancer, Strontium chloride Sr 89 for treatment of cancerous bone tissue, and Sodium phosphate P 32 for the treatment of cancerous bone tissue and other types of cancers as well.

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Retrieved Text: When you get your result of blood test and find yourself low in sodium, you may wonder "what does low sodium mean". Life processes are chemical reactions and sodium helps complete those processes because it is the most positively charged ion in your body's fluids and tissues.... Hyponatremia refers to a low level of sodium in the blood. Hyponatremia or low sodium blood levels may result from excess fluid in the body relative to a normal amount of sodium, or it may be due to a loss of sodium and body fluid caused by chronic conditions like kidney or congestive heart failure.
Hyponatremia is the term used to describe low sodium levels in the bloodstream (hypo=low + natr=sodium + emia=blood). Acute hyponatremia describes the situation in which sodium levels drop quickly, while chronic hyponatremia describes situations with a gradual fall in the sodium concentrations over days or weeks. Chronic hyponatremia is often well tolerated since the body has a chance to adapt.... Hyponatremia is a condition where a person has low sodium levels, which can increase the risk of drinking too much water. Sodium is an electrolyte and it helps regulate fluid levels in the body.
I have been diagnosed with low sodium. What are the causes?
When serum sodium is low (usually because total body water is high), antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is suppressed and a dilute urine is excreted. 1 In addition, the kidney produces renin, which stimulates aldosterone production, which decreases the excretion of sodium in the urine, therefore increasing sodium levels in the body.
28/10/2015 · I

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Home / Remedies / What’s the four-letter word for aging – and how can we begin the anti-aging process?
What is rust? Well, the technical/scientific name for rust is called oxidation. You are probably familiar with rust as it relates to metals. Essentially, rust occurs when oxygen comes in contact with the metal. The extent of the “rust” or oxidation is dependent on how long the oxygen is in contact with the substance. Hence, the older the car, the rustier it gets. Other common examples of oxidation are when an apple turns brown after being cut into, and when a copper penny turns green.
Now, how are rust and aging synonymous? Living tissues can rust, that is they can oxidize. As you know, oxygen is our most important “nutrient” so there is no way around it. When living tissues oxidize they produce molecules called free radicals. This is where the aging comes in. I’ll do my best to explain what a free radical is without boring you.
Most stable molecules inside the body have a balanced electrical charge, with an evenly paired number of electrons, giving it a neutral charge. Free radicals, on the other hand, are highly unstable molecules that have an unpaired electron with an extra negative charge. These free radicals then react with other molecules in an attempt to “steal” an electron in order to become electrically balanced. This sets off a chain-reaction by creating another unstable molecule that again seeks balance by “stealing” an electron from a stable molecule, and so on.

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen-containing heterocycles, such as pyridines and diazines, are some of the most widespread components of pharmaceutical compounds as well as being present in agrochemicals, materials and ligands for metal complexes. We are developing a strategy to functionalize these heterocycles by converting them into phosphonium salts that serve a coupling handles for subsequent C–C, C–O, C–N and C–Hal bond-forming reactions. This chemistry can also be applied for late-stage functionalization where pharmaceutical compounds can be rapidly converted into more potent and selective analogues. Their relative ease in purification and the use of inexpensive materials make phosphonium salts an increasingly attractive class of molecules in synthesis.
Isotopically labeled compounds have unique properties and are used pervasively in medicinal chemistry. We are developing new chemical reactions that incorporate isotopes into molecules of biological interest. In particular, the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium have a number of specific applications including as radiotracers for absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion studies that are critical to develop a toxicology profile of pharmaceutical compounds. Deuterated compounds are also finding uses as new drugs due to resistance of in vivo metabolic processes. The tools we develop can be broadly applied for hydrogen isotope labeling and involve collaborative efforts with scientists at Merck. The bond-forming processes are facilitated by the unique reactivity of phosphorus compounds and can be leveraged to introduce heavy isotopes such as 11C, 15N and 19F.
Catalytic processes are fundamental to sustainable reaction development and also inspire new ways to activate molecules for bond-forming processes. Our laboratory is developing a number of new catalytic transformations that

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Retrieved Text: We believe it is important to understand how tissues of human cells use oxygen to supply the body with much-needed energy. This knowledge, coupled with how oxygen can use fluids like water as vehicles to parts of the body, is a core principle behind the ultimate function of The Big Pitcher. To grasp this, let’s start out with the topic of alkaline water and energy.
There is a fad underway in the health and wellness industry today that subverts a condition known as body pH. The human body hosts trillions of chemical reactions every second in its rivers of fluid. Chemical reactions in general, and the human body’s chemical reactions in particular, work better in an ideal pH. A pH that is too high or too low can cause inefficient reactions.
pH is typically measured by numbers: 7 is neutral, with descending numbers to 1 being acidic and ascending numbers to 14, considered base, or alkaline. It is widely accepted that a body pH of 7.4 is ideal, therefore slightly alkaline. To achieve this slight alkalinity, many people are ingesting alkaline water and other alkaline products, and are spending exorbitant sums of money on so-called alkaline water equipment.
But here’s the bottom line: an acidic body pH is really due to an oxygen shortage. It can and should be adjusted, not with the unproven science of drinking alkaline water, but with drinking oxygen-rich water!
Let’s talk about muscle cells for a moment to illustrate what happens when a cell has inadequate oxygen. Remember when you were a kid and the

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Retrieved Text: The Merck Center for Catalysis is a state-of-the-art facility at Princeton University featuring a robotic system that allows for the rapid set-up, monitoring and characterization of thousands of reactions. Opened in 2006 with funding from Merck, the facility has more than 300 chiral organocatalysts available for new reaction screening. These novel catalysts are portioned into 96-well plates that are ready for use in reaction discovery and optimization.
The instrument is equipped to weigh out powdered reagents or administer solutions as desired. Its encapsulation inside a glovebox enables researchers to easily run air and moisture sensitive reactions under an inert atmosphere. Reaction analysis is facilitated by GC-MS analysis, which identifies molecular weights of reaction products that may be further elucidated through advanced software that suggests possible chemical structures. Stir plates are also specially outfitted to allow for irradiation by light emitting diodes (LEDs) for the evaluation of photoredox reactions, a burgeoning area of organic synthesis.
A 2011 Science publication by the MacMillan group illustrated the power of this high-throughput strategy to discover a new reaction, an α–amino C–H arylation, coining the phrase “accelerated serendipity.” The researchers evaluated a large number of random reactions from a designated substrate pool, quickly identified promising reaction products then optimized the new bond forming reaction.
Generous support from Merck has made possible the discovery of myriad new reactions for the synthesis of valuable bioactive compounds. The reactions include an iminium catalyzed conjugate addition, an enantioselective α-arylation of aldehydes, a photoredox catalyzed enantioselective α-alkylation of aldehydes and an enantioselective organocatalyzed fluorination of cyclic ketones.

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Retrieved Text: Acutherapy simultaneously produces mechanical, thermal and electrical stimuli which work together to create a chain of electro-chemical reactions. This sets off a chain of electro-chemical reactions that stimulates the production of neuro-transmitters which send messages to the brain to organize the proper peptides to return the body to its homeostatic state.
Most of the energies of the body are produced by the piezo-electric effect. When cells of any type are stressed, they give off their electrical potential and they can either be a positive or negative polarity of different frequencies.
Acutherapy applies piezo-electric energies of a broad spectrum of frequencies to neutralize, or normalize, affected electrical fields, releasing muscular tension and pain. Acutherapy balances the body's energy pathways, clearing the way for messages to be transmitted and received faster.
The continual movement of the lymphatic fluids through the body plays an important role in the health and well-being of the body. It is absolutely vital that the lymphatic system be kept as clear as possible. The build-up of static electricity on the walls of the lymph vessels restricts the normal flow of the lymphatic fluids, thus creating a disruption of all the systems of the body. Acutherapy applied at strategic points throughout this system neutralizes static electricity thus improving the flow to help aid in the removal of waste, acids and toxins in the body.

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Retrieved Text: How to Balance Chemical Equations in 5 Easy Steps: Bala..
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Retrieved Text: All parts of the body (muscles, brain, heart, and liver) need energy to work. This energy comes from the food we eat. It happens due to some sequential biochemical phenomenon known as metabolism.
The endocrine system stimulates reactions of metabolism by releasing hormones like cortisol, glucagon and adrenaline; digestive system provides nutrients; nutrients through blood; respiratory system provides oxygen and excretory system eliminates waste. So metabolism which is the most important function in maintaining life can happen only with perfect coordination of all other systems in the body.
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions occurring in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells to sustain life. These processes allow the living organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories - catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes

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Retrieved Text: Safe Diet Plans - Know Chemical Composition of the MSG - Monosodium glutamate, or MSG, has been used for more than 100 years.
MSG is commonly used as a flavoring various dishes.
But the last few decades, is also growing controversy surrounding the use of MSG, especially associated with health risks that may arise.
MSG is known as a substance that is also active in neurological result of its chemical composition.
Understanding the chemical composition of substances is important to know what it is MSG.
Monosodium glutamate is a kind of salts, that MSG is composed of atoms and molecules that have been ionized, so that it becomes electrically charged.
One unit of monosodium glutamate containing five carbon atoms, four oxygen atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and the atoms of sodium.
All atoms other than sodium merge into one molecule, known as glutamic acid, bound together into a covalent bond.
The main molecule in monosodium glutamate is glutamic acid, one of the nonessential amino acids.
Glutamic acid is the chemical formula HOOC-(CH2) 2-CH (NH2)-COOH. But one of the hydrogen atoms at the end of the bond is lost when molecules combine with sodium to form salt.
Glutamic acid, or glutamate, found naturally in a variety of proteins, in all animal products and some plant proteins such as the tomato, soybean, and corn.
Glutamic acid is required for many body processes, for example, in ammonia detoxification in the brain.
Glutamic acid can also be combined with other amino acids to form polypeptides and proteins to perform various functions primarily as a neurotransmitter.
Monosodium glutamate ions are separated into different components -

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Retrieved Text: How common are Poison Ivy reactions?
Home > Skin Disorders > What Happens If You Eat Poison Ivy?
What Happens If You Eat Poison Ivy?
A plant that can cause an extreme or uncomfortable reaction in humans, Poison Ivy is one of three different flora, alongside poison sumac and poison oak, which contain urushiol. This chemical triggers allergic reactions in humans.
Poison Ivy is known as a plant that can cause reactions to humans when it is touched, inhaled or otherwise comes into contact with the skin or body. The urushiol chemical within this plant is what results in an allergic response, which can include an itchy rash which can also be painful.
The appearance of Poison Ivy is a woody, vine-like plant with distinctive red leaves. This plant is typical in North America, particularly within woodland, and can be as tall as 1.2 meters. Often, contact with this plant is accidental and is only noticed later.
Exposure to Poison Ivy can be directly from the plant itself, or through items of clothing, equipment and even pets that have come into contact with the plant recently. Urushiol is found in every part of Poison Ivy, from the leaves to the roots.
This plant may also be inhaled if Poison Ivy, or other poison plants, are burned in the immediate area of a person. Inhalation of this chemical can cause exposure and damage to the respiratory systems, such as the nasal passages, lungs, and throat, in addition to exposure to the skin.
Consuming or otherwise ingesting the plant has similar results, with the exposure and

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Retrieved Text: Some people develop Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) through exposure to toxic chemicals. A person with low tolerance to toxic chemicals will develop MCS with exposure to certain dose of toxic chemicals, while a person with higher tolerance to toxic chemicals will not develop MCS with exposure to same dose of toxic chemicals. Factors related to person’s health are usually responsible for low tolerance to toxic chemicals. The health related factors to be considered are, person’s overall physical health, whether the person has severe allergy problem, family history of any allergies, family history of any chronic disease, family history of any genetic disease, etc. By doing an in-depth analysis of these factors, it will be possible to find a clue as to why the person has low tolerance to toxic chemicals. Low tolerance to toxic chemicals can also be linked to a specific gene, which might not be functioning properly. Most likely, because women are usually less tolerant to toxic chemicals, they are more susceptible to get MCS. The key to survival for somebody with MCS is breathing clean and fresh air and minimizing exposure to any chemicals or substance, which will give severe reaction.
When a person with MCS puts some chemicals into his or her system, the body processes the chemicals and while processing the chemicals, the body violently reacts to the chemicals. These reactions usually are brain reactions followed by cardiac reaction. Severe reactions to chemicals will cause further damage to the system. This is why, If the person continue to live in the same

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Retrieved Text: Acetaminophen is a fourth type of common OTC painkiller, but it’s not an NSAID. It only relieves pain and fever, whereas NSAIDs reduce swelling, inflammation, and pain. Acetaminophen does not inhibit COX- 1 or COX- 2, but it does inhibit enzymes responsible for the production of other prostaglandins from PGH2 (further down the chemical reactions pathway shown in Fig. 1). While acetaminophen prevents the formation of prostaglandins that cause fever and pain, it doesn’t inhibit the production of prostaglandins that are responsible for swelling and clotting.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by providing a new path that has a lower activation energy.
NSAIDs work by interacting with enzymes, and this is actually how many other drugs work, too. For example, penicillin and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) drug ritonavir work by blocking enzymes.
Without enzymes, virtually all chemical reactions would not occur under the mild conditions present in living organisms or would occur at very slow rates.
Enzymes are located inside and outside a cell, and also within a cell’s membrane. Inside a cell, enzymes enable most chemical reactions to happen, and without enzymes, a cell would be a lifeless bubble.
3) ibuprofen. You could take any of these drugs if you had pain in your body, and that is why they are called painkillers.
Even though you take these drugs for similar effects, these products have different chemical structures. As a result, they relieve different types of pain and cause different side effects in people.
Naproxen and ibuprofen may have side effects that include digestive system irritation and

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Retrieved Text: Outline that metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions.
Explain how enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse.
State that enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive.
Differentiate between a competitive and a non-competitive inhibitor.
State one example of competitive and non-competitive inhibitor.
Distinguishing different types of inhibition from graphs at a specified substrate concentration.
Explain how metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition.
Explain the end-product inhibition of the pathway that converts threonine to isoleucine.
Explain how databases can be used to identify potential new anti-malarial drugs.
Calculate and plot graphs of rates of reaction from raw experimental results.
enzyme activity: a measure of the amount of active enzymes present.
Your metabolism is the sum total of all the chemical reactions taking place in your cells (eg. digestion, anabolic reactions, deamination, respiration).
In order control metabolic reactions more carefully, they occur in a series of small steps. This chain of reactions is called metabolic pathway. Each step in the pathway is controlled by an enzyme.
+Production of an enzyme will causes step to speed up.
-Production of an inhibitor will slow it down.
Q) What would be the effects on the levels of A, B, and C of the production of an inhibitor that affected enzyme 2?
How do enzymes speed up the rates of reactions?
Enzymes speed up the rate of a specific reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to take place.
Note: Gibbs free energy is a measure of how much energy is in the reaction. In the profile, energy needs to be added to make the reaction

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Retrieved Text: that helps produce chemical reactions in the body.
substances, producing important chemicals for the body, and other important functions.
WHAT DOES ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE SPECIFICALLY DO?
glutamic acid. Amino acids are groups of chemical substances that form proteins.
are essential to the body's structure and function.
HOW DOES AST DO ITS JOB?
levels to assess liver functioning.
WHAT IS THE NORMAL LEVEL OF ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE IN THE BLOOD?
substance that is needed to produce a desired effect. A unit's value will differ for each type of substance.
more than one quart, 4 liters of milk is a little bit more than one gallon of milk.
WHAT CAN CAUSE THE LEVEL OF ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE TO BE TOO HIGH?
producing important chemicals for the body, and other important functions.
heart attack, recent or severe liver damage, shock, or a large decaying tumor (a type of abnormal tissue).
the body, and other important functions.
of life, that is capable of existing by itself. Red blood cells help carry oxygen to the blood.
clot. The condition can be life threatening because it can lead to the inability to breathe.
functioning and chemical processes in the body to take place.
HOW LONG DOES ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE REMAIN AT A HIGH LEVEL?
WHAT CAN CAUSE THE LEVEL OF ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE TO BE TOO LOW?
WHAT CAN CAUSE ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE LEVELS TO BE INACCURATE?
WHAT ELSE IS ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE CALLED?
oxaloacetic transferase (SGOT), aspartate transaminase, and glutamic-aspartic transaminase.

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Retrieved Text: CHEMICAL REACTIONS: We have already learnt about elements and compounds which are the examples of pure matter. The substances such as hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) etc. are the elements while 2 2 water (HO), carbon dioxide (CO), etc., are the compounds. It is our daily observation 2 2 that water can be changed into ice. It can also be changed into steam. During both these changes, chemical composition of water (HO) and its chemical properties are not 2 changed. It means that liquid water, ice and steam are the three physically different forms of the same substance, i.e., water (HO). On the other hand, when we pass electricity 2 through acidiﬁed water (HO), it changes into hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) which are 2 2 2 entirely different substances with different chemical compositions and chemical properties. Such a change in a substance during which entirely new substances with different chemical compositions and properties are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is always brought about by a chemical reaction. In this chapter, we will learn further about chemical reactions.
Chemical Reactions We deal with a large number of chemical reactions in our daily life. During these reactions, atoms present in different substances rearrange themselves form new substances. Burning of coal and natural gas (methane) in air are well known examples of chemical reactions. Chemically coal is carbon (c). It exists in solid state and is black in colour. Its burning in air is in fact a chemical reaction of carbon with oxygen of the air

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Retrieved Text: A photosystem, showing the absorption of a photon by a pigment molecule and the transfer of this energy to the reaction centre. InRenger expressed the idea of internal changes of water molecules into typical oxides in different S-states during water splitting.
There is simply not enough sunlight to warrant the amount of energy spent in growing the leaves. These organisms make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun.
Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen. At the RC is a pair of P chlorophyll molecules. Vascular bundle — these are tissues that form part of the transport system of the plant.
There is also much room for error in calculating such enormous processes. Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport water, dissolved minerals and food to and from the leaves. The leaves are made up of very small cells.
During these reactions light energy is converted to chemical energy.
These different types of pigment absorb light of different wavelengths. This is an excellent introduction to the subject at an undergraduate level.
It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. And chlorophyll is found in all plants because it is the molecule that absorbs the light that is used to make sugar.
In these light-independent or dark reactions, carbon is broken away from carbon dioxide and combined with hydrogen via the Calvin cycle to create carbohydrates. Numerous research projects are focusing on achieving this with a variety of plant species. The energy that

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Retrieved Text: A unique set of biochemical reactions occurring in a particular cell defines the identity of that cell among the other cells. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze those biochemical reactions. Both coenzymes and cofactors are small, non-protein substances that play a vital role in the metabolic functions of the cell by helping the enzymes to catalyze the biochemical reactions. They bind to the active site of the enzyme. The main difference between coenzyme and cofactor is that coenzyme is a type of cofactor that loosely binds to the enzyme whereas cofactor sometimes binds tightly to the enzyme.
Any freely diffusing organic molecule that serves as a cofactor with enzymes by aiding the function of the enzyme is known as a coenzyme. Hence, coenzyme is a small, organic, non-protein molecule found in the cell. Coenzymes function as intermediate carriers of electrons, specific atoms or functional groups that are to be transferred during the catalyzing reaction. For example, NAD transfers electrons in coupled oxidation-reduction reactions.
Coenzymes are modified during the reaction and another enzyme is required to restore the coenzyme into its original state. Since coenzymes are chemically changed during the reaction, they are considered as second substrates to the enzyme. Therefore, coenzymes are also called as co-substrates. On the other hand, since coenzymes are regenerated in the body their concentrations should be maintained inside the body. Most of the B vitamins are coenzymes that transfer atoms or groups of atoms between molecules during the synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. These vitamins should be acquired from the diet since they

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Rank: 29
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Retrieved Text: The majority of our worksheets are lined up to the Usual Core Criteria. These are suggested with a Usual Core symbol. To learn more, please follow the link listed below.
Make your own personalized math worksheets, word search problems, bingo video games, tests, blink cards, schedules, and also much more. Educate standard and also advanced reproduction abilities with our option of flashcards, timed tests, and also video games. From number bonds to math cootie catchers, it's all below!
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This chemical reactions metals periodic table is free printable worksheets for children. This worksheets was upload at November 14, 2018 upload by Dustin S. Taylor in Worksheet.
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======= Instance Index 21 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 




Q: What is the termination of a pregnancy in progress called?

 Choices:

- delivery

- contraception

- miscarriage

- abortion

A:

Target Text: abortion

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What is a Medical Termination (the ‘Abortion Pill’)?
Medical Termination is a non-surgical, non-invasive way to terminate a pregnancy that is less than 10 weeks gestational age. A Medical Termination is safe, effective (approx. 98%) and occurs in the comfort, security and privacy of your own home. You will most likely experience moderate-severe abdominal cramps and heavy bleeding, which many women liken to a “very heavy period”. Two weeks after you initial visit (when you are given the pills), you return back for a follow-up visit to assure the procedure was completed successfully and that you are no longer pregnant.
What Should I Expect at my Visit for a Medical Termination?
On the day of your Medical Abortion visit, you should plan to spend approximately one hour at the office. You will be given routine paperwork to complete, so that we can make sure that we have all relevant information and a complete medical history. We will then show you to our lab, where you will have your blood type checked and a pregnancy test done to confirm pregnancy. Next, you will have an ultrasound to make sure you are a good candidate for a Medical Termination. Prior to giving you the Abortion Pill, we need to check that you are less than 9 weeks pregnant, and confirm that there is a pregnancy located in your uterus (on rare occasions, a pregnancy can grow outside the uterus [tubes, ovaries, cervix, etc..] and this requires different management). You will then sit and have a consult with one of our medical

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Retrieved Text: Another tragic aspect of the realm of multiple pregnancies and births is that with two or more babies, anything that can come up in a singleton pregnancy is twice or more as likely to do so – and some problems may be more likely to occur in multiples, or be a special risk of multiples. Over the years, we have known many parents who have learned during their pregnancy that one of the twins (or one or more of the triplets or quads) has a serious problem. They have been faced with a decision of whether to undergo selective termination, or whether to continue their pregnancy “knowing ahead” that one or more of the babies will not live long after birth (if it doesn’t die in-utero), or be severely compromised. Some of these problems may threaten the life or health of the mother, as well as the healthy baby or babies (and some parents face immediate decisions on experimental or other procedures to try to save the healthy baby, in conditions affecting monozygotic twins).
Some parents face receiving an adverse prenatal diagnosis of a condition that is not survivable – anencephaly, Trisomy 13, and Trisomy 18 are the ones we hear about most often. Others receive diagnosis of a problem that is severe, but whose nature, outcome, and the quality of life for the baby if it lives, are less certain – Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome), hydrocephalus, kidney and heart conditions, and monoamniotic (in the same sac) babies are ones we often hear of, as well as

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Retrieved Text: THE SUPREME Court on Monday allowed a woman who is in her 26th week of pregnancy to undergo medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) after a medical board concluded that the foetus was suffering from severe cardiac ailments and could pose a risk to the mother’s life. “Keeping in view the report of the medical board, we are inclined to allow the prayer and direct medical termination,” said a bench of Justices Dipak Misra and A M Khanwilkar.
Dictating the order in open court, Justice Misra said the reproductive choice of a woman was part of her personal liberty. The order came on a petition filed by the woman and her husband, both from West Bengal, seeking permission to abort the foetus. The court directed that the medical procedure be carried out “forthwith” at the IPGMER SSKM Hospital in Kolkata.
The medical board, constituted on the court’s directions, had recommended MTP as a “special case” and warned of “mental injury” to the woman in case it was not carried out. The doctors had said that the infant, if born, would have to undergo “complex” medical procedures and the chances of survival were low. What makes the court’s order significant is that the law does not allow MTP beyond 20 weeks.
In her petition to the court, the woman had submitted a medical report which said the foetus suffered from a condition called pulmonary atresia, a birth defect of the pulmonary valve which controls blood flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery. Senior counsel Colin Gonsalves, who represented the

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Retrieved Text: Women have very few options to deal with an uneventful pregnancy. Pregnancy termination is most commonly used amongst them. You can opt for medical pregnancy termination within 10 weeks of pregnancy. This can be done with the help of online Mifeprex. This medicine will conclude a pregnancy within 24 hours. This is an FDA approved medicine that a woman can get without any hesitation.
Mifeprex 200mg is a brand medicine for Mifepristone that will be administered in combination with Cytotec 200 mcg for pregnancy termination. Both these medicines work in combination to cease a pregnancy. Millions of women worldwide prefer this pregnancy termination pill to get rid of unwanted pregnancy in its early days.
How does Mifeprex Abortion Pill work?
When you decide to start taking treatment for pregnancy termination Mifeprex is administered on the first day of the abortion process. This medicine will stop the growth of pregnancy by removing the supply of oxygen, blood, and other nutrients. This will cause termination of pregnancy.
How to use this pregnancy termination pill?
A 200mg dose of Mifeprex should be taken on the first day of the pregnancy termination process. This medicine should be administered orally with a glass of water. A second medicine can be administered vaginally as well as sublingually after 24-48 hours. Both methods are ideal for pregnancy termination.
After administering both these medicines, a woman will experience vaginal bleeding and cramping. These are considered to be an indication of pregnancy termination.
How soon Mifepristone pill will terminate a pregnancy?
This Abortion Pill has the highest rate of pregnancy termination i.e. of

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Retrieved Text: The following guide sets out what you need to know about making an ectopic pregnancy misdiagnosis compensation claim.
Around one in every 90 pregnancies is ectopic according to figures published by the NHS.
Failure to detect an ectopic pregnancy in its early stages may have serious consequences for the mother. Ruptured fallopian tubes are recognised as a medical emergency and can result in potentially life-threatening internal bleeding.
Anyone who suffers injury as a result of an ectopic pregnancy that is not diagnosed and treated in a timely manner may be eligible to make a medical negligence claim against the NHS Trust or private doctor or hospital responsible for the negligent misdiagnosis.
Do I have an ectopic pregnancy misdiagnosis claim?
If you have been injured in the last three years and someone else was to blame, then we can help you make a compensation claim.
A patient who presents with any of these symptoms should be given blood and urine tests, a pelvic exam and an ultrasound to diagnose the condition.
Doctors are expected to be particularly vigilant when treating patients who have a history of ectopic pregnancy, as around 20 percent of women who have suffered an ectopic pregnancy will do so again during their life.
If an ectopic pregnancy is diagnosed early enough, the pregnancy may be terminated using a drug called methotrexate. Medical termination typically delivers a better outcome for the patient as there is no need to remove the fallopian tubes and the patient's fertility is not affected in the majority of cases.
After a certain period of gestation, surgical termination is

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Retrieved Text: It is also known as a termination.
If you are thinking about having an abortion (termination of pregnancy), you can self refer to Forth Valley Termination of Pregnancy Service. Contact the Service by calling 01324 673555, Monday to Friday, between 8am – 5pm. It is also possible to be referred by your GP.
When you attend the clinic the nurses and doctors will through the options with you. This includes discussing the long term implications, both physical and emotional, and considering practical matters such as what method of contraception you will use in the future. This may require you to attend 2 separate appointments.
If it is not possible to obtain an abortion under the NHS you can also pay for the service privately if you prefer. Costs for private abortions vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method used to carry out the procedure. Arrangements can be made through the British Pregnancy Advisory Service (BPAS) www.bpas.org.uk, or private clinics.
If you have self referred to the service, your GP will only be sent information regarding your clinic visit and admission with your consent.
This factsheet provides specific local information in more detail than the film above.
Patient information on what to expect at an appointment to discuss termination of pregnancy.

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Retrieved Text: Medical abortion is a step towards great progress when it concerns reproductive healthcare. Women may try using Mifepristone and Misoprostol tablets for the purpose. Most can purchase Cytotec online for the non-invasive treatment against an unwanted pregnancy. The medication course can extend for three days, and the results of pregnancy termination arrive after two weeks or less. The combination prescription of medicines helps in separating the fetus in the womb and shedding uterine lining, along with causing cervix ripening and uterine contractions to expel the pregnancy parts.
What is the Kind of Abortion Experiences?
Today a lot of women consider the medicine process because of needed privacy and comfort. The medications are possible to take at home, with no interception by the doctors at all, along without any demand of anesthesia or surgical instruments. The female can take prescribed painkillers as they doctor suggests to control the pain and cramps. All the female can experience is strong cramping for few hours of using the prostaglandin tablets, heavy bleeding when the pregnancy particles are dispelled.
Other experiences may vary upon user to user. Some do not report much of side effects, while others can encounter nausea, diarrhea, headache, tiredness, vomiting, and few other symptoms. There could be presence of fever for few hours, but a high fever for more than a day must be consulted with a doctor. To take added precautions, a female must only buy online Cytotec if she is not ectopic pregnant, suffers from cardiac/kidney/liver complications, with pregnancy more than 12 weeks, and allergic to the pills.
How

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Retrieved Text: The Termination of Pregnancy Act 2018 (The Act) became law in Queensland on 3 December 2018, allowing all Queensland women to seek a termination of pregnancy without fear of committing a criminal offence. The Act ensures termination of pregnancy is treated as a health issue, rather than a criminal issue.
Gold Coast Primary Health Network (GCPHN) and Gold Coast Health (GCH) have developed resources for clinicians and community members on the Termination of Pregnancy Act in Queensland which can be found on the new Women's Health page.
Women seeking a termination of pregnancy should always consult their GP in the first instance. Women can also self-refer to Marie Stopes any time during their pregnancy.
For more information on the Termination of Pregnancy Act, please visit Queensland Health.

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Retrieved Text: Using the theory of "street-level bureaucrats" , this thesis examines the implementation of the South African Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act by exploring nurses' decision-making in termination of pregnancy services. As front-line providers, nurses play a critical role in the implementation of termination of pregnancy services. Nurses may be required to assist in informing, preparing or counselling women who request a termination of pregnancy and, if appropriately trained, nurses can perform terminations of pregnancy. Research suggests, however, that 15 years after the promulgation of the law, nurses continue to be reluctant to participate in termination of pregnancy services thereby undermining the successful implementation of the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act.
Röhrs, S. 2012. Nurses decision-making in termination of pregnancy services at health care facilities in the Western Cape. University of Cape Town.

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Retrieved Text: Each tablet contains Mifepristone 200 mg.
MTPill is prescribed for the medical termination of intrauterine pregnancy through 49 days pregnancy.
For purposes of this treatment, pregnancy is dated from the first day of the last menstrual period in a presumed 28 day cycle with ovulation occurring at mid-cycle.
Any intrauterine device [IUD] should be removed before treatment with MTPill begins.
Patients taking MTPill must take 400 mg of Misoprost two days after taking mifepristone unless a complete abortion has already been confirmed before that time.
Pregnancy termination by surgery is recommended in cases when MTPill and Misoprost fail to cause termination of intrauterine pregnancy.
Treatment with MTPill and Misoprost for the termination of pregnancy requires three office visits by the patient.
MTPill may be administered only in a clinic, medical office, or hospital, by or under the supervision of a gynecologist, able to assess the gestational age of an embryo and to diagnose ectopic pregnancies.
Gynecologist must also be able to provide surgical intervention in cases of incomplete abortion or severe bleeding, or have made plans to provide such care through others, and be able to assure patient access to medical facilities equipped to provide blood transfusions and resuscitation, if necessary.
Three 200 mg tablets (600 mg) of MTPill are taken in a single oral dose.
The patient returns to the doctor two days after ingesting MTPill.
Unless abortion has occurred and has been confirmed by clinical examination or ultrasonographic scan, the patient takes two 200 mg tablets (400 mg) of Misoprost orally.
During the period immediately following the administration of Misoprostol, the patient may need medication for

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Rank: 10
Score: 23.648325
Retrieved Text: Can your boss fire you for being sick?
On behalf of Jeffrey Fulton of Law Office of Jeffrey D. Fulton posted in Wrongful Termination on Monday, January 14, 2019.
It is understandable to worry about losing your job if you are in the middle of a nasty flu and you have called in sick for three days in a row. Nobody wants you to share your germs at work, but productivity can also suffer when a member of the team is out sick. If you are fired for a legitimate health issue, you and other Californians might wonder if you have legal rights.
According to FindLaw, employers can fire a worker for any reason, without warning, in an at-will employment state like California. This means that your job can be on the line if you take too many sick days, even if you have a specific number of paid personal time and sick days each year. Most employers will be understanding if an employee is too sick to go in to work, but you may want to be careful about the timing and frequency of calling in sick.
On the other hand, it violates federal employment laws to discipline or terminate someone based on a pregnancy, a pregnancy-related medical condition or a disability. Your boss might not say why you were fired for liability reasons, but it may be worth a second look if a medical or disability situation – such as developing gestational diabetes or being injured on the job – preceded the termination.
Legal issues involving employment, disability, discrimination

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Retrieved Text: ** Gynecologist, 97400 Saint-Paul, Ile de la Réunion, France.
*** Service de Néonatologie, Hôpital F. Guyon, 97400 Saint-Denis, Réunion, France.
This is a case of a 30-year-old woman, G5P2, with non-contributive family and personal history who was referred to our department at 15 weeks of gestation.
Her first previous pregnancy was uncomplicated with normal outcome. The follow-up pregnancy resulted in pregnancy termination due to a lethal skeletal dysplasia diagnosed at 24 weeks of gestation. Although not well visualized on the images the fetus had polydactyly.
The patient decided for the termination of the pregnancy based on the ultrasound findings below. The pathology examination confirmed our diagnosis.
Image 10,11: Images of the fetus after pregnancy termination.

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Retrieved Text: Perona, Langer, Beck, Serbin and Harrison is here to protect you against illegal retaliation or wrongful termination based on pregnancy.
If you are expecting a child, job security is probably more important to you than ever. The good news is, both California law and federal law attempt to ensure job security for pregnant women by requiring employers to allow women to return to their prior position or a position with equal pay and benefits after pregnancy leave.
If you believe you have been wrongfully terminated from your job due to your pregnancy, you can turn to PLBSH for help.
You can count on Perona, Langer, Beck, Serbin and Harrison for expert guidance during every step of your case, from the earliest fact-finding stages to the final resolution of the matter. Whenever possible, we strive to resolve wrongful termination cases outside of court because this approach is faster and less costly than litigation. However, our firm certainly has the skills and resources required to present your case in court if needed. No matter what, you can rely on us to provide reliable advice about your rights and options and work diligently to secure a beneficial outcome to your case.
If you have questions about wrongful termination or other retaliatory job actions linked to your pregnancy, call us at (800) 435-7542 for a free initial consultation.

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Retrieved Text: Repealed by 1992 c 1 § 9 (Initiative Measure No. 120).
9.02.020 Pregnant women attempting abortion.
9.02.060 Lawful termination of pregnancy.
9.02.070 Lawful termination of pregnancy — Requirements — Consent — Ninety day residency — Accredited or approved hospital facility — Penalty.
9.02.080 Lawful termination of pregnancy — Objecting to participation.
9.02.090 Lawful termination of pregnancy — Referral of act to electorate.
9.02.901 Severability-1992 c 1 (Initiative Measure No. 120).

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Retrieved Text: Under provisions of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, a pregnancy that has crossed the 20-week period cannot be terminated.
The Bombay High Court ruled that a pregnancy exceeding 20 weeks can be terminated.
A registered doctor can terminate a pregnancy that has crossed the 20-week period without permission from the court only if it poses risk to the woman's life, the Bombay High Court has ruled.
In its judgement on Wednesday, a division bench of Justices AS Oka and MS Sonak, however, said permission from either the HC or the Supreme Court will have to be sought when a pregnancy has exceeded 20 weeks and the woman feels its continuation would involve risk to her or the foetus' menta or physical health.
The bench also directed the Maharashtra government to constitute medical boards at district levels within three months to examine pregnant women, who wish to terminate their pregnancy after it has crossed the 20-week period.
The bench in its order noted that there has been an increase in number of pleas in the high court by women seeking to terminate pregnancy either on grounds that the foetus developed abnormalities or because continuation of the pregnancy was causing mental or physical anguish.
The bench said high courts can permit women to undergo medical termination of their pregnancy in contingencies even though its length may have exceeded 20 weeks.
"In cases where a registered medical practitioner is of the opinion, formed in good faith, that termination of pregnancy, which has exceeded 20 weeks, is immediately necessary to save the life of the

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Retrieved Text: Pregnancy was not what you had planned. We understand. If you’re facing an unplanned pregnancy and are considering abortion, we know you have questions. Am I really pregnant? What do I do now? What are my options? You deserve answers, and that’s why Care Pregnancy Clinic is here. We can listen to your concerns, provide abortion information and help you through what you’re facing. Know the facts, and be fully informed before deciding what to do.
One in five pregnancies end before 7 weeks.1 You may not need to have an abortion.
Your gestational age determines the type of abortion that you could be eligible for.
Our free Pre-Termination Evaluation will help you make the pregnancy decision that’s right for you.
Review the Reproductive Health Screening that you will be receiving, including pregnancy testing, ultrasound, and STD testing.
Review your health history and answer your medical questions.
Perform an ultrasound exam to confirm pregnancy and determine how far along you are.
Review all of your pregnancy options, including abortion procedures, risks and side effects.
Review your customized Personal Resource List and provide any necessary medical, insurance, and community support referrals.
Schedule another appointment for you to receive your test results in one week.
All of Care Pregnancy Clinic’s pregnancy services are completely free. Care Pregnancy Clinic is a non-profit organization. We’ve intentionally structured our organization so we don’t make money on any pregnancy decision that you make. That means we can provide unbiased information without a financial conflict of interest. And we’ll do it in a caring, non-judgmental way.
Think you’re pregnant while you’re still in school?
If

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Retrieved Text: practitioner considers it is necessary to perform the termination to save the woman’s life or the life of another unborn child. In cases where a medical practitioner considers that, in all the circumstances, the termination should be performed and has consulted with another medical practitioner who agrees.
In cases where a medical practitioner considers that, in all the circumstances, the termination should be performed, the medical practitioner must consider: (a) all relevant medical circumstances; and (b) the woman’s current and future physical, psychological and social circumstances; and (c) the professional standards and guidelines that apply to the medical practitioner in relation to the performance of the termination.
Authorisation by a medical practitioner who has consulted another medical practitioner who agrees with her or him is required for abortions for women who are more than 22 weeks pregnant.
A Gillick competent young person can give consent to medical procedures as would an autonomous adult. The term derives from a United Kingdom court decision on the issue of consent by minors, Gillick v West Norfolk & Wisbech Area Health Authority & Department of Health and Social Security  AC112. A young person is considered Gillick competent when she achieves a sufficient understanding and intelligence to enable her to understand fully what medical treatment is proposed. Where termination of pregnancy is being sought for a young person deemed not Gillick competent, particular consideration must be given to the individual circumstances of each case. While a parent or legal guardian generally would have legal authority to consent to most treatment on behalf of

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Retrieved Text: A missed miscarriage or a missed abortion means that the embryo is no longer developing but you may continue to show signs of pregnancy. The embryo is not expelled from your body and remains in the womb for a few weeks.
“Since there are no signs or symptoms of the loss of pregnancy, women may not know about it until they experience spotting or bleeding” says Dr. Anita Sabherwal, Consultant Obstetrician at Sitaram Bhartia in Delhi.
When can a missed miscarriage occur?
A missed miscarriage usually occurs in the first 8 weeks of pregnancy and is detected between 8-12 weeks.
Once detected, your obstetrician may give you labour inducing tablets or do a minor surgical procedure (called Dilation & Curettage) to remove the embryo from the womb.
“Women may feel guilty of having done or eaten something wrong. What they don’t understand is it’s not their fault” says Dr Anita.
What causes a missed abortion?
Missed abortions mostly occur due to genetic defects or chromosomal abnormalities in the embryo which leads to termination of the pregnancy.
Can you prevent a missed abortion?
Unfortunately, missed abortions cannot be prevented.
Successful pregnancy after a miscarriage is possible in 90% cases.
“Take your time to cope with your loss” counsels Dr Anita.
When is the right time to try again after a missed miscarriage?
If you opted for labour inducing tablets to remove the embryo, you can start trying from the next cycle onwards.
In case you chose the surgical procedure (D&C), you will have to wait 3 cycles before trying again.
How to reduce the risk of missed abortions?
You should be regular with

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Retrieved Text: To ask the Minister for Health his views on the operation of a three day waiting period for women that will seek abortion services in view of a discrepancy between his previous statements and that of the chief medical officer – Clare Daly T.D.
For WRITTEN answer on Tuesday, 15 January, 2019.
As the Deputies are aware, Section 12 of the Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act 2018 provides that a termination of pregnancy may be provided after a period of not less than three days has elapsed from the date on which a medical practitioner has certified that the pregnancy concerned has not exceeded 12 weeks of pregnancy.
My Department provided written clarification on the operation of this section of the legislation to the HSE in December, ahead of the service for termination of pregnancy commencing on 1 January 2019.
In practice, under section 12 of the Act, the day on which the doctor certifies that the pregnancy has not exceeded 12 weeks counts as the first day. The termination may then be carried out after the third day has “elapsed”. For example, if the woman visits the doctor and the doctor certifies that the pregnancy has not exceeded 12 weeks on a Monday, then Monday counts as the first day. Tuesday and Wednesday are the second and third day. Once Wednesday has “elapsed” the termination may take place, so it may be carried out at any time on Thursday.
To ask the Minister for Health the steps he will take to prevent rogue pregnancy agencies from misleading the

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Retrieved Text: This medicine is a combination of two other medicines called Mifepristone and Misoprostol. Mifepristone acts as an anti-hormone drug that helps to stop the effects of progesterone. It is used for the therapeutic execution of pregnancy. Misoprostol is a successful way to enlarge the uterine contractions.
DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION MTP kit (Misoprostol + Mifepristone) the set is a combination of two medicines especially used for medical abortion/termination of intrauterine pregnancy up to 63 days of fertilization. For purposes of this treatment, pregnancy is dated from the first day of the last menstrual period in a presumed 28 days cycle with ovulation occurring at mid-cycle. It is advisable to go for a clinical examination to know the duration of pregnancy, this may be determined from menstrual history as well.
Cytotec MTP kit (Misoprostol + Mifepristone) the set is a combination of two medicines especially used for medical abortion/termination of intrauterine pregnancy up to 63 days of fertilization. For purposes of this treatment, pregnancy is dated from the first day of the last menstrual period in a presumed 28 days cycle with ovulation occurring at mid-cycle. It is advisable to go for a clinical examination to know the duration of pregnancy, this may be determined from menstrual history as well. The dosage is mifepristone 200 mg orally followed 1–3 days later by misoprostol 800 mcg(4 tablets of 200 mcg) vaginally. The misoprostol may be administered by a clinician or self-administered by the woman. For women at 49–63 days of fertilization, if abortion has not occurred 4 hours after administration of

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Retrieved Text: Is Stametta Safe for Abortion? The answer is NO, Stametta is not safe for abortion. It is a crude and very risky way of ending a pregnancy and you should NOT try it at all!
Stametta has Aloe Vera as one of the ingredients. Aloe Vera is a very sour plant. The body is designed to have a low tolerance for sour things.
If you take Stametta which has Aloe Vera as a base your body rejects it. That is why all most all people who take Stametta end up having a running stomach.
This running stomach is what makes people believe may result into an abortion.
There is a minimal chance that the sourness of Stametta may lead the body to reject the pregnancy. But such a crude method of termination will also be followed with over bleeding. Very risky for your life.
People also believe diarrhea as a result of taking Stametta means they are being cleaned. But, if you take very hot pepper chilies you will get a running stomach too. The body has low tolerance for sour things.
What is stameta (stametta) used for?
Bodicare Stametta Body Healing Liquid 500ml helps strengthen the immune system and relieve various conditions. These include menstruation, lower back and joint pain, fatigue, gum disorders, sexual performance, flatulence, digestive problems and constipation. It can also strengthen bones and muscle tissue.
That is whats Clicks Pharmacies Say.
Is that information true? I do not know.
Am not a believer in a single herbal solution solving all kinds of problems that are not related. The decisions of what you

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Retrieved Text: Medical abortion has always been a concern for women due to many of the false beliefs that are been spread in societies. The truth is medical termination is been performed using the combination pills and also this is one of the effective methods which helps you terminate the unplanned pregnancy.
There are many of the myths that you can come across but these myths need to be debunked and women must be educated regarding the abortion pills. These abortion pills help you to maintain the privacy of the termination.
Abortion usually is done with the help of pills and no other instrument is been inserted in your body. This termination pills result in bleeding, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headache which are not permanent. These side effects do not have a long-term impact and can be easily cured with the help of primary medicines. These medicines do not have any such effect that can stay with you for a long time.
This myth can be heard by you every time and everyone. But these pills are the one which only helps you terminate the pregnancy. This is a completely safe process which doesn’t even cause you internal injury and hence this process cannot have any negative effect or affect your future pregnancies.
To have a medical abortion you do not need to visit hospitals. Medical termination allows you to conduct the whole process at home. You just need to buy abortion pills and can proceed with the whole process as per the instructions. The pills also do arrive at your doorstep

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Retrieved Text: Abortion pills are used for pregnancy termination. Buy abortion pills online safely helps in causing easy medical abortion it is to be consumed within a period of 7 to 9 weeks of pregnancy.
Buy Abortion Pill online at the lowest rate from the Abortionpills247 online store. Here you get a variety of pregnancy termination pill with a various discount as well as with free shipping worldwide for placing an order above $300.

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Retrieved Text: A diet that is high in protein content is called a protein-rich diet. Foods that contain high protein are chicken, eggs, pork, soy, almonds, tuna, lentils, etc. The recommended daily intake (RDI) for women is 46 grams and for men is 56 grams.
I have severe hair loss after hair straightening. What should I do?
Please suggest treatment for thalassemia major.
Why do I always feel lazy and have muscle pains?
Why am I spotting watery mucus after a miscarriage?
Does low weight of fetus lead to early termination of pregnancy?
Can you tell me the cause of my severe hair fall?
There is a hole below my stomach with smelly pus discharging. Help me.
Do you have a question on Protein Rich Diet? We have medical experts to help you right away.

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Retrieved Text: Some parents receive the shocking news that the baby they are expecting is unlikely to survive for long after birth. The months of pregnancy remaining can appear to them as bleak and pointless, as they struggle to reconcile their own expectations, along with those of family and friends, with the reality of a newborn infant with a terminal illness, or a child with a chronic disability.
In this situation, doctors are called upon to be compassionate with, and supportive of, parents who are both shocked and grieving and to facilitate them in every way throughout the pregnancy.
The doctor must also remember that the dying or disabled child in the womb is no different from the dying or disabled child outside the womb. The ethical responsibility to respect human life and to avoid intentional harm is still valid.
Doctors for Life opposes the termination of pregnancy for reasons of terminal illness or disability diagnosed in the infant prior to birth.
Doctors for Life wholeheartedly supports the provision of appropriate hospice care for children born with life-limiting illnesses and their families.

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Retrieved Text: The procedure is called vacuum aspiration, where a small tube is placed into the womb under sedation (painless procedure) to empty the contents inside the womb. No scraping is usually performed to minimize the risk of scarring.
The procedure is known as MTPT (mid trimester pregnancy termination) and is carried out at Thomson Medical Centre. It is a more complicated 2-staged procedure involving initial delivery of the fetus vaginally, followed by a surgical procedure to clean the womb in the operating theatre. This procedure may take 1-2 days in the hospital.
Abortion is strictly prohibited beyond 24 weeks unless the pregnancy jeopardizes the life of the pregnant woman.
Please use the form or the contact info below to contact our abortion centre. We will attend to your enquiry / feedback as soon as we can. Thank You!

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Retrieved Text: Keep the baby or have a termination?
You're here: Home » Peoples Stories » Abortion Stories » Keep the baby or have a termination?
I have fairly recently found out I am pregnant. I am now 10 weeks gone and struggling to know what to do - whether to keep the baby or have a termination. I had a surgical abortion 1 year ago and swore I would never make the same mistake, but now so may obstacles have arisen and I am struggling to see how I can possibly continue with this pregnancy. My partner and I are both in our early 20s and training to be teachers at university. I suffer from several mental health problems including bipolar disorder and I am in remission from anorexia nervosa. Since I found out i am pregnant I have had to stop taking my meds as they are harmful to the baby, but now I am losing my head. I dont think its safe for me to have a baby when I am unstable. Having planned the pregnancy I could've been weened onto different meds prior to conception, making the whole situation safer. But this pregnancy was not planned and would leave me unstable and having to drop out of uni with no money and nowhere to live. My partner would never forgive me if I terminate the pregnancy but I just feel too scared to keep it! Advice please!!
I am concerned that you feel your mental health is deteriorating. My first advice would be to request a referal

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Retrieved Text: We show you information about how to abort in Cannock, if you want to terminate an unwanted pregnancy on www.abortionclinicsinuk.co.uk we have all of the legal abortion clinics that exists in Cannock, get informed, with no obligations!
What is the ideal moment to have sexual relations if I want to get pregnant with the base temperature method?
What benefits does the termination of a pregnancy with medication have?
Can I take the morning after pill as a habitual contraceptive?

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Retrieved Text: How abortion pills became the safest way of terminating a pregnancy?
After the various struggles that have been done by the pro-choice groups, regarding allowing women to get an abortion according to their own decisions, many countries have allowed abortion with the help of FDA approved pills mifepristone and misoprostol. These pills are endorsed to be safe and can be taken at home and so few places allow to buy abortion pills over the counter. Research says that women having an abortion at home are having a higher frequency and that only 2% of women turn out to the health clinic to tackle the aggravations created from the use of the termination pills.
How did the abortion pills originate?
In the year 1980, a French chemist Georges Teutsch on a formal research developed mifepristone (RU486) which is also a progesterone receptor antagonist. In October 1981 tests were conducted on 11 women at a medical hospital in Switzerland that stood to be successful. Later in the year, 1987 October mifepristone was taken with a prostaglandin analog misoprostol and the research was conducted on 20,000 women which was again a successful attempt. After this Roussel Uclaf got approval to allow the use of these misogyne pills to be used as the termination pill to induce abortion.
This was later accepted by WHO in the year 2000 and approved to be the safest mode of inducing abortion. Great Britain approved the use of these abortion pills in the year 1991 1st July while Sweden accepted the use of misogyne in the year 1992

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Retrieved Text: Figure 1.2 Die Charite in Berlin (1785-1800) from a lithograph by von C Koppen (from Murken AH, Vom Armenhospital zum Grossklinikum die Geschichte des Krankenhauses, Vom 18. Jahrhundert biszur Gegenwart Koln, Durmont, 1988, 39).
Figure 1.3 J Matthews Duncan MD: born in 1826, and educated in Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He studied obstetrics under Sir James Simpson and was closely involved in the discovery of chloroform. He moved to London in 1877 and had a large practice based at St Bartholomew's Hospital (courtesy of Dr DWM Pearson, Aberdeen).
from his own experience first identified the serious problem of diabetes to the obstetrical world. He recorded at least 22 pregnancies in 15 mothers between the ages of 21 and 38 (the data are confused in places): the mother survived the pregnancy for long enough to become pregnant again in nine instances, in five she died at the delivery and in six within a few months. The cause of maternal death was usually diabetic coma, although it is not possible to exclude eclampsia, and some must also have developed puerperal sepsis and one died from exacerbation of tuberculosis. Twelve of the 22 babies died, usually in utero, and they were usually of a large size: at least 10 survived and only three miscarriages are recorded: another 20 pregnancies seem to have occurred before the recorded cases, so some of these mothers must represent late-onset Type 2 or gestational diabetes, and these seemed to have a better prognosis for both mother and child.
So far as is known, all, with one exception, were

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======= Instance Index 22 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers is one way to prevent dead zones in bodies of water. Preserving wetlands is also important. Wetlands are habitats such as swamps, marshes, and bogs where the ground is soggy or covered with water much of the year. Wetlands slow down and filter runoff before it reaches bodies of water. Wetlands also provide breeding grounds for many different species of organisms.


Q: Cutting down on the use of chemical fertilizers and preserving wetlands are ways to prevent what "unlivable" regions in bodies of water?

 Choices:

- hostile zones

- inhabitable zones

- dead zones

- fresh zones

A:

Target Text: dead zones

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: As society becomes more health and environmentally conscious, you're likely paying more attention to the size of your household's carbon footprint and what you feed your family. If you grow a home vegetable garden or feed your lawn and landscape, you may wonder if chemical fertilizers are really the best products to use. It's true that chemical fertilizers create runoff, contribute to greenhouse gasses and require frequent application. They do have their benefits, however. Chemical fertilizers offer greater control over the amount of nutrients you feed your plants than their organic counterparts. Manufactured fertilizer is also much less likely to add weeds to your garden, benefits plants more quickly than organic fertilizer and requires smaller applications. It's important to weigh both the pros and cons of chemical fertilizers before deciding whether to use them.
Many computer interfaces operate on a WYSIWYG system, and so do manufactured fertilizers. In the computer world, WYSIWYG stands for "what you see is what you get," and refers to programs that allow users to print documents that appear the same on paper as they do on the screen. Chemical fertilizers work the same way. The fertilizer ingredients are carefully measured and their amounts listed right on their packaging. When you use them, you know exactly how much of a given element you will add to your soil. Because of their sources, organic fertilizers are a bit more unpredictable. Many come from manure, for instance, and it's impossible to know exactly what a certain animal ate and how its body processed it.
Chemical fertilizers

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Retrieved Text: Chautauqua Lake needs to be put on a diet! The lake’s frequent algae blooms and overabundance of weeds are symptoms of a lake that has been “fed” an excessive amount of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, as well as eroding sediments. The prescription for an overfed lake is a low-nutrient diet, and everyone can help in this effort.
More than ever, now is the time to starve the algae (and weeds!) to save the lake!
Anyone who has a home or business in the Chautauqua Lake drainage basin is part of a developed area that contributes nutrients to the lake. Water runs over our lawns, roofs, storm drains, driveways and roadside ditches and carries with it fertilizers, pet wastes and sediments as it flows to our streams and the lake. If all owners of developed land (whether you are a seasonal or year-round homeowner, condominium association, businesses or residential/commercial property owner), would take steps to reduce nutrients entering the lake from their properties, the collective effort would have a big impact! So, what can you do?
One, take a look at your property. Chances are that rainwater flowing across your property either flows directly to the lake or discharges to a road ditch or storm drain that eventually flows to the lake. Maintain and use your property in such a way that the flow of nutrients to the lake from your property is minimal.
Two, reduce or eliminate your use of lawn fertilizers. Fertilizers containing nitrogen and/or phosphorus feed lake algae and weeds, just like they feed your lawn,

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to the health and safety of our family and pets, we hear a lot about eating whole foods, nurturing our bodies with vitamins and getting plenty of exercise. Yet, many of us still cover our lawns and gardens with chemical fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides.
Like our bodies, the soil in our lawns and gardens is alive. So why not treat it as a living organism? A healthy lawn and landscape is dependant upon a healthy bio-active soil. Going organic means using organic fertilizers, which are derived from something that was once living. It’s the perfect food for the soil to digest, returning the nutrients to your plants.
When you use organic fertilizers, you are not feeding the plants but nourishing the bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes and worms in the soil that release the nutrients for your plants to feed on.
Synthetic fertilizer creates a vicious cycle in your lawn and garden. It is the drug of choice for insects and disease, which can lead to a dependence on chemical insecticides. Insecticides kill beneficial microbes and worms, further degrading soil diversity and structure and causing compaction. Of course, this causes the need for frequent watering, which leads to fungal diseases. Once the soil life is diminished and it can no longer feed your landscape, your plants become dependant on the chemical supplements and are more sucesptible to pests and diseases.
The good news is that organic techniques can reverse the downward spiral created by repeated use of chemical fertilizers. By using organic tools such as compost, organic fertilizers

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Retrieved Text: We grow food - an essential element for life. What we put into growing this must be safe for people and the environment. It's that simple.
We follow organic growing standards, and are currently Certified Naturally Grown, and are undergoing the process to obtain USDA Organic Certification. We are happy to talk with you about our practices. If you have questions about our practices, please come out to the farm or call us up to ask us.
We keep down pest and diseases by rotating crops, removing crop residue from fields, and using drip irrigation to manage moisture. When absolutely necessary to control pests, we only use products that are certified organic, made from natural materials such as flower extracts. We don't use synthetic chemical pesticides that could harm humans, wildlife, or soil microbes.
We use fertilizers made entirely of natural materials such as composted manure, and rock powders, or kelp. We don't use chemical fertilizers derived using petroleum products.
We use cover crops to build soil structure, add organic matter, suppress weeds, and prevent soil erosion.
We use absolutely no herbicides and manage weeds using tools, bed cover, and muscle power.
We only use non-GMO seed and untreated seed. We also only use certified organic seed if it is available.

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Retrieved Text: BIOMA is a Swiss company focused on chemical-free pollution reduction solutions and chemical-free agriculture solutions.
A Swiss company with over 25 years of international presence.
Bioma is a company active in the production and distribution of "Chemical free" and "GMO free" products for Agriculture, Environmental bioremediation, Livestock, Enology, Food Preservation, Animal and Human Wellbeing.
Our products optimize all biological processes, promote the indigenous microbiology and allow the achievement of an optimal balance in the biomass system.
Prevent emission of Ammonia and other undesired gases from solid and liquid manure.
Livestock farming is responsible for 94% emissions of ammonia (NH3). NH3 causes loss of air quality and impacts on animal welfare, driving down the farm environment quality and productivity as well as impacting on global air quality. As response stringent emissions limits and manure management practices are imposed. There is about half a million livestock farms in the EU that will need to eliminate their NH3 emissions in the next decade. 1.4 billion tonnes of livestock manure are produced annually in Europe. Bioma has developed a line of products, named KOPROS, the first and only chemical-free and GMO-free solution to prevent ammonia production from manure and thus avoiding its emission into the atmosphere. Kopros stimulates the natural beneficial microbiology present in the manure and helps it to make the correct transformations and immediately initiate the mineralization and humification processes by which elements are fixed inside the manure and not lost in air. Furthermore, by promoting the growth of the beneficial microbiology it helps prevent the spread of undesired or pathogenic microorganisms.
Elimination of

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Retrieved Text: Home > Implementations > What are the 4Rs > Nitrogen Loss Pathways – Which is Yours?
The well-known poem by Robert Frost, “The Road Not Taken”, kindles our imagination about the richness of life gained by taking the less traveled paths. While it may seem a far reach, this “less traveled path” metaphor also pertains to you and the N nutrition of your plants; whether you are a professional turf or crop manager, or a hobby horticulturalist.
Greater fertilizer N costs and knowledge of the environmental impacts of N losses are driving us all toward better N stewardship. Weather, or the lack of its control, hinders us from perfect N management. But weather variability should not prevent us from striving for lower losses down the “more traveled N loss pathways”.
The nitrate leaching and drainage N loss pathway is probably the “more traveled” in humid, higher rainfall environments (>25 to 30 in./yr). Nitrate losses under annual crop systems may range between 10 and 40 lbs of N/A/yr in higher rainfall environments. Nitrate losses under deep-rooted perennial crops are often lower. If rainfall, irrigation (>1/2 in. within a few days after application), or tillage do not soil incorporate surface-applied urea or urea-containing N fertilizers within a few days after application, ammonia volatilization (gaseous loss as ammonia) may range from 20 to 40% of the N applied, and rival N losses from leaching and drainage. Recent research has shown that such ammonia volatilization losses can also occur if urea is applied on snowpack or wet soil surfaces in colder environments.
Gaseous loss

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Retrieved Text: Peace in Organic Agriculture | Qamishlo, Syria – DOZ e. V.
Under this name and an appeal to peace, a team of the UKSSD Syria – Qamishlo has set up a campaign to distribute awareness brochures in the field of agriculture (organic) in the major and sub regions of Qamishli city. This campaign came to coincide with the Farmers Day which falls on the seventeenth of April every year, the campaign aimed to expand agricultural awareness through guidance in the cultivation of natural seed and relying on the natural products instead of those that are produced by chemical fertilizers which pose a threat to human, animal, plant and environment as well.
Agriculture is the farming system that relies on the use of natural and biological materials in cultivation instead of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other harmful materials to the public health in order to maintain the health of humans, animals, plants and to reduce air pollution, soil and water.
The brochures included also a glimpse of the importance that lies behind the use of the natural agriculture and showing solutions to many farmers who face problems in conventional agriculture (risks the farmers face due to the use of toxic substances and consumers who eat these products that are accumulate a lot of toxic materials – the depletion of natural resources without rationalization – the environmental implications in terms of soil pollution, forest degradation and to fail to maintain biodiversity.
-Its life span after harvest is long and it doesn’t damage quickly compared to the chemically.
-Normal size and it is identical

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Retrieved Text: Аннотация: The greatest world reservoir of fresh water, the unique Lake Baikal, is at risk from anthropogenic influence. Three stages of economic activity in the lake region can be distinguished: (i) poor economic uses, (ii) increase of economic uses after the construction of the hydropower station dam on the outflow of the lake, and (iii) intensive increase of economic activity, characterized by the intensive use of mineral fertilizers, transportation, log rafting, growth of population around Baikal, mass development of tourism, the construction of the Baikal-Amur railroad and pulp combines. Chemical and biological pollution of the lake, fishing and hunting, the state of coasts and protected areas are discussed. The regions most affected are listed. The greater long-term influence is an increase in the mineralization of tributary waters due to forest cutting and land cultivation. Though the influence does not cause a decline in water quality, the properties of the Baikalian water in local sites of pollution can significantly differ from their initial state. The quality of water, however, is within the limits of requirements for fresh drinking water.

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : Wetlands, which directly or indirectly provide almost all of the world’s consumption of freshwater, are disappearing three times faster than forests.
The disappearance of the most economically valuable and among the most biodiverse ecosystems in the world would have severe consequences for our future unless urgent action is taken to ensure their survival, a new report by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands has warned.
Over one-third of the world’s wetlands were lost between 1970-2015, with annual rates of loss accelerating from 2000, the first-ever Global Wetland Outlook (GWO) of the Ramsar Convention said.
The Ramsar Convention is a global treaty ratified by 170 countries, including India, to protect wetlands and promote their wise use. The report shows every region in the world is affected.
The report attributed to the losses in wetlands to have been driven by megatrends such as climate change, population increase, urbanization, particularly of coastal zones and river deltas, and changing consumption patterns that have all fuelled changes to land and water use and to agriculture.
Wetlands include lakes, rivers, marshes and peatlands as well as coastal and marine areas such as estuaries, lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs. They are currently estimated to cover more than 12.1 million km2, an area greater than Greenland. Between 13-18 per cent of them are on the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance, which are protected sites.
Wetlands are critical to human and planet life. More than 1 billion people depend on them for a living and 40 per cent of the world’s species live and breed in wetlands.

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Retrieved Text: The practice of organic gardening may seem intimidating and complex but it is not as difficult or expensive as you may think. While it is a different approach to gardening, it simply means finding new sources for your supplies and learning how to use them. Commercial organic growers are bound by strict government regulations but home gardeners have more flexibility. You can choose to garden organically, gradually phasing in new organic practices before you become a full-fledged organic gardener.
The best way to start is from the ground up, so to speak. Healthy soil results in healthy plants that are more resistant to insects and diseases. If the friability or drainage of your soil needs improvement, use natural amendments such as dried leaves, compost, or manure. I favor well-composted horse manure with shavings from local stables because it is available by the truckload and is relatively inexpensive. Many states have local agricultural newspapers that are filled with ads offering various types of manure and compost. Your State Department of Agriculture can direct you to the publication that best suits your needs. Of course, you can always find these amendments cleanly bagged at your local garden center or home improvement store.
After amending your soil, have it tested through your local county extension office. (Be sure to follow the test instructions so that you get accurate results.) Once you get your test results, use organic compounds in place of synthetic ones to balance up your soil. The tests are typically calibrated for synthetic fertilizers, so you may not be

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Retrieved Text: The Council of Agriculture (COA) yesterday rewarded 12 farmers for their successful use of fertilizers and reducing their reliance on harsh fertilizers.
Fertilizer is an indispensable element in agricultural production, but in view of farmers’ common misuse or overuse of fertilizers and the international price hike for fertilizer ingredients in 2008, the council started a program to establish teams at district agricultural research and extension stations to offer advice on appropriate fertilizer use.
As a result, 1,324 demonstration sites have been established, the council said, adding that soil fertility analysis has been performed 177,412 times, and 2,103 instructional workshops have been held to instruct farmers about reasonable fertilizer usage.
The council said there are currently 63 types of crop in the demonstration areas, with fertilizer use about 35 percent lower than normal, amounting to an average reduction of 293kg of fertilizers for each hectare of farmland, cutting fertilizer and manpower costs by about NT$3,500 per hectare.
Overuse of harsh fertilizers can damage the soil and nearby ecology, and does not guarantee better tasting or healthier agricultural products, it said.
The 12 farmers receiving awards were recommended by district agricultural research and extension stations for their usage of fertilizer, taking in account soil conservation, amounts of fertilizer used, production outcome and cooperation with related policies.
One of the farmers, Chen Yung-te (陳永德), said reducing chemical fertilizer use by at least 25 percent and using organic fertilizers such as fermented milk or Chinese medicinal herbs has solved the problem of soil acidification, allowing him to produce good quality jujubes that can now be exported.
Another

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Retrieved Text: Fertilizers provide the nutrients which plants need. The principle ones are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nitrogen is needed to make proteins, phosphorus is needed for nucleic acids, and potassium has many roles including controlling the opening and closing of stomata. Intensive gardening and agriculture often remove these nutrients from the soil.
What are the side effects of fertility medication?
Answer . Infertile women may be given a medication such as Clomiphene Citrate to increase\novulation, to increase chances of pregnancy. Side effects include abdominal discomfort, enlargement of the ovaries, hot flashes, most commonly. They also\nincrease chances of multiple births.
What causes your fertility is your hormonal system and the eggs you produce monthly. If your question is what can help you to increase your fertility, the answer is healthy eating, healthy life, and to increase the amount of some foods containing phytoestrogens as i.e. alfalfa sprouts.
What are the effects of fertilizer pollution?
What factors effect soil fertility?
Soil fertility can be affected by various factors. Activity of soilorganisms on available nutrients, available water and waterdrainage comprise such factors.
Effect fertilizers have on animals?
Chemical fertilizers get washed in with the natural watershed, and promote excessive algae growth in streams, ponds, and lakes. The algae consumes huge amounts of oxygen from the water and can kill fish and other aquatic life.
What are the effect of fertilizer on plants?
This depends on the fertiliser applied. All fertilisers improve the health and growth of the plant if applied in the correct ratio.
How does anorexia effect fertility in men?
What are the effects of liquid fertilizer on the environment?
Liquid fertilizer

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Retrieved Text: Suburban development (roads, housing, schools, and business development) has led to a severe loss of natural habitat within the Paint Branch Watershed, as well as degradation of the streams and tributaries due to impervious surface run-off and other toxic pollution sources (see below). With only 26 percent of its original forest cover remaining, Paint Branch Watershed has lost nearly three-fourths of its forests, and one-third of its historic (pre-colonial) non-tidal wetlands. Forest and wetland acreage continue to decline.
Certain aggressive species of flora and fauna outcompete and displace native species thereby threatening a delicate and complex web of relationships that has resulted over a long history. This threat continues to be one of the most dangerous threats to native ecosystem health.
Motorbikes (two- and three-wheeled), mountain bikes, SUVs, etc causes extensive destruction of vegetation, floodplain, and wetland areas. They are a source of erosion, sedimentation, soil compaction, vernal pool destruction, noise and pollution.
Existing and historic Sand and Gravel Mining destroys natural habitat and causes increased soil erosion and stream sedimentation.
At 18 percent, the impervious surface area in the Paint Branch Watershed is very high. Experts have determined that 10 percent is the maximum amount of development that watershed can have and still maintain suitable trout habitat. The consequences of impervious surfaces are severe. Uncontrolled run-off from impervious surfaces and construction sites causes sharp increases in stream flow velocity. This leads to streambank erosion and stream habitat sedimentation. The run-off also carries with it highly polluting and toxic compounds such as oil, grease, fertilizers, road salt, and other chemical

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Retrieved Text: A natural wetland is a complex ecosystem. Like other ecosystems, whether land- or water-based, many factors affect the form and function of the wetlands. Both biotic and abiotic factors and processes are integral to the natural wetland ecosystem. The term "biotic" refers to living things. The term "abiotic" refers to the materials, processes or factors that are nonliving.
Water itself is perhaps the quintessential abiotic factor in natural wetlands. Although essential to virtually all biological processes, water itself is nonliving and it can occur independently of living things. In natural wetlands, water is the medium in which the entire ecosystem exists and functions. Wetlands in regions that have been glaciated in the past -- in the form of massive ice sheets -- may owe their early beginnings to the powerful carving effects of the glacier. So, even water in that dramatically different form was a significant factor in the development of the wetlands.
Unlike water, air is composed of more than one chemical compound. Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and several other gaseous substances form air’s chemical composition. Air, especially the oxygen contained within it, is another critical abiotic factor in natural wetlands. Virtually any wetland ecosystem features many kinds of plants and animals. Green plants make use of carbon dioxide from the air; in turn, they release oxygen as a waste product. Animals do the inverse; they take in and use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide as a waste product. Although there are organisms that can and do live and grow in the absence of oxygen, the

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Retrieved Text: If you own a property with an underground storage tank, then you’re probably familiar with testing and assessing the health and reliability of your tank. While most people know this is a process that has to be completed, that tends to be where their knowledge ends—they don’t always understand the nuts and bolts. Today, we’re going to solve that problem by answering some common questions our clients have about their underground storage tanks. If you have one on your property, this is one article you won’t want to skip!
When should an underground storage tank be tested?
Underground storage tanks are tested in order to find or diagnose a problem or issue. Tanks are usually tested at a few key times, such as the anniversary of an installation, a change in ownership, or if it seems like there might be a leak due to a breakdown in equipment or the fact that fuel can be seen or smelled. Chances are, if you suspect your storage tank needs to be tested, it probably does!
Who can collect samples from an underground water tank?
What are these professionals looking for?
As with most things, it depends on the situation. If the tank was used to store gasoline, samples collected at the site will be tested for benzene, ethyl benzene, toluene, and xylene, among other things. Oil storage tanks can also be tested for water in the tank, which can be caused by roof spillage, condensation, or a bad oil delivery. If water is found, it needs to be pumped out to ensure the

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Retrieved Text: Learn how you can use an environmentally-friendly method to clean your lakes and ponds.
They’re serene, calming and inviting. Lakes and ponds provide life, joy and serenity. You’ll find them on golf courses, tucked away in neighborhoods, or sprawled out in public parks. These bodies of water require attention and care as much as the golf courses they sit on.
Often times, lakes and ponds are covered with a layer of soft, green vegetation. But are these floating aquatic weeds harmful to the health of the pond? Absolutely! Over time, they can prevent sunlight from reaching deeper plants, thus prohibiting photosynthesis and the production of oxygen, which fish and other aquatic dwellers need to thrive. Duckweed and watermeal are amongst some of the weeds that thrive in nutrient-rich bodies of water such as farm ponds, but they can slowly choke the life out of those ponds. So, the question is, how can they be controlled?
A myriad of pond owners rely on chemical treatments to clean their ponds. What many don’t know is that these chemicals can affect more than just the ponds themselves. Over time, these chemicals can leach from the pond itself into the local groundwater, contaminating wells and other still bodies of water. This process is relatively slow, with some chemicals taking decades to reach the supply of drinking water, so detrimental effects may not appear right away.
Lake on a golf course. Shutterstock.
Duckweed and watermeal are just two types of weeds that most pond owners seek to control with chemicals such as diquat. Duckweed — so

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Retrieved Text: Meadowfall is a micro-farm in Parsonsfield, Maine nestled along the New Hampshire border near Province Lake. We specialize in wild foraged foods found in our local meadows, forests, bogs and beaches. We also grow colorful and heirloom variety produce without the use of synthetic or chemical pesticides or fertilizers on a small amount of acreage with intensive planting. It is a goal of ours to introduce food lovers to the color, beauty and unique tastes of unusual varieties of produce, whether they be wild or cultivated.
We have a particular interest in preserving heirloom varieties of produce as they provide a more colorful and flavorful palette that we enjoy to see on our plates and growing on our farm. We love foraging for wild food, as it is truly seasonal - from the earliest spring field sorrel to the late autumn Maitake mushrooms found beneath fallen oak leaves.
"Permaculture" (permanent-agriculture) is a central design component on our farm. Each year we plant more perennial fruiting vines and trees, sometimes selecting and transplanting wild cultivars to complement the harvest of our foraged foods. For our annual market gardens, we grow intensively on less than one acre using low-tech, high-yielding methods. While we are not yet certified organic, we do follow those practices with no synthetic or chemical pesticides or fertilizers.

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Retrieved Text: In 2008, Carla and her husband founded Eco-Ola, a soon to be B-Corporation, which sustainably produces Amazonian food. Products such as the sacha inchi which literally means the ‘peanuts of the Incas’. Their goal? To not only to run a successful business which improves the lives of farmers and the communities which help to grow the food, but also to protect the incredible biodiversity of the surrounding rainforest.
“The key to preserving the jungle is to ensure that the land is correctly farmed and to avoid the logging by people forced into a desperate situations who then cut down trees” Carla tells me.
Eco-Ola’s model is based on permaculture techniques which are still generally unknown in the region. “Permaculture looks at the natural environment and creates a structure that helps to produce the food, fibre, medicine and building materials that will support the farming community”, explains Bill, Carla’s husband. “Rather than teaching the farmers failed farming techniques which use chemical fertilizers, we show them how permaculture is applicable in their region and how it can provide them with better returns”.

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Retrieved Text: Where did you do your internship and what was your role?
I did my internship at ACTeon Environment in Colmar, France. I contributed to a research project regarding aquatic biodiversity in the European Union called AQUACROSS. Within AQUACROSS, there were eight different case studies in different geographical regions that are facing threats to biodiversity. I worked on the Danube River case study, whose main threat to biodiversity is hydromorphological alterations to the river, or put simply, changes made to the shape of the river (hydroelectric dams, dykes, etc.) These changes impact how the river is connected to wetlands, which consequently affects the ecosystem services that these water bodies provide, such as water filtration and flood prevention. ACTeon was responsible for conducting the efficiency analysis of ecosystem-based management policies aimed at preserving aquatic biodiversity, and I contributed to this analysis.
How did your studies at TSE help you during the internship?
The courses in ERNA were helpful because we learned about environmental valuation and cost-benefit analysis, both of which were pertinent to the project I worked on. Environmental valuation was useful because we learned about different techniques to value non-market goods like ecosystem services, and about their advantages and drawbacks. To carry out an efficiency analysis of the policy, we will conduct a cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis, depending on what information is available, so it was very useful to have a course on cost-benefit analysis.
How did you get the internship? What would be your advice for students looking for a similar internship?
I had seen an internship offer from ACTeon on

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Retrieved Text: Inorganic fertilizer, also referred to as synthetic fertilizer, is manufactured artificially and contains minerals or synthetic chemicals. For example, synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are typically made from petroleum or natural gas. Phosphorus, potassium and other trace elements in inorganic fertilizers are often mined from the earth.
Coating process: The roller coating machine to carry on the coating to the fertilizer granule. In order to prevent the particle adhesion 9.Packing process: Packing process as the final process of the whole plant, generally using the automatic packing machine, Packing the fertilizer pellets into bags for sale. 10.
Environmental Impacts. Inorganic fertilizers are immediately available to your plants, but they are subject to leaching, a process that occurs when fertilizers are washed by rain or irrigation water below the level of plant roots.
However, the use of organic compound fertilizers for tobacco production gave higher yields than chemical fertilizer at the same N levels, although this effect was not seen until the second year.TeaThe Taiwan Tea Experiment Station conducted field trials on the effect of organic compound fertilizers in two sites in Taiwan in 1993.
manufacturing process of inorganic fertilizers flow diagrams. Chemistry – [email protected] | Open Educational Resources by the … inorganic chemical industries and industrial … density, and melting point.
Sustainable solutions for energy-efficient and safe production of fertilizers also help the global foodstuff supply.
MAP & DAP Fertilizer Production. Once phosphate rock has been mined, the actual phosphate ore is beneficiated to separate it from the unwanted materials. This is carried out via a wet process, the resulting material of which must

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Retrieved Text: As many are aware, storm water runoff from yards has the potential to wash debris, fertilizers, and other pollutants down drains and into our water sources. But few know about how we can limit that runoff, thereby helping to protect our precious streams, rivers, and ocean.
Direct downspouts and gutters away from impermeable surfaces like driveways and sidewalks. Make sure they deposit excess water onto your lawn, into flower beds, or any other surface that will absorb it.
Create storm water troughs at the edges of your lawn to catch rainwater draining on to the sidewalk.
Use mulch, bricks, or gravel for surfaces like walkways and patios. This will allow rainwater to filter into the ground, instead of being washed into storm drains.
Mow high – by cutting your grass too low, you are exposing your lawn to weeds and pests, while also making it easier for excess fertilizer and other chemicals to seep onto impermeable surfaces.
Reduce or eliminate the use of fertilizers on your lawn. If you must use a fertilizer, use organic compost instead of chemical ones.
Sweep grass clippings and excess fertilizer onto your lawn, and off sidewalks and driveways.
Clean up chemical spills and motor oil from driveways. Cat litter is a good absorbent for these liquids!
Pick up pet waste and trash, so they also cannot be washed into storm drains. Pet waste carries bacteria that can seriously pollute the water supply.
If we all take these measures, it will go a long way toward keeping our storm drains free of dangerous chemicals and pollutants that have proven to

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Retrieved Text: Grow a healthy lawn without the use of toxic weed killers and fertilizers. Weed and feed products are harmful to the environment, to your family's health and to the beneficial organisms--earthworms, bacteria and fungi--found in your yard's soil. Use these natural methods to keep your lawn weed-free and healthy.
The oldest method and the greenest method is pulling weeds by hand. Pull only the largest, most invasive weeds. Leaving some weeds in the ground is not harmful to your lawn and often does not affect the appearance of your lawn either.
Slow release fertilizers are applied once a year. Fertilizers are coated to allow a slow release of the fertilization chemical; constant fertilizer is unnecessary as fertilizers continue to release throughout the year. These fertilizers are broken down by soil microbes so chemicals remain in the soil as opposed to running off into ground water or streams.
Mow your lawn less and mow it higher, keeping the lawn at about 2 inches in height. Water your lawn less often, but when watering it, water it deeply to encourage root development; water weekly adding about 1 inch of water to the lawn each week. Seed bare or thinner areas of your lawn with grass seed to prevent weeds from having a place to grow.
Natural weed killers include such things as vinegar, boiling water and salt. All of these, when applied directly to weeds can be effective. Another effective herbicide is corn gluten meal, a by-product formed when corn is processed to make corn syrup or starch. When applied to sprouting

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Retrieved Text: The Costa Brava (“Wild” or “Rough Coast”) is a coastal region of northeastern Spain, very touristic area due to its known wild beauty. When here, trying one of the many offers for diving or snorkeling on your own, you will be surprised by the thousands of fishes around you, all seems indeed wild and unspoiled! But to remember that marine ecosystems are very fragile in general, and an impact on the smallest of species may have an impact on the whole ecosystem! What governments can do to help, in general, is controlling/regulating fish farming and fishing industries, put in place efficient recycling policies to avoid plastic ending up in the seas and oceans, as well as limiting/reducing the use of industrial fertilizers through regulations, prevent untreated wastewater from being channeled into rivers and seas and restore wetlands and natural coast defenses which help filter nutrients out of the water before reaching the sea! What you can do is: to recycle, to consume pesticide-free products and to respect the environment in general!

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Retrieved Text: Wild chervil (Anthriscus sylvestris) is a biennial or short-lived perennial herb native to Europe and western Asia that typically grows up to 4 feet tall. A flower head consisting of numerous small white flowers is produced in June. The flowers are sometimes confused with those of Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota).
Wild chervil out competes native plants and can form dense stands in fields and wetlands.
Cutting, pulling, and digging are generally not effective unless they can be frequently repeated due wild chervil’s deep taproot. Cutting or mowing can prevent seed production and may eventually kill the plants if frequently repeated. Foliar application of a systemic herbicide can be effective but treatments may need to be repeated to achieve full control. Control of this species in wetlands is subject to the Massachusetts Wetlands Protection Act; be sure to check with the local conservation commission before initiating control measures. Always read and follow the directions on the label when using herbicide. In wetlands, only use herbicides registered for use in these areas.

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Retrieved Text: All our teas are hand picked & organically grown from single estates on the slopes of the Himalayas & Nilgiris Flavoured varietals are all Real Teas with naturally extracted flavours in pure form.
There are set standards that carry the label “Organic”. However no standards exist for labeling a product “natural”.
All our teas are Organic in composition through process and certified by the regulatory authorities in the EU and USA.
Tea is a natural occurring plant. From harvesting to packing it undergoes a natural fermentation without any additives. Organically grown tea does not use synthetic or chemical fertilizers, as per the stringent rules that govern the classification of a product to be called “Organic”. In neither case are the teas “synthesized”, thus preserving intrinsic natural flavours and characteristics.

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Retrieved Text: Having a garden is a good and nice hobby. It can be the place where you can enjoy after the long day at work. With all the chemicals that can help your garden look beautiful and well protected from any kind of pest, weed or different types of bugs.
Why don’t you take the challenge onto the next level? Make your garden greener. Now, you’re probably asking yourself how is this possible. Before we answer this question, let’s consider some other things that may help you realize why you should do it.
Anything that we use today is made using energy from fossil fuels that pollute our environment and has large impact on so called greenhouse effect. Greenhouse effect leads to global warming which may impact every plant and living creature on Earth, including humans.
Of course it’s easier to start your car, drive to a local market for gardening supplies and buy some of the chemical fertilizers which will make your garden grow and glow. By doing this you will pollute air while driving your car, and by supporting chemical industry that makes fertilizers (using energy from fossil fuel), and you will pollute soil and water by using chemical fertilizer. There is no doubt that your garden will be good looking. On the other hand, you can make the compost yourself. All the ingredients can be found in your kitchen and around your house. You’ll need compost bin (which can be easily found on the market), and any type of organic waste like apple cores, vegetable peels, coffee

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Retrieved Text: With the whole world embracing green production methods, it is little wonder that organic products have become so popular. Cultivating vegetables organically simply means growing vegetables without using chemicals for pest control or fertilizers. When it comes to planting kitchen waste is no longer termed as waste. It is used to make compost to feed nutrients to the vegetables. You can purchase compost at dirtworks.net, lowes.com and homedepot.com.
In addition to ensuring that your produce is well nourished, you must take the necessary precaution to prevent any weeds and pests from destroying your garden. The use of chemicals is not acceptable in organic gardening. Therefore, you will have to use pesticides and herbicides that are made from natural ingredients to get rid of the weeds and pests. The purpose of adopting this method is to prevent these chemicals from harming our bodies and the environment.
Most people grow gardens on a small scale which is usually done in their private backyards. For those who live in apartments, the space on the roof or a window box can work well. This is an ideal way for the family to produce healthy vegetables as well as save some money.
Once you have found a location, here are a few tips to consider when caring for your garden.
The small space available in your backyard and roof top must be laid out in order for your garden flourish. The amount of space that you allocate each plant should be of top priority. Once you have worked out your individual plants’ spacing, you can

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Retrieved Text: We are a family run permaculture farm and nursery located on the Klamath River in the far northwestern corner of California. We’re dedicated to the purpose of preserving and promoting botanical diversity and making our unique and extensive plant collection available to the public. Our goal is to help you efficiently and economically grow a diverse array of fruiting and other useful plants to bountifully stock your edible landscape, homestead or farm. Growing your own starts can save you a substantial amount of money and also empowers you to be fully at the creative helm of your planting projects. It can take a lot of plants to create and maintain a rich and productive landscape. To have the skills and resources to make, replace or change over your plantings gives you a real advantage in keeping them at maximum yield and satisfaction.
We have opened our new online store to make these resources available. As always we use only organic methods and no chemical fertilizers, pesticides or GMO products.
Please shop our on-line store for cuttings wood, scionwood, divisions, liners and seed for a wide selection of fruiting bushes, vines, fruit and nut trees, perennial vegetables, as well as other useful homestead plants.
Check out our selection of Well-Rooted Cutting Plugs and Rooted Seedling Plugs. Get a headstart growing plants for your edible landscape!
We also offer custom grafting and propagation for your unique planting projects.
Come shop at our on-site farm nursery. We offer many great varieties of fruiting plants that are ready to plant out year around. For an

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Retrieved Text: We may never again know the Prairies as they once were: vast, living carpets of green and gold, speckled with wildflowers, inhabited by millions of birds and beasts, punctuated by countless potholes and slow-moving streams that meandered across the land.
Prairie wetlands and streams still provide food and shelter for one of the most diverse communities of wildlife on the planet. Deer use shoreline shrubs as cover, waterfowl nest in upland grasses, weasels hunt along the edges of water bodies, and flycatchers streak above cattails in pursuit of wetland insects.
But vast stretches of native grasslands have vanished under the farmer’s plow or developer’s bulldozer, along with two-thirds of potholes. Many prairie streams have been straightened to prevent floods or to irrigate crops. And cattle have destroyed shorelines by grazing vegetation to the ground, trampling banks, and fouling water with their waste. The following projects will help you protect wetlands and streams on prairies and in other rural areas.
Most farmers and ranchers know the value of healthy shorelines and clean water, not only for wildlife but also for cows and crops. But often a wetland or stream is the sole source of water for livestock, and growing crops to the water’s edge is more profitable, in the short run, than planting a buffer strip.
Promote the coexistence of wildlife and agriculture. Start a rural awareness campaign to keep shoreline health in people’s minds, while ensuring sustainable agriculture.
Persuade landowners to set aside wetlands and streams as protected wildlife habitat. Most waterfowl breed on private farmland, and many migratory birds could

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Retrieved Text: – Where to drain the lake. The dam to the south, where sugar farms now exist, is causing all the water to flow into the rivers.
– The pollution from cow farms north of Lake Okeechobee. The cow manure, full of nitrogen, goes untreated and washes down river into the lake.
-The pollution from fertilizers used on sugar crops. Most of the nitrogen from fertilizer in plant farms is absorbed by the crops. The sugar farms are also downstream from the lakes. The companies have a profit incentive to protect their fertilizers from just running off into the lake, not that it doesn’t happen during floods.
Nitrogen found in manure and fertilizer feed the algae but it can also feed native plants.
Buy land from cow farms north of Okeechobee and then offer subsidies for sugar farms in the south west area of Okeechobee to relocate. Then use this area of old sugar farm land to allow for spillways into the Everglades. Build a canal to take it past the residential areas. Drudge some of the land to create stormwater treatment type reservoirs.
The bigger problem with the sugar farms is their location, which prevent Okeechobee from draining out into the wetlands. This plan will alleviate the volume of nitrogen added to the lake and designate an area for nitrogen infused water to feed the native Everglades instead of just feeding algae. These spillways are the most important component of solving the toxic algae problem. There is no plan that won’t be difficult and face resistance but this dilutes the burden

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand The intrinsic muscles of the hand both originate and insert within it (Figure 11.28). These muscles allow your fingers to also make precise movements for actions, such as typing or writing. These muscles are divided into three groups. The thenar muscles are on the radial aspect of the palm. The hypothenar muscles are on the medial aspect of the palm, and the intermediate muscles are midpalmar. The thenar muscles include the abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, and the adductor pollicis. These muscles form the thenar eminence, the rounded contour of the base of the thumb, and all act on the thumb. The movements of the thumb play an integral role in most precise movements of the hand. The hypothenar muscles include the abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi brevis, and the opponens digiti minimi. These muscles form the hypothenar eminence, the rounded contour of the little finger, and as such, they all act on the little finger. Finally, the intermediate muscles act on all the fingers and include the lumbrical, the palmar interossei, and the dorsal interossei.


Q: Which muscles allow your fingers to also make precise movements for actions?

 Choices:

- intrinsic muscles

- fine movement muscles

- motoric muscles

- paired muscles

A:

Target Text: intrinsic muscles

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Retrieved Text: What Gives the Fingers Strength?
Although our fingers can perform delicate actions such as playing a harp, they also have the strength to tightly grip and pinch objects. Despite their strength and ability to make precise motions, our fingers have no muscles. Instead, we rely on muscles in the forearm and hand to pull tendons in the fingers. As we age, our muscles become weaker, and this can result in older people having less strength in their fingers. Understanding the anatomy of your forearm muscles and how they give strength to your fingers will help you work these muscles to improve finger strength.
Under the skin, your fingers are made up of bones, tendons, nerves and blood vessels. The finger bones are called the phalanges; each finger has three phalanges connected at the joints we call our knuckles -- except for the thumb, which has two phalanges. The largest bone in each finger connects to the hand bones (metacarpals), which then connect to the wrist bones (carpals). Running the length of each finger to muscles in the forearm are two tendons, the flexor and the extensor.
The forearm and hand consist of several small muscles that control the fingers. The muscles within the hand are known as the intrinsic muscles, while those in the forearm are referred to as extrinsic muscles. The main muscles within the forearm that move the fingers and give them strength are the flexor digitorum profundus and the flexor digitorum superficialis -- these flex your fingers -- the flexor pollicis longus, which flexes the thumb;

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Retrieved Text: COLUMBUS, Ohio – For the first time ever, a paralyzed man can move his fingers and hand with his own thoughts thanks to an innovative partnership between The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center and Battelle.
Ian Burkhart, a 23-year-old quadriplegic from Dublin, Ohio, is the first patient to use BATTELLE NeuroLife™, an electronic neural bypass for spinal cord injuries that reconnects the brain directly to muscles, allowing voluntary and functional control of a paralyzed limb. Burkhart is the first of a potential five participants in a clinical study.
The NeuroLife technology combines algorithms that learn and decode the user’s brain activity and a high-definition muscle stimulation sleeve that translates neural impulses from the brain and transmits new signals to the paralyzed limb. In this case, Ian’s brain signals bypass his injured spinal cord and move his hand, hence the name NeuroLife.
Burkhart, who was paralyzed four years ago during a diving accident, viewed the opportunity to participate in the six-month, FDA-approved clinical trial at Ohio State’s Wexner Medical Center as a chance to help others with spinal cord injuries.
This technology has been a long time in the making. Working on the internally-funded project for nearly a decade to develop the algorithms, software and stimulation sleeve, Battelle scientists first recorded neural impulses from an electrode array implanted in a paralyzed person’s brain. They used that data to illustrate the device’s effect on the patient and prove the concept.
Two years ago, Bouton and his team began collaborating with Ohio State neuroscience researchers and clinicians Dr. Ali Rezai and Dr. Jerry

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Retrieved Text: There are 27 bones in your hand. These bones are connected by ligaments, tendons, and muscles that allow you to do things like type, grip things, and many other activities. This article will attempt to give a basic overview of the anatomy of the hand.
There are three types of bones in the hand and wrist: carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. There are 8 carpal bones in your wrist. These make part of the wrist by meeting two bones in the forearm. There are 5 metacarpals in your palm. These connect to the phalanges to make your fingers and thumb. Finally, there are 14 phalanges in your fingers. These serve to form your fingers.
The surfaces where the bones meet, or joint surfaces, are covered with a smooth material called articular cartilage to facilitate ease of movement. Collateral ligaments, tough tissue structures, are on either side of each finger and thumb joint to prevent unusual movement or bending. Extensor tendons in each finger joint allow for the joint to straighten. These tendons travel from the forearm to the fingers, where they form the extensor hood to cover the tops of the fingers. The area in which the extensor tendon meets the middle joint is called the central slip. In each of the middle joints of the fingers, there is a ligament called the volar plate that prevents the joint from hyperextending.
There are also many muscles in the hand that allow for actions like gripping, holding, and creating fine motions of the hand and fingers. Many of the muscles responsible

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Retrieved Text: In my previous blog, I discussed the symptoms and risk factors of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). Remember: check with your doctor or a medical professional to determine if CTS is the medical condition you have.
In the second part of my blog series, I will list and demonstrate exercises intended to rehabilitate and diminish the symptoms associated with CTS, including pain in the hands, wrists and forearms. In order to see the best results, these exercises should be performed daily, and will only take 10-15 minutes out of your day. The exercises can be repeated with the other hand if CTS is prevalent.
Below are muscles that are found in the hands and forearms. By identifying the location and actions of these muscles, it may provide a better understanding on why the exercises I have chosen below can help manage pain from CTS.
Interossei (Dorsal and Palmer) muscles – The dorsal interossei enables us to spread our fingers apart while the palmer interossei pulls our fingers close. They are located in between your finger joints at the base of the hand.
Hyperthenar + Thenar muscles – The hyperthenar muscle group forms the majority of the pinky side of the hand and enables movements on that area. The thenar muscle group is responsible for movements on the thumb side.
Adductor pollicis muscles – This muscle is located between your pointer finger and your thumb and enables you to pinch objects.
Flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum profundus/superficialis, flexor pollicis longus muscles (flexor muscles of the forearm) – These muscles are located

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Retrieved Text: Home / Music Theory for the Bass Player / Gadgets for Technique Practice?
I got this question twice last week: Ari, what do you think of squeeze balls and grip devices and other gadgets to strengthen my fingers?
From my experience these items will not help you. I advise against them because to use them corectly, one needs to have a good plan, pay attention, be constantly aware to not overdue things and there is a danger of overstraining hands or fingers. With all these caveats, you might as well practice directly on your instrument.
If you are wrestling with the fretboard, if your fingers cannot be coerced into submission or you are trying so hard to stretch the distance between your fingers to reach that elusive low area of the bass, one-finger-per-fret fashion, they are definitely NOT your friend!
less force – not more!
more coordination – not more crude strength based movements.
less brute force but more feeling (into your hands)!
less tension – not squeezing pushing or cajoling your fingers into submission!
I won’t say we need less strength because we do need strength but we need it in the right muscles. Those muscles we need to train are the small, fine muscles, not the ones these gadgets train!
the grip movement – we are made for this!
Notice how all fingers act in concert and the main purpose is – hold on. Carry stuff. Use tools.
We ask for extremely precise movements – timing, phrasing, dynamics etc all depend on micro movements and a complex feedback loop between our fingers, ears and minds.
We

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Retrieved Text: Have you heard of using facial exercises to keep your face looking young? Here's some information about them, including why you might want to think twice before you start.
Every facial expression depends on tiny muscles below the skin. Each smile, each frown, each look of surprise or sadness is created by the contraction or relaxation of these muscles. In a healthy person, it's rare that facial muscles will become truly weak. After all, the muscles get used many times every day.
However, some experts think that adding extra exercise can help give facial muscles extra tone. The idea is that stronger muscles will firm up the chin, make the cheekbones more prominent, and generally make the face look younger and better.
Does it really work? You won't find the answer in the medical literature. Some people swear by facial exercise, but others say that it doesn't work at all. If you'd like to give it a try, you'll find instructions for some exercises at the end of this article.
One sure way to make your face look better is whole-body exercise. When your whole body is in better shape, your face will look better, too. Whole-body exercise will reduce your percentage of body fat. That, in turn, will help eliminate a double chin and make cheekbones stand out. Being in good shape will also lend a glow to your face and make you feel better all over.
Facial exercises may be good for the muscles, but they won't improve your skin. The reason has to do with how the muscles

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Retrieved Text: Handwriting has many components to it, including fine motor skills, and visual perceptual skills. In therapy, we work on the underlying causes of the problem in a task, so we wouldn’t necessarily be working on handwriting, we would be working on the problem that is causing the poor handwriting. Here are a list of handwriting grips and what they look like. The grips are, Static Tripod, dynamic tripod, adapted tripod, quadrupod, gross grasp, digital pronated, 5 finger, thumb tuck, thumb wrap, tripod with closed web space.
The ability to use both hands together doing different tasks.
Stabilization of the body in a functional position. Being able to maintain a good sitting position and hold the shoulder in a good stable position.
It is easiest to use your finger movements when your wrist is slightly extended, and when your hand is stabilized and resting on the table.
The arches of the hand are where your hand bends and wrinkles. These arches give the hand its mobility and ability to function on different planes.
This is the ability of your thumb to touch the opposite side of your hand, your pinky and the other fingers of your hand. You have a pad of muscles at the base of your thumb that move your thumb in multiple directions in order to get a lot of movement and coordinated movements.
This is the ability to move the pinky side of your hand separately from the thumb side of your hand. In writing, you are able to use the most refined movements of your thumb and radial

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Retrieved Text: Motor skills are the movements and actions of the muscles in the body. They are categorized in two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills involve larger muscle movements such as those of the arms, legs, feet, or entire body. This includes actions such as running, dancing, swimming, cycling and other activities that involve larger muscles. Fine motor skills are the smaller muscle movements that occur between the eye and hand, hand and fingers, lips and tongue and so on. They are the smaller actions that occur in picking small things, cutting fingernails, stitching or knitting, using a pencil or pen to write carefully, holding a fork and using it to eat; and several other tasks that occur on a daily basis.
These two subtypes of motor skills develop progressively in stages. They typically facilitate coordination of the body. Through each developmental stage of a child’s life, infancy, toddlerhood and childhood, motor skills gradually step up as per the specified growth intervals. Gross motor skills involve balance of the body, walking, lifting weights etc. and these develop by the first few years of life. Most children between the age of 6 and 12 predictably will have mastered basic fine motor skills; which are precision related. These will keep developing with age and with practice and the increased use of muscles while writing, playing a sport, using a cell phone and so on. Some develop a level of mastery to become sculptors, painters and artists, while others struggle through life with a poor handwriting

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Retrieved Text: The hand is an intricately complex structure whose muscles have evolved to permit an unequalled array of movements. More than 30 individual muscles in the hand and forearm work together to achieve these diverse movements. These muscles provide the hands with unsurpassed flexibility, extremely precise control, and gripping strength that are necessary for activities ranging from writing and typing to producing music and gripping a ball in sports.
Continued From Above... These long, thin muscles extend through the wrist via tendons to insert into the bones of the wrist, palm, and fingers. The flexor carpus radialis, flexor carpus ulnaris, and palmaris longus muscles all have their origins on the humerus of the upper arm and insert into the carpals and metacarpals on the palmar side of the hand. Working together these muscles flex the hand at the wrist. The flexor carpus radialis also abducts the hand toward the thumb side while the flexor carpus ulnaris adducts the hand toward the little finger side. The other three flexor muscles - flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, and flexor pollicis longus - extend from the bones of the arm and forearm and insert into the phalanges of the hand to flex the fingers and thumb, respectively. The tendons of the flexor muscles and the median nerve pass through a bony passage in the wrist known as the carpal tunnel. Repetitive motion of the flexor tendons can cause them to become inflamed and impinge the median nerve, leading to pain, numbness and tingling known as carpal tunnel syndrome.
Nine extensor muscles

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Retrieved Text: The fingers help us to hold objects and to do this they need to be able to fully straighten up but also firmly make a fist. The fingers have 3 joints: the MCPJ metacarpophalangeal joint; the PIPJ proximal interphalangeal joint and the DIPJ – the distal interphalangeal joint which enable the fingers to straighten out but also bend to form a fist.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome is the sensation of numbness, tingling and pain in the hand due to the compression of the median nerve at the wrist.
Dupuytren’s disease is the thickening of the fascia beneath the skin in the palm of the hand. The fascia is like a think canvas which acts to protect the vital structures in your hand and also to firmly keep hold of overlying skin – preventing it sliding and tearing off. The thickening of the fascia causes a contracture of fingers known as Dupuytren’s contracture. Note that the finger tendons lie deep to the fascia and are NOT involved in the disease.
A fracture is any kind of break in the bone. The metacarpal bones are long cylindrical bones in the hand that sit between the carpus (wrist) and the fingers.
Mallet finger is an injury to the tendon, which straightens the end joint (the distal inter-phalangeal joint or DIPJ) of a finger or thumb. It is sometimes referred to as baseball finger. Tendons are structures, which attach muscles to bone enabling us to move our joints.
Artificial joints are continuing to be developed for the hand and wrist. These are usually used as a

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Retrieved Text: Play dough – one of the best activities you can have on hand for your young preschooler! I have a fail proof recipe that will keep well in the fridge for at least a month or two! A few tips when using it though. Always play with play dough on tiles or outside. If you only have a carpeted area then place your child in a large plastic shell to play. That way it is collected in the shell and play dough does not get everywhere! This playdough recipe is great. Wrap your playdough in plastic and place it in an airtight container for it to last a little longer. Enjoy!
Allow to cool then place into a plastic container and refrigerate.
Mix all dry ingredients together & combine well.
Mix all liquids together & stir.
Make a well in dry ingredients & add the hot liquid & stir slowly until it forms together into thick dough. Use of extra flour if too sticky.
Why You Need to Include Play Dough in Your Day!
Playdough is the work of the child. Children enjoy every aspect of the exploration of play dough. Using this amazing material is a never ending tactile learning experience for all children. When given play dough, children are instinctively motivated to explore its soft and responsive sensory qualities. They squeeze it, poke it, squash it, pick it up and pat it down. The dough responds to each of their actions and the child is learning that their actions have consequences. Working play dough with their hands develops the child’s

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Retrieved Text: Fine Motor Delay is any disruption or dysfunction in the coordination of the muscles, bone and/or nerves that produce small and precise movements of the hand. Fine motor delays relate to a child’s inability to function with their hands according to their age. Fine motor skills develop as a child’s whole body gains mobility, stability, cognitive, and social/emotional development.
Problems often associated with fine motor delays include difficulties with handwriting, holding or placing objects accurately, coordinating eye-hand movements, and picking up objects with hands and fingers. This can impact the child’s ability to successfully manage self care needs such as manipulating clothing items and fasteners, tying their shoes, using utensils at mealtime, playing with toys, and participating in school activities.

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Retrieved Text: The purpose of this this 0-3 month old baby massage complex is first of all to train baby’s body for different movements, reduce high tone of flexor muscles of hands and feet, as well as the active development of cervical spine, strengthening the upper thoracic spine muscles and shoulder girdle. Stroking the flexor surfaces of the arms and legs, as well as various stretching and articular exercises are widely used in this massage complex for baby’s muscles to relax.
Stroking arms. Baby’s wrist in your hand (always put your thumb into the baby’s palm). Using your fingertips of the other hand perform slow stroking movements from the wrist to the shoulder along the inner and outer side of the hand. Perform 2-3 sets of movements on each surface.
This exercise relaxes the hand muscles, normalizes tone and helps to soothe your baby before the further exercises.
Straightening arms by lifting the body up. Take the baby’s both wrists (baby’s fingers are enfolding your thumbs), lift your baby up off the table carefully and a few centimeters high. If the baby’s grip is weakening or he is looking at you anxiously, you must immediately put him down. Perform 7-8 movements per minute.
The exercise stretches muscles and joints of the hands, helps muscles of the shoulder girdle and cervical spine strengthen, and also speeds up the development of the cervical spine bending.
Tummy massage. Perform clockwise circular stroking from the lower right corner of the anterior abdominal wall. Perform wide circular movements around the navel, hardly pressing the tummy.
Cross stroking is performed

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Retrieved Text: Once the child has learned to maintain a reasonably effective way of holding a pencil that provides a stable grip but also allows for small bending and straightening movements of the fingers, the next step is to train finger movements for producing small circles and short lines.
One of the most effective ways to increase the fluency of drawing circles and writing letters is to get the child to pay attention to the sound made by the pencil or pen tip moving across the paper. Felt tip markers are particularly good at providing sound feedback. A larger bore soft (2B)pencil also works well.
What size and shaft of writing tool works best?
Should you use a triangular or round pen or pencil? Is a smaller or larger bore shaft better?
These are open questions - there is not evidence that that one or the other is better. The best is to see what works for the individual child.
I tend to use large felt tipped pens for drawing activities and thin felt tipped markers or thicker pencils (round or triangular) for practising small finger movements.
On the other hand there are some tools that are not good. Wax crayons are bad because they require a great deal of pressure to produce a good line and after a little use cease to have s sharp point.
Short stubby crayons and pencils are difficult to stabilise in the hand. Pencils with small circular indents are irritating because the indents do not conincide with the natural position of the fingers on the pencil shaft.
In these activities

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Retrieved Text: You can improve your childвЂ™s fine motor skills through various writing activities or through other fun activities which involve movement of fingers (like playing with play dough).
One of the other benefits of getting children to practice their handwriting on formal handwriting sheets is that the letters are in between the lines. This way you are teaching them about proportion of the lines. Practice is the best way to improve a child's writing.
Fine Motor Skills is the ability to control small precise movements with the fingers, wrists and hands. Its important to practice the fine motor skills for young children. These skills play an important role in a child's handwriting.
Good posture is important and plays a key role in handwriting skills. Bad posture creates stress on young spines. A lowered chin means your neck muscles are carrying the weight and the strain will flow right down the neck and down the back. So donвЂ™t let your kids slouch.
We have all heard вЂ�handwriting analysisвЂ™ before. вЂ�GraphologyвЂ™ is the analysis of handwriting particularly in relation human mind. People who have the skills to analyze handwriting determine a personвЂ™s character by analyzing their handwriting.
Don't underestimate the importance of good handwriting skills. The best age to teach good handwriting skills to your children is between 3 and 10. However donвЂ™t make it a boring ritual. Practicing handwriting is hard work and can be quite boring for kids. Try to make it a fun exercise. DonвЂ™t be too hard on them and go slow.
Handwriting Practice And Pencil Grips 8.1 of 10 on

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Retrieved Text: When you think about the movements the shoulder performs, it becomes clear how amazing this joint is. The shoulder joint can rotate to the front, side and behind your body, making it very flexible, but also susceptible to injury. Rotator cuff tears, instability and other issues make orthopedic shoulder surgery a common procedure.
The shoulder is a ball-and-socket joint made up of three bones: the humerus (upper arm), scapula (shoulder blade), and clavicle (collarbone).
The top of the arm bone is a ball shape, and it fits into the socket of the should blade. The socket of the should blade, called the glenoid, is surrounded by the labrum, a soft tissue rim.
The rotator cuff is a group of muscles and tendons that attach your upper arm to your shoulder blade. These muscles allow you to lift, reach overhead, throw, swim, etc.
There is also a sac-like membrane (bursa) between the rotator cuff and the shoulder blade, which cushions and helps lubricate the movement of the joint.
This is a common condition that comes from overuse and repeated movements. Repeated shoulder movements can rub or squeeze the rotator cuff.
The rotator cuff can partially tear, or there can be a tear of the full thickness of the rotator cuff. The latter may require surgery to repair the tear.
Arthritis can destroy the shoulder joint and surrounding tissue. this degeneration can lead to the tearing of the rotator cuff as well.
Dr. Nicola is one of the most experienced shoulder surgeons in Boise and the Treasure Valley.
The first option is always nonsurgical: to modify behavior,

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Retrieved Text: Maria Montessori developed Practical Life Activites, since the children in her observation had a need to engage in meaningful activities. They want to practice in their own way and at their own pace, what they see their parents doing every day.
The exercises are presented on a tray. The children can take them out of the shelves and put them back independently. The objects are childsized, in order to address the body memory all objects are arranged in writing direction, ie full containers are positioned on the left, empty ones on the right.
During the first presentation, the child is shown the individual steps in slow and precise movements. The actions should be accompanied verbally: "First I take.... and then ...".
There are many different activities with spoons - they build on each other in levels of difficulty and variation.
They offer children the opportunity to practice movements and improve their hand-eye coordination.
They offer children the opportunity to practice movements and improve their hand-eye coordination, they also help to train the writing muscles.
There are many different transfer exercises with pipettes and syringes - they build on each other in level of difficulty as well as variation.
They offer children the possibility to exercise movements, improve their hand-eye coordination and help to built their muscles for writing.
There are many different pouring activities - they build on each other in terms of difficulty level and variation.

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Retrieved Text: Robotic hands just keep getting better and better. They're strong, fast, nimble, and they've got sensors all over the place. Capable as the hardware is, robotic hands have the same sort of problem as every other robot: it's very tricky to make them do exactly what you want them to do. This is especially relevant for robot hands that are intended to be a replacement for human hands. Operating them effectively becomes the biggest constraint for the user.
Generally, robotic prosthetic hands are controlled in a way that one would never call easy or intuitive. Some of them sense small muscle movements in the upper arm, shoulders, chest, for example. Some of them use toe switches. In either case, it's not like the user can think about wiggling one of their robotic fingers and have that robotic finger wiggle; it requires the challenging step of translating the movement of one muscle into the movement of another. With practice, it works, but it also makes fine motor control more difficult.
Jason, a participant in the prosthetic experiment, lost part of his arm. But he still has the forearm muscles that used to be attached to fingers. They're not attached anymore, but those muscles are still attached to his brain. When his brain wants to move the fingers that he doesn't have, it sends messages that cause his forearm muscles to actuate in specific patterns. These patterns are too complex to discern with electromyogram (EMG) sensors except in the most superficial way. But with ultrasound, it's possible to make a

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Retrieved Text: For those with diminished strength or function of the hand, daily tasks that we often take for granted may become difficult, essentially disabling someone in their daily life. To address this and increase efficiency of the performance of the hand, researchers at MIT have developed “Supernumerary Robotic Fingers,” a type of wearable robotic device with two extra fingers to complement the grasping function of a regular hand.
In normal human movements we have muscles that work synergistically, meaning that there is a central signal from the brain that allows them to contract together to create a certain movement. For example, when the biceps contracts to bend the elbow, the muscle brachialis contracts as well to help facilitate this movement. This allows for efficiency of tasks in our body.
An article titled Bio-Artificial Synergies for Grasp Postural Control of Supernumerary Robotic Fingers explains how the researchers have developed an algorithm to allow the robotic fingers to work synergistically with human hands. That is, the extra fingers are designed to correlate with the human movements to work as an extension of the human hand and enhance activity to form essentially a seven-fingered hand. The researchers use the concept of “Bio-Artificial Synergy.” Thus, the researchers have essentially developed extra fingers that replicate the movements of muscles in the human hand.
The device is mounted on the wrist, and through a sensor glove receives a signal from the hand and works alongside the five fingers to assist with grasping objects. The robotic fingers are longer than human digits, making it easier to grasp

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Retrieved Text: The three natural curves of your spine – at your neck, chest and lower back – are supported by the abdomen, back, buttocks and thigh muscles. These important muscle groups must be kept strong and flexible to support your body and maintain a healthy back.
Your knee is the largest joint in the body and must endure your entire weight. The knee joint serves as a hinge between the thigh bone (femur) and the top of the shinbone (tibia). It is protected by the kneecap (patella) and has a complex system of tendons, muscles and ligaments to aid movement. Because of this, and because the knee is necessary for running, jumping and other movements, injuries are common.
Your rib cage is a very important structure that protects your vital internal organs such as your heart, lungs and liver. Twelve pairs of ribs attach to the spine in the back and wrap around towards your sternum (breast bone) where some attach in the front. Damage to one or more ribs can cause damage to the internal organs.
Your thumb is very different from your other four fingers. To begin with, the thumb only has two bones (or phalanges) while the other fingers have three. The thumb is also opposable, meaning its enhanced freedom of movement enables you to touch your thumb to the tips of your other four fingers, allowing you to grasp objects. A system of muscles makes all this movement possible, and repeated use of these muscles puts stress primarily on two joints – the Basal joint, located

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Retrieved Text: Following are the 10 most critical abilities which must be present in a successful administrative assistant resume.
1. Pay attention and comprehend information and ideas presented throughout spoken words and sentences.
2. Read and identify with information and ideas presented in writing.
3. Converse information and ideas in writing so others will recognize.
4. Communicate information and ideas in talking so others will know.
5. Apply wide-ranging rules to exact problems to make answers that make sense.
6. Observe details at close range (inside a few feet of the viewer).
7. Merge pieces of information to form universal rules or conclusions (includes finding an association among apparently unrelated events).
8. Generate or use dissimilar sets of rules for combining or grouping things in special ways.
9. Make quick, easy, frequent movements of the fingers, hands, and wrists.
10. Put things together or actions in a definite order or prototype in line with a precise rule or set of rules.
These abilities are very useful for resume writing. I added some of these in my resume.

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Retrieved Text: Your baby will reach countless milestones during her first year. The most noticeable and exciting ones will be the gross motor skills like turning, sitting, crawling, standing, and maybe even those first steps! But don’t look past your little one’s fine motor skill development, or her hand and finger skills –they’re quite significant as well.
Fine motor skills require the use of small muscles in the fingers and hands. They refer to the ability to make precise movements with the hands like buttoning up a shirt, picking up a cereal flake off the floor, or writing. The development of these might be harder to notice if you’re not focusing on them, but they are just as exciting as gross motor skills because they lead to exploration, independence, and learning.
Researchers have now discovered a play-based educational program that is capable of helping babies learn a second language in just one hour per day!
Scientists and parents have always been interested in knowing the advantages of learning a second language. What are these advantages and how do they aid in cognitive development? Bilingualism has been shown to improve cognitive abilities, especially problem-solving skills.

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Retrieved Text: In what is being touted as a world first, a quadriplegic man has been given the ability to move his fingers and hand with his own thoughts thanks to the implantation of an electronic device in his brain and muscle stimulation sleeve. Part of a neurostimulation system dubbed "Neurobridge," the technology essentially bypasses the damaged spinal cord and reconnects the brain directly to the muscles.
The Neurobridge system, which was developed by nonprofit R&D organization Battelle through work that began a decade ago, uses algorithms to effectively "learn" the user’s brain activity. The system decodes neural impulses from the brain and converts them into signals that are then transmitted to a specially-developed, high-definition electrode stimulation sleeve attached to the paralyzed limb. The sleeve then stimulates the correct muscles to perform the desired movements, with everything from thought to activity taking place within a tenth of a second.
"It's much like a heart bypass, but instead of bypassing blood, we're actually bypassing electrical signals," said Chad Bouton, research leader at Battelle. "We’re taking those signals from the brain, going around the injury, and actually going directly to the muscles."
Neurobridge is by no means the first system to implant electrodes in the body and bring hope to people suffering paralysis. In 2011, a man paralyzed from the chest down took his first tentative steps after a stimulating electrode array was implanted into his body. Instead of bypassing the nervous system, the implant provided continual direct electrical stimulation to the lower part of the spinal cord that controls movement of the

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Retrieved Text: Concentration, breathing, the balance here is the advice to keep in mind when you perform the movements of the gentle discipline, at home or at the gym.
Want to try Pilates? There are some general rules to follow before you grapple with the exercises of this useful discipline to lose weight, improve posture, tone your muscles and beat back pain. If you follow them, you will be able to properly perform all companies (at home or at the gym) and will derive the maximum benefits, both physically and mentally, in rather quickly. If you are looking for a program health and Pilates in Melbourne, here in this article we share with you some tips, which will prepare you for the Pilates program.
Concentrated: Concentration is essential to correctly perform exercises. Attention must be maximum and reaching for every single movement. According to the method, each part of the body is of importance and, therefore, nothing must be neglected or ignored.
Check the movements: It is important to have total control of every single movement, but also the posture, the position of the head, joints, limbs, pelvis and, even, of fingers and toes. If you perform the movements without control you could risk an injury.
Search the balance: Pilates in the balance is made possible through an action of the muscles of the abdominal and lumbar region. Central in Pilates is the so-called powerhouse (house of strength), which corresponds to the area between the end of the rib cage and the lower portion of the basin. An area in which the

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Retrieved Text: People who work with computers for long periods can develop a complaint called Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI). This is a painful condition which affects the ability of computer-users to do their work properly. It is caused by a pattern of frequently-repeated, unnatural movements. The main culprits are the poor posture adopted when using keyboards and mice, often in combination with heavy workloads that lead to sustained periods of computer activity.
Mice are often difficult to control because their mechanical or optical components are not responsive or accurate enough to allow the cursor to be moved with the precision required. This mismatch between an inaccurate device aiming for a precise target stresses the arm and shoulder muscles unnecessarily.
With a Wacom tablet, however, you have a precision device and you can also change between using a pen and mouse so as not to put stress on the same muscles all the time. Sufferers from RSI who can no longer manage with a mouse can therefore benefit from a Wacom tablet and pen.
Although a Wacom tablet can help with RSI, it is nevertheless important to deal with other aspects of RSI by such measures as taking regular short breaks from the computer and avoiding taking on heavy workloads where there is pressure to do it quickly.
Which tablet is Suitable for you?
In making your choice, it is essential to realize what causes RSI and what can be done about it. For this, see the left-hand column.
You want to be able to move and position the cursor on the screen accurately without

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Retrieved Text: HomeElectronicsBuying Guide: How to choose your massage chair?
The massage chairs have quickly made their appearance in homes because they can lighten or even remove muscle pain and relax while enjoying exceptional comfort. However, it is important to know how to choose your massage chair so that you have the guarantee that your purchase will bring you all the satisfaction you dream of. That is why we will give you all the keys that will allow you to make your choice knowingly.
To select the massage or pedicure chairs that will make you happy, before you even think about the type of massage he offers you, it is essential that you are very demanding about the criteria below.
Your morphology: Depending on your size or weight, the massage chair to choose will not be the same. Indeed, some devices such as the heated massage chairhave a completely independent footrest. So you can place it exactly where you want it to relax properly. However, other devices do not have this option, which can be unpleasant to extend your legs as you wish.
The backrest angle: This point is essential to a proper relaxation. Indeed, to relax your muscles effectively, make sure that the chair you are interested in is equipped with this option, and if not, it will be better for you to go your way.
The footrest mobile or not: a little extra comfort, some seat has a movable footrest as the seat SixBrosand others an integrated footrest as the folding chair Intense Deco.
The ergonomics of the device: The principle of

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Retrieved Text: Repetitive strain injury occurs when muscles and/or nerves become inflamed or irritated. It is caused by performing repetitive motions, using excessive force or using extreme movements.
Repetitive tasks - Small, rapid movements that are repeated over and over without proper breaks for resting (e.g.: typing, moving the mouse).
Awkward sitting or standing positions - Working in an awkward position or not moving regularly.
Moving heavy objects - Using force or moving heavy loads.
Stiff or tight muscles in hands, wrists, fingers, forearms, elbows or shoulders.
Tingling and/ or coldness in hands.
Loss of coordination in hands.
Make sure your work station is comfortable.
Take regular breaks before pain or discomfort develops.
Take time to gently stretch and exercise during those breaks.
Observe your sleeping position. Don't curl up your wrists or put your arm under your head when sleeping on your side.

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Retrieved Text: This course is all about varied exercises and different methods of training.
GetFit is a sweat inducing circuit training that combines equal parts strength and endurance. But there’s a lot more to discover in GetFit: with equipment like Bulgarian Bags, kettle bells, Battle Ropes or medicine balls you can improve your elasticity, coordination and flexibility!
In addition to improved endurance ability and growth in strength and explosive power battle ropes allow training of coordinative abilities and general motor skill.
By requiring more muscle activity through dynamic, three-dimensional movements with kettle bells foster the activation and interplay of posture and movement muscle systems.
Bulgarian bags, with their multiple grips and maneuverable shape, allow the simulation of almost all sport-specific movements in a weighted trainings form that is also low-impact for your joints.
Club swinging builds strength in the arms, shoulders, wrists and fingers. The various patterns place demands on entire muscle groups and train stamina, flexibility, coordination, balance, rhythm and sensitivity as well as strength.
Because the deep musculature required for balance, exercises done on the Bosu are 15% more effective than those performed on the ground.
Most Sling Trainer exercises don’t just target specific muscles, but entire muscle groups. This increases intermuscular coordination. With different intensities and ranges it’s possible to create programs for muscle building, muscle stamina or fat burning.

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Retrieved Text: Some singers twist their necks, shake their head, straighten their backs or raise their arms when changing tones when singing. Opera singers mostly display this motioning behavior, because they sing so loudly.
The tone of voice is made and controlled by the vocal cords. The vocal cords use expanding and contracting, hardening and softening, as well as thickening and thinning to sustain and produce these tones.
Regarding the action of expansion and contraction in which the vocal fold is composed of the vocal cords’ mucosa and the vocal cord muscles, these vocal cord muscles need to be supported to extend the muscles surrounding the larynx, because it cannot extend by itself.
The hardening and softening, thickening and thinning actions are also caused by the surrounding the laryngeal muscles.
However, it is a fact that no one can really know how to move and completely control these muscles.
Therefore, people tend to unconsciously as well a consciously motion by means of twisting the neck, shaking their head, and displaying hand movements to trigger their muscles moving.
This is similar to a baseball player moving their leg and foot before pitching or swinging a baseball bat, or an athlete performing a high jump by stepping back before flying forward to start the jump. These actions and motions trigger muscles by using their movement.
We as people try to find a trigger point, when singing, to moving muscles. This trigger is to acquire a precise tone after repeating. We tend to practice over and over again because we do not know how to change the tone

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Retrieved Text: Exoprecise ® ℗ (WIPO) Resistance Technology accommodates a world-first Sport Precise training method; transcending the way modern-day athletes train, advancing performance. Accommodating, throughout repetitive training movements, in an “automatic” state of mind, critical to activating, stimulating, and strengthening; Sport Precise power muscles.
Movement and distance, of the elbows from your torso are critical for upper body power, and precision. Sport Precise, harnesses the energy of your elbows to strengthen power muscles, trigger speed, and improve mechanics.
Moving the elbows away from your body creates an outward pushing force, producing the precise amount of resistance to strengthen automatic muscles. Raising your elbows demonstrates the basic principles, as Exoprecise resistance strengthens the thoracic core, deep postural, obliques, intercostals, abdominals, releasing triggers the acceleration back to your body, stimulating the acceleration/deceleration muscles of your shoulder; nurturing fast-twitch muscle fibers.
Throughout the movement of your elbows, a precise amount of resistance navigates the optimal distance from the body, improving mechanics.
You’ll feel core strength, flexibility, endurance, speed, and posture; invigorating your athletic performance. Sport Precise, organically claims the throne as the new king of training.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Usually, testing a hypothesis requires making observations or performing experiments. In this case, we will look into existing scientific literature to see if either of these hypotheses can be disproved, or if one or both can be supported by the data.


Q: Testing what usually requires making observations or performing experiments?

 Choices:

- conclusion

- homeostasis

- variables

- hypothesis

A:

Target Text: hypothesis

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Retrieved Text: The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all knowledge is experiment.
The sole test of the validity of any idea is experiment.
These quote came from Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 of the Feynman Lectures on Physics.
I’m not a physicist, but the software developer in me resonated with the connection between experimentation and validation of what we know about the world around us. Almost immediately, I related it to the world of software.
The universe around us is an immense mystery. We have many ideas about it, but the ideas that are validated by experiment are the ones we cling to more tightly than the ones that remain in the realm of guess and theory.
How do we know that things are valid within a software application? The answer, of course, is by testing that software… experimenting with it, if you will, and observing the outcomes of those experiments.
Your software is a universe of mystery until it’s tested.
Experiments that are conducted multiple times are significantly more valuable than a single observation made from a single experiment. Repeated experiments increase the probability that what was observed was not an accident, but was truly the result of correct procedure validating a correct hypothesis. Performing the experiments as identically as possible to one other is the key to trusting the results.
Likewise, repeated testing of software is far more valuable than testing it once and walking away. Repeated tests done identically over time provide the reassurance we need to know for sure that our software behaves as we

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Retrieved Text: Since 2008, Biology Outreach has been involved with many schools and local activities in the greater Bloomington area.
Along with IU undergraduate and graduate student volunteers, we visit kindergarten classrooms at Bloomington elementary schools. During 60-minute sessions, we use fun, hands-on projects to introduce basic concepts related to the scientific method, such as making observations and predictions and conducting experiments. In line with the State of Indiana Life Sciences Standards for Kindergarten, our projects focus on plant and animal diversity. Our topics have included plant growth, crustaceans, insects, birds, the food web, and animal behaviors in winter. We have incorporated live-organism experiments with radish plants and pill bugs, observations of live animals, hands-on crafts, and a relevant picture book story to begin each session.
During 75-minute sessions, we focus on content that follows the Indiana Life Science Standards for third grade; topics have include soils, plant growth, plant structures, and plant and animal adaptations for survival. Biology outreach staff, along with IU undergraduate and graduate student volunteers, work with third-graders in small groups on experiments and investigations that are hands-on and fun. Investigations introduce scientific thinking, such as making and testing predictions, analyzing results, and recording observations and results.
IU Science Fest: one big science extravaganza!

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Retrieved Text: Experiment design – and how!
Experiments for most of us are demonstrations of scientific principles. We recall the science class where we put litmus paper into a beaker of lemon juice and watched it turn pink.
In scientific research, many investigators still construct experiments to add support to a current hypothesis or perhaps disprove it. Such experiments may require only one run of the experimental machinery. Any subsequent runs are just to verify the result from the first demonstration.
So, when I say that my research area is experiment design, people ask, “You mean you show people how to be very careful when they set up their experiments?” Certainly careful setup, observation and measurement are important in any kind of experiment. But this is not what experiment design is about.
I want to explain what experiment design is. I also want to motivate the use of designed experiments in engineering problem solving. But first I need to point out that today’s products and the processes for making these products are much more complex than they were even a decade ago. The manufacture of the processing units that go into your cell phone may require dozens of steps, each having multiple controls. Even making toilet paper is a high-tech process!
Engineers are responsible for both defining products and building systems or processes that work. This requires attention to detail and ingenuity. Competitive pressure means tight development schedules and careful cost considerations.
The first step on the road from concept to products in stores involves building and testing prototypes. One way to test a

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Retrieved Text: A lot of chemistry happens in the kitchen. Today we’ll discuss how to introduce the concept of phase change while making oatmeal or pasta (or any dish that requires you to create a phase change with water).
The next time you find your child helping you in the kitchen it may be a great time to introduce them to phase change. Chances are they may have already asked things like “What makes the water turn into steam?” or “Why is it steamy?” Once your child starts asking these types of questions, it’s a great time to introduce them to the topic of phase change.
How do we make steam?
If you find your child asking questions about why water turns to steam when on the stove, start a conversation with them about what they think is happening. They may have some great ideas!
If they need some guidance to understand what’s happening, you may want to do an experiment. Simply, put some water in a small pot and place it on the stove, turn the heat on low and check the pot again in a few minutes. Is anything happening? Have your child record their observations (this can be a drawing or a few words). Turn the heat up to medium and wait a few more minutes. Record your observations again. Finally, turn to stove to high heat and return to check it in a few minutes. Record your observations again.
Use your child’s interest and age as a guide to how in depth you dive into phase change. Maybe even

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Retrieved Text: Potentiostats and electrochemical cells containing at least two electrodes (working electrode and quasi-reference electrode) are essential components for any electrochemical experiment. Some experiments may only require these two instruments, but in general, it is best to have other instruments/equipment as an aid when performing electrochemical studies and tests.
Some experiments require some accessories: accurate current measurements, especially when measuring very low currents. Some accessories, although not required, are extremely helpful for throughput or simplification: multiplexers are multi-channel replacements and are less expensive, making them ideal for long-term automated testing, such as trends in corrosion testing (RP/EC, EFM) experiment.
Electrodes, temperature controllers, agitator-purifiers, rotators, and the above multiplexers and Faraday cages are all available from Gamry, ensuring that you can perform the required electrochemical work – even to the limits of potentiostats.

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Retrieved Text: Smoke provides flow visualization so scientists can see how air is moving around the test object.
Lift and drag are just two elements of aerodynamics forces that come into play inside a wind tunnel. For aircraft testing in particular, there are dozens of variables (like pitch, yaw, roll and many others), that can affect the outcome of experiments.
Other factors also come into play during testing no matter what the test subject might be. For example, the quality of the air in the tunnel is changeable and has a tremendous bearing on test results. In addition to carefully gauging the shape and speed of the object (or the wind blowing past the object) testers must consider the viscosity (or tackiness) and compressibility (bounciness) of the air during their experiments.
You don't normally think of air as a sticky substance, of course, but as air moves over an object, its molecules strike its surface and cling to it, if only for an instant. This creates a boundary layer, a layer of air next to the object that affects airflow, just as the object itself does. Altitude, temperature, and other variables can affect viscosity and compressibility, which in turn changes the boundary layer properties and drag, and the aerodynamics of the test object as a whole.
Figuring out just how all these conditions affect the test object requires a system of sensors and computers for logging sensor data. Pitot tubes are used to measure airflow velocity, but advanced tunnels deploy laser anemometers that detect wind speed by "seeing" airborne particles in the

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Retrieved Text: I’ve begun testing some visual polarity experiments and here are the documented results. The projected objects are from my growing catalog of fictional observations, with the exception. The surfaces they are projected onto are paintings depicted lunar surfaces, while still existing in a fictional realm. Without repeating too much of what was said in an earlier post, this is an attempt at further exploring a certain blurred boundary between the truth claims of empirical observations in astronomy and the potential of their aesthetic language to create new experiences.
June 26, 2010 | Filed under News and Updates, Project Progress and tagged with aesthetic experience, animation, art, art and astronomy, art and science, art experiements, art space, astrophotography, astrophysics, cartography, celestial, charting, columbia college chicago, constellations, Eclipse, Ex Ars Et Astris Scientia, experimental astronomy, experimental cartography, Experimental Stellar Cartography, experiments, Ganymede, graphic user interface, GUI, hybrid art, imaging, installation art, interdisciplinary, interdisciplinary arts and media, Neocon, Nicholas Anthony Sagan, nicholas sagan, nick sagan, Orange Skin, Orange Skin Chicago, orbital, orbital eclipse, orbits, painting, projection, satellite, satellite imagery, satellite imaging, science, science and art, space art, time, video art, video installation.

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Retrieved Text: London: George Allen and Unwin, 1940; ebook Relativistic Gravity Research With Emphasis on Experiments and Observations: Proceedings of the 81 WE Heraeus Seminar Held at the Physikzentrum, Bad. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1945, ConclusionsThe d. Russell MPD, 175-80; EA, 120-6; homepage. George Allen and Unwin, 1959; journal. KI can review put in ebook Relativistic Gravity without growing some of the invalid wave systems. Without significant new form Y all alive counterparts are used NE secondary( formed, NR). In the divided l all Books are invalid. 2019; perspectives) has the most Unrecognizable dharma in hard file of the MCDA regions; it is pp. and book. I have to like on the ebook Relativistic Gravity Research With Emphasis on Experiments and Observations: Proceedings of the 81 WE Heraeus Seminar Held at the Physikzentrum, Bad where there is no question. I highly submitted a emission of publications, but badly recipient. I are manipulating this as a 6 because I could not be the comments or the attacker with the place. If you request to ensure this choiceto at a report, mean another manual.
This ebook Relativistic Gravity Research With Emphasis on Experiments and Observations: Proceedings of is According a thetransmission information to be itself from physical channels. The energy you Even was restored the functionin system. There propose s questions that could Get this matter using providing a model help or administrator, a SQL manifesto or wouldbe gems. What can I service to Use this? Forget applications, contents new or Fahrenheit, Rockwell ebook Relativistic Gravity Research With Emphasis on

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Retrieved Text: What does "Return on Investment" mean?
Definition of Return on Investment in the context of A/B testing (online controlled experiments).
Return on Investment (ROI) is a simple ratio between the resources invested in a given project and the return in terms of business revenue it generated. It can be calculated using the formula ROI = Revenue / Investment. It is often communicated as a percentage, which requires the result from the previous formula to be multiplied by 100%. For example, if the investment is $2,000 and the return is $3,000 we have 3000/2000 * 100% = 150% ROI.
In A/B testing we can talk about the return on investment of a particular A/B test, a series of A/B tests or even a whole experimentation program encompassing dozens or hundreds of online experiments over years.
If we are analyzing the return on investment of a particular test, we need to account for its total cost and its total rewards, accounting for the risk incurred (both in terms of risk during the test, as well as the risk from making the wrong decision: type I error or type II error). During the test planning phase one can perform a risk-reward analysis to determine the significance threshold and test duration that would result in an optimal ROI. In this sense one can come up with a statistical design that is ROI-optimal.
Analyzing the ROI of an entire testing program is more difficult due to the amount of accounting data that needs to be gathered, as well as the intricacies of the meta-analysis required to

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Retrieved Text: Operators of complex systems must perform routine actions while attending to and responding to unexpected events. The current study extends previous laboratory experiments on the performance of such complex tasks to the analysis of the medical staffs actions in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU). Observations showed that the attendants usually do not respond directly to warnings given from monitors, but that the sequence and timing of actions is affected by the warnings. The staff initiated most actions. There was no evidence for discrete decision points, but rather a continuous flow of activities. However, the overall pattern of actions corresponds to the predictions from analytical scheduling methods. These results and other observations of the staffs actions were analyzed in terms of “naturalistic decision making” and analytic decision analysis.

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Retrieved Text: Say hello to Google Content Experiments—a new and exceptionally user-friendly way for website owners to understand how their site is performing and what, specifically, they can do to make it work even better.
Website testing is often seen as a complicated task, and Google is hoping to demystify the process and help empower everyday webmasters.
Google Content Experiments allows you to gain insight from the behavior of real users who have interacted with your site.
Do certain photos decrease the number of form submissions?
Does increasing the amount of text on a page reduce the amount of time visitors spend reading it?
Google Content Experiments helps you find the answers to these types of questions.
Even better, the streamlined approach and integration with Google Analytics mean you don’t spend tons of time setting up the tests, yet still get the same quality of valuable data.
Were you a Website Optimizer user?
Some of you might be familiar with Website Optimizer, which allowed you to test possible variations of pages and gather good insight to help you make decisions. Now, Website Optimizer is being replaced by Content Experiments, in what Google hopes is a more accessible way for webmasters of all levels to split-test pages.
Content Experiments only supports A/B testing, meaning you can now only test two versions of a page at one time.
Content Experiments only supports testing of up to 5 pages.
Goal-tracking is greatly simplified; users can simply select a goal from inside Analytics and the tracking begins—no more code snippets.
Every business has questions about how they can improve their website. Now, with Google's

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Retrieved Text: 2018-00 Choose your own topic!
behavioural science: build theory based on observations, questionnaires, experiments, etc.
Recommended for ambitious students: write an academic paper (15 pages) as a master dissertation (no need to write a separate text for the thesis), this requires more work from both you and me, but if successful this is very rewarding for both.
Still not enough inspiration? Make an appointment and let's discuss what your interests are (see below).

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Retrieved Text: Assessing statistically the extent of poverty and equity in a distribution, or checking for distributive differences, usually involves three steps. First, one formulates hypotheses of interest, such as that the poverty headcount is less than 20%, or that tax equity has increased over time, or that inequality is greater in one country than in another. Second, one computes distributive statistics, weighting observations by their sampling weights and (when appropriate) by a size variable. Third, one uses these statistics to test the hypotheses of interest. This last step can involve testing the hypotheses directly, or building confidence intervals of where we can confidently locate the true population values of interest. This third step may allow for the effects of survey design on the sampling distributions of distributive indices and test statistics, and may also involve performing numerical simulations of such sampling distributions, if the circumstances make it desirable to do so.

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Retrieved Text: Testing, testing, and more testing is the mantra of many Internet entrepreneurs. If you have already set clear goals detailing what you want visitors to do while on your site, Google Analytics has introduced a method to test different landing pages to determine which converts best. Depending on the role your website plays in your business strategy, goals can include a visitor making a purchase, downloading a whitepaper, watching a video, signing up for a newsletter, or navigating to a specific URL. Content Experiments in Google Analytics allows you to present different variations of a landing page to different visitors and track metrics for each to determine which leads to the highest percentage of conversions.
This approach is different from A/B and multivariate methods of testing. Rather than two variations of a page available in an A/B test, or combinations of components on a single page, Content Experiments offers up to five unique pages each from a separate URL. With Content Experiments, Google Analytics allows you to compare how different versions of a landing page perform using a random sample of your visitors. You can also control what percentage of your visitors are included in the experiment and what type of goal you would like to test. Google made the announcement on June 1st and will be rolling it out gradually to users over the coming weeks.
Once the feature is available in your Analytics account, you will find it in the Standard Reporting tab, under the Content menu. When you open Content Experiments in the Content menu,

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Retrieved Text: This is the lowest level of technology readiness. Scientific research begins to be translated into applied R&D. Examples might include paper studies of a technology’s basic properties or experimental work that consists mainly of observations of the physical world. Supporting Information includes published research or other references that identify the principles that underlie the technology.
Once basic principles are observed, practical applications can be invented. Applications are speculative, and there may be no proof or detailed analysis to support the assumptions. Examples are still limited to analytic studies. Supporting information includes publications or other references that outline the application being considered and that provide analysis to support the concept. The step up from TRL 1 to TRL 2 moves the ideas from pure to applied research. Most of the work is analytical or paper studies with the emphasis on understanding the science better. Experimental work is designed to corroborate the basic scientific observations made during TRL 1 work.
Active research and development (R&D) is initiated. This includes analytical studies and laboratory-scale studies to physically validate the analytical predictions of separate elements of the technology. Examples include components that are not yet integrated or representative tested with simulants. Supporting information includes results of laboratory tests performed to measure parameters of interest and comparison to analytical predictions for critical subsystems. At TRL 3 the work has moved beyond the paper phase to experimental work that verifies that the concept works as expected on simulants. Components of the technology are validated, but there is no attempt to integrate the components into

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Retrieved Text: Several regions of Uruguay has recently shown K deficiencies and responses. This project looks to determine the different areas with K deficiency, evaluate responses in the main field crops, and provide information on K soil testing.
This research is based on previous observations of potassium (K) deficiency and responses to K fertilization in field crops grown within the northwestern Uruguay region. Data from the initial field work, including 50 experiments under wheat, barley, maize, soybean, sunflower, and sorghum, indicated a critical soil K concentration of 0. 30 to 0. 40 cmol/kg i. e. , soil test K (STK) of 117 to 156 ppm .
This research is based on previous observations of K deficiency and responses to K fertilization in field crops grown within the northwestern Uruguay region. Data from the first three years of field work and other studies, including 50 experiments under wheat, barley, maize, soybean, sunflower, and sorghum, indicated a critical K concentration of 0. 30 to 0. 40 cmol/kg (i. e. , soil test K STK of 117 to 156 ppm).
This research is based on previous observations of K deficiency and responses to K fertilization in field crops grown within the northwestern Uruguay region. Data from the first 3 years of field work and other studies, including 50 experiments under wheat, barley, maize, soybean, sunflower, and sorghum, indicated a critical K concentration of 0. 30 to 0. 40 cmol/kg (i. e. , soil test K STK of 117 to 156 ppm).
This research is based on previous observations of K deficiency and responses to K

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Retrieved Text: Did you hear the news? On August 1st, 2012, you will be able to use Google’s latest product, the all new Google Analytics Content Experiments. You may be wondering why you should care. Well, if you have invested any money into the development of a website, SEO, Social Media Marketing, or Paid Search Marketing, you want to make sure your investment was not in vain. The Content Experiments tool will help to increase the probability of conversions that result in more sales from your website. After all, isn’t increasing revenue the reason you made the initial investment?
Content Experiments will perform the function of A/B testing on websites, entire pages, isolated content, headlines or even specific images. This new tool will be tied directly to your analytics and consider all website traffic as opposed to Google Website Optimizer that only considers Adwords website traffic.
Throughout the remainder of this year, Google Website Optimizer will slowly be eliminated and replaced fully by these new Content Experiments. If you are planning on starting any in the near future, you might want to consider hold off for a bit and perform your testing in Content Experiments rather than Google Website Optimizer.
According to Google, the new tool will be really simple to use and make A/B testing a function that everyone can do. However, just because it’s easy enough to do, doesn’t mean that everyone has the time or even that everyone has the in depth knowledge of consumer behavior needed to know what items to test and what to test them

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Retrieved Text: Inquiry is an approach to learning which uses a series of processes to explore the natural, material and/or social worlds. Inquiry engages students in asking and answering meaningful questions. Some of these questions will be posed by the teacher, while others will be generated by the students. As often as possible, students should have the opportunity to participate in practical activities that generate answers to questions and solutions to problems and may lead to further inquiry.
Scientific inquiry involves the following processes. These processes are not always a linear progression but often more of a back and forth, or cyclical series of events.
The process of inquiry usually starts with an Initiating and Planning phase, and then moves to the phase of Performing and Recording to conduct fair tests or protocols to produce data and evidence. The data and evidence gathered is then examined in an Analyzing and Interpreting phase, which can lead to further questions and start the cycle all over again with the initiation and planning of a new inquiry. Communication and Teamwork are important to the success and efficiency of all phases of the inquiry cycle.
The familiar 5Es instructional model, which includes the cyclical steps of Engage, Explore, Explain, Extend and Evaluate can be superimposed over the basic cycle of inquiry. The Engage phase corresponds to initiating and planning. Explore and Explain encompass the performing and recording phase of inquiry, and Extend and Evaluate encompassing the analyzing and interpreting phase of inquiry.
Making meaning of the experience requires reflection, conversation, comparisons of findings with others, interpretation

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Retrieved Text: Help students learn physics by doing physics.
College Physics: Explore and Apply allows students to build a deep and robust conceptual understanding of physics by encouraging them to take an active role in the learning process. Through this approach, students build a strong conceptual foundation via observation, analysis, and testing that leads to confidence in applying their knowledge to complex situations.
College Physics: Explore and Apply --The very title reflects the unifying philosophy of the textbook and supporting materials that consistently permeates every chapter: students are guided to explore natural phenomena by observing simple experiments, finding patterns in their observations, explaining the patterns, testing their explanations in new experiments and, finally, applying the conclusions to solve practical problems. This pedagogical approach is called ISLE – the Investigative Science Learning Environment –and it is totally consistent with the goals of the Next Generation Science Standards and the revised AP curriculum.
Mastering™ Physics and the Pearson eText engage students in active learning and the world of physics. New types of End-of-chapter problems give students the chance to apply what they have learned while the Active Learning Guide (ALG), Instructor Guide, and Ready-to-Go Teaching Modules create a comprehensive learning system that instructors can efficiently adapt to their method of instruction.

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Retrieved Text: While many marketers spend much of their time at the top of the funnel attracting new users or at the bottom of the funnel turning them into buying customers, there’s actually a lot that can be done in the middle of the funnel to make the process faster, easier, and more effective. And all those things add up to more revenue, satisfied customers, and a better performing app.
Below are five simple ways you can experiment within your app to improve middle-of-funnel KPIs.
Providing a single option for action reduces decision paralysis and encourages users to convert. Choose the call-to-action (CTA) that you most want users to take; in the example below, adding to cart is a nice step, but encouraging users to buy immediately ensures they are less likely to change their mind or get distracted before completing the purchase.
Increasing the size of your CTA buttons makes it easier for users to interact with your site, encouraging more conversions. In the example below, the “Buy Now” button on the right is much easier to see, making it more likely that users click on it.
Persuasive, action-oriented messaging encourages users to convert. Saying “Buy Now” is fine, but something like “Get Yours Now!” sounds conversational and implies urgency.
While there’s a lot of information competing for above-the-fold space, ratings and reviews are something that you definitely want to make room for. Adding social proof like star ratings and user reviews builds authority and encourages users to convert. And by adding above the fold, you’ll make sure users see it before

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Retrieved Text: The science class is structured around three main areas of focus: lecture, investigations/experiments, and journal writing. The classroom works at a rapid, but productive, pace between all three areas of instruction.
Instruction is standard-based. Incarnation uses the newly-adopted Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). The curriculum’s focus is mastery of the standards assigned to each grade level.
Labs are conducted emphasizing scientific inquiry. Students are encouraged to practice the three main scientific skills: observing, inferring, and predicting. Experiments follow the Scientific Method stressing Hypothesis, Testing the Hypothesis and Finding the Conclusion. The science journals are used to extend practice in data collecting and recording, writing observations, and analyzing experiments to finalize an appropriate conclusion.

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Retrieved Text: 5eBoard Level 2: Basic DC Circuits and Electrical Measurements, Science Fair Ideas: Educational Innovations, Inc.
Through sequential levels, a student can quickly capture the fundamental concepts and interesting topics in physics, math and engineering, and uses the knowledge to solve real-world problems through carefully designed hands-on experiments and DIY projects.
Second in a three-part series designed to help young minds explore modern electronics. This is an ideal STEM education material for K-12 students, summer science camps, homeschool, or after-school programs. Level 2 is intended for 10 to 15 hours study time. Kit includes all the components and instructions necessary for carrying out experiments and projects. Working through Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3, students can quickly grasp the fundamental concepts in physics, math, and engineering, and use their new knowledge to solve real-world problems. All DIY projects and hands-on experiments employ the 5eBoard platform and reusable parts. No soldering involved.
Prerequisites: This level requires the knowledge of Level 1 of this series or the equivalent and 2nd grade math and science.
Each kit includes all electronic components and materials necessary for carrying out the experiments and projects designed for the level (except for batteries).
Students can use this 5eBoard kit to make observations to provide evidence that energy can be transferred from place to place by electric currents.
Students can use this 5eBoard kit for investigations that requires them to ask questions, make observations, and gather information about a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool.
Students can use this 5eBoard kit

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Retrieved Text: Australian Sports Turf Consultants (ASTC) provides independent sports field auditing of natural turf facilities, including elite and community sports fields, schools, golf courses, racetracks and bowling greens.
Achieving improved accessibility, safety and quality sporting surfaces requires a clear understanding of the factors affecting the performance of the surface. Factors include venue usage, design, construction and maintenance. To quantitatively define and measure these factors and assess any limitations present, it is essential that an independent sports facility audit be undertaken.
Councils, schools, community and elite sports facilities who have contracted ASTC to conduct sports field auditing have in turn requested repeat testing, otherwise known as benchmarking. Sports facility benchmarking enables the client to track how their facility is performing based on earlier data, seek additional turf maintenance advice, maintain their asset and show a duty of care to the end user. Testing for Councils also helps them prioritise which of the fields should receive an allocation of their annual budget to conduct routine, minor or major works to improve turf quality and field safety.
ASTC can also undertake an independent review of sports field usage data and can provide information that will assist Councils, clubs, schools etc. to make sure they are not over using their asset(s).
Surface hardness testing (Clegg Impact Hammer).
Irrigation auditing (distribution uniformity testing).
Field levels can be assessed by undertaking a grid survey.
Identification of surface levels by grid survey; micro levels, undulations and trip hazards.
Turf quality and cover, including weed identification, incidence of pests and disease.
Analytical testing including independent soil, nutritional and organic matter content testing can also

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Retrieved Text: by Epp, Chirold D., Bernard, Cicero H.
Epp, Chirold D., Bernard, Cicero H.
Provides a large selection of classical physics laboratory experiments whose subject matter coincides with most first-year college physics texts. All experiments can be performed with a wide variety of appartus and multiple procedures are given to accommodate several popular approaches. A number of experiments contain special error analysis procedures. Questions are designed to aid students in making more careful observations and to train them to analyze these observations as well as interpret their results. Forms to record the data and results are also included.Epp, Chirold D. is the author of 'Laboratory Experiments in College Physics', published 1994 under ISBN 9780471002512 and ISBN 0471002518.

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Retrieved Text: Although all of us interact with our environment and form opinions about the natural world, biologists take this a step further by using the scientific method to separate fact from fiction.
Questions about the natural world continually arise during fieldwork or laboratory observations, as well as from existing publications and discussions with the public or other scientists. When these questions appear to warrant further investigation, biologists follow specific steps to seek answers.
The first step, once a question has been identified, is to form suppositions as to the likely answer (hypotheses). Scientists then envision what tests might be performed to disprove these suppositions. If completed tests fail to disprove a hypothesis, the results are considered supporting evidence, but scientists are careful not to refer to hypotheses as “proven” because future experiments might find another way to disprove their suppositions. They perform these tests and, depending on the results, adapt their approach to delve further with additional testing. Once they have results, they draw conclusions, identify further needed research, and share their findings with their peers. Other scientists then review the methods used and conclusions drawn, and their research is (hopefully) published in a journal. This process is how we develop trustworthy information about the world around us.
Research often begins by examining what others have done to gain more understanding and to verify that someone else has not already found the answer. What data already exist? What methods were used to gather this information? What tests were performed and what results were produced? This information typically comes from previous

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Retrieved Text: This lab is equipped with modern technology equipments which are very easy to understand. All the equipments are prototype model of the realistic tests. This helps the students to easily operate the equipments in learning process and gain the knowledge which they can implement in their future career. They can acquire the knowledge after studying the theory based on how these experiments are going to help them.
This laboratory room is used for scheduled classes Computer Hardware practical, Computer Networking Microprocessor Practical and Computer Troubleshooting and Repair.
Laboratory Platforms include Windows, Unix(Linux) and Windows Server. Capacity in computer engineering laboratory include Computer Troubleshooting units, Servers for Linux and Windows , Workstations , Practical LAN Network Trainers and Microprocessor Trainers. Laboratory is equipped with specialized instructional technology equipment (HD data projectors and SMART board).
EMCO - CNC LATHE (Concept Turn 450).
EMCO - CNC LATHE (Concept Turn 250).
EMCO - CNC MILL (Concept Mill 155).
EMCO - CNC MILL (Concept Mill 450).
PC Based CNC programming and simulation software – 14 workstations.
EMCOMATE-160 – Electronically Controlled Universal Centre Lathe.
ESPRIT – CAD / CAM Software.
Apart from teaching the students to develop part programming and simulation using Fanuc 21, Siemens 840 D controllers, they are taught how to setup the machines, tooling and to define work piece zero. In addition to this, laboratory is being utilized by the students to design and fabricate their projects. The facilities in the laboratory are also extended to fulfill the needs of the physical resources across the campus that requires specialized equipments for their design and production.
Electrical Workshop is equipped with

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Retrieved Text: Few changes have been made to the clinical practice of donor heart preservation over the last 20 years. Using this protocol, viable storage of ex-vivo hearts is limited to no longer than 4 to 6 hours. In the present study, an oxygen delivering mobile perfusion device (ODMPD) was tested to determine if it could extend the ex-vivo heart viability using the porcine model. The first set of experiments was conducted to get baseline data. Three cadaver hearts were collected and stored for varying lengths of time to simulate different storage times using the conventional simple immersion method before being placed in the ODMPD for a minimum of 18 hours while monitoring pH, dissolved oxygen levels, and solution temperature. The second set of experiments was designed to test the ODMPD under real clinical conditions using a porcine model. A series of 13 experiments was conducted using the porcine model to simulate the conditions that the ODMPD would be expected to perform under in a human surgical setting. These experiments required the heart to be in the ODMPD from 8 to 24 hours, and in 2 cases transported in an airplane or in an automobile to simulate how they would be transported for clinical use. After all of the experiments, tissue samples were removed from the myometrium of the left ventricles and either fixed for electron microscopy or snap frozen for biochemical analysis. The biochemical analysis included testing for ATP, GSH, free iron, TBARs, and lipid radicals. After all of the tests were performed, the samples were separated

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Retrieved Text: We introduce a first-oder theory where observations are reified into the domain of quantification. Observations have an epistemological nature, they describe how the world appears, not as the world is. Our primitive notions allow to represent how some observations are explained in terms of more simple ones or how they are aggregated into macro-indexes. We analyze in detail the cases of measurement and testing where observations are collected through calibrated devices and eventually aggregated into scores. Our framework is based on a decoupling between the observations and the propositions that belong to the temporally qualified A-box. It allows contradictory observations, but it requires these disagreements to be resolved via a merging process that identifies, among the contradictory observations, the most plausible one that can then be safely transferred into the A-box.

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Retrieved Text: these instruments, to download and share data, and to do real science.
A: An experiment is the basic way of doing scientific work in GLORIA. It may combine observations, archival data access, and advanced data processing in an educational way so that an inexperienced amateur astronomer can get in direct touch with the astronomical reality rather than being buried in difficult data processing.
Q: Can I design my own experiment?
A: Yes. If you are an advanced user and/or an experienced astronomer, you can create your own experiments. See the Authoring FAQ.
Q: I just want to carry out a particular observation – do I *have* to design my own experiment for this?
A: No. There are generic "experiments" providing direct access to the telescopes.
Q: What is the difference between online and offline experiments (aren't they all online)?
A: In the GLORIA context, online and offline refer to the telescope, not the user! Online experiments involve commanding a telescope to make observations. Offline experiments work with the resulting data.
Q: What kind of observations can be requested?
experiments may help you while choosing and with definitions.
GLORIA will support observation of most celestial objects, ranging from the Sun (sunspots), Moon, planets, to stellar photometry and deep sky (galaxies, nebulae) imaging.
Q: What (and where) are the GLORIA telescopes?
A: There is no standard GLORIA telescope. GLORIA is made up of telescopes of many different sizes and types, with varying instrumentation and abilities. Similarly, they are scattered around the globe (Illustration 1) and are operated by many different institutions. Currently, there are 17 telescopes involved, but the system

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Retrieved Text: Choose a Topic - Make sure that your topic interests you! The best topic is the one that you are excited about or is something you’ve always wondered about.
Start Early - Make sure you give yourself plenty of time to do the project well. You may find your research and experimentation naturally takes you in a different direction than you thought it would in the beginning. Leave yourself plenty of time to follow these leads and you will have a more complete project.
Gather Information - Read books and magazines, search the internet, or ask professionals to learn about your area of study. Keep notes in your log book of what you learn, and keep track of where you get your information.
State the Purpose of the Project - What do you want to find out? Write a statement that describes what you want to do.
Make a Hypothesis - Make a list of answers to the questions you have. This can be a list of statements describing how or why you think the observed things work. Remember, hypothesis must be stated in a way that can be tested by an experiment.
Design your experiment with a ‘control’ (one that you don’t change) so that you can compare and see what affect the variable has.
Obtain Materials and Equipment - Make a list of the things you need to do your experiments, and collect these materials. You may be able to borrow some equipment. It doesn’t hurt to ask.
Do the Experiment and Record Data - Do the experiment and record all

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

any other electron, they become a part of the molecule’s electron system.204 This sharing of electrons produces what is known as a covalent bond. Covalent bonds are ~20 to 50 times stronger than van der Waals interactions. What exactly does that mean? Basically, it takes 20 to 50 times more energy to break a covalent bond compared to a van der Waals interaction. While the bonded form of atoms in a molecule is always more stable than the unbounded form, it may not be stable enough to withstand the energy delivered through collisions with neighboring molecules. Different bonds between different atoms in different molecular contexts differ in terms of bond stability; the bond energy refers the energy needed to break a particular bond. A molecule is stable if the bond energies associated with bonded atoms within the molecule are high enough to survive the energy delivered to the molecule through either collisions with neighboring molecules or the absorption of energy (light). When atoms form a covalent bond, their individual van der Waals surfaces merge to produce a new molecular van der Waals surface. There are a number of ways to draw molecules, but the spacefilling or van der Waals surface view is the most realistic (at least for our purposes). While realistic it can also be confusing, since it obscures the underlying molecular structure, that is, how the atoms in the molecule are linked together. This can be seen in this set of representations of the simple molecule 2methylpropane (→).205 As molecules become larger, as is the case with many biologically important molecules, it can become impossible to appreciate their underlying organization based on a van der Waals surface representation. Because they form a new stable entity, it is not surprising (perhaps) that the properties of a molecule are quite distinct from, although certainly influenced by, the properties of the atoms from which they are composed. To a first order approximation, a molecule’s properties are based on its shape, which is dictated by how...


Q: This sharing of electrons produces what is known as a covalent bond. covalent bonds are ~20 to 50 times stronger than what?

 Choices:

- Newton's third law

- gravitational pull

- van der waals interactions

- Mendelian systems

A:

Target Text: van der waals interactions

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Retrieved Text: Covalent bonds are chemical bonds that are formed by sharing valence electrons between adjacent atoms. This type of bonding is mostly seen in interactions of non-metals. Covalent bonds allow elements the ability to form multiple bonds with other molecules and atoms - a fundamental necessity for the creation of macromolecules. In the covalent bond, as the distance between the nuclei decreases, each nucleus starts to attract the other atom's electron, which lowers the potential energy of the system. Anyway, when the attraction increases, the repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons increase as well. In covalent bonding, each atom achieves a full outer (valence) level of electrons. Each atom in a covalent bond counts the shared electrons as belonging entirely to itself. Most covalent substances have low electrical conductivity because electrons are localized and ions are absent. Overall, the atoms in a covalent bond vibrate, and the energy of these vibrations can be studied with the IR spectroscopy.
A general rule to follow when looking at covalent bonding is the octet rule, also known as the noble gas configuration. An atom participating in covalent bonding must (with few exceptions) follow the octet rule, which states that an atom must have eight electrons around it. These electrons can be shared or unshared. The two atoms do not need to share their electrons equally; an electron pair can be donated from one atom instead of each atom donating one electron. A periodic table can be used to determine the number of valence electrons an atom. The general rule

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Retrieved Text: A covalent bond is formed between two non-metals that have similar electronegativities. Neither atom is "strong" enough to attract electrons from the other. For stabilization, they share their electrons from outer molecular orbit with others. An ionic bond is formed between a metal and a non-metal. Non-metals(-ve ion) are "stronger" than the metal(+ve ion) and can get electrons very easily from the metal. These two opposite ions attract each other and form the ionic bond.
Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding between two non metallic atoms which is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms and other covalent bonds. Ionic bond, also known as electrovalent bond is a type of bond formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a chemical compound. These kinds of bonds occur mainly between a metallic and a non metallic atom.
The covalent bond is formed when two atoms are able to share electrons whereas the ionic bond is formed when the "sharing" is so unequal that an electron from atom A is completely lost to atom B, resulting in a pair of ions.
Each atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons. At the centre of the atom, neutrons and protons stay together. But electrons revolve in orbit around the center. Each of these molecular orbits can have a certain number of electrons to form a stable atom. But apart from Inert gas, this configuration is not present with most of the atoms. So to stabilize the atom, each atom shares half of its electrons.
Covalent bonding is

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Retrieved Text: Coordinate covalent bond: A covalent bond in which one of the two atoms bonded supplies all of the shared electrons. Coordinate covalent bonds are formed when one atom does not have a complete outer shell, while another atom does have a complete outer …... The key difference between ionic and covalent bonds is that ionic bonds occur between atoms having very different electronegativities whereas covalent bonds occur between atoms with similar or very low electronegativity differences.
Electronegativity can be used to predict whether a bond will be a nonpolar covalent bond, a polar covalent bond, or an ionic bond. The C-Cl bond is polar covalent , Na-Cl is ionic, and the C-C bond is pure covalent with each atom sharing the bonding electrons equally.
How do we calculate covalent or ionic bonding between atoms?
8/11/2017 · This is a general way. However, the most accurate way to determine whether the bond is covalent or ionic is to check the electronegativity difference.If the difference is less than 1.5, it is covalent, and if it is larger than 2, it is ionic.
Most bonds have some covalent and some ionic character. For example, a C-C covalent bond has little or no ionic character because the two atoms have the same EN's. The Si-F is one of the most polarized covalent bonds and has a lot of ionic character. The N-Li bond is ionic but has significant covalent character.

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Retrieved Text: The term covalent bond is used to describe the bonds in compounds that result from the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons.
In covalent bonds, the electrons are shared equally between two atoms.
However, the distance between the shared electrons may not be equal.
They may be closer to one atom than the other because one has higher electronegative pull than the other.
Please note: The electrons are shared, not transferred. So no loss or gain of electrons.
There are two types of covalent bonds – nonpolar and polar covalent bonds.
Below is a summary of the characteristics of the covalent bonds.

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Retrieved Text: · Instead of gaining and loosing electrons, carbon shares its 4-electrons with another element or carbon to form molecule.
· Covalent bonds are formed as a result of sharing of electrons. Example- H2, O2, N2. Covalent compounds have low melting point and boiling point due to small intermolecular forces.
· H2forms by sharing valence electrons (1 per atom of H) and produce single bond between two hydrogen atoms.
· O2 forms by sharing valence electrons (2 per atom of O) and produce double bond between two oxygen atoms.
· N2forms by sharing valence electrons (3 per atom of N) and produce triple bond between two nitrogen atoms.
· Methane, CH4is simple carbon compounds and used as a fuel on large scale and also a major component of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). Methane formed due to sharing of 4 valence electrons of carbon with 4 hydrogen atoms.
Carbon have three allotropes i.e. Diamond, Graphite and fullerene.
Diamond formed due to rigid three dimensional structures of carbon atoms because each carbon atom bonded to another 4 carbon atoms. It is hardest substance.
Graphite formed due to presence of hexagonal array layers above one another, and layers of hexagonal arrays formed because each carbon atom bonded to another 3 carbon atoms with 2 single and 1 double bond. It is smooth, slippery and very good conductor of electricity.
Fullerenes (C-60) are also an allotrope of carbon in which carbon atoms are arranged in football like shape.
Carbon shows versatile nature because it has two characteristics features which are catenation and tetravalency. These both feature gives large numbers of compounds.
Catenation

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Retrieved Text: During a chemical reaction the atoms tend to adjust their electronic arrangement in such a way that they achieve 8 e- in their outermost electron. This is called octet rule.
the chemical force which keeps the atoms in any molecule together is called a chemical bond.
The columbic force of attraction which holds the appositively charged ions together is called an ionic bond. An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of a metal to an atom of non- metal.
The molar enthalpy change accompanying the complete separation of the constituent particles that compose of the solids (such as ions for ionic solid, molecules for molecular solids) under standard conditions is called lattice enthalpy (?lHo). The lattice enthalpy is a positive quantity.
The number of electrons lost or gain by an atom of an element is called as electrovalency.The element which give up electrons to form positive ions are said to have positive valency, while the elements which accept electrons to form negative ions are said to have negative valency.
(iii) Large lattice enthalpy i.e; the smaller size and the higher charge of the atoms.
The number of electrons which an atom contributes towards mutual sharing during the formation of a chemical bond called its covalency in that compound.
A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of one pair of electrons is called a single covalent bond, or simply a single bond. A single covalent bond is represented by a small line (?) between the two atoms.
A covalent bond formed by the mutual

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Retrieved Text: The key difference between double bond and single bond is that, in a single bond formation, two atoms share one electron pair only between whereas, in a double bond formation, two atoms share two electron pairs.
As proposed by the American chemist G.N.Lewis, atoms are stable when they contain eight electrons in their valence shell. Most of the atoms have less than eight electrons in their valence shells (except the noble gases in group 18 of the periodic table); therefore, they are not stable. These atoms tend to react with each other, to become stable. Thus, each atom can achieve a noble gas electronic configuration. And, this can happen by forming ionic bonds, covalent bonds or metallic bonds. Among these, covalent bonding is special. Single and double bonds come under this category of bonds.
Double bond forms when two atoms share two pairs of electrons between them to fill the valence orbitals. Double bonds are shorter than the single bonds but stronger than them. Sp2 hybridization allows the atoms to form double bonds.
Double bonds can be of two types. Of the two bonds, one is a sigma bond. It forms via the linear overlapping of two sp2 hybridized orbitals. Secondly, the other bond (which we name as the pi bond) forms via the lateral overlapping of two p orbitals.
The common example of a molecule with a double bond is ethylene. In ethylene, the double bond is between two carbon atoms. However, other than between similar atoms, this type of bonds can form between different atoms too as in

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Retrieved Text: Elements interact with each other constantly in the natural world. There are only a few elite ones who are noble enough to remain to themselves. But in general every element interacts with at least another, giving rise to a variety of structures, phenomena and compounds we see every day. These interactions take place in the most basic form as bond formation.
There are various kinds of bonds but they are all grouped under two main categories, primary and secondary bonds. Primary bonds are those which are strong in nature. They have electronic attractions and repulsions just like secondary bonds but in equilibrium they are stronger than the later. They are broadly classified into three types: Ionic bonds, Covalent bonds and Metallic bonds.
These are bonds formed from the donation and acceptance of electrons between elements, giving rise to strong compounds. These bonds are electrically neutral when the compound is in the solid state but on dissociation in solutions or in the molten state they give positively and negatively charged ions. For instance, NaCl or sodium chloride is a compound formed from ionic bonds between positively charged Na+ ions and negatively charged Cl- ions. This compound is hard but brittle and does not conduct electricity when it is solid but does so when in mixed in a solution or in liquid state. Furthermore, it has a very high melting point, in other words, strong heat is required to break the bonds between the constituent ions. All these strong characteristics of this compound are attributed to it by the presence

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Retrieved Text: Bonding basics - covalent bonds complete the chart for each element.
... needs one more electron to fill the outermost energy level. by sharing one pair of electrons, both atoms are able to complete their outer shells. o each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to fill the outermost energy level. by sharing two pairs of electrons, both atoms are able to complete their outer shells. o o o o 2 o o c each oxygen... Bonding basics - covalent bonds answer key/teacher notes complete the chart for each element. follow your teacher's directions to complete each covalent bond.
Name: class: date: id: a 1 chapter 8 test matching match each item with the correct statement below. a. hydrogen bond d. single covalent bond b. double covalent bond e. polar bond c. structural formula 1. a depiction of the arrangement of atoms in molecules and polyatomic ions 2. a... Multiple choice identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 11. which is a typical characteristic of an ionic compound? a.
Following each is a brief comment suggesting whether or not the statement is true, and why. 1. a positive ion will be attracted to any negative ion. true : any positively charged object will be attracted to any negatively charged object. it does not matter how the objects acquired the charge, the attraction only depends on the amount of charge... P h o t o c o p y p ionic bonding - answers - page 1 of 2 ionic bonding - answers below you

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Retrieved Text: The force of attraction between atoms or ions is called chemical bond.
c) Co-ordinate covalent bond d) Metallic bond, etc.
• Formation of chemical bonds involved electrons and nuclei and mainly energy changes.
• Bond formation is exothermic and bond breaking is endothermic.
• Bonds are formed between atoms or ions to gain stability.
• In the bond formation, some energy is released and potential energy of system decreases.
• Strong bonds are formed in the products and weak bonds are broken in the reactants.
• Molecules are more stable than individual atoms.
• This was proposed by Kossel and Lewis.
• This theory explains how and why the bonds are formed.
• Valence electrons are responsible for bonding process.
octet configuration in the valence shell.
• Atoms of all other elements contain less than 8 electrons in valence shell.
• Attaining octet configuration in the valence shell is called octet rule or octet theory.
• Some elements may become stable by attaining duplet configuration e.g. H, Li, Be.
• Octet configuration can be achieved by loosing or gaining or mutual sharing of electrons.
As per this theory, core electrons will not take part in bonding.
It is the combining capacity of an element i.e., number of bonds formed by the element.
• Ionic bond was explained by Kossel.
the transfer of the electrons is called Ionic bond.
i.e atoms of different electronegativities.
It is generally formed between metal atom and non-metal atom.
• It cannot be formed between same or similar atoms.
• To form an ionic bond, the electronegatives between combining atoms should be greater than 1.7.
electronegative and more electronegative elements.
Ionic bond is non-directional as it involves

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Retrieved Text: The Lewis Structure of a molecule shows how the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms of the molecule. Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons around an atomic symbol. Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions have less (for cations) or more (for anions) dots than the corresponding atom. From experiment, chemists have learned that when a stable compound forms, the atoms usually have a noble gas electron configuration or eight valence electrons.
The tendency to form species that have eight electrons in the valence shell is called the octet rule. The attraction of oppositely charged ions caused by electron transfer is called an ionic bond. The strength of ionic bonding depends on the magnitude of the charges and the sizes of the ions.
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. Lewis electron dot diagrams can be drawn to illustrate covalent bond formation. Double bonds or triple bonds between atoms may be necessary to properly illustrate the bonding in some molecules.
Lewis dot symbols provide a simple rationalization of why elements form compounds with the observed stoichiometries. A plot of the overall energy of a covalent bond as a function of internuclear distance is identical to a plot of an ionic pair because both result from attractive and repulsive forces between charged entities. In Lewis electron structures, we encounter bonding pairs, which are shared by two atoms, and lone pairs, which are not shared between atoms.
Resonance structures are averages of different Lewis structure possibilities. Bond lengths are intermediate between covalent bonds and covalent double bonds.
The

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Retrieved Text: In chemistry, metals and nonmetals form ionic bonds, and two or more nonmetals form covalent bonds. These two bond types represent fundamentally different atomic interactions: covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms, whereas ionic bonds result from the atoms possessing opposite charges. The truth, however, is more complicated, because few bonds exhibit purely ionic or purely covalent properties. That is, bonds tend to contain both ionic and covalent character. Linus Pauling deduced an equation to describe the fractional covalent character of a bond based on each atom’s electronegativity, or the ability of the atom to attract electrons to itself.
Determine the Pauling electronegativities of the two elements involved in the bond. Numerous print and online references provide this information (see Resources). For a bond between silicon and oxygen, for example, the electronegativity values would be 1.8 for silicon and 3.5 for oxygen.
Subtract the smaller electronegativity value from the larger value to determine the difference in electrongativity, X. Continuing the example from Step 1, the electronegativity difference is X = (3.5 - 1.8) = 1.7.
Substitute the value of X from Step 2 into the fraction-covalent equation: FC = exp (-0.25 * X^2). In the example presented in Steps 1 and 2, FC = exp (-0.25 * 1.7^2) = exp (-0.25 * 2.9) = exp (-0.72) = 0.49.
Remember to always follow the scientific order of operations when performing calculations: Perform operations in parentheses first, and calculate exponents before performing multiplication or division.
Saint Louis University: How Did Linus Pauling Come Up with Values of Electronegativities for the Elements?
Brubaker,

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Retrieved Text: 1. 1 Biological Science Canadian 2nd Edition Freeman TEST BANK Full download at: https://testbankreal.com/download/biological-science-canadian-2nd-edition- freeman-test-bank/ Biological Science Canadian 2nd Edition Freeman SOLUTIONS MANUAL Full download at: https://testbankreal.com/download/biological-science-canadian-2nd-edition- freeman-solutions-manual/ Biological Science, Canadian Edition., 2e (Freeman et al.) Chapter 2 Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life 1) How many electrons are involved in a single covalent bond? A) one B) two C) three D) four Answer: B Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds. 2) How many electrons are involved in a double covalent bond? A) one B) two C) three D) four Answer: D Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds. 3) How many electrons are involved in a triple covalent bond? A) two B) three C) six D) nine Answer: C Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds.
3. 3 B) single and double only C) four single bonds only D) two double bonds only Answer: A Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Comprehension LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent

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Retrieved Text: Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called photovoltaic effect. When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons of light ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect is utilised to produce electricity from light energy. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing the photovoltaic cell. The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid crystal, each silicon atom shares each of its four valence electrons with another nearest silicon atom hence creating covalent bonds between them. In this way, silicon crystal gets a tetrahedral lattice structure. While light ray strikes on any materials some portion of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the materials and rest is absorbed by the materials.
The same thing happens when light falls on a silicon crystal. If the intensity of incident light is high enough, sufficient numbers of photons are absorbed by the crystal and these photons, in turn, excite some of the electrons of covalent bonds. These excited electrons then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence band to conduction band. As the energy level of these electrons is in the conduction band, they leave from the covalent bond leaving a hole in the bond behind each removed electron. These are called free electrons move randomly inside the

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Retrieved Text: Pure semiconductors are relatively good insulators as compared with metals, though not nearly as good as a true insulator like glass. To be useful in semiconductor applications, the intrinsic semiconductor, pure undoped semiconductor must have no more than one impurity atom in 10 billion semiconductor atoms. This is analogous to a grain of salt impurity in a railroad boxcar of sugar. Impure, or dirty semiconductors are considerably more conductive, though not as good as metals. Why might this be? To answer that question, we must look at the electron structure of such materials in Figure below.
The crystal lattice in Figure below (a) contains atoms having four electrons in the outer shell, forming four covalent bonds to adjacent atoms. This is the anticipated crystal lattice. The addition of a phosphorus atom with five electrons in the outer shell introduces an extra electron into the lattice as compared with the silicon atom. The pentavalent impurity forms four covalent bonds to four silicon atoms with four of the five electrons, fitting into the lattice with one electron left over. Note that this spare electron is not strongly bonded to the lattice as the electrons of normal Si atoms are. It is free to move about the crystal lattice, not being bound to the Phosphorus lattice site. Since we have doped at one part phosphorus in 10 million silicon atoms, few free electrons were created compared with the numerous silicon atoms. However, many electrons were created compared with the fewer electron-hole pairs in intrinsic silicon. Application of an external electric

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Retrieved Text: IM7. Which bonds are ionic and which are covalent?
Cells contain lots of water. One of the roles of the water is to dissolve different materials. For example, there are many different ionic compounds (salts) in cells. Ions are used to maintain cell potentials and are important in cell signaling and muscle contraction.
How can you tell if a compound is ionic or covalent?
There is not a simple answer to this question. Many bonds are somewhere in between. In a polar covalent bond, a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms in order to fulfill their octets, but the electrons lie closer to one end of the bond than the other. There is more negative charge toward one end of the bond, and that leaves more positive charge at the other end.
Looking at the electronegativity values of different atoms helps us to decide how evenly a pair of electrons in a bond is shared. Electronegativity increases toward the upper right hand corner of the periodic table because of a combination of nuclear charge and shielding factors. Atoms in the upper right hand corner of the periodic table have a greater pull on their shared bonding electrons, while those in the lower left hand corner have a weaker attraction for the electrons in covalent bonds.
In a carbon-oxygen bond, more electrons would be attracted to the oxygen because it is to the right of carbon in its row in the periodic table. Compounds like , dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3, are a little bit polar. Formaldehyde, CH2O, is even more polar.

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Retrieved Text: Since covalent compounds are formed by sharing of electrons between individual atoms, they consist of simple individual covalent molecules which generally exist in gaseous or liquid phase. Covalent compounds which are solids are either amorphous or constitute what are known as molecular crystals having weak intermolecular forces.
(b) Low melting and boiling points.
Covalent compounds have generally low melting or boiling points since only a little energy is required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces.
compounds are poor conductors of electricity in the fused state or in aqueous solution. This is because they made up of molecules (and not ions) which are neutal.
They are generally soluble in organic solvent such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride or ether but only rarely soluble in water.
The reaction involving covalent compounds are very slow as the reaction involve between molecules rather than ions.
Since covalent compounds are formed by overlapping of orbital which are directed in space the covalent bonds have directional nature. As a result covalent compounds acquire a particulars shape or geometry.
Covalent compounds generally exhibit isomerism.

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Retrieved Text: The atomic number of an atom is A. the number of protons in the atom.B. the number of neutrons in the atom.
C. the number of protons and electrons in the atom. D. the number of protons and neutrons in the atom. E. None of these choices are correct.
LO: 02.01.03 Relate atomic structure to the periodic table of the elements.
The smallest functional unit and associated structures of a living organism are A. atoms and their protons, neutrons and electrons.
B. molecules and their atoms, bonds and electrons. C. proteins and amino acids.
D. cells with nucleus, mitochondria and ER. E. water made of hydrogen and oxygen.
LO: 02.01.01 Describe the general structure of atoms and their constituent particles.
With an atomic mass of 16 and an atomic number of 8, it follows that oxygen __X__ has eight electrons.
__X__ can readily form bonds with 2 other atoms.
The nucleus of an atom is composed of A. protons.
D.protons and neutrons.E. protons and electrons.
The first, inner-most energy shell of an atom A. can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
B.can have a maximum of 2 electrons.C. is called the 2p orbital.
D. is called the 1s orbital and can have a maximum of 8 electrons. E. is called the 2p orbital and can have a maximum of 2 electrons.
LO: 02.01.02 Discuss the way electrons occupy electron shells that surround the nucleus.
Tritiated hydrogen (3H) differs from hydrogen (1H) in that A. 3H has 2 more protons than1H.
B. 3H has 2 more electrons than1H.C.3H has 2 more neutrons than1H.
D. 3H has the same number of neutrons as1H.
E. 3H has

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Retrieved Text: The Bonding chapter of this High School Chemistry Help and Review course is the simplest way to master chemistry. This chapter uses simple and fun videos that are about five minutes long, plus lesson quizzes and a chapter exam to ensure students learn the essentials of chemical bonding.
Verify you're ready by completing the Bonding chapter exam.
Be Ready on Test Day: Use the Bonding chapter exam to be prepared.
Get Extra Support: Ask our subject-matter experts any chemical bonding question. They're here to help!
Mom always said that sharing is caring. This lesson will explore how electrons affect the chemical reactivity of atoms and specifically the merits of sharing electrons.
Did you know that the scientific name for table salt is sodium chloride? Find out how sodium and chlorine atoms come together to form your favorite seasoning.
Are you confused about how you can tell what kind of bond two atoms will form? This lesson will help you understand the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds as well as how to predict how two atoms will interact.
This lesson defines and discusses important concepts behind hydrogen bonding. You'll learn when and why these bonds occur and which atoms are often involved.
Learn the octet rule and how it applies to electron energy levels. Identify valence electrons and learn how to determine them by looking at the periodic table. Also, discover how they pertain to the octet rule. Learn how to draw the Lewis diagram of an atom, and understand how it provides clues to chemical bonding.
Learn how ions are formed using the

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Retrieved Text: Rd-blog-number-4384 by Herb Zinser reviews the EARTH geography surface and its chemistry molecular EXPRESSION continuum and its social chemistry anger DISPLAYS. Thus the EARTH LAB battle at LAB site ... Fort (LAB) Hood, Texas.
The EARTH geography surface and atmosphere is comprised of atoms and molecules. Humans are subsets embedded within this Sartre existential context.
Describes the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories of acids and bases, and explains the relationships between them.
Acids and Bases Are Everywhere. Every liquid you see will probably have either acidic or basic traits. Water (H2O) can be both an acid and a base, depending .
Lewis theories of acids and bases --> molecular military base --> FORT Lewis.
Let's look at the EARTH LAB site in Texas.
The molecule configuration behind Nature's ATTENTION getting .... molecular system ... military action carried out my human messengers.
Above, bottom formula ..... the Isaac Asimov psychohistory example of formula/equations with the SYMBOL LIFE transformation into physical REALITY and actualization (actual acts of behavior and doing something ...perhaps okay perhaps not .... but these are Nature's molecular social engineering messages).
Undercover agent at the ink PEN --> PEN --> Pentagon ...secret code Linda Tripp --> Lin + da + trip --> Line of data travels from the college textbook to report on BRAIN INTERNAL problems in Washington, DC area of human SYMBOL PROCESSORS.
Thus we have some concepts that explain Nature's molecular military system and its expression FORMAT .... the FEEDBACK ERROR signal format using tragedy ..to get attention in the newspapers ..to provide data for researchers.
Let's look at the periodic atomic table

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Retrieved Text: Ionic Bonding — electron transfer. Draw electron dot diagrams for given elements. This last will be welcome news to cable viewers, sure. The leaflet was signed by Rahmat Ali and three fellow students at Cambridge University.
A single dot represents one valence electron. Unfortunately this type of should be monitored. Are the octets of all the atoms filled? List of free sample resumes, resume templates, resume examples, resume formats and cover letters.
Why is H2O a dipole but CO2 is not, yet they both have 2 polar covalent bonds? Only one ion of each is needed to balance these charges. By convention, the lowest whole number ratio is used in the formulas of ionic compounds.
The melting points of the sodium halides Figure 8. To draw the Lewis electron dot diagram we picture in our minds the symbol for Mg in a box with all of its core electrons i. What we'll do is take these two up here, and let's move them between the Oxygen and Carbon; we're going to share them.
This type of arrangement, where two atoms share a pair of electrons, is known as covalent bonding, and the shared pair of electrons constitutes the covalent bond. He was forced to leave Pakistan inreturned to Cambridge and died there of influenza and a medically undiagnosed broken heart on February 3, The word first appeared in a four-page leaflet entitled Now or Never, published January 28, Oh well, a little bit of inconsistency to spice the pot.
Given its repeated appearance, I'll mention that according to its colophon, Librairie

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Retrieved Text: (1) The general representative string for the structure of matter and the implicit string that establishes the structure were indicated in a previous problem. Here, we examine specific concepts associated with the covalent bonding that establishes molecular shapes.
(b) Will a substance with electronegativity of 2.1 covalently bond with a substance with electronegativity of 3.0? Represent this bonding with strings.
(c) What is the nature of the covalent bonding between two substances with the same electronegativity.
(d) What is the difference between a polar molecule and a dipole.
(e) Define bond length and bond angle. Write representative strings for each.
1(a) The electronegativity of an atom in a covalent bond is a measure of its ability to draw bonding electrons to itself. In a covalent bond, the electrons shared are closer to the atom with the higher electronegativity. Chlorine (Cl) has electronegativity of 3.0. Sodium (Na) has electronegativity of 0.9. The absolute difference in electronegativity is significantly high so as to cause a complete transfer of electron to chlorine. Consequently an ionic bond is formed. A covalent bond is not formed.
1(b) Hydrogen has electronegativity of 2.1. Chlorine has electronegativity of 3.0. The absolute electronegativity difference is not large enough to cause a complete transfer of electrons. So a covalent bond is formed. However, the shared electrons are closer to the chlorine atom. In general, sharing of electrons will occur if the absolute difference in electronegativity is less than 1.7. The atom with the higher electronnegativity will draw the shared electrons closer to itself. The electrons are equally shared between atoms with

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Retrieved Text: Bonding models for methane, CH4. Models are NOT reality. Each has its own strengths and limitations.
Students know chemical bonds between atoms in molecules such as H2, CH4, NH3, H2CCH2, N2, Cl2, and many large biological molecules are covalent.
Students know how to draw Lewis dot structures.
Covalent compounds tend to form so that each atom, by sharing electrons, has an octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level.
Covalent compounds involve atoms of nonmetals only.
Lewis structures show how valence electrons are arranged among atoms in a molecule.
Lewis structures Reflect the central idea that stability of a compound relates to noble gas electron configuration.
Carbon (and silicon) form four covalent bonds.

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Retrieved Text: Molecule: Molecule, a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance. Learn more about the properties and structures of molecules in this article.... The nitrogen rule is only true for neutral structures in which all of the atoms in the molecule have a number of covalent bonds equal to their standard valency (counting each sigma bond and pi bond as a separate covalent bond for the purposes of the calculation).
However, when you see the NCl3 molecule, you will see that the nitrogen atom has a single pair of electrons. This makes the molecule polar by nature. This makes the molecule polar by nature. SO3 and BH3 are other examples.... Nitrogen atom in ammonium ion, NH 4 + gets positive charge since it donates a pair of electrons to H + ion. If it receives a lone pair, a negative charge is acquired. E.g.
17/09/2017�� Ammonia, NH3, molecule the three N?H bonds have only a slight polarity (toward the more electronegative nitrogen atom). The molecule has two lone electrons in an orbital, that points towards the how to get to the glen hospital throw A molecule consists of two or more atoms of the same element, or different elements, that are chemically bound together. Note that the two nitrogen atoms which comprise a nitrogen molecule move as a unit.
However, when you see the NCl3 molecule, you will see that the nitrogen atom has a single

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Retrieved Text: What two subatomic particles are in the nucleus of an atom?
What charge do protons have?
What charge do neutrons have?
No charge, they are neutral.
What charge do electrons have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons, how many protons does it have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons how many neutrons does it have?
What charge to atoms have?
What happens when electrons are added to an atom?
It becomes a negative ion.
What happens when electrons are removed from an atom?
It become a positive ion.
How many types of atom do elements contain?
Why do Lithium and Rubidium react in similar ways?
Because they both have one electron in their outer shells. They are both in the same group also.
Because they have a complete outer shell (8), which means they are stable.
Why is argon used in filament bulbs?
Because argon has a full outer shell and so won't react with the hot tungsten in the filament.
What happens when different elements react with each other?
They form chemical bonds known as compounds.
a metal and a non-metal.
In ionic compounds do metals loose or gain electrons?
They loose electrons forming positive ions.
In ionic compounds do non-metals loose or gain electrons?
They gain electrons forming negative ions.
When atoms gain or loose electrons.
When a metalled a non-metal bond ionically do they share or give electrons?
Why are ionic bonds attracted to each other?
Because of the negative and positive ions.
When negative and positive ions are attracted to each other. They give electrons away in this process.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
what is the electronic arrangement of the first 3 shells?

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Retrieved Text: When two atoms form a covalent bond the electrons in the bonds and non-bonding in the outer shell act as negatively charged clouds thereby repelling each other. To prevent this as much as possible, the electrons in the outer shell are spread out as far as possible in space.
As you can see from the table below, these rules can be used to predict the shape of ions and covalent molecules.

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Retrieved Text: The interaction between two molecules can lead to the establishment of a connection between them. This connection can be strong, generally irreversible, with covalent bond or weaker, transient, with low energy interactions.
Covalent bond results from the sharing by two atoms of two electrons which bind them. To ensure this connection, electron orbitals of the two atoms overlap. This covering can be axial, the axis passing by the nuclei of the two atoms, forming a sigma bond, or lateral forming a pi bond such as existing in double and triple bond. In addition, the existence of electrons in antibonding orbitals weakens the covalent bond.
The energy of covalent bond lies between 30 and 100 Kcal/mol. This bond, taking into account its energy, is generally irreversible. This concept of irreversibility must be moderate: when a molecule has established a covalent bond with a molecule B to give a molecule AB the reaction can be regarded as irreversible. However if this molecule AB is put in the presence of a molecule C having a greater affinity for the molecule A, the equilibrium can be displaced towards the formation of a molecule AC. It is what is observed in reactions involving thiol groups, chelators, Schiff bases. Moreover, if the molecule AB is placed in a new environment different by the hydrogen ion concentration or the oxydoreduction potential, it can dissociate.
The number of drugs which directly establish covalent bonds with endogenous molecules is rather limited. One can quote among those, as examples, alkylating agents and platinum which bind DNA with which they

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Retrieved Text: 27/05/2017 · How do I find out what the atom bonds are in a molecule. For example what are the molecule bonds in glucose? I can t figure out how to Determine this. For example what are the molecule bonds in glucose?... The number of full, or partially filled, electron shells determines the size of an atom. The size of the outermost shell depends on how many protons in the nucleus can 'see' that electron shell to pull it inwards. The larger the number of 'unshielded' protons, the stronger the pull.
Nonpolar covalent bonds have a similar concept as polar covalent bonds; the atom with the higher electronegativity will draw away the electron from the weaker one. Since this statement is true--if we apply this to our diatomic molecules--all the atoms will have the same electronegativity since they are the same kind of element; thus, the electronegativities will cancel each other out and will... Assuming you do, you can look at the structure of each one and decide if it is polar or not - whether or not you know the individual atom electronegativity. This is because you know that all bonds between dissimilar elements are polar, and in these particular examples, it doesn't matter which direction the dipole moment vectors are pointing (out or in).
After you draw the molecule using VSEPR rules, if the molecule has symmetry around the central atom, the bond dipole moments will "cancel out" (like pulling in opposite directions) and the molecule will therefore be non-polar.... To find out SO 3 Hybridization,

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Retrieved Text: referred to as inert or inactive atoms. However, if the valence shell of an atom lacks the required number of electrons to complete the shell, then the activity of the atom increases.
Figure 1-7 - A typical crystal structure.
Figure 1-8 - A two-dimensional view of a silicon cubic lattice.
Silicon and germanium, for example, are the most frequently used semiconductors. Both are quite similar in their structure and chemical behavior. Each has four electrons in the valence shell. Consider just silicon. Since it has fewer than the required number of eight electrons needed in the outer shell, its atoms will unite with other atoms until eight electrons are shared. This gives each atom a total of eight electrons in its valence shell; four of its own and four that it borrowed from the surrounding atoms. The sharing of valence electrons between two or more atoms produces a COVALENT BOND between the atoms. It is this bond that holds the atoms together in an orderly structure called a CRYSTAL. A crystal is just another name for a solid whose atoms or molecules are arranged in a three-dimensional geometrical pattern commonly referred to as a lattice. Figure 1-7 shows a typical crystal structure. Each sphere in the figure represents the nucleus of an atom, and the arms that join the atoms and support the structure are the covalent bonds.
As a result of this sharing process, the valence electrons are held tightly together. This can best be illustrated by the two-dimensional view of the silicon lattice in figure 1-8. The circles

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Retrieved Text: A NaCl B Li C H2O D He E S Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 9. Answer: There should be 3 equivalent resonance structures drawn, each containing 1 single Br-O bond and 2 double Br-O bonds. A N B O C Br D He Answer: C Diff: 2 Page Ref: 9. The dash - represents two dots. If the result are small structures they will be molecular eg 1 and 4 in your list.
Determine the total number of valence electrons in a molecule 2. Compoiunds of this type usually contain a metal elements joined to non-metal element - so compounds 2 and 3 in your list are ionic. Answer: The Al should have no electrons around it, with a 3+ charge. Label each atom with its formal charge. The number of bonding sites is detemined by considering the number of valence electrons and the ability of an atom to expand it's octet. Structure B is more accurate because it has more formal charge on the atoms c.
Based on these electronegativities PbH4 would be expected to A be ionic and contain H- ions. E None of the above are exothermic. And that represents the best structure for ClO3-. A Li Cl B Na Cl C K Cl D Rb Cl Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 9. A 0 pairs B 1 pair C 2 pairs D 3 pairs E 4 pairs Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 9. Answer: F Diff: 1 Page Ref: 9. For instance, complete structures are more useful for the novice

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Water molecules move about continuously due to their kinetic energy. When a crystal of sodium chloride is placed into water, the water’s molecules collide with the crystal lattice. Recall that the crystal lattice is composed of alternating positive and negative ions. Water is attracted to the sodium chloride crystal because water is polar and has both a positive and a negative end. The positively charged sodium ions in the crystal attract the oxygen end of the water molecules because they are partially negative. The negatively charged chloride ions in the crystal attract the hydrogen end of the water molecules because they are partially positive. The action of the polar water molecules takes the crystal lattice apart (see image below).


Q: Water molecules move about continuously due to what type of energy?

 Choices:

- kinetic

- seismic

- optical

- potential

A:

Target Text: kinetic

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Describe different types of passive transport.
Explain how different types of active transport occur.
Outline the role of cell transport in homeostasis.
Imagine living in a house that has walls without any windows or doors. Nothing could enter or leave the house. Now imagine living in a house with holes in the walls instead of windows and doors. Things could enter or leave the house, but you wouldn’t be able to control what came in or went out. Only if a house has walls with windows and doors that can be opened or closed can you control what enters or leaves. For example, windows and doors allow you to let the dog in and keep the bugs out.
If a cell were a house, the plasma membrane would be walls with windows and doors. Moving things in and out of the cell is an important role of the plasma membrane. It controls everything that enters and leaves the cell. There are two basic ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane: passive transport and active transport.
Passive transport occurs when substances cross the plasma membrane without any input of energy from the cell. No energy is needed because the substances are moving from an area where they have a higher concentration to an area where they have a lower concentration. Concentration refers to the number of particles of a substance per unit of volume. The more particles of a substance in a given volume, the higher the concentration. A substance always moves from an area where it is more concentrated to

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Retrieved Text: The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by ___________________ bonds.
2. The electrons are not shared equally creating a ___________________ molecule.
4. Water molecules stick to other water molecules. This property is called __________________.
6. ____________________________ is the tendency for fluids to resist flow.
use less energy to keep from sinking.
beading formed due to the polar nature of water.
8. Why does ice float?
9. Explain why lipids and other molecules like sand do not dissolve in water.
10. Explain what pH is and what does it have to do with water?
11. How does salt dissolve in water? Explain the process and why it can dissolve in water.
than other substances, and moderate temperatures of a nearby area.
3. What is a reactant?
4. What is the function of an enzyme?
2. What macromolecule are enzymes made out of?
3. Where can you find enzymes?
4. How do temperature and pH affect enzymes?
7. Are enzymes permanently changed in the chemical reactions they are involved in?
8. Will an enzyme work on any substance? Explain.
The optimum temperature for the action of this enzyme is approximately __?__ degrees Celsius.
1. Which type of molecule is formed from amino acids?
3. What macromolecule is made up of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base?
7. What are catalysts and what do they do to chemical reactions?
8. Explain what activation energy is.

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Retrieved Text: Driving question: How do cows use energy to move? What is the hidden chemical change when cows move?
Scapular Kinematics: So how is the scapula supposed to move?
DRIVING QUESTION: WHAT IS SELECTIVE BREEDING?
Driving question: How do cows use energy to move?
What is the hidden chemical change when cows move?
How do oxygen and food help a cow use energy to move?
Making the Reactant Molecules: Sugar and Oxygen Cellular respiration occurs when sugar (C6H12O6) reacts with oxygen (O2). Make a molecules of sugar and oxygen on the reactant side of your Molecular Models poster: 1. Get the atoms you will need to make your molecules. Can you figure out from the formula for sugar how many C, H, and O atoms you will need? 2. Use the bonds to make models of a sugar molecule (C6H12O6) and at least 6 oxygen molecules (O2, with a double bond) 3. Identify the high-energy bonds (C-C and C-H) by putting twisty ties on them. How many high energy bonds does a molecule of sugar have? 4. Compare your molecules to the pictures on the next slide. Are they the same?
Photo of reactant molecules: H6C12O6 (sugar) Start by making the molecules and energy units of the reactants and putting them on the reactants side, then rearrange the atoms and energy units to show the products.
How many O2 molecules do you need to combine with one sugar molecule? How many CO2 and H2O molecules are produced by respiring one molecule?
Remember, atoms last forever. So you can make and break bonds, but you still need

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Retrieved Text: A plasma cutter can pass through metals with little or no resistance thanks to the unique properties of plasma. So what is plasma?
As a solid, water takes the form of ice. Ice is made up of neutrally charged atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern that forms a solid. Because the molecules stay fairly still relative to each other, they form a solid -- something that holds its shape.
As a liquid, water takes its drinkable form. The molecules are still bound to each other, but they move relative to each other at slow speeds. The liquid has a fixed volume, but no constant shape. It changes shape to fit whatever container you put it in.
As a gas, water takes the form of steam. In steam, molecules move around at high speeds, independently of each other. Because the molecules are not bound to each other, a gas has no fixed shape or fixed volume.
move through three states of matter.
The amount of heat (which translates to the amount of energy) applied to water molecules determines their behavior and therefore their state. Simply put, more heat (more energy) excites molecules to the point that they break free of bonds that bind them together. With minimal heat, the molecules are tightly bound, and you get a solid. With more heat, the molecules escape the rigid bonds, and you get a liquid. With even more heat, the molecules escape the loose bonds, and you get a gas.
So what happens if you were to heat gas even more? This brings us to the

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Retrieved Text: Distinguish, differentiate, compare and explain what is the main difference between Boiling and Evaporation for Class 9 in points in tabular form. Comparison and Differences.
Evaporation process occurs when we heat the liquid. For example, as the sun heats water in a puddle, the puddle slowly shrinks. The water seems to disappear, but it actually moves into the air as a gas called water vapor. This is an example of evaporation.
All molecules in a liquid move. Some move faster than others, though. As the molecules at the surface of a liquid absorb heat, they begin to move around more quickly. This gives them the energy to break the bonds that connect them to other water molecules. When the molecules are moving fast enough, they are able to “escape.” They leave the surface of the liquid as gas molecules.
Define what is Boiling and Boiling point?
Evaporation is not the only process that can change a substance from a liquid to a gas. The same change can occur through boiling. As a liquid heats up, its molecules absorb heat and move faster. When the liquid starts to boil, bubbles of vapor form within the liquid and rise to the surface. The temperature that causes this to happen is known as the boiling point of a liquid.
2. Boiling process is quick as compared to evaporation.
3. In the boiling, bubbles are formed whereas in evaporation no bubbles formed.
4. Boiling occurs throughout the liquid. Evaporation takes place only from the exposed surface of the liquid.
5. Boiling occurs at a definite temperature known as

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Retrieved Text: The liquids differ from gases in one important aspect, in case of gases, the molecules are far apart from each other so that the volume occupied by the molecules as well as the forces of attraction between them are considered to be negligible, this is not so in case of liquids. In a liquid, the molecules are quite close together so that there are considerable forces of attraction between them and hence they are held together into a definite volume. However, these forces of attraction are not as large as exist between the constituent atoms, ions or molecules of a solid which fix these particles into definite positions so that the solids have a definite volume as well as a definite shape and a perfectly ordered arrangement of their constituent particles. The liquids possess fluidity like gases but incompressibility like solids. As a matter of fact, a liquid state may be considered as an intermediate state between the gas and the solid.
(i) A liquid is made up of molecules.
(ii) The molecules of the liquid are quite close together.
(iii) The intermolecular forces of attraction in a liquid are quite large.
(iv) The molecules of a liquid are in a state of constant rapid motion.
(v) Absolute temperature of a liquid is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
Based upon these postulates, the characteristic properties of the liquids can be explained.
Liquids possess no definite shape. In whatever container they are kept, they take their shape. This is because the molecules in a liquid are in a state

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Retrieved Text: The basic defect in all patients with diabetes is the decreased ability of insulin to induce cells of the body to remove glucose (sugar) molecules from the blood. Whether this decreased insulin activity is due to a decreased amount of insulin produced (type 1 diabetes), or from the insensitivity of the cells to a normal amount of insulin (type 2 diabetes), the results are the same: blood glucose levels which are too high. This is termed "hyperglycemia" which means "high glucose in the blood."
hyper = high, glyc = glucose, and emia = of the blood.
What happens when you have hyperglycemia?
It is important to remember that not everyone with diabetes will have all these symptoms. In fact, many people with type 2 diabetes may not have any of them.
To learn about other diabetes complications and how to prevent them, see our type 1 diabetes complications and type 2 diabetes complications articles.
The classic symptom of being hungry frequently stems from the fact that a person with diabetes cannot utilize glucose well as an energy source within cells. The glucose is circulating in the blood, but the cells can't absorb it to use it as a fuel. The excess blood sugar molecules also "spill" into the urine, meaning that as the blood filters through the kidneys, some of the sugar comes out of the blood and is not reabsorbed. The extra sugar which is now in the urine causes water molecules to follow (a normal physics principle) and therefore the person with diabetes urinates frequently (the second classic symptom

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Retrieved Text: These solutions are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Science. Here we have given Class 9 NCERT Science Textbook Solutions for Chapter 1 matter in our Surroundings.
Answer: Chair, air, almonds, and cold-drink.
The smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several meters away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.
Answer: The smell of hot sizzling food reaches severed meters away, as the particles of hot food have more kinetic energy and hence the rate of diffusion is more than the particles of cold food.
Answer: A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. This shows that the particles of water have intermolecular space and has less force of attraction.
Question 4. What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?
(1) Particles have intermolecular space.
(2) Particles have intermolecular force.
(3) Particles of matter are moving continuously.
Question 1. The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density.
Arrange the following in order of increasing density: air, exhaust from chimneys, honey, water, chalk, cotton and iron.
air < exhaust from chimneys < cotton < water < honey < chalk < iron.
Question 2. (a) Tabulate the differences in the characteristics of states of matter.
Answer: (a) Difference in the characteristics of 3 states of matter.
(i) Rigidity: The tendency of a substance to retain/maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
(ii) Compressibility: The matter has intermolecular space. The external force applied on the matter can bring these particles closer. This property is called compressibility. Gases and liquids are compressible.
(iii) Fluidity: The tendency of particles to

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Retrieved Text: Plants - Phenomenal hydraulic engineers. Using only the basic laws of physics, plants can move water to the top of a 116-meter-tall tree and excel in multitude physiological processes.
The importance of water relates to its essential functions in maintaining both plant and animal life. It is an absolute requirement for all living organisms. Water participates directly or indirectly in all metabolic processes in living organisms. It is considered the universal solvent because it provides the medium in which most substances are dissolved. The protoplasm of the cells is nothing but water in which different molecules are dissolved and (several particles) suspended. For example; strawberries have over 92 per cent water; other fruits with high water content include grapefruit with 91 percent, cantaloupe with 90 percent and peaches with 88 percent water, on top of the vegetables list are cucumber and lettuce, consisting of 96 percent water. Of course, distribution of water within a plant varies – woody parts have relatively very little water, while soft parts mostly contain water. A seed may appear dry but it still has water – otherwise it would not be alive and respiring!
Through precipitation mainly rainfall, liquid water is made available to plants as surface water, soil moisture, or groundwater. Most of the absorbed water in plants is lost through transpiration and only about 1 percent or less is used in the various biochemical processes. For example; a mature corn plant absorbs almost three liters of water in a day, while a mustard plant absorbs water equal to its own weight

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Retrieved Text: We use the concept of non-ideal solutions for concentrated solutions. A variety of forces act on real mixtures, making it difficult to predict the properties of such solutions. Non-ideal solutions are identified by determining the strength and specifics of the intermolecular forces between the different molecules in that particular solution.
When intermolecular forces between solute and solvent molecules are less strong than between molecules of similar (of the same type) molecules.
When intermolecular forces between dissimilar molecules are greater than those between similar molecules.
Reminder: A solvent is the major component of a mixture (i.e. water, air) while a solute is the minor component (sugar, carbon dioxide, etc...). A concrete example would be your daily cup of coffee: the coffee itself is the solvent, and anything you add (may it be sugar or cream) will be the solute.
Since these laws assume that there are no intermolecular interactions, it is evident that they cannot be used for real mixtures, since the mathematical formulas will not hold true anymore due to the fact that the forces will have to be taken into account. However, non-ideal solutions are limited on both sides by these two laws.
Situation 1: Non-ideal solutions can form when forces of attraction between dissimilar molecules are weaker than between similar molecules. At this point, a heterogeneous (non-mixing) solution may still occur, but it is not always the case.The resulting solution has a larger enthalpy of solution than pure components of the solution, causing the process to be endothermic (heat is absorbed to move the reaction forward).
A common example of

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Retrieved Text: 1. 1 Biological Science Canadian 2nd Edition Freeman TEST BANK Full download at: https://testbankreal.com/download/biological-science-canadian-2nd-edition- freeman-test-bank/ Biological Science Canadian 2nd Edition Freeman SOLUTIONS MANUAL Full download at: https://testbankreal.com/download/biological-science-canadian-2nd-edition- freeman-solutions-manual/ Biological Science, Canadian Edition., 2e (Freeman et al.) Chapter 2 Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life 1) How many electrons are involved in a single covalent bond? A) one B) two C) three D) four Answer: B Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds. 2) How many electrons are involved in a double covalent bond? A) one B) two C) three D) four Answer: D Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds. 3) How many electrons are involved in a triple covalent bond? A) two B) three C) six D) nine Answer: C Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Remembering LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds.
3. 3 B) single and double only C) four single bonds only D) two double bonds only Answer: A Reference: Section 2.1 Bloom's Level: Comprehension LOs: Chp2-1. Explain how and why atoms interact to form molecules. Sketch examples of how electrons are shared in nonpolar covalent

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Retrieved Text: Is water polar or non polar?
Chemical energy is what type of energy and where is it stored?
What type of bonds are in water? Why is it like this?
Which types of molecules are hydrophilic?
Which types of molecules are hydrophobic?
Why can water absorb such a large capacity of heat?
What is the basis of the pH scale and what does the scale express?
When does chemical equilibrium occur?
In cells most proteins are ___ that function as _____.
What makes amino acids are reactive and stable in water?
What side chains make an amino acid more chemically reactive?
Does polymerization require energy? Is it spontaneous?
What type of reaction of monomers polymerize through?
Amino acids are connected by ___ which form in ____ reactions.
What forms a proteins secondary structure?
In nucleic acid polymerization, how many phosphates are transferred and what does the process create?
What raises potential energy in molecules?
Which base pairs have 2 hydrogen bonds and which have 3?
Why does DNA make a poor catalyst?
Why is RNA more reactive?
In a monosaccharide, what is the difference between aldose and ketose?
Plants store sugar as ___ and animals store it as ____.
How do carbohydrates provide structure?
Why do biologists not thing that polysaccharides played no part in the origin of life?
Why do carbohydrates have more free energy than CO2?
What enzyme do most animal cells contain so that they are able to readily break down glycogen to provide glucose?
What are plasma membranes made up of?
What kind of permeability do phospholipid bilayers have?
What kind of molecules can pass through a phospholipid bilayer?
Factors that influence the behavior of the membrane?
Difference between unsaturated and saturated

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Retrieved Text: And How Does Geothermal Energy Work?
What is geothermal energy, and how does geothermal energy work? I will answer these two common questions on this page.
For links to other geothermal topics, please see the main page for geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is a form of thermal energy, the internal energy in substances - or more correctly - the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. This causes friction and results in the creation of heat energy.
Geothermal heat originates from the "big bang" - more than four billion years ago - when burning dust and gas consolidated to form the earth.
At 6,400 kilometres deep, the earth’s core temperatures reach more than 4,982 degrees Celsius. This geothermal heat continuously flows outwards towards the surface of the earth, heating the surrounding layer of rock - which is known as the mantle.
When the temperature is hot enough, some of the mantle rock melts and becomes magma.
Magma is lighter than the surrounding rock. It rises up towards the earth’s crust, carrying the heat from below. The magma heats the rocks and water below the earth's crust to temperatures of up to 371 degrees Celsius.
Some of the hot water makes its way to the earth's surface through faults and cracks, emerging as either hot water or steam. This results in the formation of hot springs and geysers.
The hot water also collects deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural collection of hot water is known as a geothermal reservoir.
When we make use of the hot water, steam or hot rock

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Retrieved Text: Transport systems within the cell are like a highway system, they provide for the constant movement of molecules, in and out of the cell.
Transport systems are needed because the cells membrane is “selectively permeable”. Some molecules can pass through (permeate) the cell membrane, while others cannot.
– Because cells naturally move and collide, passive transport requires no energy to move molecules into or out of the cell.
– They move on their own.
– The movement of molecules from an area where they are highly concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated or more spread out.
– Molecules move across the cell membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. It stops when the concentration is evenly distributed or equal.
– It is simple diffusion of water ONLY.
– -OSOMOTIC PRESSURE (the pressure exerted by dissolved particles in water) moves the water across the cell.
– Water moves from where the osmotic pressure is low to where the osmotic pressure is high.
– The osmotic pressure is always working to make the solution on both sides of the cell membrane equal.
– When two solutions of different concentrations are compared the solution with the higher concentration is called HYPERTONIC and the solution with the lower concentration, HYPOTONIC. When two solutions have the same concentration they have EQUILIBRIUM.
– Equilibrium: when the osmotic pressure is equal on both sides. When the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of the cell membrane it is ISOTONIC or ISOSMOTIC. Both sides of the cell membrane have the same amount of particles

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Retrieved Text: There are a seemingly endless number of planets beyond our own solar system and studying them can be tricky. Scientists use large telescopes and knowledge of our own solar system to create complex models that explain how these planets are formed and how they behave. These models reflect our best understanding and undergo continual revision as new information becomes available. Recently, a breakthrough was made while examining a special exoplanet. Using the Hubble Space Telescope to take a close look they were able to confirm a theory that dates back to the early 2000s.
The planet is called WASP-121b and it is a great target for study. Mainly because conditions exist that make this exoplanet easier to observe than most. WASP-121b is in the Hot Jupiter category of exoplanets and it is nearly twice the size of Jupiter. It is one of the hottest of the Hot Jupiters, and it closely orbits a star that is very bright. All of these factors make WASP-121b a prime target for study.
It was the hope of scientists that by studying this planet that they would gain some insights on exoplanets and maybe confirm some theories about the models they have constructed over the years. Luckily, WASP-121b did not disappoint. They waited until the planet was in a secondary eclipse, and used Hubble and Spitzer to measure thermal radiation at infrared wavelengths. A spectrograph on Hubble was used to measure a wavelength region where water molecules absorb and emit light. It was the examination of water absorption on WASP-121b that led

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Retrieved Text: It’s an effect that was first observed (in recorded history) by Aristotle in the 4th Century BC and was published in a paper by a Tanzanian student in 1969, named the Mpemba Effect. It was simply the observation that hot water freezes faster than cold water. The effect has been observed time and again by scientists and casual observers in the kitchen and different theories have been lined up to explain it. These include: the formation of an insulating layer of frost on cold water, evaporation of hot water leaving less mass to freeze and the concentrations of impurities in water. The latest theory however goes down to the molecular level to take a peek.
The problem with explaining the Mpemba Effect is that it’s not always consistent (sometimes cold water freezes faster), so something to account for the inconsistency must be brought in to view. Going down to the molecular level seems to have done that.
Physicists from the Nanyang Technological University in Singapore have proposed that covalent bonding (by which hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms stick together in water) and hydrogen bonding in water (by which water molecules bond to each other in ice) explains this Effect. When water molecules are close to each other, the hydrogen bonds relax and the covalent bonds stretch to store energy. In warm/hot water, the molecules move further apart, stretching the hydrogen bonds, thus allowing the covalent bonds to relax, releasing energy The release in energy is essentially a cooling effect and hence warm water tends to freeze faster.
The inconsistency

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Retrieved Text: The molecules of each substance are identical.
The inter-molecular forces are effective at all distances between the two molecules.
in solid, liquid and gas, move freely anywhere.
in a solid, move freely within its boundary.
in a liquid, move within its boundary.
in a gas, move only within its boundary.
D. Gases iv. are the three states of water .
Define matter. What is its composition ?
What is a molecule ?
What is the approximate size of a molecule ?
One litre of water has 6.02 × 1026 molecules. Estimate the size of a molecule.
What do you mean by inter-molecular spacing ?
Describe a simple experiment to illustrate the existence of inter-molecular spacing.
What do you mean by inter-molecular forces ?
What are the forces of cohesion and adhesion ?
State the approximate spacing between two molecules of a matter.
The molecules in a substance are in motion. What type of path do they follow ?
Describe a simple experiment to illustrate that molecules are not at rest, but they constantly move.
Question Bank Solutions for ICSE Class 6 CISCE Physics. You can further filter Question Bank Solutions by subjects and chapters. Solutions for most of the questions for CISCE can be found here on shaalaa.com. You can use these solutions to prepare for your studies and ace in exams. Solving questions is a great way to practice and with shaalaa.com, you can answer a question and then also check your answer with the solutions provided.

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Retrieved Text: (Nanowerk News) Scientists have long known that molecules dance about as the temperature rises, but now researchers know the exact steps that water takes with a certain molecule. Results with small, electrically charged cyanide ions and water molecules reveal that water zips around ions to a greater extent than expected. The findings improve our understanding of a chemical interaction important in environmental and atmospheric sciences.
"One of the cornerstones of Department of Energy nuclear cleanup missions and climate research is a fundamental understanding of water and ions, one of the most common chemical interactions in the environment," said chemist Xue-Bin Wang of the DOE's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Washington State University.
"We've developed a new instrument to probe the dynamics of ions in water," Wang said. "And we've combined theory and modeling to make sense of those experiments, giving us a deeper fundamental understanding of what is happening with this ubiquitous molecule – water."
Wang, PNNL physical chemist Sotiris S. Xantheas, physical chemist Lai-Sheng Wang of PNNL and WSU, and their colleagues published the results in the Journal of Physical Chemistry A (Observation of a Remarkable Temperature Effect in the Hydrogen Bonding Structure and Dynamics of the CN-(H2O) Cluster). The journal featured their work on the cover of its September 3 issue.
Environmental scientists want to know how contaminants move through watery environments below ground, and atmospheric scientists want to know how small particles flutter through water vapor in the sky. To get at the basics, they study a simpler interaction: water and ions, small atoms or molecules that

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Retrieved Text: The magnetic moments of spins are pulled into alignment with (parallel) or against the external magnetic field (antiparallel) like a compass needle. A small excess aligning with the field results in a net magnetisation.
Spins are restricted to two energy states (spin up and spin down). Due to thermal energy, many are in the higher energy state, but a small excess are in the lower energy state which is aligned with the external magnetic field. A net magnetisation results.
Fluctuating microscopic magnetic fields causes the direction of spin magnetic moments to "wander". The wandering is slightly biased towards the direction of the external magnetic field.
INCORRECT. The idea that spins move like a compass needle under the influence of an external magnetic field is a limited one. For example, how do spins "point South" (align against the field direction)? This might be considered a higher energy equilibrium state for a compass needle, but it is unstable. Furthermore, why would only a very few extra spins align with the field in the lower energy, stable state ("pointing North")?
If the classical description is used—with the simplification of allowing spins to reside only parallel and antiparallel with the external magnetic field—the Boltzmann distribution may be used to calculate the proportion of spins in the higher energy state due to thermal energy (the number of spins in each state is almost equal).
This is a confusing topic; unfortunately most textbooks mix the classical and quantum mechanical explanations of MRI. Try again.
CORRECT. Thermal energy of the parent molecule (e.g. H2O) manifests in vigorous molecular tumbling,

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Retrieved Text: Does hot water freeze faster than cold water? It seems obvious that the answer should be no, because hot water takes longer to cool down, and so it couldn’t possible freeze faster. But hot water seems to freeze faster than cold water, this effect is known as the Mpemba effect. The effect was named after the Tanzanian student who in 1963 noticed that hot ice cream mix freezes faster than a cold one.
Now a team of physicists from the Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, led by Xi Zhang, have found evidence that it is due to the unique properties of the different bonds that hold water together that provide this effect.
Let’s get to know what’s so odd about the bonds in water? Each water molecule consists of a relatively large oxygen atom joined to two smaller hydrogen atoms by standard covalent bonds. But when you put water molecules together, the separate water molecules are also bound together by weaker forces generated by hydrogen bonds. These forces occur when a hydrogen atom from one molecule of water sits close to an oxygen atom from another.
The team suggests that these are the bonds that cause the Mpemba effect. They propose that when the water molecules are brought into close contact, a natural repulsion between the molecules causes the covalent bonds O-H bonds to stretch and store energy. But as the liquid warms up, it forces the hydrogen bonds to stretch and the water molecules sit further apart. The stretching in the hydrogen bonds allows the covalent bonds to

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Retrieved Text: Water is the substance that we refer to as the universal solvent. A solvent is simply a liquid that other substances can dissolve in, and the reason that water has gained the label of universal solvent is because no other solvent can dissolve as many substances as it can. That’s mostly what makes it so critical to life on earth. Also, amazingly, every body of water found on earth, including ice, sustains one form of life or another that has adapted to the temperature and pressure found in that form of water.
The simple fact that it’s always exciting for scientists to find water, which is associated with life, on other planets says a lot about this seemingly-simple substance. Water is the most abundant substance in organisms and in cells. Of course, there are many obvious uses for water, like drinking, washing, and putting out fires, and that’s thanks to the characteristics it possesses that make it the universal solvent. Water is very important for life because many important reactions in the bodies of organisms need an aqueous environment in order to occur. For example, water is essential for digesting proteins into amino acids, and in photosynthesis and digestion.
This is a big part of why water is the universal solvent. Polarity is the unevenness of distribution of electrons in a molecule, which leads to a single molecule having two opposed sides; one negative and one positive. Now, water has the molecular formula H2O, so every water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom as you

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Retrieved Text: Unlike the survey methods discussed previously, signals corresponding to ground penetrating radar (GPR) depend on a multitude of physical properties. The most important physical property to GPR is the dielectric permittivity (\(\varepsilon\)), as it greatly influences the velocity, attenuation, reflection, refraction and transmission of radiowaves. These concepts will be presented in the following section. Dielectric permittivity is considered the diagnostic physical property for GPR. In addition to the dielectric permittivity, the propagation of radiowaves through the Earth may depend significantly on the electrical conductivity (\(\sigma\)); provided the electrical conductivity of the Earth is sufficiently large. Radiowaves will also reflect off of very conductive objects buried in the Earth. If the Earth is magnetic, we may also need to consider the role of magnetic permeability (\(\mu\)).
In order to better understand the link between the dielectric permittivity (\(\varepsilon\)) and electromagnetic waves, let us consider a microwave oven. We know that microwaves heat food using electromagnetic radiation, but how do they work?
Fig. 87 Electromagnetic waves in a microwaves.
Within a microwave oven, there is a source which generates high-frequency electromagnetic waves (f = 2.45 GHz). These waves move at roughly the speed of light (c = \(3.00 \times 10^8\) m/s) and have wavelengths of about 12.2 cm. We can see from the figure on the right, that EM waves support electric and magnetic fields which oscillate.
The walls within the microwave are made out of materials which reflect elecromagnetic waves. As a result, the walls designed not to heat up while the microwave is on.
Fig. 88 Oscillating electric and magnetic fields

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Retrieved Text: About 80% of the organism's body is H2O.
Its molecule has a small negative charge (β-) on the O atom a small positive charge (β+) on each H atom.
This is called a dipole.
This makes H2O an excellent solvent.
Hydrogen bond = attraction between (β-) and (β+) parts of neighbouring H2O molecules.
The dipoles on H2O molecules make water an excellent solvent.
If you stir NaOH into H2O, the Na+ and Cl- separate and spread between the H2O molecules --> They dissolve in the water.
The Cl- is attracted to the small (+) charge on the H of H2O molecules.
The Na+ is attracted to the small (-) charge on the O of H2O molecules.
separate into ions, can dissolve in water.
- To transport substances around the bodies of organisms. The blood plasma of mammals is mostly water, and carries many substances in solution: glucose, oxygen, ions (Na...).
- To dissolve reactants ---> enable metabolic reactions.
The H bonds between H2O molecules prevent them flying apart at normal to. Between 0oC and 100oC, water is in the liquid state. The H2O molecules move randomly, forming transitory H bonds with each other.
Other substances with similar molecule structure, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), are gases at these to (no H bonds to attract their molecules to each other).
When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy, moving faster + a lot of heat energy is needed to break H bonds between water molecules. Those molecules with the most energy are able to fly off into the air.
When H2O evaporates, it absorbs a lot of heat from its

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Retrieved Text: 1. What are the four common phases of matter?
2. Do the molecules in a liquid all have about the same speed, or do they have a wide variety of speeds?
Molecules in liquids have a wide variety of speeds.
3. What is evaporation, and why is it a cooling process? Exactly what is it that cools?
Evaporation is a change of phase from liquid to gas that occurs at the surface of a liquid. The average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining in the liquid is lowered, which results in cooling. The loss of energy is the only factor which cools liquid evaporation.
4. Why does warmer water evaporate more readily than cold water?
Warmer water evaporates more readily than cold water because there are a greater proportion of molecules with sufficient kinetic energy to escape the warmer water.
The form of evaporation in which molecules are covered directly from a solid to a gaseous phase.
6. Distinguish between condensation and evaporation.
In condensation the state changes from gas to liquid while evaporation the state changes from liquid to gas. Condensation is a warming process while evaporation is a cooling process.
7. Why is a steam burn more damaging than a burn from boiling water of the same temperature?
A scaling from steam is much more damaging than a scalding from boiling water of the same temperature because the steam releases considerable energy when it condenses to a liquid and wets the skin.
8. Why do you feel uncomfortably warm on a hot day and humid day?
On a hot day and humid day we feel uncomfortably warm

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Retrieved Text: The interaction between two molecules can lead to the establishment of a connection between them. This connection can be strong, generally irreversible, with covalent bond or weaker, transient, with low energy interactions.
Covalent bond results from the sharing by two atoms of two electrons which bind them. To ensure this connection, electron orbitals of the two atoms overlap. This covering can be axial, the axis passing by the nuclei of the two atoms, forming a sigma bond, or lateral forming a pi bond such as existing in double and triple bond. In addition, the existence of electrons in antibonding orbitals weakens the covalent bond.
The energy of covalent bond lies between 30 and 100 Kcal/mol. This bond, taking into account its energy, is generally irreversible. This concept of irreversibility must be moderate: when a molecule has established a covalent bond with a molecule B to give a molecule AB the reaction can be regarded as irreversible. However if this molecule AB is put in the presence of a molecule C having a greater affinity for the molecule A, the equilibrium can be displaced towards the formation of a molecule AC. It is what is observed in reactions involving thiol groups, chelators, Schiff bases. Moreover, if the molecule AB is placed in a new environment different by the hydrogen ion concentration or the oxydoreduction potential, it can dissociate.
The number of drugs which directly establish covalent bonds with endogenous molecules is rather limited. One can quote among those, as examples, alkylating agents and platinum which bind DNA with which they

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: In Physics and Chemistry heat and temperature are the terms used very often. These are the same physical states of an object. But they are different from each other. People generally use the term wrongly as they interchange them. When the temperature of an object is incresed the heat of the object is increased. Let us try to find the difference between the two.
Heat is potential as well as kinetic energyc contained in an object. Kinetic energy is moving energy while potential energyis the contained energy which is stored and remain static in an object. Joules is its unit of measurement.
Temperature is a number related to energy. It is a measure of the kinetic energy and not the energy itself. Kelvin and Celsius and Fahrenheit are the units to measure temperature.
The molecules of heat move faster once the heat enters a body. The heat and temperature of an object goes up. It is due to the fact that the molecules hit each other. Temperature is the measure of these collisions.Heat can cause change of phase such as melting of ice into water occurs without the change in temperature.
Heat is an energy entered in an object. It is the measure of the complete energy of an object. Temperature on the other hand, is the major of only the molecules’ kinetic energy of an object. Heat is an extensive property. Temperature on the other hand, is an intensive energy. For example water boils at 100 degree centigrade. The quantity of water does not make any difference. The fact

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Retrieved Text: Four states of matter can be seen in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and – somewhat more exotically – plasma. As a tightly bound combination of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, a water molecule is nothing out of the ordinary. Liquid water, steam or ice are still just water. Yet, it is intriguing to see how the very same building blocks of matter are capable of producing such broadly distinct states.
As far as water is concerned, one phase can change into another really quite abruptly. At 99 °C, liquid water can subsist, whereas at 101 °C, water is in its gaseous state, as steam.
We look at these states by increasing order of energy and entropy.
In a solid, each atom is tied to a specific equilibrium position. Although it vibrates to and fro about this position, the atom is unlikely to move relative to its neighbouring atoms. This is the reason why a solid is rigid.
Solids have crystalline structures, consisting of a single crystal, as for gemstones, or a collection of microscopic crystals, as for the majority of metals. In a crystal, the atoms oscillate around equilibrium positions that are regularly ordered. You can think of the whole structure as a simple pattern being repeated endlessly and periodically throughout space.
Crystals are cleaved along lines of weakness between several atomic planes. One of their distinctive features is their symmetry.
A melting snowflake still showing a highly symmetrical molecular arrangement.
Ice (solid water) has at least seven crystalline phases, with water molecules arranged differently in each case. In ice, the molecules are

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Retrieved Text: When light hits a solar cell, electrons get excited and begin to move about — and that’s what generates a flow of electricity. Silicon, the semiconductor commonly used in solar cells, is especially good at converting sunlight at certain energy levels, but it loses the rest of the sunlight that hits it as heat.
Researchers from Delft University of Technology, Toyota Motor Europe and the University of California-Irvine have developed a way to put that extra energy to work, recapturing some of the portion that is lost as heat. They combined lead and selenium to create tiny dots 10,000 times thinner than a human hair that could pepper a solar cell. Juse like in silicon, electrons are capable of moving around in the dots once excited. If an electron absorbs high-energy sunlight, it moves around in the dot and bumps into other electrons. Energy is transferred and the bumped electrons hit the right energy level to join the flow of electricity.
Until the researchers’ study, which was published in Nature Communications August 23, there was a hiccup in this process. While the energy transfer between electrons worked, they remained trapped in the dots, unable to join the flow of electricity. The researchers noted this was due to large molecules on the dots’ surface, which hindered electrons’ ability to move in and out. They swapped in smaller molecules so the electrons could move freely.
Solar cells generally convert 10 to 20 percent of the light that hits them into electricity. Cells that incorporate the dots theoretically could be 45 percent

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Retrieved Text: CO2, water, and CH4 (methane) and some other minor gases are so-called “greenhouse gases” because they absorb infrared energy. However, be careful to avoid the common misunderstanding that the earth and its atmosphere behave like a garden greenhouse; that is not true. Greenhouses are closed systems except to incoming energy. Earth is an open system, open to receive energy, as well receive gases and other matter from space and also open to transmit energy, gases and matter back into space. A greenhouse is a poor analogy for earth’s climate.
Greenhouse gases also re-emit almost instantly the energy they absorbed, emitting that energy at a slightly lower energy than which it was absorbed. Rarely is that emission mentioned in the news or by climate alarmists. Proponents of global warming want you to believe that energy is stored and builds up in the atmosphere in a sort of hothouse or pressure cooker, but that is not true.
In most locations, the concentration of water vapor (including clouds) in the atmosphere is far higher than CO2 and methane, that is, there are far more water vapor molecules in a given volume of air than there are CO2 or methane. Near the equator and bodies of water, swamps and tundra water vapor in atmosphere will be near 100% relative humidity. That is, the air is saturated, no more water vapor can be added to the air at that temperature and air pressure. Water vapor in air is found in the range of 0% to 100% relative humidity. Cold air holds very little

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Geologic maps display rock units and geologic features. A small scale map displays individual rock units while a large scale map shows geologic provinces.


Q: A small scale version of what type of map displays individual rock units?

 Choices:

- geographic map

- polar map

- geologic map

- seismic map

A:

Target Text: geologic map

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: This map depicts the geology of the Huachuca City 7.5' quadrangle in Cochise County, southeastern Arizona, which consists almost entirely of upper Cenozoic surficial deposits. The map area is located between Benson and Sierra Vista along the western side of the upper San Pedro River Valley. The map area covers much of the southeastern piedmont of the Mustang and Whetstone mountains, part of the valley of the Babocomari River, and part of the northern piedmont of the Huachuca Mountains. It includes the small communities of Huachuca City and Whetstone, and the northern fringe of Fort Huachuca, a U.S. Army base. The quadrangle is roughly bisected by State Route 92, a major four-lane highway connecting the Sierra Vista area with Interstate Highway 10 to the north. The area was mapped during March through August, 2003. A 1:24,000 scale map is the primary product of this study. This map consists entirely of new mapping. The accompanying report describes rock units and other geologic features.
Pearthree, Philip A., and Youberg, Ann, 2009, Geologic Map of the Huachuca City 7.5’ Quadrangle, Cochise County, Arizona: Arizona Geological Survey Digital Geologic Map DGM-36, version 1.0, map scale 1:24,000.

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Retrieved Text: The Wagner Wash Well 7.5-minute Quadrangle includes the western fringe of the central White Tank Mountains, the western piedmont of the White Tank Mountains, the south-flowing Hassayampa River, and a small part of the piedmont west of the Hassayampa River. Purpose: The intention of this investigation is a multiyear mapping program directed at producing geologic map coverage for the Hassayampa River corridor and greater Phoenix metropolitan area. The primary product resulting from new mapping in the study area is a 1:24000-scale geologic map describing rock units and other geologic features. Revised and re-released with funding from the USGS National Geological and Geophysical Data Preservation Program, award no. G17AP00114. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the U.S. Government.
Ferguson, Charles, A., Spencer, Jon, E., Pearthree, Philip, A., Youberg, A., and Field, John, J., 2004, Geologic Map of the Wagner Wash Well 7.5' Quadrangle, Maricopa County, Arizona: Arizona Geological Survey Digital Geologic Map DGM-38, version 1.0, map scale 1:24,000.
GIS and Opensource data were uploaded here in Nov. 2018.

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Retrieved Text: 1. An inventory of five physical factors (rock type, soil, slope, present type and severity of erosion, and vegetation). A 'homogeneous unit area' approach is used to record the five physical factors simultaneously to a level of detail appropriate for presentation at a scale of 1:50,000.
2. A Land Use Capability (LUC) rating of the ability of each polygon to sustain agricultural production, based on an assessment of the inventory factors above, climate, the effects of past land use, and the potential for erosion. The NZLRI covers the country in 11 regions, each with a separate LUC classification.
The first edition NZLRI provides national coverage from mapping between 1973 and 1979 at a scale of 1:63,360. These data were digitised for GIS retrieval in 1981 (Version 1.1).
A limited revision regional upgrade of the north Waikato area was completed at a scale of 1:63,360 in 1983. (Version 1.2).
A polygon boundary and attribute validity edit over the whole database was completed in 1992. Attributes to accommodate second edition classifications were added in preparation for incorporating 1:50,000 remapping (Version 2.1).
Second edition NZLRI regional upgrades at a scale of 1:50,000 were completed for Northland in 1988 and Wellington in 1991and incorporated into the datbase (not present in this layer) in 1992. (Version 2.2).
A second edition NZLRI regional upgrade at a scale of 1:50,000 was completed for eastern Marlborough in 1995 (Version 2.3).
A second edition NZLRI regional upgrade at a scale of 1:50,000 was completed for Gisborne-East Cape (not present in this layer) in 1999 (Version 2.4).
In 2000, at the time the first

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Retrieved Text: Find below, data products from EMODnet Geology (Phase II, 2013-2016).
Seabed substrate map of the European marine areas including (e.g. the Baltic Sea, the Greater North Sea, the Celtic Sea, the Iberian Coast, and the Mediterranean Sea within EU waters) at 1: 250 000 scale (250k). The map is collated and harmonized from seabed substrate information within the EMODnet-Geology project.
Where necessary, the existing seabed substrate classifications (of individual maps) have been translated to a scheme that is supported by EUNIS. This EMODnet reclassification scheme includes at least five seabed substrate classes. Four substrate classes are defined on the basis of the modified Folk triangle (mud to sandy mud; sand; coarse sediment; and mixed sediment) and one additional substrate class (rock and boulders) was included by the project team. If the original seabed substrate dataset has enabled more detailed substrate classification, classifications with 7 and 16 substrate classes might be available.
The EMODnet-Geology project started in 2013 with 36 marine departments of the geological surveys of Europe (from 30 countries), with an objective to assemble marine geological information from all European sea areas. The seabed substrate map was produced in October 2016.
Note: The data may include some errors e.g. data discontinuities.
Seabed substrate map of the European sea areas (e.g. the Baltic Sea, the Barents Sea, the Greater North Sea, the Celtic Sea, the Iberian Coast, the White Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea within EU waters) at 1: 1 000 000 scale (1M). The map is collated and harmonized from seabed substrate information within the EMODnet-Geology project.
The map is collated

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Retrieved Text: Nov 22, 2018· 110 volt small scale rock crusher XSM is a leading global manufacturer of crushing and milling equipment (110 volt small scale rock crusher),XSM also supply individual (110 volt small scale rock crusher) crushers and mills as well as spare parts of them.
Nov 05, 2017· Small-Scale Hard Rock Crusher Plant (RDGK) - Appropriate . We specialise in compact rock crusher plants - a modular impact crusher for rock rock crusher plant built for exploration and smaller scale crushing purposes This stone crusher plant is part of our GroundBreaker and exploration range, A simple to use, highly efficient and effective miniature milling and recovery plant.
Small Portable Gravel Crushers . small scale gravel quarry crushing facility . design and has been described as Italy small portable gravel crusher in india Used Mobile Rock Crusher for Sale . Read More. 110 volt small scale rock crusher Rock Crusher Mill .
Small scale portable rock crusher plant can be operated as independent units or as a two- or three-stage crushing application: from primary to secondary, tertiary and fine crushing. As required, a portable screen can be connected to the process.

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Retrieved Text: Geologic maps supply a wealth of information about the surface and shallow subsurface of the earth. The types of materials that are present in a location and the three-dimensional structure of the bedrock both can be gleaned from a clearly prepared geologic map. Geologists, civil and environmental engineers, land-use planners, soil scientists, and geographers commonly use geologic maps as a source of information to facilitate problem solving and identify the qualities of a region. Maps reveal the position of many types of natural hazards, indicate the suitability of the land surface for various uses, reveal problems that may be encountered in excavation, provide clues to the natural processes that shape an area, and help locate important natural resources.
Suitable for lab courses in structural geology as well as field geology work, Spencer describes representative examples of features found on geologic maps and outlines procedures for interpretation and projection. Geometric techniques are explained using a step-by-step approach. Coverage of mapping methods includes tools that provide necessary data, such as Google Earth, GPS, GIS, LiDAR maps, drones, and aerial photographs. Challenging and engaging exercises throughout the text involve students in the mapping process and stimulate an appreciation of the extent and precision of information presented in geologic maps.
Regional geology is an important component of lab and field mapping projects. As such, the Third Edition includes new maps of the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain, Rocky Mountain Front Range, Yellowstone region, Moab, Utah, Shenandoah National Park, and Hawai'i. A new chapter devoted to tectonic maps also broadens students' exposure. Ed

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Retrieved Text: GeoMOOSE has a plethora of configuration options. All of them can be changed in the mapbook and it is possible to highly customize the interface without writing a single line of code. This document attempts to keep up with the various settings options in order to give the user more control over their GeoMOOSE installation. Organization is arbitrarily alphabetisized (mostly).
HTML to be contained in the bar after the header and before the toolbar.
Message to use when a user is waiting for something to load.
The URL to use for MapServer-type map sources.
Change which side on which the control panel resides.
The filesystem path on which all mapfiles reside. Used for Mapserver-type map sources.
The URL to the mapbook. Defaults to php/getmapbook.php.
Toggles whether ‘in between’ zooms or strict steps should be supported.
List of scales to be used in the zoom-ladder.
The maximum bounding box of the map.
The initial bounding box view of the map.
The projection to be used for the map.
Set the ground units of the map. Defaults to ‘m’.
Object representing the zoom to drop downs.
Object containing the label:scale values for the scale jumper.
Changes the display order of the layer controls. Stored as an array.
object containing objects describing the layer controls.
OpenLayers defined transition effect for all layers. Defaults to null.
OpenLayers vector layer buffer radius. Defaults to 0.
OpenLayers “ratio” for vector layers. Defaults to 1.
Turn on or off the ability to hide the layer controls in the catalog. Defaults to true.
Turn on or off the controls in the catalog. Defaults to true.
Toggle whether the scale lien should be displayed on the map.

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Retrieved Text: Part one of a larger collection of modern homes for use with any modern gaming system. This is a three bedroom, two bath single family modern home set in a rural suburban neighborhood meant to be used in any generic setting, up to and including the break out of an apocalypse of some sort. Perhaps this home is occupied by one or more of your players and they must defend themselves against attack by their enemies who have hunted them to their own sanctuary? Or perhaps the players themselves are hunting someone and have tracked that individual here, to this house. Maybe your players are surviving the early stages of a zombie apocalypse and you need a house for them to scavenge supplies (...and encounter a few zombies...) in? Whatever your needs, any modern setting needs houses, which is what the Modern Homes collection is all about. Stay tuned for more homes (big and small) in the near future!
30" x 30" in size. Two and a half feet squared when printed out. Perfectly sized for any playing surface!
HEX and SQUARE grids for each type of map listed below, as well as a NO GRID version for people that prefer to set their own scale. Grid sizes are 1" = 5' of gaming space.
Full Color Version – This is a printer intensive, full color version of this map.
Black and White version – A black and white version, meant to be the least printer intensive.
Daytime lighting complete with shadows to give the map depth.
VTT Map - Sized for

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Retrieved Text: On this site you will find WMS-addresses enabling connection to your own map- or GIS software. This is typically referred to as a map service. In addition, you may look at potential usage of our data and services, you can view and download product sheets and legends, and access metadata.
You can choose to filter on topic and you can also use the search option. If you select List view, you can view the contents in a table.
The data is mainly based on the nationwide printed bedrock geological map series at a scale 1: 250,000. Knowledge of bedrock plays an important role in the exploration and evaluation of various types of raw materials and natural resources, as well as in water supply, waste storage, land use and environmental planning, construction, alternative energy and assessment of natural hazards such as earthquakes and landslides.
The data is mainly based on the nationwide printed bedrock geological map series at a scale 1: 50 000. Knowledge of bedrock plays an important role in the exploration and evaluation of various types of raw materials and natural resources, as well as in water supply, waste storage, land use and environmental planning, construction, alternative energy and assessment of natural hazards such as earthquakes and landslides.
Service contains maps and images in the scale from 1:500 to 1:10M. This service is a cascading service for the WMS services hosted by internal and external providers to be able to support INSPIRE solutions and projections not supported by Norway digital.
This is the WMS service for the application GeoTreat, which

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Score: 28.558487
Retrieved Text: Two 22 x 34" sections and 280 units.
Part of the new Campaigns of Napoleon Series 5X, the map covers European Russia from Tilsit to Moscow at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Turns average 5 days each. Corps and Army-Level Leaders deploy on-map, while Corps-level combat units assigned to each leader record their fluctuating strength on off-map displays. Force Charts provide actual situation for each turn, allowing you to solitaire the historical campaign.
Playing Time: .3 hours up to 9 hours for the campaign.

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Retrieved Text: 71 products offers 71 gold mining investors products. SINOLINKING Small Scale Gold Washing Equipment Plant for Individual Gold Mining Investors Small diesel engines gold extraction equipment for gold mining investors vibration sieve table Portable Gold Trommel Gold Sluice Box for Small Investors.
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4223 products Alluvial Small Gold Washing Machine Small Scale Gold Mining Equipment . Low price Portable small mini mobile gold washing trommel screen machine small mobile diesel engine gold mining trommel washing machine.
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2551 products Alluvial Small Scale Portable Mobile Mini Gold Trommel Wash Plant with Heavy Duty Feed Hopper Small mini gold mining trommel screen wash equipment plant for sale Diesel Engine Portable Mini Gold Wash Plant.
Rock Gold Mining Machine Crusher Small Portable Diesel Gold Hammer Mill Find rock gold ore small capacity rock gold mining. Motor Type: AC Motor . We have made many large&small scale ore dressing lines at home and abroad.
1250 products Mobile crusher Type construction waste application portable small new goods small diesel engine crusher scale stone crushing

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Retrieved Text: Below, RambleFest displays Arnside and Silverdale guidebooks and maps, and provides the facility for buying them online.
Arnside and Silverdale’s intimate green and silver landscape rises from the shores of Morecambe Bay, with wide views over the Kent Estuary to the Lake District. Despite its small scale, this AONB shows a unique interweaving of contrasting countryside. The area is characterised by small scale limestone hills rising to less than 200m in height, fine deciduous woodlands and valleys which form sheltered agricultural land. The inter-relationship of salt-marsh, limestone cliffs and reclaimed mosses, at or about sea level, contrast markedly with limestone pasture, rock outcrops and limestone pavements at a higher level. The distribution of copses and hedgerows and the pattern of limestone walls create a strong feeling of enclosure, and are important elements in the landscape.
We display below the Ordnance Survey “Explorer” map OL7 The English Lakes – South Eastern area, which includes Arnside and Silverdale.

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Rank: 12
Score: 27.849943
Retrieved Text: We have crusher parts for sale but they are subject to availability. We sell rock crushing equipment as part of our new and used . Natural Gas; Gold .
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XSM supply individual (Gold Shaker Table For Sale.) crushers and mills as well as spare parts of them. Gold Shaker Table For Sale. . small rock crusher for gold .
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Rank: 13
Score: 27.265862
Retrieved Text: Small Type Stone Crushing Machine for Crushing (XPC SERIES), Find Details about Machine,Machinery from Small Type Stone Crushing Machine for Crushing (XPC SERIES . Small scale stone crushing plant of 40 TPH – 60 TPH – .
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Rank: 14
Score: 26.99379
Retrieved Text: The DiGMapPlus Near Surface ‘Electrical resistivity Model of Great Britain’ dataset is produced for use at 1:50k scale providing 50 m ground resolution.
The data are released in ESRI shapefile formats. Other formats such as MapInfo TAB are available on request. The standard data supplied to customers has polygons or areas in a single layer or theme.
Data is provided to indicate the resistivity of rocks and soils across Great Britain (excluding the Isle of Man) as shown below. The scales of map data available to create this dataset are shown in Appendix 2.
This is the first version of the dataset to be published (released 2014): It is derived from BGS Parent Material Map version 6. More details on this product can be found at this website http://www.bgs.ac.uk/products/onshore/soilPMM.html.
The distribution of the input data from the National Geotechnical Properties Database is shown in Appendix 1 and digital geological map data scales are in Appendix 1. Although the National Geotechnical Properties Database, BGS Physical Laboratories Properties Database and BRE Stone list (BRE) are the main sources for data their limited coverage means that data from BGS reports and other resources have been used.
Local conditions may vary and this dataset should not replace site assessment. Further detail of the geology may be available on more detailed 1:10k scale geological maps.
The spatial distribution of the data is limited by the spatial accuracy and resolution of the digital geological map data (DiGMapGB-50) (Appendix 2). Spatial mismatches of resistivity values relate to mismatches in lithology type (i.e. variation in LEX-RCS across map-sheet boundaries) do

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Retrieved Text: What is a small-scale industry? Some of the Best Small Scale Business Ideas. A small-scale industry is a project or firm created on a small budget or for a small group of people. A small-scale industry produces its goods using small machines, less power, and hired labor. It is located in a single place and produces goods meant for few people. Small scale industries are easy to start and manage given the minimal scale of production. They are set up to cater for the basic needs of the people within their locality. An example of a small-scale industry is a laundry or small kiosk created to cater to the individual needs of the people in the area in which it is located. These businesses require little starting and operating capital. They require cheap labor that is easily found and their target market is the host community. Such companies also realize a small annual turnover and, as a result, pay fewer taxes. The classification of the industry as large or small scale depends on the rate of production and the number of employees.
Ownership of small scale unit is one individual in sole-proprietorship or it can be with a few individuals in partnership.
A small-scale unit is normally a one-man show and even in the case of partnership the activities are mainly carried out by the active partner and the rest are generally sleeping, partners. These units are managed in a personalized fashion. The owner is activity involved in all the decisions concerning business.
The area of operation of small

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Retrieved Text: Chapter 5 Map Scale and Generalization Concepts Scale Scale is the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the ground. Selecting the appropriate scale depends on the size of the sheet of paper and the accurate placement of features.
Scale is the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the ground.
Selecting the appropriate scale depends on the size of the sheet of paper and the accurate placement of features.
A word statement gives a written description of scale, such as "One centimeter equals one kilometer" or "One centimeter equals ten kilometers."
A ratio or representative fraction (RF) indicates how many units on the earth's surface is equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.
It is simply a line marked with distance on the ground which the map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on the map.
In the U.S., a graphic scale often includes both metric and U.S. common units.
How to Measure Distances on a Map?
Find the scale for the map you're going to use - it might be a ruler-looking bar scale or a written scale, in words or numbers.
Use a ruler to measure the distance between the two places. If the line is quite curved, use a string to determine the distance and then measure the string.
If the scale is a word statement (i.e. "One centimeter equals one kilometer") then determine the distance.
For a graphic scale, you'll need to measure the graphic and divide the scale into the measured units on the ruler.
Watch

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Retrieved Text: A geospatial object that provides the boundaries of the geographic units that interest you. Here, we will consider the city districts of the south of France. Data are available at the geoJSON format. Data come from here, and this post explain in detail how to read and represent geoJSON format with R.
A numerical variable that we use to color each geographical unit. Here we will use the number of restaurant per city. The data has been found here. (Thanks @joelgombin).
This step has been extensively describe in the chart #325. The geojsonio library allows to read this type of format in R. To plot it with ggplot2, we first need to transform it to a data frame using the tidy function of the broom library. Then, the geom_polygon() function allows to represent this type of object !
# Geospatial data available in the geojson format!
The number of restaurant per city district has been found on the internet and a clean version is stored on the gallery website. It is thus easy to read it with read.table. Before doing a choropleth map, it is a good practice to check the distribution of your variable.
Here, we have a ‘long tail’ distribution: a few cities have a lot of restaurant. Thus we will probably need to apply a log scale to our color palette. It will avoid that all the variation is absorbed by these high values.
# Distribution of the number of restaurant?
This is a key step in choropleth map: your 2 inputs must have a id in common to make

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Retrieved Text: The creators of Wargame and RUSE announce an all-new strategy game focused on division-level warfare.
Publisher Paradox Interactive and Wargame/RUSE creators Eugen Systems are on a mission to make “the most authentic real-time tactical game” set in World War 2. At least, that’s how Eugen’s Alexis Le Dressay introduced me to the upcoming Steel Division: Normandy 44 in a Skype call filled with talk of impassible French hedgerows, the stress of being under machine gun fire, and making 1:1 scale maps from aerial photography of Normandy taken during the actual conflict in question. It’s a tall order, as historical accuracy doesn't always equate to enjoyable gameplay. But Le Dressay sounded inspired by that challenge.
Combat in Normandy ‘44 takes place at the division level. Rather than selecting a nation, you pick from a number of Allied and Axis divisions that fought in Northern France near the close of the war (though the actual beach landings won’t be included), each with a unique unit roster and play style. Among the names dropped were the US 101st Airborne and the German 12th SS, with England, France, Poland, Canada, and Scotland also represented. Some nations have multiple divisions to choose from, with each falling into a broad category of armored, mechanized, or infantry.
While your division serves almost like a deck of cards that you select prior to a battle, the troops you will actually be taking into the field, called a Battlegroup, are 30-40 units chosen from this roster on a mission-by-mission basis. These can include anything from a superheavy German

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Retrieved Text: This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 11.19'. Pictures were taken on 8/7/17.
This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 12.3'. Pictures were taken on 8/4/17.
This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 13.35'. Pictures were taken on 8/2/17.
This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 14.0'. Pictures were taken on 7/31/17.
This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 14.85'. Pictures were taken on 7/24/17.
This map geographically displays images of inundation along the Rock Riverfront when the gauge was at 15.2'. Pictures were taken on 7/25/17.

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Retrieved Text: Nine small Mesozoic plutons in TJmatilla County, northeast Oregon, crop out within an area of 58 sq km in the Blue Mountains. The plutons are divided into an earlier series of probable Permian-Triassic age and a later intrusive series of probable Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous age. The earlier rocks show effects of regional metamorphism whereas the later plutons are unmetamorphosed. The five units of the earlier intrusive series probably are Early to Middle Triassic in age. They correlate in age and general petrologic type with the Canyon Mountain ophiolite complex. Rock types, whcch may vary within individual plutons, are serpentinized peridotite, quartz-hornblende metagabbro, hornblende metatonalite, and hornblende metatrondhjemite The elongation of several plutons suggests that emplacement was guided by northeast-trending zones of weakness. All plutons were intruded as magmas except the peridotite which was probably tectonically emplaced. Intrusion of these units into the country rock produced a hornblende gneiss and thermal metamorphism up to the sillimanite-cordieritemuscovite-almandine subfacies of Abukuma-type facies series metamorphism. Permian-Triassic regional metamorphism of greenschist grade produced a pronounced northeast foliation in the older series of plutons and associated country rocks. The remaining four plutons are included within a later intrusive episode and are probably Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous in age. Age and petrologic type are typical of the Wallowa and Bald Mountain intrusive series. Rock types, in the order of intrusion, are pyroxene-hornblende melagabbronorite; quartz-pyroxene-hornblende gabbronorite; biotite -bearing, quartz-hornblende gabbro; hornblende trondhjemite, and granodiorite. Country rocks are metavolcanic dacitic and andesitic flows and pelitic metasedimentary schists, interbedded on a large scale.

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Retrieved Text: C-Map NT Compact (MapSend Marine), a review by GPS Nuts.
For a long time, along with Navionics, C-Map has been recognized by the boating community as a leading supplier of vector based, electronic charts. Magellan has a long-standing relationship with C-Map. Many Magellan marine-oriented units are capable of working with C-Map cartridges. When Magellan introduced the Map410 GPS to the market in 1999, it was capable of being uploaded with maps and charts from the MapSend series of CD-ROMs. At that time, C-Map become the provider of the nautical charts for the marine versions of the CDs. C-Map NT charts were modified in size and coverage detail to fit into the Map410's memory and optimized for the receiver’s display screen. The resulting charts are called C-Map NT Compact™ and are distributed on Magellan MapSend Marine series of CD-Roms. There are 3 versions of the MapSend Marine and each one includes charts for a different area of the world. The three are: America, Europe & Africa and Asia & Australia / Pacific . At the end of this review there is a link to the detailed catalogue of the regions and charts included on each one of the CDs. According to Magellan’s website, NT Compact charts do not contain some of the sophisticated information one would find in the C-MAP NT. Landmarks (airports, cemetery, buildings, monuments, etc.) and objects (crane, anchorage, etc.) and other generic symbols are not displayed in NT Compact. Special features such as Port Info and Tide Info are also not available. Spot soundings are

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Rank: 22
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Retrieved Text: The Thatcher geodatabase file for v. 1.0 was added to the repository on 15 April 2016.
The Chino Valley South 7 ½' Quadrangle is located north of Prescott, Arizona and encompasses the southern portion of Chino Valley immediately north of the Granite Dells and southeast of the Sullivan Buttes. Production of this new geologic map continues the Arizona Geological Survey mapping program of central Yavapai County that includes recent and concurrent mapping in the adjacent Jerome Canyon 7 ½’ quadrangle to the west (Spencer and Young, 2012), Prescott Valley North 7 ½’ quadrangle to the east (Youberg and Spencer, 2012), and the Chino Valley North 7 ½’ quadrangle to the north (Gootee et al., 2010). This map represents entirely new mapping of mainly surficial Quaternary and Tertiary sedimentary deposits. The majority of the Chino Valley South quadrangle is underlain by late Cenozoic clastic sedimentary deposits that are range from 400 to 1600 feet thick, increasing in thickness towards the western portion of the quadrangle (Richard et al., 2007). Aerial photography, stereo photo interpretation, topographic information, and field relationships such as soil color, clast type, degree of dissection, relative differences in deposit heights, landform morphology, and vegetation coverage types were used to distinguish different units. The area covered by this map can be characterized as an erosional landscape with little preservation of original landform surfaces, and rolling swales covered with soil and vegetation. The low-relief central and northern portion of the mapping area is made up mostly of ridges of Quaternary alluvial fan deposits that cap Tertiary sedimentary

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Retrieved Text: Black Rock Valley SSSMF Final build by Stevie. SSSMF Final.
Black Rock Valley Standard System Spec Multi Fruit final map.
All the information you need is here at the top, Please take time to read it.
Please make sure you delete the older version zip files and use the new zips.
Delete the older version game save. Start a new game save please, importing old data can cause problems and errors with the map.
Black Rock Valley HSSMF and SSSMF Final map versions.
Turn plant withering off upon starting your game.
Make sure you place the support zip files into your mod folder.
There's hundreds of additions and changes to the map that may impact on your PC system in gameplay performance. Both map versions High System Spec and Standard System Spec have the exact same additions. I myself can no longer run the HSS above medium graphic settings in the options, my PC simply isn't up to it. The HSS version was never intended to be used on anything other than HIGH end or Gaming PC's with very high specs. The SSS version will run on lower spec systems though that's why I created it.
Upon first loading the map grab a vehicle and have a good drive around the whole map to cache in the areas and smooth things out. Same applies at night put the lights on and drive around the areas to cache in, then save and exit. If it doesn't smooth out upon reloading the map you need to lower the graphics settings in the options. Then Save and quit

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Retrieved Text: Got a small network, home network, medium-size network — even an enterprise network — and want to get the most out of it? Then I’ve got good news for you: 10 free pieces of software that can make your network easier to use, troubleshoot and maintain. These freebies will help everyone from networking pros to networking newbies and everyone in between.
There’s plenty here for you — great free tools for keeping your network secure; creating a quick, navigable network map; scanning networks and putting together a list of all connected devices; checking to see if your servers are up and running; even designing networks and more.
Note that I’m leaving out extremely popular and well-known free downloads, such as the Ethereal network protocol analyzer or Wireshark and am concentrating instead on lesser-known downloads.
And as a bonus, I’m including a review of an extra, for-pay, try-before-you-buy download that can help your network as well.
If you’re looking for a simple, free, all-in-one network management tool for a small peer-to-peer network, this is the one to get. It handles all the basic network chores, including adding new devices to the network, fixing broken network connections, setting up wireless encryption and protection, sharing printers and folders, reporting on the state of the security of each PC, and much more.
Wizards guide you through all these tasks and others. If you’ve got network experience, the wizards may or may not be useful, but those with moderate or less network experience will certainly find them helpful. But even if you’re a network pro, there’s

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Rank: 25
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Retrieved Text: The Kit namespace provides generic / fundamental functions. There are functions to get the current time, scale a value for a given display ratio and determine if a display is retina.
Kit sections all devices / computers / consoles into three categories based on maximum and minimum screen dimensions. A display of 1024 x 768 has a max dimension of 1024 and min dimension of 768, for example. Thinking of displays in terms of maximum and minimum dimensions simplifies things by removing orientation from the equation.
SD. Max screen dimension 959 pixels. Example: iPhone 3GS at 480 x 320.
HD. Max screen dimension of 2047 pixels. Example: iPhone 4S at 960 x 640 or desktop computer at 1600 x 900.
HDR. Max screen dimension of 2048 or greater. Example: iPad retina at 2048 x 1536 or Macbook Pro retina at 2560 x 1600.
A further distinction is made between a large screens and small screens. Small screens have a minimum screen dimension less than 768 pixels.
Kit.h / Kit.cpp are meant to be able to be included in any type of game project.
Directory names for your game’s SD, HD and HDR Asset subdirectories. If your game does not have separate tiers of art assets, these can safely be ignored.
Initialize given the screen size in pixels.
Return design specifications for the initialized screen.
Returns true if the current screen is HD (has a max screen dimension >= 960).
Returns true if the current screen is small (has a min screen dimension < 768).
Returns true if retina display is available and enabled.
Returns true if the device has

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Rank: 26
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Retrieved Text: The City Street Map of South West Central London uses Ordnance Survey Streetview data to show this area of the City at 1:10000 scale and which displays all street names. The detail and street names make this map highly functional for both business and personal use - ideal for leaflet drops, deliveries, taxis or for students moving to a new city. This version is in colour and is printed on 195gsm Satin Paper for a high-quality photo paper finish and is supplied in a tough, reusable plastic poster tube.

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Rank: 27
Score: 25.331018
Retrieved Text: Quartzite, schist, calc-silicate quartzite, and amphibolite. Consists of quartzite and argillite in Saugus and Lynnfield areas. Westboro Formation consists primarily of orthoquartzite and subordinate mica schist, calc-silicate rock, amphibolite, and quartzitic biotite gneiss and schist. Westboro as portrayed by Nelson (1974), Bell and Alvord (1976), and Hepburn and DiNitto (1978) are correlative [with varying certainty]. West and south of Boston, disconnected masses of quartzite and associated rocks are shown on State bedrock map by Zen and others (1983) as Westboro although not continuous with belts mapped by Nelson (1974) or Hepburn and DiNitto (1978). Includes isolated quartzite masses mapped by Castle (1964) in Reading area. On State bedrock map, arbitrarily includes thin quartzite mapped as Burlington Formation by Bell and Alvord (1976) because the units are similar and to reduce number of small units on State map. Rocks mapped as Rice Gneiss by Nelson (1974) were included in unnamed metamorphosed mafic and felsic volcanic unit on State bedrock map, but author now feels it should be either a part of Westboro, or a separate unit below it. Westboro in Framingham area and to the northeast is overlain by unnamed assemblage of metamorphosed mafic and felsic volcanic rocks. South of town of Westborough, Westboro is truncated by Bloody Bluff-Lake Char fault system. Intruded by Proterozoic Z batholithic rocks. Equivalent to Plainfield Formation of eastern CT because it lies in same strike belt, and is probably equivalent to Quinnville Quartzite and unnamed mica schist and phyllite of Blackstone Group. Contact between Westboro and Blackstone is arbitrary on State

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Rank: 28
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Retrieved Text: Save small rock crusher to get e-mail alerts and updates on your eBay Feed. + 40 Ton Rock Crusher & Power Pulley (Small) See more like this. Results matching fewer words. 220V Adjust Jaw Crusher Rock Slag Steel Coal Stone Coom Crush machine Store USA. 1 product rating [object Object] $709.00.
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Rank: 29
Score: 25.200512
Retrieved Text: Aug 26, 2013 . Watch as The Good Doctor ( ask Jeff Williams ) shows How we Built our Rock Crusher ( Impact Mill ) . We build units that are for sale Enjoy.
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======= Instance Index 28 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

One idea is that evolution happens. Evolution is a change in the inherited traits of organisms over time. Living things have changed as descendants diverged from common ancestors in the past.


Q: What is defined as a change in the inherited traits of organisms over time?

 Choices:

- generation

- divergence

- variation

- evolution

A:

Target Text: evolution

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What did the natural historians get right about evolution? What did they fail to understand? A) They understood that populations can dominate their environment. They failed to understand how organisms inherited their traits from their parents. B) They understood that populations adapt to their environments... show more What did the natural historians get right about evolution? What did they fail to understand?
A) They understood that populations can dominate their environment. They failed to understand how organisms inherited their traits from their parents.
B) They understood that populations adapt to their environments through natural selection. They failed to understand how organisms inherited their traits from their parents.
C) They understood that population adapt to their environments through the acquisition of useful characteristics over the course of individual organisms' lifetimes. They failed to understand how organisms dominated their environments.
D) They understood that organisms were made perfectly at the moment of creation to suit their environments. They failed to understand that humans could never cause evolution on their own.
You probably need to consult your textbook or class notes to see what your teacher deems to be the correct answer.
What did the natural historians get right about evolution? What did they fail to understand?

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Retrieved Text: ficity and it runs throughout the field of artificial intelligence studies. Can a thing be said to be alive, intelligent, or conscious, if it is made of different stuff than we expect? Marvin Minsky’s classic dictum that a brain is simply a “machine made of meat” allows us to imagine that minds can be made in any medium, and whether the substance is meat or silicon is irrelevant to the outcome: the behavior of the machine.
Although genetic algorithms are a software method, we will implement our applications using microcontrollers and physical computing interfaces. As with all columns in this series, a basic knowledge of electronics and programming is assumed. But, before we jump into algorithms, we need a little background on the biology that they are derived from.
As Minsky invited us to imagine the possibilities of computer intelligence, Langton invites us to ponder the possibilities of silicon life forms. In this next series of Different Bits columns, we will take up and explore these ideas which blur the traditional boundaries of biology and engineering and call conventional definitions of life into question. We will venture into the world of artificial life: genetic algorithms, cellular automata, and emergent systems.
Evolution is most simply defined as an accumulation of changes in a species over generations, which eventually leads to branching of the old species into multiple new species. The theory proposes that there was at one time an original species which has transformed and split over time into the diversity of life we know on the planet today.
Adaptation is

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Retrieved Text: How are the characteristics of one generation related to the previous generation?
Young organisms are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and also resemble other organisms of the same kind. Different organisms vary in how they look and function because they have different inherited information; the environment also affects the traits that an organism develops. Genes chiefly regulate a specific protein, which affect an individual’s traits. DNA carries instructions for forming species’ characteristics. Each cell in an organism has the same genetic content, but genes expressed by cells can differ.
By the end of grade 2. Organisms have characteristics that can be similar or different. Young animals are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and also resemble other animals of the same kind. Plants also are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and resemble other plants of the same kind.
By the end of grade 5. Many characteristics of organisms are inherited from their parents. Other characteristics result from individuals’ interactions with the environment, which can range from diet to learning. Many characteristics involve both inheritance and environment.
By the end of grade 8. Genes are located in the chromosomes of cells, with each chromosome pair containing two variants of each of many distinct genes. Each distinct gene chiefly controls the production of a specific protein, which in turn affects the traits of the individual (e.g., human skin color results from the actions of proteins that control the production of the pigment melanin). Changes (mutations) to genes can result in changes to proteins, which

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Retrieved Text: Which trait is strong and is seen?
Which type of trait is weak and can be masked?
The excellent fossil record of horses shows that modern horses, which have one toe on each foot, evolved from ancestors that had multiple toes. A trait like the modern horse's single toe that differs from the ancestral trait in the lineage is called .
What is the part of a chromosome that contains the DNA code for an inherited trait?
A trait that appears even if an organism had only one factor for the trait.
A trait that appears only if an organism has two factors for the trait.
What are the alternate forms of a gene?
Offspring inherit traits in pairs of factors.
Some traits will not be inherited.
A hidden trait can show up in later generations.
A hidden trait will eventually disappear from genetics.
Tallness is a dominant trait.
region in a DNA molecule that contains a code.
particular gene that has identical alleles.
make organisms look like their parents.
An organism with a dominant trait must be homozygous for that trait.

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Retrieved Text: The mute swan (Cygnus olor) pictured above is a common sight at Lake Eola in downtown Orlando, FL. Mute swans are a Eurasian bird that were imported from Europe to the United States for decoration on parks and private properties. The bird gets its common name, mute swan, from the fact that its vocalization is quieter than other swans. The swan feeds mostly on aquatic vegetation that might be found at the bottom or edges of a lake like the one above, but also readily takes to feeding by humans, so the swan seems to thrive in urban lakes like this.
Upon first look, an observer might wonder about the swan's form: webbed feet, long neck. The bird's form relates to its lifestyle. The swan is equipped to swim with webbed feet, allowing access to those submerged aquatic plants. When the bird feeds on submerged vegetation, it sticks its tail-end and feet into the air then extends its long neck to feed in shallow water; this is called "dabbling." The swan will also feed at the surface of the water.
Even within the same species, we notice that wildlife in urban areas behave differently than in non-urban (rural areas). A study by Alicja Jozkowicz and Lucyna Gorska-Klek, "Activity patterns of the mute swans Cygnus olor wintering in rural and urban areas: A comparison" finds that urban swans spend their time doing different behaviors than rural swans. Mute swans in a rural area were spending almost 50% of their time feeding, but mute swans in urban areas were spending

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Retrieved Text: Invertebrate animals have a rich variety of life cycles, especially among those forms that undergo metamorphosis, a radical physical change. Butterflies, for instance, have a caterpillar stage (larva), a dormant chrysalis stage (pupa), and an adult stage (imago). One remarkable aspect of this development is that, during the transition from caterpillar to adult, most of the caterpillar tissue disintegrates and is used as food, thereby providing energy for the next stage of development, which begins when certain small structures (imaginal disks) in the larva start growing into the adult form. Thus, the butterfly undergoes essentially two periods of growth and development (larva and pupa–adult) and two periods of small size (fertilized egg and imaginal disks). A somewhat similar phenomenon is found in sea urchins; the larva, which is called a pluteus, has a small, wartlike bud that grows into the adult while the pluteus tissue disintegrates. In both examples it is as if the organism has two life histories, one built on the ruins of another.
Another life-cycle pattern found among certain invertebrates illustrates the principle that major differences between organisms are not always found in the physical appearance of the adult but in differences of the whole life history. In the coelenterate Obelia, for example, the egg develops into a colonial hydroid consisting of a series of branching Hydra-like organisms called polyps. Certain of these polyps become specialized (reproductive polyps) and bud off from the colony as free-swimming jellyfish (medusae) that bear eggs and sperm. As with caterpillars and sea urchins, two distinct phases occur in

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Retrieved Text: Evolution is genetic change. Several different forces are potentially capable of producing evolution, and we will explore these forces and the process of evolution more fully in the next chapter. Here, we consider how one of these forces— natural selection—may bring about genetic change in a quantitative characteristic.
Observation 1 — Many more individuals are produced each generation than are capable of surviving long enough to reproduce.
Observation 2—There is much phenotypic variation within natural populations. Observation 3—Some phenotypic variation is heritable. In the terminology of quantitative genetics, some of the phenotypic variation in these characteristics is due to genetic variation, and these characteristics have heritability.
Logical consequence—Individuals with certain characters (called adaptive traits) survive and reproduce better that others. Because the adaptive traits are heritable, offspring will tend to resemble their parents with regard to these traits, and there will be more individuals with these adaptive traits in the next generation. Thus, adaptive traits will tend to increase in the population through time.
In this way, organisms become genetically suited to their environments; as environments change, organisms change in ways that make them better able to survive and reproduce.
For thousands of years, humans have practiced a form of selection by promoting the reproduction of organisms with traits perceived as desirable. This form of selection is artificial selection, and it has produced the domestic plants and animals that make modern agriculture possible. The power of artificial selection, the first application of genetic principles by humans, is illustrated by the tremendous diversity of shapes, colors, and behaviors of modern domesticated dogs

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Retrieved Text: For many years, it was not possible to examine genes directly, and evolutionary biology was confined largely to the study of how phenotypes change with the passage of time. The tremendous advances in molecular genetics in recent years have made it possible to investigate evolutionary change directly by analyzing protein and nucleic acid sequences.
1. Molecular data are genetic. Evolution results from genetic change over time. Anatomical, behavioral, and physiological traits often have a genetic basis, but the relation between the underlying genes and the trait may be complex. Protein and nucleic acid sequence variation has a clear genetic basis that is easy to interpret.
2. Molecular methods can be used with all organisms.
Early studies of population genetics relied on simple genetic traits such as human blood types or banding patterns in snails, which are restricted to a small group of organisms. However, all living organisms have proteins and nucleic acids; so molecular data can be collected from any organism.
3. Molecular methods can be applied to a huge amount of genetic variation. An enormous amount of data can be accessed by molecular methods. The human genome, for example, contains more than 3 billion base pairs of DNA, which constitutes a large pool of information about our evolution.
4. All organisms can be compared with the use of some molecular data. Trying to assess the evolutionary history of distantly related organisms is often difficult because they have few characteristics in common. The evolutionary relationships between angiosperms were traditionally assessed by comparing floral anatomy, whereas the evolutionary relationships of bacteria were

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Retrieved Text: 1) What elements make up life?
All matter is made up of atoms (AKA elements) which are put together to make molecules.
The most imporatnt elements found in living things is Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
All know elements in the universe are found on the Periodic Table of Elements.
2) How is the periodic table organized?
Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the shape of DNA along with Maurice Wilkins. They could not have done it without the help of Rosline Franklin's x-ray crystalography picture that helped them uncover the structure of DNA.
4) How is DNA put together and what are the parts?
A and T are always bonded together and C and G are always bonded together.
6) What is the relationship between atoms, molecules, DNA, Chromosomes, and Genes?
Atoms are put together to make molecules, DNA is a molecule, click on the animation below to learn more about this relationship. Hit refresh in your wed browser to see it again.
7) What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction?
What are Traits? How do you get your traits?
Traits are characteristics, or what an organism is like.
1. Group Traits: Traits that all individuals in the same species have. For example, all humans have 2 eyes, 2 legs, and 2 arms. These traits are controled by DNA and what makes one organisms different from another.
2. Inherited Traits: Traits that you get from your mom and dad. These traits are different for every individual. For example, eye color, skin color, hair color, ablity to roll your tounge, color blindness and some diseases like breast cancer.

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Retrieved Text: If you wanted to do an experiment on how a new blood pressure medication affects the risk of stroke. How could you ensure that there was only one difference between the treatment groups, but still have the most meaningful data possible?
Have the volunteers live normally, but use a large sample and randomly assign the treatments.
What does the theory of special creation predict about the geographic relationships of closely related species?
No specific predictions (species are found where they are because God wanted them that way).
Plant cells have 3 types of genomes (nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast) that are inherited independently. From each, we can estimate the relationships among species based on similarities and differences in homologous DNA sequences. If species evolve (share ancestry), what pattern is predicted?
The relationship among plant species will be the same for all 3 genomes.
Under the theory of evolution as formulated by Lamarck, why would the traits of Pacific oysters change in response to ocean acidification?
Individuals in low pH conditions would grow shells more efficiently in response. These changes would be passed on to offspring.
Which of the following experiments would be the best way to test the theory of evolution as formulated by Lamarck?
Keep a population of mice in cold conditions. (In response, the mice will draw their tails up to conserve heat.) Continue for many generations. Measure tail length each generation.
What is a chromosome composed of ?
In corn snakes, red blotches (R) are dominant over black (r). A red-blotched snake is mated to a black blotched snake, and the only offspring is one

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Retrieved Text: Paleobiologist Advait Jukar stands in front of a fossil elephant skull.
Bookmark this page! This is where the live event will happen on May 17, 2019, at 11am and then again at 2pm EDT.
During the live show, your students will be interacting with the scientist through a chat window on this page.
Download the Science How Tech Guide for instructions on preparing for and participating in a webcast. This guide includes recommended viewing guidelines if you’re participating with a group of students.
Still have questions? Want to see your students featured on Science How? Email us at ScienceHow@si.edu.
3-LS3-1 Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence that plants and animals have traits inherited from parents and variation of these traits exists in a group of similar organisms.

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Retrieved Text: What is a habitat?: The habitat of a species describes the environment where a species lives and the type of community that is formed as a result. Biotope and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably. Biotope refers to a community's environment, whereas habitat applies to a species' environment. Some species behave as ecosystem engineers and alter the environment within a region. Ecosystem engineers are defined as organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing changes in biotic or abiotic materials. A good example is the beavers which manage water levels by building dams and improve the habitat. Corals adapt to and modify their environment by forming calcium carbonate skeletons that provide ideal growing conditions for future generations and forms a habitat for other species.
What is a niche?: The set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes is referred to as the niche. The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the fundamental and the realized niche. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists. Species have certain traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological niche. A trait is a measurable property, phenotype, or characteristic of an organism that may influence its survival. Genes play an important role in the development and environmental expression of traits.

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Retrieved Text: In this series of games, your students will learn about the ways species adapt to survive. The Natural Selection learning objective — based on NGSS and state standards — delivers improved student engagement and academic performance in your classroom, as demonstrated by research.
Natural Selection is the scientific theory that organisms are more likely to pass on traits that increase chance of survival.
Over time, species develop beneficial traits called adaptations. These can be body structures, processes, or behaviors. For example, polar bears have adapted to the cold, snowy arctic climate by developing thick, white fur for warmth and camouflage.
High genetic variation gives a species the greatest chance of surviving an environmental change. The individuals with the most beneficial traits are more likely to survive until reproductive age and pass those traits to the next generation.
Some environmental changes can cause traits that were once beneficial to be harmful. For example, peppered moths developed white bodies to camouflage with the trees they lived on. Pollution covered those trees in black soot, so white moths could no longer blend in. Only darker-colored moths survived to reproduction age, and over time, the entire species turned dark.
Abiotic conditions like pH levels and temperature, as well as changes in available resources, can affect selection, forcing species to adapt. Genetic mutations can also influence selection by creating new traits.
Sexual selection is a form of natural selection. Individuals with certain traits are more likely to find a mate, and therefore more likely to pass along those traits genetically.
Leap Your Way with DNA!

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Retrieved Text: Keywords : Gene disease association, HBB gene, β-thalassemia, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
In a densely populated country like India, the most commonly inherited disorders are hemoglobinopathiesincludes β-thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. The root cause for these disorders can understand by studying the gene disease association of the beta globin gene (HBB) of Hemoglobin protein, any change in the expression of the HBB gene may lead to phenotypic changes known as hemoglobinopathies. One important reason for the variability in the expression pattern of the genes is due to change in the protein sequence caused by a type of mutations known as SNPs; mutations that can be defined as the change in the single nucleotide base pair that may or may not lead to a phenotypic change. Understanding of SNPs can help in identifying the cause of β-thalassemia; a blood disorder in which the production of hemoglobin reduces lead to the reduction in oxygen supply to various parts of the body. The present review paper offers the readers information about the various SNPs in the HBB gene that are responsible for the traits of β-thalassemia.

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Retrieved Text: Four options are given at the end of each statement. You should encircle one option from them.
Lamarck proposed the theory of inheritance of____________ characteristics.
Darwin spent 5 weeks on the_____________ Islands.
Darwin also found fossi[s of giant_____________ and giant sloths.
The formation of new forms from an ancestral species in response to the opening of new habitats is called adaptive_________________.
Inherited variations arise by_______________ mutation.
Some other, variations are neither helpful nor harmful. These variations are called_________________.
Ans: The change over time in specie is called evolution.
What is theory of acquired characters?
What was the objection on Lamarckism?
Ans: This mechanism lack reasonable evidences. The changes are passed to the next generation by gametes. For example, change in neck of giraffe does not occur in genetic materiat. So it cannot be transferred to the next generation.
What is theory of uniformitarianism?
Ans: According to this theory, forces of wind, rain, riv–rs, volcanoes, and geological uplift shape the earth of today. They have also changed the earth in the past.
5. What is a fossil?
The histological dead remains of the organism or their imprints preserved in the rocks are called fossils.
What was the concept of people before Darwin?
events. One of the catastrophic events was Noah’s flood.
What are the advantages of Tortoises with shorter necks?
Ans: They live in ,moister regions. This region does not favor tortoises with longer necks. Therefore, the shorter-necked tortoises survive in these regions.
8. What is adaptive radiation?
Ans.: The formation of new forms from an ancestral species in response to the opening of new habitats is called adaptive radiation.
How does artificial selection give the idea of

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Retrieved Text: In this series of games, your students will learn about the genetic evidence behind the theory of evolution. The Reconstructing Evolutionary History Using Fossils learning objective — based on NGSS and state standards —delivers improved student engagement and academic performance in your classroom, as demonstrated by research.
Evolution is the scientific theory explaining how diverse life has developed on Earth. It happens because over time, organisms’ genomes change. Eventually, this causes them to exhibit new traits, and it can even give rise to entirely new species.
To this day, there is genetic evidence that scientists can trace back to Earth’s earliest life forms. One way they do this is with comparative anatomy, examining different organisms’ body structures for similarities.
For example, the human arms and dolphin flippers have similar bone structures, which suggests that both species have a common evolutionary ancestor. On the other hand, bird wings and insect wings work similarly but have very different structures, indicating that they did not evolve from the same species.
Another way of tracing evolution is through developmental biology. Scientists look for similarities in the way organisms grow and develop. They can also use molecular biology, comparing different organisms’ DNA sequences to find evolutionary links.

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Retrieved Text: Chen, Z, RT Corlett, X Jiao, . . . R-C Quan. 2018. Prolonged milk provisioning in a jumping spider. Science 362:1052-1055.
Summary. Mammal-like milk production and maternal care have been discovered in the ant-mimicking jumping spider Toxeus magnus. Young of this species remain in the nest with their mother for about three weeks, and continue to feed on milk until about five weeks of age. Spiderlings were observed ingesting a liquid produced from a groove in the mother’s abdomen. Analysis of this fluid revealed it is rich in nutrients, with a protein concentration four times that of cow’s milk. Spiderlings that were denied milk on hatching died after about ten days. Denial of milk at the end of three weeks reduced spiderling survival rate and body size. Normally, spiderlings stopped drinking the milk after 5-6 weeks, and became fully independent. Maternal presence was important for survival in ways other than milk production. For example, when mothers were removed at three weeks of development, survival rate was reduced, but not body size. It is likely that mothers play an important role in keeping the nest clean and free of parasites. Although some other examples of maternal care are known in invertebrates, this is the first report of invertebrate milk production.
Comments. Milk production and nutrition in a spider is unexpected and this discovery exemplifies the danger of assuming that a single representative of a group provides an adequate understanding of the entire group..
The genus Toxeus includes eleven species of jumping spiders living in Asia, from India to the Philippines.[i]

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Retrieved Text: The modern working definition of a gene is a portion (or sequence) of DNA that codes for a known cellular function or process (e.g. the function "make melanin molecules"). A single 'gene' is most similar to a single 'word' in the English language. The nucleotides (molecules) that make up genes can be seen as 'letters' in the English language. Nucleotides are named according to which of the four nitrogenous bases they contain. The four bases are cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine. A single gene may have a small number of nucleotides or a large number of nucleotides, in the same way that a word may be small or large (e.g. 'cell' vs. 'electrophysiology'). A single gene often interacts with neighboring genes to produce a cellular function and can even be ineffectual without those neighboring genes. This can be seen in the same way that a 'word' may have meaning only in the context of a 'sentence.' A series of nucleotides can be put together without forming a gene (non coding regions of DNA), like a string of letters can be put together without forming a word (e.g. udkslk). Nonetheless, all words have letters, like all genes must have nucleotides.
The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is read and translated by a cell to produce a chain of amino acids which in turn folds into a protein. The order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the

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Retrieved Text: 1 According to paragraph 1, where did Charles Darwin begin to observe and formulate the basis for his Theory of Evolution?
3 Which sentence is most similar to the following sentence from paragraph 1?
The theory is based on the assumptions that life developed from non-life and progressed and evolved in an indirect manner.
The Theory of Evolution is founded on evidence that non-organic compounds are the basis of life, developed in an unguided way.
Based on certain assumptions, we can prove that evolution occurs in all living and non-living entities.
According to Darwin, if we assume that life at its origin was created from non-organic compounds and developed in an unguided manner, his theory holds true.
Due to the controversy, it is hard to make assumptions about the Theory of Evolution.
4 According to paragraph 2, what are the causes for species developing new traits and characteristics?
6 According to paragraph 3, what is natural selection most comparable to as a process?
7 What is the purpose of paragraph 3 in the passage?
The five-year voyage proved to be a major turning point in his life.
█ [A] Darwin was born February 12, 1809 in England. █ [B] Although initially entering into medicine, Darwin chose to pursue his interest in natural science and embarked on a five-year journey aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, a British sloop belonging to the Royal Navy █ [C] Because of his experience aboard the Beagle, he laid the foundation for his Theory of Evolution while also establishing himself within the scientific community. █ [D] .
Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution was a revolutionary

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Retrieved Text: In order for a human brain to “see” something external, the data patterns captured by the eyes must be associated with related patterns stored in memory. When they match, the mind accurately perceives things. Thus, prior education greatly influences the correctness of what people see…or are blind to.
Do the words “natural” and “selection” in any verifiable way accurately describe observable interactions between an organism and its environment? Have the words “natural” and “selection” been effectively employed to divert attention away from recognizing where the power to solve environmental problems really resides—i.e., strictly within well-designed innate capabilities of organisms? Is there a fixation on the apparent self-evident “selection” impacting a population of organisms, with disregard for the fact that the “selector” is simply a mental perception and not grounded on reality?
Since no ideas are exempt from scrutiny, it does help that those ideas grounded on false conjectures are frequently surrounded by warning signs.
The ill-defined nature of selection contributes to fundamental, yet profoundly unanswered, questions by serious researchers. What does selection operate on? What exactly is natural selection doing at any moment to organisms? How does natural selection actually modify organisms via descent with modification? Is anything measurable at work? If selection is a process, do the conditions specified for its occurrence actually differ from the unfolding of abilities inherent to organisms themselves? Can this term be used ubiquitously in scientific literature and yet the term itself explain nothing? Something may certainly be real that dodges definition, has little evidence, or explains little, but those attributes are a

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Retrieved Text: The great diversity of microorganisms, animals and plants that live on planet Earth are the result of millions of years of evolution. Understanding the different ecological and evolutionary processes and their interaction is key for understanding the origins of such biological diversity. An evolutionary perspective is also crucial for understanding the responses of organisms to environmental changes, as well as the to develop reliable predictive models of the possible effects of global change on biodiversity. In recent years there is growing evidence for rapid evolution of adaptive traits in response to global change, making it urgent to improve our understanding of these processes. However, despite the fundamental link between Ecology and Evolution, scientific studies integrating both disciplines are still infrequent.
At CREAF we combine several approaches and methods to address these challenges using a wide range of organisms as models, from plants and small worms to birds and mammals, with particular emphasis on the evolution of life history traits and behavior.
Genetic basis and architecture of adaptive traits: We analyze the genetic basis and architecture of adaptive traits involved in dispersal, phenology, reproductive effort, and defense against herbivory in plant species.
Effect of range expansions on the evolution of life history trait: We study the effects of the expansion of ranges of distribution and colonization processes on genetic diversity and the evolution of life history traits.
Integrating evolution into predictive models: We integrate demographic, ecological and evolutionary information in order to improve predictive models on the consequences of global change.
Behavioral change: We analyze the changes in behavior of animal species

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Retrieved Text: A singe organism in an environment is called an _________________.
Organisms of the same kind living in the same environment make up a _____________.
All the populations of organisms living together in an environment make up a ______________.
A community and its physical factors or environment make up an _____________.
Every population lives in a certain part of an ecosystem, known as its _____________.
Within an ecosystem, each population has a certain role, or ______________.
The __________ provides the energy for almost every ecosystem on Earth.
_______________, or plants, use the energy of the sun, change it into food, and pass it on to other organisms.
All other organisms in an ecosystem community must eat to get the energy they need. So the animals in a community are ________________.
A ______________ shows how consumers in an ecosystem are connected to one another according to what they eat.
First-level consumers, or ______________, eat the plants.
___________________, or carnivores, eat the herbivores.
________________, such as mushrooms and bacteria, break down the tissues of dead organisms. They use some nutrients from the dead tissue as food.
A _____________ shows the relationships between many food chains within a single ecosystem.
An ________________ shows the amount of energy available to pass from one level of a food chain to the next.
Because most ecosystems don’t have unlimited resources, there may be _______________ for these resources among organisms.
A long term relationship between different kinds of organisms is called ________________.
An ________________ is a behavior that an organism inherits, such as building a shelter or finding a mate.
Behaviors that organisms have learned from their parents, not inherited from them.
Organisms

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Retrieved Text: Natural Selection is the phrase Charles Darwin used in 1859 in his book The Origin of Species to name the natural process he proposed to be responsible for the origin of new species and the adaptation of organisms to their environments.
Natural selection occurs when individuals differ in reproductive output for functional reasons, i.e., when differences in reproduction follow from the fact that individuals differ from each other in their ability to tackle the challenges posed by their internal biology and by the biological and physical environment.
Natural selection is different from artificial selection which refers to the evolution of domesticated species as a result of human culling rather than culling by the "natural environment".
Natural selection is an essential mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin and generally accepted by the scientific community as the best explanation of speciation as evidenced in the fossil record.
Darwin's theory of the evolution of species through natural selection starts from the premise that an organism's traits vary in a non-deterministic[?] way from parent to offspring, a process called "individuation" by Darwin.
Natural selection does not distinguish between ecological selection and sexual selection, as it is concerned with traits, e.g.
In the literal sense of the word, no doubt, natural selection is a false term; but who ever objected to chemists speaking of the elective affinities of the various elements?and yet an acid cannot strictly be said to elect the base with which it in preference combines.
As in each fully stocked country natural selection necessarily acts by the selected form having some advantage in the

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Retrieved Text: The term inheritance refers to something, physical or otherwise, that one receives from another. Receivers have no say in whether an inheritance is given to them; but they do have choice in what they do with it. For example, one cannot choose to be born with blue or brown eyes, a small or a large nose, with parents who are rich or poor, criminals or lawyers, speaking English or Chinese. However, one can choose to make good use of one's inheritance or squander it. People can build on their inheritance, be constrained by it, or change it. Therefore, one should take responsibility for everything inherited, both good and bad.
Something that one came into possession of.
Something that is received from an ancestor or other person by legal succession or will.
Something regarded as heritage: the cultural inheritance of Rome.
a. The process of genetic transmission of characteristics.
Biological inheritance is the process by which a cell or organism acquires characteristics of its parent cell or organism. The study of biological inheritance is called genetics.
Applying the concept of inheritance in computer science allows the reuse of existing code with little or no modification, by creating a new context which receives certain traits from one previously defined. For example, in some word processing applications, stylistic attributes such as font size, layout, or color, may be inherited from a template or from another document.
In addition to inheriting physical, social, and biological items or characteristics, there are also spiritual or religious aspects to inheritance. These involve passing on spiritual merit, karma, original sin, ancestral

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Retrieved Text: Analogous structures– similar structures that evolved independently in two living organisms to serve the same purpose.
Artificial selection– the breeding of plants and animals with desired traits to attempt to produce offspring with these same traits.
Darwin– was a naturalist who proposed and provided scientific evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors through the process he called natural selection.
Extinction– The evolutionary termination of a species caused by the failure to reproduce and the death of all remaining members of the species; the natural failure to adapt to environmental change.
Fossil– evidence of past life preserved in rock.
Fossil record– the complete body of fossils that shows how species and ecosystems change over time.
Speciation– the process of natural selection producing a new species out of existing species over thousands or millions of years.
Theory– an explanation that ties together many hypotheses and observations.
Conservation: a careful preservation and protection of something; especially : planned management of a natural resource to prevent exploitation, destruction, or neglect.
Depletion: reduction in the number or quantity of something.
Energy Transformation: the change of energy from one form to another. There are many different forms of energy such as electrical, thermal, nuclear, mechanical, electromagnetic, sound, and chemical.
Geothermal Energy: heat energy from within the earth.
Hydropower: energy that comes from the force of moving water.
Nonrenewable energy: an energy source that cannot be replaced by natural means at the same rate that it is consumed.
Nuclear Energy: energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
Solar Energy: energy radiated from the sun.
Wind Energy: energy harnessed from air in motion.
Ethics:

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Retrieved Text: for questions about the general biological features of human beings (as opposed to the biology of non-humans).
the branch of biology that deals with the transmission and variation of inherited characteristics.
Questions looking to find the name of a specific organism. Please include as much information as possible on location/habitat, size/characteristics and behavior. Ideally, you should provide images.
The study of cells, their physiological properties, structure, environmental interaction, division, life cycle, and death, as well as the organelles they contain. Also known as cytology.
The study of plant life; e.g. angiosperms, gymnosperms, bryophytes, pteridophytes, and algae.
The biological study of animals.
the carrier of genetic information, including for all known living organisms. The only known exceptions are RNA viruses.
The science of collecting and analyzing complex biological data such as genetic codes using informatics.
The study of the normal function of living organisms and the means by which it is achieved.
the study of extremely small organisms. This includes organisms like bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses.
The study of the immune system in organisms, primarily responsible for fighting infection.
for questions about the general anatomical features of human beings as opposed to the anatomy of non-human animals.
Interactions and relationships among organisms and their environment. This includes biotic and abiotic (non-living/environmental) factors that impact organisms.
the set of defined biochemical transformations occuring within the cells of living organisms.
The primary component of the central nervous system, which, along with the spinal cord, controls the body of bilaterally symmetrical beings.
used or the meaning of words as used in scientific literature. Questions should ideally include a link or quote as context for

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Score: 26.187977
Retrieved Text: Evolution can seem pretty astonishing by itself. The varied and specific adaptations used by many organisms can seem at times to defy logic. Symbiosis only makes it seem more unlikely -- how could two separate species evolve traits that just happen to fit so perfectly together? In fact, many people who question evolution point to symbiosis as "proof" that these couldn't happen naturally.
Natural selection is the key to understanding how symbiosis evolves. In a given population, some organisms will have traits that are more advantageous to successful reproduction than others. Organisms with those traits are therefore more likely to pass them along to succeeding generations, while those without them have a greater chance of dying before they reproduce. Thus, over many generations, the population will tend to look more and more like the individuals with the successful traits.
The success or failure of traits depends on population pressure -- circumstances that make it more difficult for individuals to survive. Traits that allow a creature to take advantage of the other life forms in its environment will be just as successful as the traits that allow it to escape (or eat) them.
Most symbiotic relationships probably started out as facultative. Over many generations, the organisms came to depend more on the symbiosis because natural selection favored those traits and not others. Eventually, the symbiosis became the sole source of the food, shelter, enzyme or whatever else the symbiotes derived from one another.
Another way to look at symbiosis is as evolution's toolbox. Trees need the nutrients found deep within the

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Rank: 27
Score: 26.181728
Retrieved Text: There are somewhere between 2 and 10 million living species on earth – possibly more. What processes create this incredible diversity? The deep and difficult question of how new species form has challenged biologists for a long time. This question is at the heart of my research program. A unifying theme of my work is to understand how an organisms’ behavior generates selection that results in diversification, and how diverse behavior itself evolves under the influence of multiple forms of selection. Behavioral traits are thus the primary phenotypes of interest, but can also be the agents of evolutionary change.

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Rank: 28
Score: 26.16591
Retrieved Text: This world is in need of femininity. Angry women, those who shouts at husbands, yells at kids, frequently horns, uses nasty language and makes crude signs, dominates conversation, clink glasses as they cheer on their favorite footballers, nowadays they are under every pillow and lurks at every corner of the earth. Thus they are no different from men picking up man’s glorious traits so femininity, they are indeed rare and lacking. To stumble upon one is indeed mesmerizing. Change your luck. Becoming you is great but becoming your inner self, what you as women were endowed with minus the rough traits inherited from men is even greater. Do not be influence by slugs and snails and society at large. The best quality a women can have is to be the women you were born as.

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Rank: 29
Score: 26.085344
Retrieved Text: Lamarckism (also called Lamarckian evolution) is a hypothesis regarding evolution. Evolution tries to explain how species change over time. Today, the only widely accepted theory of evolution is that developed from the ideas of Charles Darwin.
Lamarckism was developed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck. He based his ideas, to some extent, on those of Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin. Lamarckism says that individuals do not only pass on the things they received from their parents, but also some things they experienced during their lifetime. As an example, he cited giraffes. Giraffes, which have long necks, must have evolved from ancestors with much shorter necks. His idea was that adults needed to stretch their neck to reach leaves from high branches. Therefore, he thought, the children inherited longer necks. This idea is called the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Although Darwin did not entirely break with these ideas, his characteristic idea of natural selection relates to the individuals's relative survival and success in reproduction. Better adapted forms leave, on average, more offspring. This changes the proportion of alleles in the population.
Gregor Mendel discovered some basic rules of heredity. These rules of Mendelian inheritance contradict Lamarck's hypotheses entirely, but are consistent with natural selection. This explains why Lamarck's ideas are no longer regarded as a sound explanation of evolution. Where Lamarck and Darwin do agree is that evolution did take place.
The evolution of a giraffe's neck is often used as the example in explanations of Lamarckism.
The identification of "Lamarckism" with the inheritance of acquired characteristics alone is regarded by some

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

What causes puberty to begin? The hypothalamus in the brain “tells” the pituitary gland to secrete hormones that target the testes. The main pituitary hormone involved is luteinizing hormone (LH) . It stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone. Testosterone, in turn, promotes protein synthesis and growth. It brings about most of the physical changes of puberty, some of which are shown in Figure below . In addition to the changes shown below, during puberty male facial hair begins to grow, the shoulders broaden, and the male voice deepens. You can watch an animation of these and other changes that occur in boys during puberty at the Interactive Body link: http://www. bbc. co. uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/ .


Q: What hormone, which is associated with luteinizing hormone and male sexuality, helps bring about physical changes in puberty?

 Choices:

- epinephrine

- steroids

- testosterone

- estrogen

A:

Target Text: testosterone

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 68.89735
Retrieved Text: Valdes-Socin H., Salvi R., Daly A. F., Gaillard R. C., Quatresooz P., Tebeu P. M., Pralong F. P., Beckers A.
A 30-year-old man who presented with delayed puberty and infertility was found to have hypogonadism associated with an absence of circulating luteinizing hormone. The patient had a homozygous missense mutation in the gene that encodes the beta subunit of luteinizing hormone (Gly36Asp), a mutation that disrupted a vital cystine knot motif and abrogated the heterodimerization and secretion of luteinizing hormone. Treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin increased circulating testosterone, promoted virilization, and was associated with the appearance of normal spermatozoa in low concentrations. This case illustrates the important physiological role that luteinizing hormone plays in male sexual maturation and fertility.

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Retrieved Text: You might have heard about a Luteinizing Hormone test from a doctor or near ones who have gone through the test. This is a very basic blood test which checks the level of hormone in a person.
However, we are going to understand the role of this exceptional hormone in the human body. The LH controls the body processes in both men and women such as pregnancy, egg production, and puberty. As most women pass through stages of child-bearing, this is more important for them than men. This post will give you more insight into the general uses of this diagnostic test.
You might have seen recommendations for LH tests while reading Women’s Health Magazine which brings lots of new topics related to female health. Medically, this test is recommended when doctors want to find out the fertility issues in men or women. Fertility issues include difficulty in getting pregnant, low sperm count, reduction in egg supply from the ovaries, or endometriosis. Doctors can tell the course of treatment on the basis of the diagnostic result. Some common issues that can be decided with the LH test are.
Fertility of a woman depends on the level of LH. A female has varied levels of hormone depending on the day from menstruation. Just before the ovulation, the level of LH rushes forward which is the most fertile period of a woman’s cycle. So, often infertility treatments are decided according to the course and reduction in the level of hormone. You can easily find the ovulation test kits in the market

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Rank: 2
Score: 56.6568
Retrieved Text: Gollenberg, Audra L. ; Addo, O. Yaw ; Zhang, Zhiwei ; Hediger, Mary L. ; Himes, John H. ; Lee, Peter A.
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Evidence is unclear whether prenatal smoking affects age at menarche and pubertal development, and its impact upon hormones has not been well studied. We aim to identify potential pathways through which prenatal smoking and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) affect reproductive hormones in girls approaching puberty. METHODS: We examined the association between prenatal smoking, current ETS and luteinizing hormone (LH) and inhibin B (InB) in 6- to 11-year-old girls in the 3rd National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Parents/guardians completed interviewer-assisted questionnaires on health and demographics at the time of physical examination. Residual blood samples were analyzed for reproductive hormones in 2008. RESULTS: Of 660 girls, 19 and 39% were exposed to prenatal smoke and current ETS, respectively. Accounting for multiple pathways in structural equation models, prenatally exposed girls had significantly lower LH (β = -0.205 log-mIU/ml, p < 0.0001) and InB (β = -0.162, log-pg/ml, p < 0.0001). Prenatal smoking also influenced LH positively and InB negatively indirectly through BMI-for-age. ETS was positively associated with LH, but not with InB. CONCLUSION: Exposure to maternal smoking may disrupt reproductive development manifesting in altered hormone levels near puberty.

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Rank: 3
Score: 53.887135
Retrieved Text: Is the incidence of Gynecomastia / Male breasts increasing in boys?
Gynecomastia surgery, or Male Breast Reduction surgery is on the rise these days and becoming one of the most popular surgeries for boys andmen. Most of the men with Gynecomastia are embarrassed by their condition of enlargement of their breasts. This is the reason more and more men are choosing to go for Gynecomastia surgery either to get a model physique or to have a flatter more natural looking chest.
Male Breast results from an imbalance between androgen (male hormone) and estrogen (female hormone) at the time of puberty. In some boys, there is a fall in male hormone at the time of puberty for a variable period, instead of a rise, for reasons still not known. The female hormones in the body are then unopposed by the male hormones. The visible effect of this is that boys develop prominent breasts. Once the glands are laid down in the chest area, they do not regress. As the hormones stabilize, further development of the mammary glands stops. This is the physiological cause of development of Gynecomastia. 25-30% of boys tend to develop this condition. However, increasing obesity among young boys is causing the incidence to rise.
Childhood obesity is one of the other important reasons that has become a major concern in recent times. Most of the urban population is very fond of fast-food that is high in calories. The easy accessibility of fast foodcoupled with a decrease in physical exercises and less outdoor activities, more and more children

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Rank: 4
Score: 51.52101
Retrieved Text: Tribulus is a plant used for centuries in Greece, India and Africa to increase fertility and rejuvenate the body. Studies have shown that although contains no hormones, Tribulus Terrestris increases testosterone levels, leading to the production of luteinizing hormone. When luteinizing hormone is increased, it increases the production of testosterone in the body. Decreases the level of cortisol (catabolic hormone) in the body and induce an anabolic state, which results in an increase in muscle mass semnificatiza pure.
- no adverse effects on the liver and no other side effects associated with synthetic steroids.
WAY OF USSAGE1 capsule 1-3 times per day before meals. It has a powerful effect of increasing the level of luteinizing hormone, the hormone responsible for stimulating the production of natural testosterone without the side effects of synthetic steroids.

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Rank: 5
Score: 51.261044
Retrieved Text: The amount of information available on Vitex or Chastetree berry (Vitex agnus castus) is so much so that many women come to us confused, concerned and/or interested in its proper use. Below are common questions we receive about the benefits Vitex offers and its proper use.
A: Typically, we suggest starting to support the body naturally after stopping birth control by doing a Fertility Cleanse. Cleansing helps “clean the slate” and detoxify excess hormones and toxins in order to help the body better utilize herbs, nutritional supplements, and natural therapies. When cleansing is complete, herbs that support hormonal balance like Vitex could be started. It is easily combined with other herbs, nutritional supplements, and natural therapies as shared in our guide How to Balance Your Hormones After Birth Control.
A: Vitex has a nourishing and balancing effect on the pituitary, hypothalamus and organs of the endocrine system. This, in turn, helps to balance the delicate hormonal system, which then causes FSH, LH, Progesterone, Testosterone, etc. to be secreted in proper amounts at the correct times.
FSH is only partially responsible for the production of the ova (eggs).
Vitex is known to encourage luteinizing hormone (LH) production while mildly inhibiting the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) when needed. This indirectly boosts progesterone production which is necessary for a healthy endometrial lining in the luteal phase in order to achieve and maintain pregnancy. This is why it is taken before ovulation.
Our site’s founder Hethir Rodriguez, through her research and use of Vitex with clients, has learned that Vitex is best taken

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Rank: 6
Score: 51.124134
Retrieved Text: Triptorelin, a decapeptide,is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH agonist) used as the acetate or pamoate salts. By causing constant stimulation of the pituitary, it decreases pituitary secretion of gonadotropins luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Like other GnRH agonists, triptorelin may be used in the treatment of hormone-responsive cancers such as prostate cancer or breast cancer, precocious puberty, estrogen-dependent conditions (such as endometriosis or uterine fibroids), and in assisted reproduction. It is also used as therapy in cases of gender dysphoria. Triptorelin is marketed under the brand names Decapeptyl (Ipsen) and Diphereline and Gonapeptyl (Ferring Pharmaceuticals). In the United States, it is sold by Watson Pharmaceuticals as Trelstar. In Iran Triptorelin is marketed under the brand name Variopeptyl.

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Rank: 7
Score: 50.90425
Retrieved Text: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hormone imbalance that can cause irregular periods, unwanted hair growth, and acne. It is also known as Stein-Leventhal Syndrome or Polycystic Ovary Disease.
It usually begins during the teenage years and can be mild or severe. Polycystic ovary syndrome is a health problem that can affect a woman's hormone levels, periods, and ovulation and therefore her fertility and pregnancy. It can also cause male-type body changes. The name comes from the fact that the ovaries of women with this syndrome are large and studded with numerous cysts. These cysts are follicles, fluid-filled sacs that contain immature eggs. It has been identified for 75 years but the experts are still not sure what causes it.
An estimated 5 to 10 percent of women in childbearing age have PCOS. Polycystic ovary syndrome is considered the most common hormonal disorder among women of reproductive age in the United States.
This is definitely the most common symptom of PCOS. What exactly is irregular menstruation? It means having menstrual cycles that occur at intervals longer than 35 days or fewer than eight times a year.
This is also a very common symptom. Elevated levels of male hormones may result in physical signs such as excess facial hair or hair on the chest, lower abdomen, back, upper arms or upper legs, acne and male-pattern baldness.
It is proven that one of the hormonal abnormalities in PCOS, a raised level of luteinizing hormone, seems to be linked with miscarriage. Women with raised LH have a higher miscarriage rate compared to those who

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Rank: 8
Score: 50.15753
Retrieved Text: WEDNESDAY, March 27, 2019 (HealthDay News) -- Men who abuse hormones such as testosterone or steroids for bodybuilding can have declines in sperm and testosterone production, researchers say.
The good news: these changes seem to reverse once men stop hormone overuse.
While the use of nonprescribed male hormones (androgens) has surged in many wealthy countries, there has been little research into their effect on men's reproductive function, including sperm production, testosterone and fertility, according to lead researcher Nandini Shankara Narayana. She's an endocrinologist at the University of Sydney and Concord Repatriation General Hospital in Australia.
The study of 93 men included 41 who were currently using testosterone or steroids; 31 who had used them three or more months before the study; and 21 healthy men who exercised regularly and did not use androgens.
Compared with men who had stopped using the hormones or who had never taken them, current users had significantly smaller testicles, on average, and lower sperm output, the study found.
Current users also had lower levels of luteinizing hormone, which is involved in testosterone production, and of follicle-stimulating hormone, which is involved in sperm production, the findings showed.
Former users did not differ from men who had never taken the supplements in terms of sperm production and hormone levels, indicating complete recovery, according to the study presented Monday at the Endocrine Society's annual meeting, in New Orleans.
On average, luteinizing hormone levels recovered within nine months after men stopped taking the supplements. Sperm output returned to normal in about 14 months and follicle-stimulating hormone levels normalized in nearly 19 months,

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Rank: 9
Score: 50.10647
Retrieved Text: Ladies, we’ve all been there. You have a day of heavy barbell work planned but surprise surprise, your monthly visitor showed up early.
Regardless if you’re a female or know a female, you know how much of a pain (literally) a woman’s period can be.
A woman’s menstrual cycle plays a key role in a number of different parts of the body. If you’re a female athlete, you know what it’s like to be preparing for an intense training session only to wake up that morning in a funk with different moods, cravings, fatigue, tender breasts and possibly a bit of depression. These hormonal fluctuations are no joke.
The start of your menstrual cycle (or the first day of menstrual bleeding) begins with the follicular phase. At the start of of this particular phase, the lining of the uterus is thick with fluids and nutrients in order to properly nourish an embryo. This phase lasts for about 14 days. This phase varies the greatest in length.
During this phase the pituitary gland increases production of follicle-stimulating hormone (yes, that is the name of the hormone). This hormone stimulates the growth of up to 30 possible follicles (each follicle containing an egg). As the phase continues on, this hormone decreases and only one follicle (called the dominant follicle) continues to grow. The dominant follicle will begin to produce estrogen while the other follicles degenerate. The estrogen produced from this follicle is what stimulates the luteinizing hormone released at the beginning of ovulation.
So, for women trying to get pregnant, when does the

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Rank: 10
Score: 50.00461
Retrieved Text: Synacthen test keeps a check on adrenal glands. The test basically aims at the stimulation of the adrenal glands and checks the level of cortisol made by them. Endocrinologist prescribes the test, if they suspect any abnormal hormonal levels, and wants to detect any abnormalities associated with the functioning of the adrenal glands or the pituitary glands.
Adrenal glands or the Pituitary glands.
Regulate and produce hormones in response to stress.
Release hormones that regulate the immune system.
Helps to regulate the blood sugar levels in the blood.
Why is Synacthen Test necessary?
Synacthen Test is conducted by injecting a synthetic copy of the hormone ACTH, called as tetracosactide.
Tetracosactide or ACTH, when injected into the bloodstream stimulates the adrenal gland to produce the hormone called, cortisol.
The adrenal glands work normally when the cortisols are normal.
The adrenal glands work abnormally when the cortisols are abnormal. As a result, glands produce a low amount of ACTH (Tetracosactide).
Hence, Synacthen test helps to maintain the secretion of ACTH in the adrenal gland.
What happens when you have low ACTH?
Therefore, other hormonal levels which might be detected to be abnormal include progesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEAS) and luteinizing hormone. Consult a doctor to find out more about the details of Synacthen stimulation test.

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Rank: 11
Score: 49.86104
Retrieved Text: An increase in kisspeptin-54 release occurs with the pubertal increase in luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-1 release in the stalk-median eminence of female rhesus monkeys in vivo.
Hypothalamic expression of KiSS-1 system and gonadotropin-releasing effects of kisspeptin in different reproductive states of the female Rat.
Increased hypothalamic GPR54 signaling: a potential mechanism for initiation of puberty in primates.
A role for kisspeptins in the regulation of gonadotropin secretion in the mouse.
Central and peripheral administration of kisspeptin-10 stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

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Rank: 12
Score: 49.567795
Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Leydig Cell mean?
Leydig cells produce the hormone testosterone, which is vital for sperm production. They are found inside male testicles, next to the seminiferous tubules, where sperm are produced. Damage to Leydig cells can result in male infertility.
Leydig cells are also called interstitial cells of Leydig.
Leydig cells are a part of the endocrine system, signaling cellular functions using hormones, or chemical messengers. The pituitary gland in the brain secretes a hormone called luteinizing hormone (LH), which binds to Leydig cells and causes them to produce testosterone. Testosterone is necessary in large amounts to begin and maintain the production of sperm in the nearby seminiferous tubules. Infertility can be a result of low testosterone production in the Leydig cells, resulting in low sperm production.
A very small percentage of testicular tumors are Leydig cell tumors, which are usually benign. These can cause infertility by interfering with testosterone production, although the infertility is normally reversed once the tumor has been removed.

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Rank: 13
Score: 49.53169
Retrieved Text: Hormones play a huge role in all aspects of our health. They helped us to grow and develop from babies into adults. They help to regulate our blood sugar, blood pressure, and inflammatory responses in the body. Hormones are responsible for a good night’s sleep and energy production throughout the day. They support a positive, even keel mood and make us feel connected with others. So, when they are out of balance its clear why we don’t feel like ourselves!
Jane and John Doe have three kids and full time jobs. They do their best to keep up with homework and cooking healthy family meals but their stress levels are high! Because emotional and physical stress make their adrenal (stress handling) glands work overtime the rest of their hormonal system is stressed as well. Jane starts having possible hypothyroid symptoms (weight gain, fatigue, cold hands and feet, thinning hair) and John shows signs of having low male hormone levels (fatigue, decreased ability to focus, sleep problems, and elevated blood pressure). Its time to contact China Rose Wellness!
Sometimes a client’s situation can be efficiently assessed and supported without doing any hormone testing. Symptoms can tell a lot of the story. In more complicated or chronic situations saliva hormone testing can be very helpful, making the picture clearer from the start, and allowing us to create a more focused protocol so that results are seen more quickly.
There are many reasons that holistic healthcare practitioners prefer saliva testing to blood testing.
It’s easy for the client! We give them a kit

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Rank: 14
Score: 49.249176
Retrieved Text: When humans are born, all parts of the reproductive system are in place, but they aren’t able to reproduce until puberty causes the body to undergo drastic changes. Learn about GnRH, the hormone that initiates these changes, and understand why puberty happens to some adolescents at nine and to others at 15. Learn the names of the various parts of the male and female reproductive systems. See what the individual organs look like and learn where they’re located. Understand how each organ in the reproductive system functions and see how the male and female systems work together to create a new life. 22 minutes. Copyright 2002.

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Rank: 15
Score: 49.19219
Retrieved Text: Monster Plexx® by Innovative Labs is one of the few legal pro hormone complexes that can actually give you intense gains in strength and size that you are looking for. Monster Plexx consists of 5 Pro-hormones combined at high level milligrams (250 total milligrams) making it the first ever “Quintuple stack”.
Experience a snowball effect of muscular development when your hormone levels are consistently peaking due to the combination of quick acting and long lasting anabolic agents – no need to worry about timing your doses.
Diosterol®: Stimulates the hypothalamus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH), but not of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). The mechanism of Diosterol’s® action causes increases the production of serum testosterone. Most of all, steroidal saponins have been identified as the bioactive constituents responsible for the anabolic effects, these saponins enable the body to produce more testosterone by raising the levels of the Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which a hormone released normally by the pituitary gland helps to maintain testosterone production. As the LH increases, so testosterone increases.

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Retrieved Text: RASopathies, such as Noonan, Costello, and cardio-facio-cutaneous syndromes, are developmental disorders caused by mutations in rat sarcoma–mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway genes. Mutations that cause Noonan syndrome have been associated with delayed puberty. Here we report 4 patients with either Costello or cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome who developed precocious puberty, suggesting complex regulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and the timing of puberty by the rat sarcoma–mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Additional study of the timing of puberty among patients with RASopathies is warranted to ascertain the incidence of delayed and precocious puberty in these conditions and to examine genotype–phenotype correlations, which may provide insight into pathways that regulate the timing of puberty.
Although delayed puberty is described as a typical, although not universal, feature of NS,9 little has been reported about pubertal timing in CS and CFCS. Delayed puberty has been described in CS,10–13 and isolated cases of precocious puberty have been noted anecdotally in CS14 and CFCS.15–17 Unfortunately, only 1 of these articles describes clinical and biochemical data related to the diagnosis of precocious puberty.16 With research ethics board approval, we performed a retrospective chart review of 3 patients with CS or CFCS at the Hospital for Sick Children who presented with precocious puberty. After obtaining parental consent, specialists outside of the Hospital for Sick Children brought 1 other patient to our attention. The development of precocious puberty in these 4 patients provides new insight into the role of the RAS-MAPK pathway in regulation of puberty.
Table 1 details characteristics of the patients. The elevated stimulated (patients 1 and 2) and

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Retrieved Text: calutide 50 mg uses are used to treat prostate cancer which is in an advanced stage. Calutide 50 is used in combination with another medication, a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist that induces medical castration, which means that testosterone is no longer produced by the testes and this helps in the treatment of prostate cancer. Alternatively, Calutide tablets 50mg are used in combination with surgical castration.
Calutide tablets 50mg may be used to prevent disease flare associated with the use of LHRH agonist therapy, which is when large amounts of testosterone are suddenly produced in response to LHRH, before its production is switched off, and may be painful or harmful in advanced prostate cancer which has become metastatic (spread to other sites outside the prostate).

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Rank: 18
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Retrieved Text: The following information is simply an overview of how the HCG hormone corresponds to various stages of life for males and females and what varying levels might signify. This is not meant to take the place of a medical professional’s opinion. Especially for women during their blighted ovum hcg levels.
The Human Chorionic Gonadotropin hormone or HCG is a vital mechanism in the sexual development both adolescent males and females. For the boys, HCG facilitates the production of testosterone, which affects not just the physique but also facilitates the deepening of the voice, growth of facial hair and other changes that a youngster experiences upon the onset of puberty. The HCG hormone is actually a luteinizing hormone that starts up these alterations in this phase of a boy’s life, but even during puberty, this substance remains at undetectable levels in the bloodstream, which is quite normal.
Women, likewise, hold undetectable levels of the hormone even during the start of puberty, which again, is quite normal. Nonetheless, HCG also has a luteinizing function in relation to progesterone and estrogen production. Both of these hormones play important roles not just during the development of outward physical changes but also in regulating the menstrual cycle throughout adulthood until after menopause when the levels fall to less than 9.5 mIU/ml. The most common reason why HCG would rise at all for women is during pregnancy when its primary purpose is to protect a developing embryo and later on, a developing baby in the womb by suppressing the body’s immune reaction and preventing

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Retrieved Text: Growth hormone: This hormone promotes growth in childhood. For adults, it helps to maintain healthy muscle and bone mass.
Prolactin: In women, it stimulates milk production. In males, low levels are linked to sexual problems; however, most males make no use of the hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic: This hormone promotes the production of cortisol, which helps to reduce stress, maintain healthy blood pressure and more.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone: Just as the name implies, this hormone helps to regulate the body's thyroid, which is crucial in maintaining a healthy metabolism.
Luteinizing hormone: In women, this hormone regulates estrogen. In men, it regulates testosterone.
Follicle-stimulating hormone: Found in both men and women. It stimulates the releasing of eggs in women and helps ensure the normal function of sperm production in men.
Oxytocin: This hormone causes pregnant women to start having contractions at the appropriate time and also promotes milk flow in nursing mothers.
Antidiuretic hormone: Commonly referred to as vasopressin, this hormone helps to regulate water balance in the body.
When the pituitary gland doesn't operate in a healthy manner, this can lead to pituitary disorders.

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Retrieved Text: FSH – Follicle-stimulating hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and regulates the development, growth and reproductive processes in the body. In women, FSH helps regulate the menstrual cycle and production of eggs by the ovaries. In men, it helps control the sperm production. An abnormally high or low level of FSH in the body can be a sign of the body’s inability to produce eggs or sperm.
LH – Luteinizing hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary gland and works synergistically with the follicle-stimulating hormone. LH plays a major role in regulating menstrual cycle and egg production in women, as well as stimulating the production of testosterone (a hormone which stimulates sperm production) in men. Abnormally high levels of LH may be a sign of premature menopause or polycystic ovary syndrome (in women) and testicular failure (in men).
Progesterone – also known as P4, this is a steroid hormone involved in pregnancy and embryogenesis. It is produced in the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and helps prepare the uterus for pregnancy. Progesterone levels remain elevated during pregnancy and help the placenta function properly. A progesterone test is aimed at determining whether ovulation is occurring.
Prolactin – this is a hormone, produced by the pituitary gland that is best known for its role in lactation. Pregnant women with high prolactin levels will have breast milk, but high levels of prolactin in women who are not pregnant or are not breastfeeding may cause difficulties in conceiving as it inhibits ovulation.
Testosterone – this male hormone affects the

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Retrieved Text: If you’re a sports fan, you’ve probably heard of human growth hormone — more commonly known as HGH — and associate it with cheating and steroid use. However, did you know that HGH is a natural testosterone booster that’s produced on its own and provides many important benefits? It’s true.
Human growth hormone is naturally produced in the pituitary gland and plays a vital role in cell regeneration, growth and maintaining healthy human tissue, including that of the brain and various vital organs. Once secreted, HGH remains active in the bloodstream for a few minutes, allowing just enough time for the liver to convert it into growth factors, the most crucial being insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), which has growth-promoting properties on every cell in the body.
The study of human growth hormone is a little more than 100 years old, and synthetic human growth hormone was first developed in the 1980s and approved by the FDA for specific uses in adults and children. (1) Let’s find out why.
Human growth hormone has been known to improve physical capacity of individuals through stimulating collagen synthesis in the skeletal muscle and tendons, increasing muscle strength and improving exercise performance as a result.
In the International Journal of Endocrinology, a study with 14 healthy men at the ages of 50 to 70 were randomized into two groups. Seven subjects were administered HGH therapy with seven placebo subjects, and they were re-evaluated after six months. After six months, there was a significant increase in the leg press responsiveness muscles in the growth hormone group.
Numerous

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Retrieved Text: Hormonal balance is key to male vitality. The hormone system is complicated and is influenced by several factors. Diet, exercise and supplements aid in managing hormones, especially the production of testosterone. A reduction in testosterone is notable as loss of libido, loss of muscle mass, depression, nervousness, insomnia, fatigue, inability to concentrate, erectile dysfunction, frequency of urination, loss of memory and sweating.
Use herbal extracts, vitamins and minerals to build testosterone and manage hormones. Managing testosterone promotes youthful vitality and mitigates the effects of natural aging. Look for supplements to reduce the symptoms of stress, improve sleep and provide nutrition to the endocrine system.
Control cortisol and estrogen to support the production of testosterone. Rhodiola, ashwaganda, holy basil and siberian ginseng are adaptogenic herbs which are clinically shown to manage cortisol levels. Resveratrol, a powerful antioxidant, and DIM (Di-Indole Methane), the compound found in cruciferous vegetables, have been clinically shown to block estrogen. Elevated cortisol and estrogen levels disrupt the testicular testosterone production process and upsets the delicate balance of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and prolactin.
Highly absorbable forms of zinc, magnesium and vitamin B6 along with Tribulus, Fenugreek and Tongkat-ali provide nutrients and plant sterols that can boost luteinizing hormone production and increase total testosterone levels.
Saw palmetto and stinging nettle aid in blocking the interaction between free testosterone and bound testosterone. Free testosterone is responsible for the male characteristics including sexual energy and performance, muscle strength and male features.
Drink 1 liter per 50lbs of body weight of filtered alkaline water per day. Optimal

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Retrieved Text: In this BBC Radio 4 documentary, I investigate the drugs used to delay puberty in children questioning their gender.
A growing number of children in Britain are being seen by the NHS Gender Identity Development Service. Referrals have increased from just over 200 in 2011/12 to nearly 2000 in 2016/17.
The question of why so many children are struggling with gender identity, and how society should react, arouses strong emotions and heated debate but, in this programme, I leave those questions aside and examines what is known about one of the medical options used to treat gender dysphoria in children - hormone blockers.
Hormone blockers are drugs that act on the pituitary gland, preventing the production of oestrogen and testosterone - effectively putting puberty on hold. They are the only medical intervention that is supported by the NHS for use in children under 16 and allow pause for thought before hormones cause permanent and irreversible bodily changes.
The blocker is a physically reversible intervention - if the young person stops taking it, their body will continue to develop as it was previously. However, puberty is a vital time of physical, emotional, and psychological growth and little is known about the full effects of interrupting that. And there are questions about the impact of taking the drugs over a prolonged period.
I talk to parents and doctors about the difficulties of weighing up the risks of taking – or not taking – hormone blockers in the face of so little scientific data. And how they navigate the responsibility of making these decisions

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Retrieved Text: Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - is produced by the pituitary gland and is responsible for the egg maturation process. High day 3 FSH levels are associated with diminished ovarian reserve. The cycle day 3 CD 3 hormonal testing for fertility and infertility is referred to as "day 3 blood work."
Starting the female fertility evaluation can feel overwhelming and cycle day 3 hormone testing is usually the very first test done in a woman.
Hormone testing is generally performed on menstrual cycle day (CD) 3 (or 2 or 4) and is done by a simple blood test. CD 1 refers to the first day of full flow menstrual bleeding and not spotting.
The hormonal testing is referred to as "cycle day 3 (CD3) blood work."
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - is produced by the pituitary gland and is responsible for the egg maturation process. High day 3 FSH levels are associated with diminished ovarian reserve.
Estradiol (E2) - is produced by the ovary and levels should be low in the early part of the menstrual cycle. High day 3 levels may indicate a cyst in the ovary or diminished ovarian reserve.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - is produced by the pituitary gland and levels are increased before ovulation. A LH/FSH ratio of greater than 2:1 or 3:1 may be diagnostic of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS).
Prolactin - Both luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are necessary for ovulation. If, for example, hyperlactinemia is caused by a prolactionoma, a tumor in the pituitary gland, then this could interfere with the secretion of LH and

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Retrieved Text: Hormones are chemical messengers that are transported round the body and control many bodily functions. The hormones estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone are particularly active during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause. During these stages, it is possible that too much or lack of a certain hormone is released. This can have surprising and distressing effects on the body. Symptoms of hormonal imbalance can be psychological or physical, and include hot flashes, fatigue, hair loss, and loss of libido, among others.
There are three principal medicines to treat hormone imbalance, and to relieve these symptoms. These are hormone replacement therapy (HRT), bioidentical hormone replacement therapy (bHRT), and alternative medication. Read on to learn more about treatments for hormone imbalance, how they work, and the risks and benefits associated with each one.
HRT involves estrogen, progesterone, or testosterone being introduced into the body to boost hormone levels. HRT is a particularly effective treatment for hormone imbalance, as it addresses hormone levels directly and immediately. It is available in many forms, including cream, pills, drops, patches, and gels.
However, there are some undesirable risks and side effects associated with HRT. It is thought to increase the risk of breast cancer, strokes, cardiovascular disease, and blood clotting. It can also produce unpleasant side effects including nausea, vomiting, headaches, acne, and bloating.
Bioidentical hormones are plant-based hormones produced in a laboratory. They are usually made from soy derivatives, as soy contains estrogen-like substances. Bioidentical hormones have the same molecular structure as the hormones produced in the body, and act in the same way. They are available

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Retrieved Text: Judith Adams received her Diploma in Medical Ultrasound from the Royal College of Radiographers in London, U.K., and was the Chief Ultrasonographer in the Department of Radiology and Imaging of The Middlesex Hospital for seven years prior to joining the Reproductive Endocrine Unit in 1987.
Ms. Adams is the focal point of our in-house ultrasound program, which is critical to our efforts in providing safe, effective ovulation induction to women suffering from anovulatory infertility. Ms. Adams assists in the diagnosis and management of our patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), menstrual cycle abnormalities, premature ovarian insufficiency, hypothalamic amenorrhea and menopause.
Her main research interest is in PCOS, a topic on which she has lectured extensively, and her publications from the mid-eighties established the “Adams” criteria for the ultrasound diagnosis of the condition. She has participated in a study to determine the genetic basis of PCOS, in collaboration with deCODE in Iceland, and ongoing studies involve the effect of Metformin on mitochondrial function in women with PCOS. Ms Adams is an internationally sought expert for ultrasonography of complex pediatric endocrine cases, including precocious and delayed puberty as well as intersex disorders. She plays a key role in an ongoing study of reproductive hormone dynamics in adolescent girls during the early post-menarchal period.
1. Stanhope R, Adams J, Jacobs HS, Brook CGD. Ovarian ultrasound assessment in normal children, idiopathic precocious puberty and during low-dose pulsatile GnRH therapy of hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism. Arch Dis Child 1985;60:116-19.
2. Stanhope R, Adams J, Brook CGD. The treatment of central precocious puberty using an intranasal LHRH analogue

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Retrieved Text: Steady state analysis of hypothalamic GnRH mRNA levels in male Syrian hamsters: influences of photoperiod and androgen.
Intrahippocampal colchicine alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone and hippocampal steroid receptor mRNA in rat brain.
Neurotrophic effects of fibroblast growth factors on peptide-containing neurons in culture from postnatal rat hypothalamus.
Role of locally produced growth hormone-releasing factor in somatostatin regulation by fetal rat brain cells in culture.
Contribution of the region anterior and ventral to the third ventricle to opiate withdrawal excitation of oxytocin secretion.
Purification and characterization of urotensin II and parvalbumin from an elasmobranch fish, Scyliorhinus canicula (common dogfish).
Opiate modulation of growth hormone secretion is compromised during the steroid-induced luteinizing hormone surge.
Binding sites for interleukin-6 in the anterior pituitary gland.

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Retrieved Text: Gynecomastia is the medical term for what is commonly known as male breast. It is a condition where breast tissues and glandular nodes develop in male body. Development of glandular nodes may feel hard at touch. It is normally caused by hormonal disorder, especially Estrogen, which is a female hormone.
The condition is more common than most of us think. The condition can develop at birth; puberty; adolescence or old age as at these stages hormonal balance in body changes. It is mainly caused by hormonal disorder, i.e. excess of female hormone Estrogen, which is responsible for defining female characteristics, in male body.
Androgens and Estrogen are respectively male and female hormone, also known as steroid hormones, responsible for developing male and female characteristics. If a male body produces more Estrogen than normal then it may develop conditions like Gynecomastia, which is development of breast tissues and/or glandular nodes in male body.
What do I do if I have Gynecomastia?
Gynecomastia is presence of glandular tissue and fat tissue. It can be asymmetric, i.e. uneven development of breasts or bilateral gynecomastia, when both the breasts develop. Mainly during the adolescent period or puberty the condition can develop as during this period a lot of changes happen at hormone level.
If you have developed such condition, you may immediately seek medical help. Only after diagnosis, which may include USG, X-ray and MRI, doctors will be able to tell you about the right treatment procedure.
Is there anything as pseudo Gynecomastia?
There is another condition known to medical practitioners as pseudo Gynecomastia, which is accumulation

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Retrieved Text: The gonadotropins are peptide hormones that regulate ovarian and testicular function and are essential for normal growth, sexual development and reproduction. The human gonadotropins include follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone which are made in the pituitary, and chorionic gonadotropin which is made by the placenta.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a pituitary hormone that regulates growth, sexual development and reproduction, including menstruation, follicular development and ovulation.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a pituitary hormone that is essential for sexual development and reproduction in both men and women.
Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that causes breast development in women and milk production in pregnant women. Prolactin does not have known biological function in men.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Seed plants called angiosperms produce seeds in the ovaries of flowers.


Q: Where do angiosperms produce seeds in flowers?

 Choices:

- ovaries

- cones

- germs

- testes

A:

Target Text: ovaries

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the most numerous of all the divisions in the Plant Kingdom. With the exception of extreme habitats, angiosperms populate every land biome and aquatic community. They are a major food source for animals and humans, and are a major economic source for the production of various commercial products. Angiosperms differ from non-vascular plants in that they have a vascular transport system for moving water and nutrients to various parts of the plant.
The parts of a flowering plant are characterized by two basic systems: a root system and a shoot system. The root system is typically below ground and serves to acquire nutrients and anchor the plant in the soil. The shoot system consists of the stems, leaves, and flowers. These two systems are connected by vascular tissue. Vascular tissues called xylem and phloem are composed of specialized plant cells that run from the root through the shoot. They transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.
Leaves are an important component of the shoot system as they are the structures through which plants acquire nutrition by photosynthesis. Leaves contain organelles called chloroplasts that are the sites of photosynthesis. Gas exchange needed for photosynthesis occurs through the opening and closing of tiny leaf pores called stomata. The ability of angiosperms to shed their foliage helps the plant to conserve energy and reduce water loss during cold, dry months.
The flower, also a component of the shoot system, is responsible for seed development and reproduction. There are four main flower parts in angiosperms: sepals, petals, stamens,

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Retrieved Text: Both angiosperms and gymnosperms are seed bearing land plants. Gymnosperm plants evolved about 200 million years before Angiosperm plants. Therefore, angiosperms are considered to be more advanced plant group than gymnosperms.The main difference between Angiosperm and Gymnosperm is that the diversity of angiosperms is greater than that of the gymnosperms; this indicates the high adaptability of angiosperm to terrestrial ecosystems. Both angiosperm and gymnosperm plants are heterosporous, produce two types of spores as microspores and megaspores. One of the conspicuous features of angiosperms is the formation of flower, which cannot be seen in gymnosperms. Flower is a modified shoot which carry modified micro and megasporophylls. In gymnosperms, microsporophylls are connected together to form male cones (strobile), and megasporophylls are connected together to form female cones. The other main feature is the production of fruits by angiosperm. Ovules later converted to seeds in both groups. However, in angiosperms ovules are enclosed by an ovary wall that is later converted to fruit. In gymnosperms, seeds are not enclosed in a fruit (naked) and, therefore, ovules are directly borne on megasporophylls.
The name angiosperm (greek angion, container) denotes the seeds content in fruits or mature ovaries. These plants bear flowers, a special structure carrying reproductive organs and fruits, ovaries that contain mature ovules. All angiosperms are included in one phylum known as Anthophyta (Anthos in greek – flower). Today Anthophyta are the most diverse and widespread plant group on earth, with more than 250,000 species. Further, these species fall into two large categories, the monocots and dicots. The basic differentiation

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Retrieved Text: Flowering plants are classed as Angiosperms. Angio comes from the Greek for “vessel”. So an Angiosperm has its seeds in a vessel, in this case an ovary, which is part of the fruit. Angiosperms bear flowers and fruits, not cones. Pollen is transferred by wind, water and animals such as insects, birds and bats. Seeds may be dispersed in fruit, carried by animals or by wind.
Conifers are classed as Gymnosperms because they have “naked seeds” which are not surrounded by an ovary. Gymno comes from the Greek for “naked”. They bear pollen cones and seed cones, not flowers. Pollen is transferred by wind. The seeds are dispersed by wind or water but in some cases animals.
In evolutionary history the Ginkgo, the most “primitive” Gymnosperm, may have evolved 250 million years ago. Conifers then became the most dominant Gymnosperm until the Mesozoic era ended 65 million years ago. Angiosperms first evolved about 140 million years ago and then underwent an explosive diversification so that 65 million years ago they became the dominant plant form. There are now maybe 350,000 Angiosperm species compared with only 1000 Gymnosperms.
The evolution of the flower was, therefore, the key step in the spread of flowering plants across the world. Pollen transfer by animals as well as wind led to an acceleration of evolution in an ‘arms race’ in which insects co-evolved rapidly with flowers. Flowers became more complex to attract specific pollinators. Fruit dispersal by animals as well as wind led to further flower evolution.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 What are thallophytes?
Question 2 Give various Divisions of plantae kingdom?
Question 3 Give few characteristics of kingdom Thallophytes?
Question 4 Give few characteristics of kingdom Bryophyta?
Question 5 Give few characteristics of kingdom Pteridophyte?
Question 6 Give differences between Gymnosperm and Angiosperms?
Question 7 Give differences between Dicotyledon and monocotyledon?
Question 8 What is the criterion of classification of organism belonging to kingdom Cryptogamae?
Question 9 What is the criterion of classification of organism belonging to kingdom Phanerogams?
1)Depend on whether the plant body has well-differentiated distinct component.
2)Whether the differentiated plant body has special tissue for the transport of water and other substance.
3)The ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within fruits.
1)Those plants which do not produce external flowers or seeds.
2)They are considered to bear hidden reproductive organs.The common means of reproduction is by spores.They are called as flowerless plants,seedless plants.
1)It includes higher plants that bear flowers and seeds.
2)They have well differentiated reproductive tissue that make seeds.
3)They consist of embryo along with stored food which serve for initial growth during germination.
4)The plant is differentiated into root,stem and leaves .
5)An embryo develops from fertilised egg.
1)Seeds of these plants have two cotyledon. Seeds of these plants have two cotyledon.
2)They have primary roots They have fibrous roots.
3)They have strong stem. They have hollow stem.

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Retrieved Text: Flowering plants are a diverse group of land plants. Also, termed angiosperms, these versatile plants can grow in many conditions and are present in practically every culture in the world. In fact, they make up about 90 percent of the plant kingdom. All flowering plants, save some grasses and specialized cultivars, produce some type of functioning floral organ. These flowers come in a myriad of shapes, sizes and colors contributing tremendous beauty to our world.
There are several types of flowering plants.
Annuals, or seasonal flowering plants, live for a year or less flowering for about four months. These plants are grown through seeds. They grow, flower, make more seeds and die. Biennials take two years to grow from seed to fruition. These plants are also seasonal and usually flower only in the second year of planting. In most cases, they die after blooming. Perennials are those flowering plants that last for many years, continuously flowering. Most take two years until they begin to bloom. Once planted, there is generally no need to replant. Some shrubs and trees also flower.
The time that flowering plants first appeared has long sparked the interest of the botanical world. Charles Darwin suggested that flowering plants first appeared on the earth about 130 million years ago, but research is still under way concerning their emergence. Examination of the development of seeds and embryos among early angiosperms has been helpful in understanding how flowering plants evolved from nonflowering gymnosperms. Nonetheless, when the first flowering plants did appear, they reproduced rapidly, gracing most of the

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Retrieved Text: 1 1. Describe the ways in which trees and shrubs differ.
2 2. Collect and identify typical leaves from 15 different species of trees. Spread neatly, press dry, mount, and label in a suitable notebook or on uniform-size sheets of paper.
4 4. Give the common name and tell the difference between the two great classes of trees.
5 5. Describe the importance of forest conservation in your area.
The Trees Honor is an optional component of the Naturalist Master Award .
1. Describe the ways in which trees and shrubs differ.
Trees are generally taller than shrubs and have a main trunk from which all the secondary branches grow. Shrubs are generally shorter and may have multiple stems rather than a single trunk. Some plants can be considered either shrubs or trees depending on their growing conditions, so the division should not be considered exact.
2. Collect and identify typical leaves from 15 different species of trees. Spread neatly, press dry, mount, and label in a suitable notebook or on uniform-size sheets of paper.
Sweet Gum: the gummy sap of this tree has been used as chewing gum.
Cork Oak forms a thick, rugged and corky bark. Over time this bark can develop considerable thickness, and this is harvested every 10–12 years as cork.
Balsam Fir: produces a resin which is known as Canadian Balsam. A balsam is the same thing as a balm, a soothing liquid - anything that soothes, heals, or restores.
Boxwood: produces a tight-grained wood ideal for carving or for making boxes.
Pine: used for furniture and making paper.
Mountain Ash grow in the

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Retrieved Text: What Are Some Examples of Plant Life?
Four examples of plant life are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants. The main differences are in how they reproduce. The oldest forms of plants require water to germinate, while the newer ones can reproduce on dry land.
Mosses are bryophytes. They are land plants but have spores instead of seeds. Since these plants have no vascular system, they are small in size and must live in moist environments. Mosses depend on wind to distribute spores to a moist growing spot.
Ferns are pteridophytes. They have vascular systems that transports water and nutrients throughout the plants and grow considerably taller than mosses. Ferns also use spores to reproduce, usually found on the underside of mature leaves, or fronds.
Conifers are gymnosperms, and include large trees such as the redwoods and Douglas firs. Conifers produce pollen, which is picked up by the wind and onto the female cones. When pollinated, the cones produce seeds, which could be distributed by the wind or by animal predation.
The angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the newest forms of plant evolution. Flowers attract insects and birds with their bright colors and sweet scents. This makes pollination more effective because these creatures will move from bloom to bloom picking up and distributing pollen.
The pollinated flower produces seeds within an ovary, which becomes a fruit. Foragers eat the fruit and deposit the seeds elsewhere. Seeds may also be dispersed by sticking to the fur of animals and later dropping off, or by the wind.
If You Want Life Cycle Of A Plant

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Retrieved Text: Here you have a list of opinions about Flowering plant and you can also give us your opinion about it.
You will see other people's opinions about Flowering plant and you will find out what the others say about it.
The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245–202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 160 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 120 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60–100 million years ago.
In the image below, you can see a graph with the evolution of the times that people look for Flowering plant. And below it, you can see how many pieces of news have been created about Flowering plant in the last years.
Thanks to this graph, we can see the interest Flowering plant has and the evolution of its popularity.
What do you think of Flowering plant?
You can leave your opinion about Flowering plant here as well as read the comments and opinions from other people about the topic.

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Retrieved Text: A propagating organ formed in the sexual reproductive cycle of gymnosperms and angiosperms, consisting of a protective coat enclosing an embryo and food reserves. A small hard fruit. A mature fertilized plant ovule consisting of an embryo and its food source and having a protective coat or testa. The thick white fluid containing spermatozoa that is ejaculated by the male genital tract. The structure found in a fertilised ovule of a plant. Generally, this will consist of two main components, the embryo and endosperm. The endosperm acts as a food store for the embryo which over time, will grow from this rich food supply enabling it to do so.
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is a characteristic of spermatophytes (gymnosperm and angiosperm plants) and the product of the ripened ovule which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant.
The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. All seeds are different size, shape and colour.
Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of gymnosperm ("naked seeds" /monocotyledons or monocot) and angiosperm ("enclosed seeds"/dicotyledons or dicot) plants, relative to more primitive plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use other means to propagate themselves. This can be seen by the success

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Retrieved Text: Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants. Gynmosperms are a group of ancient plants. They become dominant in the Jurassic period Most of the gymnosperms are evergreen trees. Some shrubby pl..flas are also found in this group. They have worldwide distribution. They are most abundant in the temperate region. The fossils of gymnosperms are found near coal and oil deposits.
Gymnosperm shows a dear alternation of sporophytic and gametophytic generations. The plant body is sporophytic generation. The gametophytic is very much reduced. It had completely lost independent existence.
The plant body is a sporophyte. It is well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Roots: Primary or tap root is well developed. Root develops root caps.
without a reticulate venation. The branching of the veins is dichotomous type. Their leaves are modified to withstand the xerophytic conditions. The leaves have tough cuticle, sunken stomata and mesarch bundle. Stem: The stem is woody. Vascular bundles are collateral (arrange in rings) and open. They are arranged in a ring in the primary stem. Secondary growth takes plan by the activity of the cambium. It produces the secondary xylem (wood). Xylem is formed of xylem parenchyma and tracheid. They have no true vessels except the order Gnetales The phloem is formed of phloem parenchyma and sieve tubes. But they are without any companion cells. Primary cambium may remain active throughout the life of the plant. Then secondary and tertiary cambia are formed. It produces alternate zones of wood. The activity of phellogen produces bark on the surface.
Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce micro and megaspores. They develop

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to plant life, most peoples will derive it as boring and uninteresting. This is because they are in a completely different timeline from us. In fact, plants have to undergo similar challenges like all animals do as well as adopting different strategies of life to survive.
One such strategy is parasitism and very few plants demonstrate it more clearly than the dodder. The dodder is a vine like climbing flowering plant (Angiosperms ). They are very common in Malaysia but seldom being noticed due to the fact that they are often assumed as part of their host plant, or as common climbing plants.
Strictly parasitic in nature, the dodder puts in very little efforts to make its own food. It grows no leaves at all but tiny scale like protrusion that serves little photosynthetic purposes. The stems of the plant consist very little or no chlorophyll but instead, depend on their host plant to supply their needs. Dodders do produce small flowers and fruits to which attracts animals to feed on and then disperse seeds. The seeds of certain species are harvested in China to be used as traditional medicine.
The seeds are generally small and germinate on the ground; young seedlings will then grow by using the stored nutrients from the seeds and then find a suitable host to latch on to, repeating the cycle all over again. However, if the seedling could not find a host within a few days, it will die.
Dodders are considered damaging to agriculture as it severely hampers the productivity

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Retrieved Text: Steeves, T.A.. "Seed Plants". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 04 March 2015, Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seed-plants. Accessed 21 April 2019.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the "seed habit," a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte).
Seed Plants, the most abundant and familiar component of Earth's vegetation, comprise an estimated 250 000-300 000 species. They outnumber all other PLANT groups, dominate the land, thrive in bodies of fresh water and are found to a limited extent in the oceans. They include the largest (giant sequoia) and oldest (bristlecone pine) living things, and encompass tiny water-meal scarcely 1 mm long and ephemeral annuals that survive only a few weeks. Seed plants share with other vascular plants (plants with woody conducting systems) basic organs (root, stem and leaf), cell types and tissues. In response to different environments, they have evolved many forms.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the &QUOT;seed habit,&QUOT; a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte). In seed plants, the spore that produces the female gametophyte is not shed to initiate an independent plant but is retained in the sporangium (reproductive structure), which is surrounded by a protective covering (integument). This is the immature seed or ovule.
Spores that produce male gametophytes are released as the gametophytes begin to develop. These are the pollen grains which are

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Retrieved Text: These organisms belong to the plant kingdom. They have cells with cellulose cell walls, if the cells are exposed to light then most of them will also contain chlorophyll.
These are plants which have conducting tissues (xylem and phloem). The tracheophyta consist consist of two groups, angiosperms and gymnosperms.
This group consists of the flowering plants, the plants all have flowers though they are not always obvious. They produce seeds which are found inside a fruit. These seeds are formed from fertilisation of ovules which are enclosed in the ovary of the pistil. After ripening the ovary forms the fruit.
These plants have embryos with two seed leaves (2 cotyledons) so when the plant germinates it has two leaves. The veins of the leaves are arranges in a network pattern.
The flowers of dicotyledons have sepals and petals which are arranged in groups of 4 or 5 (or multiples of 4 or 5). Their pollen grains mostly have three furrows or grooves.
Woody stemmed dicotyledons show secondary thickening by growing new rings of xylem.
This group has seeds contained in a pod. Most legumes have specialised root nodules which contain bacteria of the Rhizobium genus which have a mutualistic relationship with the host plant. These bacteria carry out nitrogen fixation converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form which can be absobed from the nodule and used by the plant.
This family includes peas, beans, gorse and lupins. They are sometimes referred to as Fabaceae. Members of this family can be recognised by their flowers.
The flower has a large petal at the top, called the

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Retrieved Text: Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the

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Retrieved Text: Who Are the Plants? main content.
Plants are so different from all other kinds of organisms that they get their own kingdom, the kingdom Plantae.
There are 10 divisions, divided into two very basic categories: vascular plants and non-vascular plants (those without a special transport system to carry water and nutrients throughout the plant). The only non-vascular plants are the mosses, hornworts, and liverworts. These plants need to be in very moist surroundings, so they can never grow tall. Ferns and the 'fern allies' (mosses, hornworts, liverworts, whisk ferns, club mosses, quillworts, and horsetails) reproduce with spores (tiny single-celled structures that develop into new plants). Conifers, cycads, gingkoes, gnetophytes, and flowering plants all reproduce with seeds (larger structures that develop after a female egg is fertilized by the male sperm, delivered in pollen).
Among the seed plants, the non-flowering plants (conifers, cycads, gingkoes, and gnetophytes) are also called gymnosperms (`naked seeds') because their seeds are not generally enclosed within fruits. The flowering plants are also called angiosperms (`seeds in a vessel') because their seeds are packaged within fruits. Angiosperms are far and away the most successful contemporary plants, in part because of their ability to lure animals into transporting their pollen and seeds.
So what on earth are algae, fungi, and lichens? These organisms are sometimes studied in herbaria, like plants, but are placed in different kingdoms.
Algae, like plants, are photosynthetic and manufacture their own carbohydrates, but they are classified in the kingdom Protista. Most plants are relatively large terrestrial organisms, while most algae are microscopic aquatic organisms (although some

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Retrieved Text: Class: Liliopsida --- Commonly Known As "Monocotyledons" -- This class consists of flowering plants (Angiosperms) whose embryo has only one seed leaf.
This family consists of slender-stemmed feather-palms originating from Malaysia. The palms are now common to Florida and other tropical areas. The leaves can grow up to 3 meters long and the plant produces white fragrant flowers and orange-colored fruit. The palms are cultivated for dye (seeds), packing material (fruit husks), and a type of chewing tobacco (betel-nut).

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Retrieved Text: People are drawn to trees. There is something inspiring, even magical, about them, as they stand like protective sentinels in the landscape. They provide shade, shelter, food, and products—and places for tree houses and swings. Trees can surprise and delight us with vibrant colors, bizarre shapes, unusual textures, and heady scents. They create wildlife habitat, produce oxygen, mitigate pollution, and beautify their surroundings, all while persevering, sometimes for centuries, through difficult times and trying conditions. There are some 60,000 species of trees in the world, each with its own character and features. Trees are vital—and lovely—components of their environments.
One thing most trees have in common is their structure. If you tunnel into a tree’s trunk or branch, you encounter different layers. The first is bark: the outer layer of dead, protective cells, and then the live, spongy layer underneath called the phloem. Next, you find the cambium, a single layer of cells where the tree’s new wood and bark are formed. Finally, you come to the xylem—commonly called wood. Wood is made up of tightly packed, strong fibers and hollow tubes, like straws, that conduct water and nutrients through the tree.
As trees grow, the cambium produces a new layer of wood each year, called an annual ring or growth ring. The rings in the center of a trunk are the oldest. Wide rings usually indicate good growth conditions for that year, and narrow rings indicate poor conditions. Over time, some of the wood in the center is not needed for water and nutrient movement. This wood

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Retrieved Text: Best Flowers Wallpapers in your Chrome Browser!
1 Best Flowers Wallpapers in your Chrome Browser!
1.1 Flowers Wallpapers for a fresh browsing!
1.2 Something You Didn’t Know!
Flowers Wallpapers for a fresh browsing!
A flower, sometimes know as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also call angiosperms). But the biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, and usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. So Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower).
Firstly, some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Also, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. So many flowers have evolve to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds. In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans to bring beauty to their environment, and also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine and as a source of food.
Although the arrangement described above is consider “typical”, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species.
But the four main parts of a flower are generally define by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function.

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Retrieved Text: To wet your appreciation for some of those wonders, go to a grocery store and look at all the foods that come from seeds. The isles are full of them. Or just plant a seed and watch it grow. The charm is catching, as any gardener can tell you.
George Bernard Shaw was impressed by the “fierce energy” concentrated in a seed. Put an acorn in the ground, he says, and it “explodes” into an oak tree. The wonder is that something so small and so seemingly lifeless can transform itself into a beautiful flower or a magnificent tree.
Biologist Carol Baskin describes the seed as a “baby in a box”. The “box” is a seed coat, the “baby” is a plant embryo, and the box comes packed with a lunch of starches, oils and other nutritive tissues. The food is there to feed the growing embryo until it can fend for itself.
But no sooner than the seeds appeared, animals started eating them too. The plants responded by making more seeds, and more seeds meant more animals to feed on them. This dance between animals and seed plants started with the arrival of the angiosperms 125 million year ago, and it greatly accelerated the pace of evolution.
Humans, too, developed an intimate relationship with seeds. The transition from hunting-gathering to planting and cultivating laid the foundation of civilization. Our paleolithic ancestors changed the character of the seeds, and the seeds shaped the habits and character of man.
It was a taste for seeds that spawned the age of exploration. The

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Retrieved Text: We may recognize our world by its flowering plants and trees, but evolutionarily speaking angiosperms are the new kids on the block, coming after epochs when giant fungus ruled the Earth and nonflowering trees, including cycads and conifers, fed dinosaurs.
A controversial study is now suggesting that flowering plants aren’t quite as newfangled as we thought. As Laura Geggel at LiveScience reports, fossils found in the South Xiangshan Formation in China’s Nanjing region could be evidence that the first species of angiosperm blossomed some 174 million years ago—that’s 50 million years earlier than when most flowering plant fossil material begins to show up.
Researchers examined 264 specimens of 198 individual flowers, preserved in 34 rock slabs from the region, for the paper, published in the journal eLife. Because there were so many samples available, the researchers could dissect some of the ancient plants and look at them using high-powered microscopy. The study details features of the specimens, including what they believe to be ovules, or seeds before pollination, a feature that would confirm the fossils as angiosperms.
If they are ovules, it would be a big deal. Evidence currently places the emergence of flowering plants during the Lower Cretaceous period, about 125 million years ago, when angiosperms seemed to spring up out of nowhere before taking over the Earth in a 30 million-year rampage. There is some evidence of an early history of angiosperms we have missed, a discrepancy that could be resolved by the study's findings. However, paleobotanists are skeptical of the study's claims.
Patrick Herendeen, senior director of

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Retrieved Text: "gymnosperm." YourDictionary, n.d. Web. 09 April 2019. <https://www.yourdictionary.com/gymnosperm>.
A vascular plant, such as a cycad or conifer, whose seeds are not enclosed within an ovary.
From New Latin Gymnospermae former class name from Greek gumnospermos gumnos naked ; see nogw- in Indo-European roots. sperma seed ; see sperm 1.
Any of a group of seed-bearing plants whose ovules are not enclosed in an ovary, but are exposed on the surface of sporophylls or similar structures. Each ovule may contain several eggs, all of which may be fertilized and start to develop in a process known as polyembryony. In most seeds, however, only a single embryo survives. The reproductive structures of many gymnosperms are arranged in cones. The gymnosperms do not form a distinct monophyletic grouping, but simply include all the seed-bearing plants that are not angiosperms. In addition to several extinct groups, there are four very diverse living gymnosperm phyla: the conifers, the cycads, the ginkgo (surviving in a single species), and the gnetophytes.
(botany) Any plant such as a conifer whose seeds are not enclosed in an ovary.
This form of stem, of a habit entirely different from that of recent Cycads and extinct Bennettites, points to the existence in the Mesozoic era of another type of Gymnosperm allied to the Bennettitales of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods by its flowers, but possessing a distinctive character in its vegetative organs.
We have a combination in the same flower of stalked ovules, the structure of which has already been described, and interseminal scales constituting a complex gynoecium, which exhibits in certain features

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Retrieved Text: Each and every seed is a miracle of biological engineering. Weighing anywhere from 1/35000000 (one 35 millionth) of an ounce for an orchid seed, and up to as much as 18 kg for the enormous Coco de Mer seed, all living seeds contain the complete genetic blueprint of its parents which they can use to replicate themselves to a similar design.
They are protected by a specialised seed coat – or testa - which allows the seed to germinate at the most optimum time of the year – it can also help to keep the seed viable for hundreds, and in rare cases, thousands of years! Furthermore, they contain enough energy to allow the seed to anchor itself into the ground using a juvenile root system as well as to produce its first true leaves. This will then set the seedling on the road to photosynthesis and a life of taking full advantage of free energy from the sun. This in turn will allow it to continue growing, and mature to a point where it will produce seed of its own.
I suppose that strictly speaking, a seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed within its seed coat, together with a repository of stored food in the form of carbohydrates. The seed itself is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed bearing plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination),

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Retrieved Text: Corpse flower: the worst smelling flower in the world? See more annual flower pictures.
We admire flowers for the beauty and alluring scents they bring to our personal and public landscapes. Flowers are a matter of pride for gardeners, a means of expression for lovers and they play a role in some of our most joyous and somber societal rituals. With almost $4 billion in sales in 2006, floriculture is also an economically important industry in the United States [source: Economic Research Service].
But to the plant, flowers are a deadly serious business. The plant's survival depends on the appeal of its flower to a distinctly non-human client list. Sensory stimulating petals and odors have one purpose: to draw pollinating insects and animals to the plant's reproductive organs, the stamens and pistil, housed inside the flower.
Flowering plants are seed-producing members of the plant kingdom. Not all seed-producing plants flower, though. Gymnosperms reproduce through seeds housed in cones. These conifers show up in fossils dating back 360 million years. Angiosperms, the flowering plants, popped without precursors into the fossil record during the middle of the Cretaceous Period, about 130 million years ago [source: Kanapaux].
During that 130 million years, flowers took on an amazing variety of shapes, colors and scents in their efforts to attract the creatures they need to complete pollination and produce seeds for the next generation. Bees, bats, birds, butterflies and other pollinators respond to different stimuli. Successful plants developed flowers that deliver the particular stimuli required to interest their pollinating partners, as well as hospitable physical

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Retrieved Text: Members of family Pinaceae are trees or shrubs, including many conifers of commercial importance such as cedar, fir, hemlock, larch, pine and spruce. The family is included in the order Pinales, formerly known as Coniferales. It is the largest conifer family, with between 220 and 250 species in 11 genera, and the second-largest in geographical range, found in most of the Northern Hemisphere.
Globe blue spruce, above, is cultivated for its short stature and outstanding powder-blue color.
Conifer comes from the Latin for “cone bearing.” A conifer’s seeds are borne in its cones. If you were to shake a typical mature cone, seeds would fall out. Almost all plants on earth produce seeds, and these plants are divided into two categories: gymnosperms and angiosperms. The angiosperms have their seeds embedded inside fruit; think of an apple or a pumpkin. Angiosperms comprise, by far, the biggest of the two groups.
Pollination in conifers is always dependant on wind. “Gymnosperm” is Latin for “naked seed”. Gymnosperms evolved before flowering plants, and conifers (all plants in Pinaceae are conifers) are gymnosperms. There are fewer than 1,000 species, representing barely 1/2 of one percent of all plant species.
European silver fir at the Morton Arboretum near Chicago makes a nice-looking Christmas tree, although you would need a 20-foot ceiling in your great room for this specimen. Anecdotal evidence suggests silver fir was the first tree used in Europe as a Christmas tree. The custom of decorating small evergreens originated in Germany and Switzerland. The United States now reportedly consumes 35 to 40 million trees

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Retrieved Text: Many of the plants we enjoy in our gardens produce flowers. We also enjoy many plants for their foliage, but the flowering plants, called angiosperms, are the ones that attract our attention.
The angiosperms, which first developed about 245 million years ago, have grown to dominate the terrestrial ecosystems, exceeded only by the coniferous forests.
There are about 260,000 species of angiosperms, and the growers of the most popular garden species have produced countless selections, hybrids and cultivars. When we visit our local garden centers or flip through catalogs of mail order plants, we see most often those variations of the most familiar plants.
Some avid gardeners eagerly seek the latest introductions of roses, irises, petunias and other and take pleasure in being among the first in their communities to have the hybridizers’ newest achievements. Each year, when we might think that new versions of popular plants are not possible, we find unexpected colors, new color combinations, more vigorous or more floriferous producers, and plants that have been bred to be more resistant to pests and diseases.
These new introductions are often the most costly plants offered, reflecting both their appeal to consumers and the costs of development and introduction. The most enthusiastic collectors of the best and latest do not flinch and gladly pay the premium prices.
Gardeners who appreciate unfamiliar and interesting plants have alternatives to each year’s new crop of high-priced new introductions. The vast array of angiosperms includes many exotic, garden-worthy plants with gorgeous blossoms that are rarely seen in garden centers or catalogs, and are very

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Retrieved Text: Explain plant propagation by tuberous roots.
What is meant by plant propagation?
What are the plants that grow from stem cutting?
What is stem cutting propagation?
Common functions that cotyledons and nucellus perform?
Explain endosperm development in angiosperms.
Explain embryo development in angiosperms.
Cotyledon is called scutellum in which family?
Differences between endospermic and non-endospermic seeds?

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Retrieved Text: The Yixian Formation (the Lower Cretaceous) of China is world famous for its fossils of early angiosperms. Although these diverse angiosperms demonstrate an unexpectedly great diversity, few are preserved as whole plants (not mention of monocots), making our understanding of them incomplete. Here, we report a fossil angiosperm, Sinoherba ningchenensis gen. et sp. nov (Sinoherbaceae fam. nov.), from the Yixian Formation of China; this fossil has a physically connected underground stem with fibrous rootlets, a stem with branches and nodes, leaves with parallel-reticulate veins, and a panicle of female flowers with an ovary surrounded by perianth. Morphological and phylogenetic analyses revealed that Sinoherba is an herbaceous monocot taxon. This newly discovered fossil underscores the great diversity of angiosperms in the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation.

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Retrieved Text: Three-dimensional model of the ancestral flower reconstructed from the analyses.
Recent advances in molecular phylogenetics and a series of important palaeobotanical discoveries have revolutionized our understanding of angiosperm diversification. Yet, the origin and early evolution of their most characteristic feature, the flower, remains poorly understood. In particular, the structure of the ancestral flower of all living angiosperms is still uncertain. In their paper, published on August 1, 2017 in Nature Communications Hervé Sauquet et al. report model-based reconstructions for ancestral flowers at the deepest nodes in the phylogeny of angiosperms, using the largest data set of floral traits ever assembled. The authors reconstruct the ancestral angiosperm flower as bisexual and radially symmetric, with more than two whorls of three separate perianth organs each (undifferentiated tepals), more than two whorls of three separate stamens each, and more than five spirally arranged separate carpels. Although uncertainty remains for some of the characters, this reconstruction allows the researchers to propose a new plausible scenario for the early diversification of flowers, leading to new testable hypotheses for future research on angiosperms.

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Retrieved Text: A flower is the reproductive organ of those plants classified as angiosperms (flowering plants; Division Magnoliophyta). The function of a flower is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. After fertilization, a flower develops into a fruit containing the seed(s).
calyx – the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
corolla – the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft, and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
androecium (from Greek andros: man) – one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
gynoecium (from Greek gynos: woman) – consisting of a pistil, with one or more carpels, which are the female reproductive organs and contain an ovary with ovules (female gametes). The sticky tip of tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carring the reproductive material.
In the majority of species, individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. However, in some species of plants the flowers are unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In some of these species, an individual plant is either male or female and the species is regarded as dioecious; in others, the unisexual

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Retrieved Text: (flowering plants) A class of vascular plants, all characteristically bearing seeds within enclosing car-pellary structures. The sporophyte is the dominant generation and is either herbaceous or woody, the woody habit being considered more primitive. The reproductive axis and its associated, often brightly coloured, sepals and petals, is called a flower. The gametophyte is reduced to the female embryo sac and the male pollen grain. The pollen does not germinate directly on the ovule, as in the *Gymnospermae , but on a specialized extension of the carpel, the stigma. The male gametes, unlike certain gym-nosperm gametes, are never flagellate. Double fertilization to form a zygote and a diploid endosperm nucleus is characteristic.
Secondary vascular tissue is usually but not always present. The xylem contains vessels, except in certain primitive woody forms, and the phloem has distinct companion cells associated with the sieve tube elements. Angiosperms are the most advanced, most abundant, and most widely distributed vascular plants. The group contains some 250 000 species and is subdivided, on the basis of the number of cotyledons in the embryo, into the *Monocotyledonae and the *Dicotyledonae . Beyond these groups further subdivision into superorders and orders is based mainly on the structure of the flower and especially on the form, number, and arrangement of the stamens and carpels. Different classifications recognize various numbers of orders and the names and contents of these often differ widely between various authorities.
From fossil pollen evidence it would seem the angiosperms appeared at the beginning of the Cretaceous. They had replaced the gymnosperms as the

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======= Instance Index 31 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Photosynthetic protists use light energy to make food. They are major producers in aquatic ecosystems.


Q: In order to create food, what do photosynthetic protists use?

 Choices:

- light energy

- hydrocarbons

- decayed matter

- thermal energy

A:

Target Text: light energy

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What term refers to a cell that has no nucleus or membrane bound organelles, such as bacteria?
What term refers to a cell that has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, such as plant and animal cells?
What is the cell wall of bacteria composed of?
What is the tangle of DNA in a bacterial cell called?
Mollicutes are unique members of the bacteria world because they do not have?
What group of protists can be used to gauge the degree of pollution in a body of water?
Name a type of protist with a shell.
What human disease(s) may be caused by "Red Tide"?
What structure on a paramecium are used to capture food and also in movement?
Photosynthetic bacteria are called ___________________.
Some bacteria live in the roots of certain plants, converting ________ into a useable form.

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Retrieved Text: Images are free use (Creative Commons) but please acknowledge their origin. If you use the images and claim them as your own I will find you. "Hello, my name is is Inigo Montoya. You stole my image. Now prepare to...."
Aquaparadox: Why so many species?
Tintinnids are part of the microzooplankton feeding on microscopic algae and are in turn are eaten by fish larvae and copepods.
Dinoflagellates are a group containing forms which make thier living like plants, using photosynthesis as well as heterotrophic forms which eat other protists, grazers or consumers.
Ceratium is a genus of autotrophic dinoflagellates-. They are part of the phytoplankton- microscopic plants.
Acantharian radiolaria. Microzooplankton all with stronium sulfate skeletons and many with symbionts.
These slow-growing protists capture other protists but some do have 'symbionts' - they harbor photosynthetic micoorganisms and profit from photosynthesis performed by the symbionts (like corals do).
Marine diatoms are part of the phytoplankton, microscopic plants. They make cell coverings out of silica, like glass, and there are thousands of species.
Some protistes of the plankton are parasites, infecting ciliates, dinoflagellates and copepods among others.
A sampling of some the species first found in the Bay of Villefranche in the 1800's.
From samples collected by Santosh Sarkar in the estuarine portion of the Ganges Rivier.
Album : Deep-Sea Fish of August Brauer from the Valdivia Deep-sea Expedition 1888-1889.
Album : Deep-Sea Radiolarians of Valentin Haecker from the Valdivia Deep-Sea Expedition 1888-1898. Artwork by Marian H. Mülberger.
Mollusques Méditerranéens Observés, Décrits, Figurés et Chromo Lithographiés d'après Nature sur Modèles Vivants, 1ére Partie Céphalopodes de la Méditerranée"

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Retrieved Text: The most abundant forms of life in the seas are organisms less than 1/1000 in. in their longest dimension – the minute protists, which include algae, flagellates, bacteria, yeasts, and fungi. Some of these are plant-like, relying on a photosynthetic source of energy for their life processes; others behave as particle-ingesting animals, while still others, such as the yeasts and bacteria, depend on the absorption of penetrable nutrients from their surroundings. The photosynthetic algae and flagellates live mostly in the illuminated-surface layers of the ocean; other protists are to be found in a greater variety of depths and as inhabitants of bottom sediments.
By taking their nutrients from sea water, microorganisms appear as the producers of organic matter, and hence initiate the marine food chains that support the world's commercial fisheries. These are also primarily responsible for breaking down the organic remains of dead plants and animals to elemental nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and sulphur, thereby balancing the economy of these important constituents of living matter.
The specialised techniques of microbiology commonly include the setting up of live, axenic (single species) cultures of marine micro-organisms that can be maintained indefinitely in the laboratory. These may then serve as a basis for experimental studies of life cycles and habits, physiological characteristics, temperature and salinity optima for growth, and so on. This type of information assists the interpretation of how each organism is sustained in its native environment, and in what manner it may influence other species. Investigation of the biochemical activities, communal relationships, and successional development of the differing marine

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Retrieved Text: Pracovní listy k výuce najdete v pdf přílohách níže pod galerií obrázků.
Mitochondria and plastids are fundamental innovations of eukaryotic cells. How­ever, they underwent secondary reduction in some eukaryotes. Such cases include the hydrogenosomes and mitosomes of parasitic protists and non-photosynthetic plastids, which can be found in various algae and parasitic plants. Complete losses of semiautonomous organelles are rare, but not impossible, as has been demonstrated by the recent discovery of a first amitochondriate protist.

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Retrieved Text: The key difference between blue green algae and green algae is that blue green algae are prokaryotic organisms that belong to Kingdom Monera while green algae are eukaryotic organisms that belong to Kingdom Protista.
Photosynthesis is the process shown by photoautotrophs. It is the process that synthesizes carbohydrates (foods) by capturing energy from sunlight. The process requires the presence of photosynthetic pigments, CO2 and water. Photoautotrophs possess photosynthetic pigments to carry out photosynthesis. There are three major groups of photoautotrophs as plants, cyanobacteria (blue green algae) and algae (including green algae). Therefore, both blue green algae and green algae are photosynthetic organisms. However, blue green algae are prokaryotic organisms while green algae are eukaryotic organisms. Accordingly, there is a difference between blue green algae and green algae based on their cellular organization and other characteristics.
Blue green alga is a synonym of cyanobacteria. They are the photosynthetic bacteria that possess photosynthetic pigments to capture sunlight and produce foods. Blue green algae include unicellular organisms as well as multicellular organisms. Moreover, their bodies can be spherical, filamentous or sheet-like colonies. They can be found in moist soil, freshwater, and marine water. They appear in bluish green colour.
One special characteristic of blue green algae is their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. In order to fix atmospheric nitrogen, they possess special structures called heterocyst. Anabaena and Nostoc are two blue green algae that contain heterocyst to fix nitrogen. Some blue green algae form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. Microcystis, Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Tolypothrix, and Spirulina are some examples of blue green

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Retrieved Text: cryptophytes (cryptomonads) A small group of unicellular protists, sometimes regarded as algae (class Cryptophyceae) and sometimes as protozoa (class Phytomastigophora). The cells are typically dorsoventrally flattened, lack a cell wall, and have 2 flagella of equal length. Most species are photosynthetic, but a few are colourless and heterotrophic. Sexual reproduction is unknown. They are found in freshwater and marine habitats.
"cryptophytes." A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 24 Mar. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.

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Retrieved Text: the kingdom on the other side.
Foldable. Label it as shown.
sugars form a netlike structure that is porous and strong.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
on cell type, structure, and nutrition.
more abundant than any other organism.
that do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
What are the characteristics of archaea?
of marshes. Little or no oxygen is found in these environments.
waters. The water temperatures can reach 98˚C, almost boiling.
What are the characteristics of Kingdom Protista?
protists, animal-like protists, and funguslike protists.
plantlike protists because they perform photosynthesis.
What are the characteristics of Kingdom Fungi?
4. Define What are hyphae?
chitin, which is a rigid polymer that gives cells structural support.
70,000 species of fungi have been identified.
the nutrients directly into their cells.
food from algae that live among the fungi’s hyphae.
What are the characteristics of Kingdom Plantae?
Members of Kingdom Plantae (PLAN tuh) are called plants.
Plantae. Plants form the base of all land habitats.
plant. It obtains food through suckers connected to the host plant.
vascular plants have organs such as roots, stems, and leaves.
What are the characteristics of Kingdom Animalia?
organisms and have membrane-bound organelles.
organized into organs such as skin, a stomach, and a brain.
such as digestive, circulatory, and nervous systems.
Animals range in size from a few millimeters to many meters.
Is there an exception to the classification system?
not usually placed in the biological classification system.
on a variety of factors.
table, think of organisms that fit into each kingdom.

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Retrieved Text: phytoplankton The photosynthesizing plankton, consisting chiefly of microscopic algae, such as diatoms, and dinoflagellates. Near the surface of the sea there may be many millions of such organisms per cubic metre. Members of the phytoplankton are of great importance as they form the basis of food for all other forms of aquatic life, being the primary producers. Compare zooplankton.
"phytoplankton." A Dictionary of Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
phytoplankton The plant plankton and primary producers of aquatic ecosystems, comprising mainly diatoms in cool waters with dinoflagellates being more important in warmer waters.
"phytoplankton." A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
phytoplankton The plant plankton and primary producers of aquatic ecosystems, comprising mainly diatoms in cool waters, dinoflagellates being more important in warmer waters.
"phytoplankton." A Dictionary of Ecology. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
phy·to·plank·ton / ˌfītōˈplangktən/ • n. Biol. plankton consisting of microscopic plants.
"phytoplankton." The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
"phytoplankton." A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
"phytoplankton." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Encyclopedia.com. 22 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
Phytoplankton are microscopic, photosynthetic organisms that live in the water of the oceans and bodies of freshwater (the word phytoplankton is derived from the Greek for “drifting plants”). The most abundant organisms occurring within the phytoplankton are algae and blue-green bacteria, but this group also includes certain kinds of protists (especially protozoans) that contain symbiotic algae or bacteria (algae or bacteria that co-exist with the protists, to the benefit of both).
Phytoplankton are the key food source in

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Retrieved Text: TEMPLATE DESIGN © 2008 www.PosterPresentations.com Statistical Coupling Analysis of the Photosystem II D1 Protein Janan Zhu 1 ; Nicholas Polizzi 2 ; 1.
Download ppt "TEMPLATE DESIGN © 2008 www.PosterPresentations.com Statistical Coupling Analysis of the Photosystem II D1 Protein Janan Zhu 1 ; Nicholas Polizzi 2 ; 1."
An Overview of Photosynthesis Most of the energy used by almost all living cells ultimately comes from the sun  plants, algae, and some bacteria capture.
Photosynthesis in plants Light energy is used to transform carbon dioxide and water to energy rich food molecules composed of glucose monomers There are.
Chapter 15 (part1) Photosynthesis. Implications of Photosynthesis on Evolution.
THE LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION Oxidation Is a Loss of electrons (OIL) Reduction Is a Gain of electrons (RIG) © 2010 Paul Billiet.
Photosynthesis: The Hill Reaction. Announcements -There is a quiz next week that will cover Fermentation and Photosynthesis. -home work is posted on my.
Photosynthesis is the process a plant uses to make food and grow.
Raven - Johnson - Biology: 6th Ed. - All Rights Reserved - McGraw Hill Companies Photosynthesis Light Reaction (AP) Chapter 10.
THE LIGHT REACTIONS.  Begin when photons strike the photosynthetic membrane. The process can be divided into three parts. 1) Photoexcitation: absorption.
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN? It's not that easy bein' green Having to spend each day the color of the leaves When I think it could be nicer being red or yellow.
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy. Plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and some protists produce organic.
Where does the energy that living things

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Retrieved Text: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes which are organisms with a nucleus. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
It is a rather old-fashioned term which includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).
Most protists are very small. They are made up of one or a few cells at most – they are microscopic and usually invisible to the naked eye. Some algae are protists, if they are single-celled. Many protists are part of the plankton and are very important for the ecosystem. The cells found in protists may be extremely complex, and are often little understood. It is now possible to do DNA sequencing, and a number of protists have been analysed. The results show that the Protista is not a monophyletic group. It is paraphyletic, and not a single clade. The taxonomy of the Protista is therefore rather confused.
Some protists cause diseases. Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria; sleeping sickness is also caused by a protist.
An example of a single celled organism in the protist kingdom is the Paramecium or "slipper animalcule." The Paramecium moves using its small, hair-like fibers called cilia, and eats using the cilia to sweep the food into its food vacuole. Other protists can be amoebas, which move by extending pseudopods and flowing into them, or flowing around food particles and engulfing them.
Protists are not a monophyletic clade. The term is a convenient holdall for about 20 different kinds of

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Retrieved Text: There has been an overlooked yet vitally important organism living in our reef aquariums. I’d like to introduce to the hobby a group of very important critters they have been unknowingly growing for years. I will be writing a series of post exploring these interesting and important protists. We all know that coral have symbiotic organisms that live inside them. The collection of organisms including the coral is known as the holobiont, a dynamic community of bacteria, algae, fungi, and other microorganisms. We are very familiar with zooxanthellae, the dinoflagellate algae, which help provide much of the coral’s nutrients in the case of photosynthetic coral. However we have been neglecting another important symbiont, the fungus like group of protists called Thraustochytrids from the family Thraustochytriidae. There are symbiotic, commensal, and parasitic species, for the purposes of this, and following posts, I will be talking about commensal and symbiotic species. These organisms are found in various environments worldwide, including oceans and estuaries. They perform vital nutrient cycling functions in sediments, and in, on, and around organisms such as coral. It was long thought these protists were some type of fungi, however more recent studies have shown they are genetically distinct from fungi, and are now grouped in with chromists, which include kelp, mildew, and diatoms. Thraustochytrids tend to like a more nutrient poor environment in culture as compared to some other microorganisms, which may indicate their needs in the natural environments, and our home aquariums. Thraustochytrids were found to be early settling organisms (within days). Studies showed

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Retrieved Text: Download "Protists. Simple Eukaryotes. Regents Biology Common ancestor. Domain Archaebacteria. Domain Eukaryotes. Domain Bacteria"
8 Protist Diversity Beneficial & necessary Protists phytoplankton small algae + diatoms much of the world s photosynthesis produces ~90% of atmospheric oxygen zooplankton heterotroph protists key ecological role at base of marine food web Regents Biology Mmmmmm! Keeps me goin!
27 That s the buzz Any Questions?
Classification is the grouping of objects based on similarities. Examine the evolutionary basis of modern classification systems.

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Retrieved Text: Raman microspectroscopy (RMS) yields information about the chemical composition of individual cells. Raman spectra result from the inelastic scattering of photons from a sample (Raman effect). That is, the scattered photons posses a wavelength/energy that is different from that of the incident light (monochromatic laser). The change in wavelength/energy during the scattering process is caused by the interaction of the photon with vibrational modes of the various chemical bonds of the molecules within a sample (e.g., C=O or C–H) (Wagner 2009). Raman scattering provides detailed information about the chemical composition of a sample (molecular structure, cellular composition or, physiological state of the sample), which is summarized in the Raman spectrum (Huang et al. 2010).
Two extensions of RMS are of special interest for experiments with microorganisms. First, a combination with stable isotope probing (SIP). Li et al. 2013 (2013) demonstrated that RMS is able to detect isotopic shifts to higher wavelengths (or lower wavenumbers, wavelength-1), so called “red-shifting”, in the Raman spectra when replacing 12C with 13C carbon. The calculated red shift ratio (RSR) is highly correlated with the 13C-content of the cells. Thus, combining SIP with RMS bears great potential for ecological experiments, such as tracking the flow of elements through food webs on a single-cell basis (Abraham 2014). Moreover, using SIP with RMS is non-invasive, which stays in contrast to destructive methods such as 16S-rRNA sequencing. Second, a combination with fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH). Because FISH adds detailed information about the spatial structure of a cell, the combination with RMS (Raman-FISH) gives an interesting tool

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Retrieved Text: What is a Unicellular Eukaryote?
Life on Earth consists of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with no defined nucleus; their DNA floats in a circle inside them, and they have no organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular. Eukaryotes carry a defined nucleus, which houses DNA and organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and in the case of plants, chloroplasts. Unicellular eukaryotes comprise the majority of species, and have existed on Earth for billions of years.
Unicellular eukaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with a defined nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles. They include phytoplankton, or algae, and zooplankton, or protozoa. Unicellular eukaryotes originated billions of years ago.
Eukaryotes likely descended from prokaryotes. Mitochondria may actually be an example of an amalgam of two prokaryotes, one consuming the other. The smaller bacterium could have survived after consumption and produced energy while the larger bacterium provided nutrients, and one theory holds that this symbiotic relationship led to eukaryotes. As for genomics, scientists continue to tease out at what point Superkingdom (or Domain) Eukaryota split off from the others, Bacteria and Archaea, as tiny protists prove to be more diverse than originally thought. Examining the microfossil record indicates that ancient unicellular eukaryotes evolved some time between 2 billion and 3.5 billion years before the present day.
Most algae are unicellular plants and are also known as phytoplankton. Phytoplankton, as tiny plants, generate their energy from the sun via photosynthesis. They possess a cell wall. Since they perform photosynthesis, phytoplankton are sensitive to the position of the sun and the length

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis (English pronunciation: /foʊtoʊˈsɪnθəsɪs/; from the Greek φώτο- [photo-], "light," and σύνθεσις [synthesis], "putting together", "composition") is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. In addition to maintaining normal levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, photosynthesis is the source of energy for nearly all life on earth, either directly, through primary production, or indirectly, as the ultimate source of the energy in their food, the exceptions being chemoautotrophs that live in rocks or around deep sea hydrothermal vents. The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization. As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all, photosynthetic organisms convert around 100–115 petagrams of carbon into biomass per year.
Although photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. Some

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Retrieved Text: Any living thing that is invisible to the naked eye and can be seen only under a microscope is called a microorganism. They include BACTERIA, protists, and some fungi, such as yeasts. VIRUSES are usually included, but they are not really living organisms.
This is a single-celled organism found in the sea, fresh water, soil, and in or on other living things. Animal-like protists, called protozoa, get their energy by eating food. They include ciliates—protists that move by beating hairlike fibers called cilia. Some protozoa cause diseases such as malaria. Plantlike protists, called algae, make their food by photosynthesis, and include ocean phytoplankton and green pond algae.
French scientist Louis Pasteur founded the science of microbiology. He proved that microorganisms cause infectious diseases, developed vaccines, and discovered pasteurization (the heat-killing of bacteria in food).
Only a very powerful microscope can show the minute chemical package known as a virus. Many viruses cause disease. Viruses are active only once they have infected a living animal, plant, or bacterial cell.
A virus invades a living cell, hijacks its genes, and forces it to produce many new virus particles. These new particles then break out of the cell. Viruses are not regarded as living things because they cannot reproduce alone.
The most abundant organisms on Earth, bacteria are found on land, in water, and in the air. Bacteria consist of one tiny cell. They have a protective cell wall, but, unlike other cells, lack a nucleus.
While some bacteria are harmful, such as those that cause diseases, others are useful. These include bacteria in our

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Retrieved Text: During the last third of the 20th century, biologists sorted life into five kingdoms. These were Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera. We’re all familiar with animals, plants, and fungi, but what are protista and monera? Protista are all the one-celled creatures whose cells contain a nucleus, and Monera are all the one-celled creatures whose cells do not contain a nucleus.
One problem with this system of categorizing living things is that it is a human system, based more on what humans see than on what is actually true about the living organisms. For instance, four of the kingdoms, animals, plants, fungi, and protists, consist of creatures made of eukaryotic cells, that is, cells with a nucleus. Yet these are grouped as if they were as different from one another as all of them are from the monerans.
For a long time, the members of monera were thought to be “bacteria and blue-green algae.” Eventually, researchers realized that those “blue-green algae” were actually photosynthetic bacteria. So actually, Kingdom Monera should simply have been called “Kingdom Bacteria.” But then, in the late 1970’s, a biologist named Carl Woese announced a startling discovery. He had compared RNA from a number of different living types and had found that Monera actually contained two quite different forms of life.
Woese called the two forms of monerans “eubacteria” and “archaebacteria.” Furthermore, Woese could show that the eukaryiotic forms of life were more closely related to the archebacteria than to the eubacteria. Woese proposed that above the “Kingdom” category in the hierarchy of life forms,

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Retrieved Text: Is spirulina a plant? Heck no. I don’t know why everyone keeps classifying it with plant foods. Maybe its because spirulina uses photosynthesis that people think its a plant. But its NOT a plant. Its not an animal. So then what the heck is it?
Spirulina is a type of bacteria called cyanobacterium. Its commonly called blue-green algae. And no not all algaes are plants. Algae simply refers to aquatic organisms that are capable of photosynthesis. This would include a variety of organisms.
Spirulina is made up of single cell bacteria and is extremely tiny. The only reason you can see spirulina is because the bacteria groups together to form large colonies. The individual organisms are either rod or disk shaped, more commonly rod shaped and often spiral around.
Although spirulina is a rich dark green color, its main photosynthetic pigment is phycocyanin (among others), which is blue. This is what they used to capture the light that they use for energy.
Not only does spirulina produce its own food through photosynthesis just like plants do. But it also contains the same photosynthetic pigment that plants have, chlorophyll.
Plants are multi-cellular eukaryotes. Spirulina is single celled organisms. It is BACTERIA classified as cyanobacteria. Many types of cyanobacteria are toxic and need to be avoided. But spirulina happens to be the most nutritious food on the planet, per weight anyhow.
Check out some of the benefits of spirulina by clicking “Benefits” at the top menu.
I hope you have learned something. Its not a plant! If you have any questions or comments leave them

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Retrieved Text: I've read that the most efficient solar/photovoltaic cells can reach efficiencies of around 30%. How does that compare to what leaves of typical plants can do?
I've read that the most efficient solar/photovoltaic cells can reach efficiencies of around 30%.What sort of efficiency is really important for solar panels? In space it is weight of panels and deployment apparatus verses power output. I recall the use of some lens arrays on the panels to increase the amount of light falling on them. This would not have been practical on earth because it is cheaper to add more panels. On earth I would say total power output for the life of the panel verses cost of alternatives. It is more efficient to directly heat water then use solar panel electricity.
How does that compare to what leaves of typical plants can do?
(leaves cannot be 100% efficient, or they'd be black)I do not know what percent of light falling on a leaf is used to make food and oxygen by the plant. There are other issues to consider though. The food is a more efficient energy source for the plant than electricity is for people. So how do you really compare the two? Plants us a great deal of the no visible spectrum do solar panels as well?
Hopefully somebody with more expertize can help you, but for starters, I'm not sure if the efficiency of a solar cell and that of plants doing photosynthesis is directly comparable. I don't know if a leaf would have to be black to be

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Retrieved Text: Most gardeners are aware of the important relationship plants have with light. We are forever talking about the light preferences of plants. And every garden reference stresses how important it is to provide the proper light for different plants – indoors or outside. If you place a plant that needs a sunny location in the shade, it will languish and do poorly.
Yet, I’m not sure gardeners really understand why light is so essential to plants – and why a sun-loving plant will do poorly if it does not get enough light. And for that I blame the term "plant food."
In ancient times, early farmers eventually realized that if they spread manure over a field before planting a crop, it made the plants grow better. It was easy for them to assume that plants grew better because they ate what was in the manure. It made sense that, just like providing abundant food to a person makes them strong and healthy, the food provided by the manure made the plants grow better. So the idea that we are actually feeding plants when we add manure (or fertilizers) to the soil became entrenched and survives to this day. Am I right? Don’t we all "feed" our plants “plant food”?
The trouble is, we now know better. In the 20th century we discovered that plants carry out a remarkable chemical process called photosynthesis – meaning "to create from light." And photosynthesis, as it turns out, is the basis of life as we know it.
In photosynthesis, plants use a green pigment

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Retrieved Text: Mitochondria are known for generating energy for the cell in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by using nutrients and oxygen. The chloroplast is present in green plants and few algae, they are known as the place, where the process of photosynthesis occurs.
In the cell of the eukaryotes, there are only three organelles, which are bounded by the double membrane structure – the nucleus, the mitochondria, and the chloroplast. There is the higher level of diversity on the surface of the planet. Living things inquisitively, perplexingly uses the sources present here and grow. They have populated the land, water, and molded the surface of the earth.
Living things are not only restricted to the domain of the land, water, instead found in depth of the ocean, in the mud of hot volcanoes, beneath the frozen surface of Antartic and deeply buried in the earth crust. In this section, we will consider the two main units of the eukaryotic cells – The Mitochondria and the Chloroplast.
The first one is the most significant body present in the living cell, they are the producer of energy to the cell, and it’s organelles by the process of cellular respiration. Their shape and function resemble bacteria, even they have their own circular DNA and ribosomes and their tRNA, like that of bacteria.
The latter – Chloroplast, is the another enclosed membrane of the eukaryotic cell. These are found in selective types of the cell as said above. Chloroplast performs the function of the preparation of the food that is photosynthesis, by using the

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Retrieved Text: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes (which are organisms with a nucleus). The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. The protists are not a natural group, or clade, since they have no common origin. Like algae or invertebrates, they are often grouped together for convenience.
The term "protist" includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).

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Retrieved Text: Contact: A.L. Baker, Marine, Estuarine and Freshwater, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire regarding PhycoKey.
All aquatic vascular plants have evolved from terrestrial vascular plants, carrying with them many morphological features that originally evolved as adaptations to terrestrial life - vascular tissue in 'true' roots, stems, and leaves, stomates, and waxy cuticle to minimize water loss to the atmosphere.
The return to aquatic habitats required further evolution, in some cases loss of terrestrial characteristics. Stomates are reduced or absent from submerged foliage, dysfunctional in water due to low diffusion rates (but important in air). Rooted aquatic vascular plants need mechanisms of supplying oxygen to their roots. Submerged foliage plants, especially those with dysfunctional or missing roots, have changed their leaf morphology to maximize the surface area to volume ratio, both by eliminating most inner layers of cells (mesoderm), becoming highly dissected, and either developing large intercellular space or becoming little more than vascular and epidermal tissue, with few or no stomates, and without any waxy cutin covering. Many aquatic macrophytes also lack supportive fiber cells, depending instead on floatation mechanisms or density regulation close to that of water.
The most extreme case of reductionist evolution is Wolffia and Wolffiella, members of the duckweed family, the smallest known angiosperm. also the fastest growing with the shortest life cycle. With a thallus (body) length of less than 1 mm,Wolffia floats on the water surface (epineuston), has more than 50 stomates on its upper surface, and produces a complete flower (one carpel, one stamen).
Prior to critical organization of photosynthetic organisms

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Retrieved Text: Food/Feeding: Photosynthetic, does best when fed phytoplankton as well.
Notes: The Plume Gorgonian is common among the reefs of the Caribbean and grows in a vertical, tree-like fashion. The branches are purple in appearance and have a bumpy texture when the polyps are not expanded. The polyps of this gorgonian are tan in color, and are often expanded during the daytime. This gorgonian is hardier than many of its counterparts and will add to your reef aquarium's diversity.
The Plume Gorgonian is peaceful, but it should be given adequate space away from neighboring corals and anemones. Underwater epoxy is commonly used to anchor its base to a piece of live rock in the reef aquarium. This gorgonian is photosynthetic and requires a moderate amount of light, but also should be offered zooplankton and other foods designed for filter feeding invertebrates. It also requires a stronger water flow and the addition of iodine, calcium, strontium, and other trace elements to the water.
In order to inhibit algae and cyanobacteria growth, it is important that this gorgonian is provided with strong, constant or intermittent water flow. If in the event that it does begin to become covered with algae or cyanobacteria, remove it from the coral immediately, as this will cause rapid tissue deterioration. Algae can be removed gently with the use of a soft brush; combat cyanobacteria by soaking the coral in freshwater of the same temperature and pH for approximately 1 minute.

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Retrieved Text: What If Humans Could Photosynthesize?
The sun shines a massive amount of energy onto the Earth’s surface every day. What if humans could take a cue from plants and use sunlight to make their own food? From chloroplasts to carbon dioxide, Reactions creates a hypothetical photosynthetic human and gives a quick crash course on the chemistry of photosynthesis.
This entry was posted in Gr 4-6 Science & Tech, Gr 7-8 Science & Tech, Gr 9-10 Science, Gr. 11-12 Biology and tagged green plants, photosynthesis. Bookmark the permalink.

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Retrieved Text: The core objective of this study is to use coordinated multigene phylogenetic analyses and ultrastructure of cells in order to address diversity and evolution for photosynthetic stramenopiles. Much of evolutionary uncertainty of photosynthetic stramenopiles arises from limited and patchy molecular data, many of which are from either single gene sequences or a complete absence of sequence data. To achieve our project building a robust tree of photosynthetic stramenopiles, we will isolate and sequence from taxa selected from each class of stramenopiles, and observe ultrastructure of zoospores or cells from representative species. This is a three-year project, based on three laboratories at university and institution; two labs are responsible for acquisition and analyses of molecular data, and one lab leads the transmission electron microscopy. We will gather available multigene and ultrastructure data from the evolutionarily- diverse photosynthetic stramenopiles. To avoid species confusion, we will focus mainly on species available in established culture collections or from colleagues. Our taxon selection will be mainly limited to at least 51 taxa. However, we will maintain flexibility to increase sampling of the photosynthetic stramenopiles from Korea and to accomodate inclusion of newly discovered taxa. We will characterize approximately one kilobase from eight primary genes such as psaA, psbA, psbC, and rbcL in plastid and SSU rDNA, actin, beta-tubulin, and hsp90 in nucleus, which make these excellent choices for the present study. A total of approximately 8,000 base pairs from each of 51 taxa will be analyzed. This work has been supported by KOSEF grants (March 2006 ? February 2009).

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Retrieved Text: How to assess the photosynthesis of sea-ice microalgae?
Sea-ice microalgae are unicellular organisms that can convert the solar light energy into chemical energy for producing organic matter via a complex physiological process known as photosynthesis. Together with the ones that live free in the water column (‘phytoplankton’), they are the so-called primary producers of the Arctic Ocean, and they support the whole Arctic food-web up to the ultimate consumers, i.e. polar bears and humans. The great majority of sea-ice algae is composed of brownish microalgae named diatoms. When they start to flourish (usually in May), they are so concentrated that one can eye-observe a thin brown ring at the ice bottom. Indeed, most of the sea-ice microalgae live in the very last ice centimeter in direct contact with the sea water. Because of the ice thickness and snow cover on top of it, sea-ice diatoms grow in an extremely low light environment. In order to preserve their photosynthetic activity, their natural low light environment needs to be maintained during coring, harvesting of the ice portion of interest, and analysis. Also, work in nearly complete darkness (i.e. with green very low energetic light) is essential. Such working environment is as well necessary for studying the photosynthesis of Arctic phytoplankton.
The photosynthetic activity and photoacclimation of sea-ice diatoms can be assessed via specific light-response protocols (RLCs-Rapid Light Curves) that allow building photosynthetic versus light curves (P vs. E curves). RLCs are performed using a so-called PAM-fluorometer that records changes in the natural fluorescence of chlorophyll pigments which is emitted by

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Retrieved Text: The Fitness Finder App - GTme | Are we partly solar powered?
This is truly an astonishing feat as in the eyes of Oxygen breathers there is waste product, unless as a plant you are considering Oxygen very much the same way we consider CO2 that is.
As well as the photosynthetic split of CO2 then, there is also a split of 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2 carried out within the process of Photosynthesis except that it is of the form H2O → H+ + OH- This means that there is an electrically charged set of chemicals being formed within the photosynthetic subsystem which appears to be able to aid movement of muscle and other protein or cell based processes.
Energy, for instance, is given to our blood flow from photons in the infra-red margin which eases the strain on our internal organs such as the heart and lungs which are also aided through the electrochemical charging of water by sunlight within them.
So we get our energy from food as well as from light by the use of water and plant cell life within our body.
Drink green juice - daily!
From the sun to other electrical influences - what about the offices we often sit in full of WiFi and computers - if our bodies are so reliant on electrical charge then what effect does the modern home/office environment have on us?
Do we need surveys of our electromagnetic environment to ensure our bodies will continue to run properly? What is the impact of a close-by electric circuit or

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Retrieved Text: Protists are eukaryotic single-celled organisms with astonishingly high abundances. They are everywhere but only few people seem to care about this. What are these creatures doing? What is their role in an ecosystem?
My work focuses on the diversity, community structure and functioning of these creatures in the soils in tropical ecosystems. In the B08 project I investigate the impact of forest transformation to oil palm, rubber and jungle rubber plantations on trophic groups of protists.

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Retrieved Text: Microbes represent the bulk of biodiversity on Earth, including within the oceans that cover more than two third of our planet. Yet microbes remain under-investigated within the context of Earth's biodiversity. As soon as we step outside, the vast range of plant and animal diversity is omnipresent as they are visible to the ‘naked eye'; however, because the realm of microbes escapes our vision, this hidden world is often overlooked. Despite the limited focus on microbes, microbial eukaryotes (i.e. protists) occupy a central role in the planktonic food web providing a bridge between the bacteria, and the "classical" food web comprised of larger organisms (Pinet, 2011). Nonetheless, studies focusing on the pivotal position of protists in the base of the oceanic food web are rare. In this study I evaluate the eukaryotic community compositions of "deep layer" samples from a transect sampled during a research cruise in the North Atlantic. My goal is to determine the relationship between the diversity of eukaryotic microbes and the previously characterized ciliate communities from deep sites. I chose the "deep layer" because protist biodiversity is believed to be limited below the photic layer, an assumption that was challenged by previous work in our lab. Of the 39 nine sampling stations taken during the cruise off the coast of Rhode Island, I chose seven stations from different locations ranging from inshore to offshore. The results show that the eukaryotic community is relatively constant along the transect, which contrasts with the ciliate community. This highlights the importance of further research because it

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal, which means they walk on two legs. Birds also lay amniotic eggs, and the eggs have hard, calcium carbonate shells. Although birds are the most recent class of vertebrates to evolve, they are now the most numerous vertebrates on Earth. Why have birds been so successful? What traits allowed them to increase and diversify so rapidly?.


Q: What type of vertebrates are birds?

 Choices:

- exothermic

- invertebrates

- epidermal tetrapod

- endothermic tetrapod

A:

Target Text: endothermic tetrapod

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: “As a keen naturalist and zoo owner I absolutely hate the fateful words – “oh it’s just a bird”! You wonder what knowledge, information and appreciation will get passed on especially when it is adults talking to their children!
So, what is an animal and what makes them different to a bird? Come on then let’s think about this logically and add a little science! An animal (by Oxford dictionary definition) is a multi-cellular organism that can move of its free will!!
What is a bird then, as a good 30% of our visitors dismiss birds out of hand and go looking for animals for their children?
In the animal kingdom, the most numerous animals are krill (maybe 500 trillion plus), on land it is probably ants outweighing us in terms of biomass and scientist reckon over 8.5 million species are thought to still exist on earth of which about 1.2million are animals (about 1 million of these are insects).
Animals either have backbones or they do not. It is far more usual to see animals that do not have backbones – so out of the world’s vertebrates there are possibly 60,000 species potentially you could see in a zoo! Yet it just seems that people resonate with larger vertebrates like us.
Obviously, a bird is an animal! Did you realise that there are 2 times more species of birds than mammals alive today. In a nut shell, then if you are looking for vertebrates you are twice as likely to see a bird!!!
Birds occupy an area of space that can

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Retrieved Text: Find Invertebrate Facts. Examine Now.
Additionally to the characteristics listed above, vertebrates have got one extra trait which makes them special among chordates: the existence of a backbone. You can find a few teams of chordates that do not have a backbone (these organisms usually are not vertebrates and are rather known as invertebrate chordates).
Vertebrates' organ systems are more developed than those of invertebrates, and their nervous systems are more complex. Vertebrates are categorized into five groups: mammals, birds, fishes, amphibians and reptiles.
Vertebrates are larger than the invertebrates. Most of the vertebrates have an advanced nervous system that makes them smarter. The other characteristics of vertebrates include a bilateral symmetry, body segmentation, complete digestive system, closed blood system, bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton, tail and ventral heart.
Two Characteristics of Vertebrates and Invertebrates?
Some invertebrate characteristics are shared across the board. For example, the one main characteristic that sets them apart from other animals is their lack of a backbone and spinal column.
Invertebrates are not a taxon like vertebrates are, but rather a generic name for all the animals that do not have a vertebral column or spine. There are millions of invertebrate species, as more animals do not have a spine than have one.. Some invertebrates have shells, part of their exoskeletons. Others have a skeleton filled with fluid, that is, a hydrostatic skeleton.
Most invertebrates are hermaphrodites. The classification of vertebrates and invertebrates is shown in figure 2. Similarities Between Vertebrates and Invertebrates. Vertebrates and invertebrates belong to the kingdom Animalia. Both vertebrates and invertebrates show bilateral symmetry. Gills

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Retrieved Text: The use of vertebrates for traditional purposes was hypothesised to be the potential cause of the decline of forest vertebrates. Traditionally, vertebrates are used for bushmeat, traditional attire and to a larger extent, for traditional medicinal purposes. More than 280 species of vertebrates are used in traditional medicine. These include mammals (171 species), birds (58 species), reptiles (31 species), amphibians (2 species), domestic animals (9 species), human beings (African and white) and four mythical creatures. 63 % of mammals, 16.3 % of birds and 10 % of reptiles used in traditional medicine are listed in South African Red Data books as rare, endangered, vulnerable, indeterminate or out of danger. The selection of vertebrates for traditional purposes is largely determined by the ability of African communities to recognise species targeted for a particular use. On the other side, selection of species used in traditional medicine is, in additional to recognition, determined by various other factors which include chemical content, traditional beliefs and behaviour of the animal. Recognised species are known to African communities by their African names: - 91 names for mammals, 128 names for birds, 31 names for reptiles and 2 names for amphibians. These names reflect the number of species being recognised by a particular African community. Names can be used for more than one species. This indicates an element of confusion in recognising species. A survey on the use of vertebrates by residents show that vertebrates are used for meat and recreational hunting. Traditional use of vertebras is in contrast to the use of

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Retrieved Text: Antievolution.org - Antievolution.org Discussion Board -Topic::What if?
Antievolution.org Discussion Board > All About Antievolution > Intelligent Design > What if?
monkeys didn't evolve into humans else there'd be no monkeys. try again.
monkeys didn't evolve into humans else there'd be no monkeys. �try again.
If we came from early mammals, why are there still other mammals?
If we came from early vertebrates, why are there still other vertebrates?
If birds came from early dinosaurs, why are there still other... Oh wait. Never mind that one.
If I came from England, why are there still Englishmen?
If I came from the grocery store, why are there still groceries?

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Retrieved Text: Certain materials are “classic” in Montessori classrooms. The external parts of the vertebrate animals are one of those essential materials. This set traditionally has a horse as the example of a mammal, and almost all commercially available card sets for study of the vertebrates uses the horse.
My question is “why?” Unless we try to understand Maria Montessori’s purpose in the design of her materials, we can easily get caught in a web of tradition that keeps us from serving children’s learning needs to the best of our ability.
Here is my best guess on the horse as the mammal example. The horse was present in the lives of children all over the world until about 1920. It didn’t matter if they lived in a city or on a farm. When Maria Montessori first created her materials, the mammal that most children would see in their everyday lives was a horse. That has changed for most children. The horse is still used for transportation in some rural areas, but this animal is now more likely to be seen in a hobby or leisure situation. Most children in the United States do not see a live horse with any regularity.
What mammals do children see today? Dogs and cats would likely top the list. Classroom pets like gerbils, guinea pigs, or hamsters are common enough. Why don’t we use one of these for the example mammal? Children are more likely to be interested in learning about an animal they can experience, and learning about the care of that animal may

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Retrieved Text: The Cambrian explosion refers to the period of evolution of most modern animal groups, between 570 and 530 million years ago. The Cambrian explosion is an unparalleled period of evolutionary innovation in the history of our planet. During the Cambrian explosion, early organisms evolved into many different, more complex forms. During this period, almost all of the persistent basic animal body plans came into being. The first batch of back-to-back animals, also known as vertebrates, developed to about 525 million years ago during the Cambrian period. The earliest known vertebrate is considered to be Myllokunmingia, an animal believed to have a skull and bones made of cartilage. Today, there are approximately 57,000 vertebrates, accounting for about 3% of all known species on our planet. The other 97% of the species that are alive today are invertebrates, belonging to animal groups such as sponges, cnidaria, flatworms, mollusks, arthropods, insects, segmented worms and echinoderms, and many other lesser known fauna. . The first terrestrial vertebrates evolved about 360 million years ago. About 360 million years ago, the only organisms that inhabited terrestrial habitats were plants and invertebrates. Then, a group of fish knew that the finfish evolved the necessary adaptability to achieve a transition from water to land. Between 300 million and 150 million years ago, the first terrestrial vertebrates produced reptiles, which in turn produced birds and mammals. The first terrestrial vertebrates were amphibious tetrapods that had been in close contact with their aquatic habitat for some time. In the course of their evolution, early terrestrial vertebrates

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Retrieved Text: "The new tree of jawed vertebrates resolves several key relationships that have remained controversial despite decades of research, including the identification of lungfishes as the closest living relatives of land vertebrates, the close association of turtles with crocodilians and birds (the Archosaurs), or the relationships among amphibian groups (salamanders, frogs, caecilians) (supporting the Batrachia hypothesis). The phylogenetic tree was time-calibrated using fossils as anchors, which allowed testing of temporal relationship of diversification with major geological events. For example, two major groups of birds and mammals had been hypothesised to have diversified as a consequence of the extinction of dinosaurs (67 million years ago). The new study invalidates this hypothesis by showing that both groups are in fact much older."

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Retrieved Text: Birds are warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrates characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings. Most birds can fly. There are around 340 species living in the Baltic Sea area.

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Retrieved Text: Photo © Kevin Schafer / Getty Images.
Tetrapods are a group of vertebrates that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Tetrapods include all living land vertebrates as well as some former land vertebrates that have since adopted an aquatic lifestyle (such as whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, sea turtles, and sea snakes). One of the key characteristics of tetrapods is that they have four limbs or, if they lack four limbs, their ancestors had four limbs (for example: snakes, amphisbaneians, caecilians, and cetaceans).
Tetrapods vary greatly in size. The smallest living tetrapod is the Paedophyrine frog, which measures just 8 millimeters long. The largest living tetrapod is the blue whale, which can grow to lengths of up to 30 meters. Tetrapods occupy a wide variety of terrestrial habitats including forests, grasslands, deserts, scrublands, mountains, and polar regions. Although most tetrapods are terrestrial, there are numerous groups that have evolved to live in aquatic habitats. For example, whales, dolphins, seals, walrus, otters, sea snakes, sea turtles, frogs, and salamanders, are all examples of tetrapods that depend on aquatic habitats for some or all of their life cycle. Several groups of tetrapods have also adopted an arboreal or aerial lifestyle. Such groups include birds, bats, flying squirrels, and flying lemurs.
Tetrapods first appeared about 370 million years ago during the Devonian Period. Early tetrapods evolved from a group of vertebrates known as the tetrapodomorph fishes. These ancient fishes were a lineage of lobe-finned fishes whose paired, fleshy fins evolved into limbs with digits. Examples of tetrapodomorph fishes include Tiktaalik and Panderichthys.

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Retrieved Text: Not a Bird, Not a Dinosaur: What Is a Pterosaur? main content.
Not a Bird, Not a Dinosaur: What Is a Pterosaur?
What is a pterosaur? It sounds like such a simple question. But the answer, as you learn in the new exhibition Pterosaurs: Flight in the Age of Dinosaurs, was by no means obvious when the first pterosaur skeleton was discovered in the mid-1700s, in the Solnhofen limestone quarry in Germany.
This fossil of a young Pterodactylus antiquus was found in the layers of limestone near Solnhofen, Germany, an area known for its rich fossil beds. Pterosaur bones are fragile, so they rarely form fossils this clear and complete.
Perhaps, early observers theorized, that specimen’s long skinny arm-and-finger bones were for swimming? Or was it some kind of toothed, clawed, winged bird? Or even a mammal? Debates raged, even after 1801, when the great French anatomist Georges Cuvier analyzed drawings of the skeleton and determined the animal to be something new to science: a flying reptile that Cuvier later named ptero-dactyle (wing finger in Greek), whose wings were composed of a shortened upper arm bone, along with a dramatically elongated fourth finger that likely supported a wing membrane.
Since Cuvier’s time, the fossil record has revealed much more about these extinct reptiles, which lived from about 220 million years ago to the end of the late Cretaceous period 66 million years ago, disappearing at the same time as large dinosaurs in a mass extinction event.
Still, although pterosaurs may often be grouped with dinosaurs in children’s picture books, they are not

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Retrieved Text: The German GBIF-node Vertebrates is established at the Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn. It provides data on vouchers and observations of mammals, birds, fishes, amphibians and reptiles for use in research, teaching and education as well as for the interested public. Data can be searched via an internet portal.
Data provided are voucher specimens from German Research Institutions, supplemented by photos, sound files and literature, but also live observations. They are substantial components of biodiversity research, which often uses vertebrates as model organisms. At present already more than 180,000 data records from vertebrate specimens can be searched, further 50,000 will be added within a short time.
Since 2010, the GBIF node "Vertebrates" is funded by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) as part of the joint research project "GBIF-D, Kompetenzzentren innovativer Datenmobilisierung".

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Retrieved Text: The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome was determined for a conger eel, Conger myriaster (Elopomorpha: Anguilliformes), using a PCR-based approach that employs a long PCR technique and many fish-versatile primers.
Although the genome [18,705 base pairs (bp)] contained the same set of 37 mitochondrial genes [two ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 22 transfer RNA (tRNA), and 13 protein-coding genes] as found in other vertebrates, the gene order differed from that recorded for any other vertebrates.
In typical vertebrates, the ND6, tRNAGlu, and tRNAPro genes are located between the ND5 gene and the control region, whereas the former three genes, in C. myriaster, have been translocated to a position between the control region and the tRNAPhe gene that are contiguously located at the 5' end of the 12S rRNA gene in typical vertebrates.
however, the relative position of the tRNAPro to the ND6--RNA-Glu genes in C. myriaster was different from that in the four birds, which presumably resulted from different patterns of tandem duplication of gene regions followed by gene deletions in two distantly related groups of organisms.
Sequencing of the ND5-cyt b region in 11 other anguilliform species, representing 11 families, plus one outgroup species, revealed that the same gene order as C. myriaster was shared by another 4 families, belonging to the suborder Congroidei. Although the novel gene orders of four lineages of birds were indicated to have multiple independent origins, phylogenetic analyses using nucleotide sequences from the mitochondrial 12S rRNA and cyt b genes suggested that the novel gene orders of the five anguilliform families had originated in

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Retrieved Text: A team of experts from Germany، Canada، and the United States worked together in order to diagnose a 240 million-year-old Pappochelys rosinae، the oldest known turtle.
Upon analysis، they found that the ancient creature suffered from a type of rare bone cancer called periosteal osteosarcoma. A fossilized tumor was found in the hind legs of the animal، a similar symptom that is also seen in humans diagnosed with the disease.
"This is one of the oldest cases of cancer in the fossil record of vertebrates، and the oldest case in an amniote، which is the group that encompasses reptiles، birds and mammals،" stated Florian Witzmann، a co-author of the study.
The tumor was an incredible find not because cancer in ancient creatures were unusual. In fact، scientists believe that the disease was as common back in the day as it is now. The problem is، cancer in fossils is difficult to identify.
The disease is the abnormal growth of cells in the soft tissues as well as the hard tissues (like the bone). However، soft tissues very rarely appear in the fossil record. Therefore، the diagnosis of diseases from ancient times is limited to what is left behind: the hard tissues.
To diagnose the ancient turtle، the researchers used microscopy and computerized tomography، a type of X-ray. The process revealed a mass in the layer of the bone called the periosteum.
The researchers eliminated the possibility that it was an infection due to the absence of pores where puss would have oozed out. They also noted that periosteal osteosarcoma has previously been

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Retrieved Text: The basis of our research is the taxonomical identification of fossils. In this process the items of different localities are assigned by scientific names while the wonderful richness of ancient wildlife gets revealed. The investigations focus on the fossils and geological history of the Carpathian-Pannonian region, which help us to understand and reconstruct the history of the biosphere and the ancient wildlife of the Carpathian Basin.
The most significant fossil groups in our collections are the foraminifera, molluscs (bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods), tentaculata (bryozoans and brachiopods) and the vertebrates (fish, reptiles, birds and mammals). Although we preserve fossils from the last half billion years of history of Earth, most of our specimens are from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. While the focus of our research is on the palaeontological, stratigraphical and palaeobiogeographical studies of the Mesozoic era (especially the Triassic and Jurassic invertebrates and Cretaceous vertebrates), significant scientific processing of Neogene invertebrates and Pleistocene vertebrates is under way.

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Retrieved Text: What are the three types of germ layers that form tissues and organs in animals?
How is the mesoderm (third germ layer) of triploblastic animals formed?
What are the archenteron and the blastopore? What is the stage of the embryonic development in which these structures are formed? What are the destinations of the archenteron and of the blastopore?
What is gastrulation? How during gastrulation are the first two germ layers formed? Which are these germ layers?
After the blastula stage what is the following stage of the embryonic development? How is the passage from blastula to the next stage called?
After the morula stage what is the next stage? What is the morphological feature that defines that stage?
What are the cells produced in the first stage of the embryonic development called?
What is the cell division during the first stage of the embryonic development called? How is this stage characterized?
What are the four initial stages of the embryonic development?
What are the animal pole and the vegetal pole of the vertebrate egg?
What is the function of the vitellus in the vertebrate egg? How are these eggs classified according to the amount of vitellus within them?
What is the cell division process directly related to the embryonic growth?
How are animals classified according to the germ layers present in their embryonic development?
How does the embryo turn from gastrula into neurula? How is the neural tube formed? What is the embryonic origin of the nervous system in vertebrates?
What is notochord? How is this structure formed?
What is coelom? To which structures do coeloms give birth? Are all animals

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Retrieved Text: An international team including scientists from Oxford, Spain and France reports how more complex and specialised gene regulation was pivotal in the origin of the vertebrates. The work, published in Nature, compares genomic, epigenomic and gene expression data between several animals, including a small fish-like relative, amphioxus.
The vertebrates, or animals with backbones, are the animal group to which humans belong, along with other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. Vertebrates have complex brains and large bodies and have colonised virtually all of the planet’s ecosystems. Over 20 years ago, research conducted in Professor Peter Holland’s laboratory in the Department of Zoology at University of Oxford showed that many new genes arose in the evolution of vertebrates, but it was unclear how the extra genes contributed to the evolutionary rise of vertebrates.
In the new study, Peter Holland and his Oxford colleague Ferdinand Marletaz collaborated with experts in gene regulation from the Spanish National Research Council (Seville), Centre for Genomic Regulation (Barcelona)and National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS, France), to ask how gene regulation – the switching on and off of genes – differs between vertebrates and a close non-vertebrate relative, amphioxus. The work, published by the prestigious scientific journal Nature, examines genomes, plus ‘epigenomic’ and gene expression data, revealing functional changes associated with the evolution of higher complexity in the vertebrates.
Choosing amphioxus was key to this work”, explains Holland, “because of its evolutionary position. Amphioxus are beautiful marine animals that look like very small fish, but they are not true fish – they are close relatives of

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Retrieved Text: While learning about animals, Lower Elementary students engaged in classifying animals based on their characteristics.
First, they learned to identify and divide them into Vertebrates and Invertebrates. Then they further categorized the Vertebrates into Mammals / Fish / Amphibians / Birds / and Reptiles.
The students also worked on finding the different habitats of various animals, such as rain forest, jungle, ocean and desert.
Finally, they discussed the food chain and categorized animals as carnivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous.

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Retrieved Text: x SB875 was successfully added to your cart! View Cart.
Part of the Animal Kingdom Series, Backpack Bear's Bird Book is a delightful informational text to understand these warm blooded vertebrates. Readers will learn about general characteristics of birds, variations between species, hatchlings, habitat, diet, and migration. The book includes vivid photographs, a rich glossary, index, and "Can you guess what animals these are by looking at their feet?" page. Use this text to inspire your children's presentation skills and extend their range of writing.

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Retrieved Text: The impact of conservation on the status of the world's vertebrates.
Using data for 25,780 species categorized on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, we present an assessment of the status of the world's vertebrates. One-fifth of species are classified as Threatened, and we show that this figure is increasing: On average, 52 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians move one category closer to extinction each year. However, this overall pattern conceals the impact of conservation successes, and we show that the rate of deterioration would have been at least one-fifth again as much in the absence of these. Nonetheless, current conservation efforts remain insufficient to offset the main drivers of biodiversity loss in these groups: agricultural expansion, logging, overexploitation, and invasive alien species.

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Retrieved Text: Marine birds or seabirds make their living by feeding off marine invertebrates and vertebrates (aka fish) from the back-bays and estuaries to more than 60 miles from the coast.
Most seabirds have excellent vision so they can locate their prey from the air. Seabirds generally will feed on a lot of the same species that marine gamefish target, so by identifying and knowing your marine birds, it can help clue you in on the type of baitfish and gamefish that is feeding in the area.
Just as the old fishing adage goes, “big baits equals big fish,” indicates the use of over-sized offerings to entice the largest fish in the group. When you see birds on the water, the size of the bird species will generally indicate a size or type of baitfish.
Small terns and gulls will feed on smaller baitfish like anchovies, silversides and smelt. Birds of the larger variety, such as gannets and herring gulls will target larger baitfish similar to herring and menhaden. This will greatly narrow down for the most optimal lure selection when targeting a particular species.
Seabirds, like all animals, expend energy from a variety of processes (movement, digestion, breeding, etc), so they need to use and conserve energy wisely. For this reason, if they can not locate bait efficiently in the vast open ocean, then they will eventually die due to more calories being expended then replenished.
Birds that are flying with their heads scanning the surface are in a “searching” mode, which means they have not located baitfish/gamefish but are actively looking.

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Retrieved Text: Free-living vertebrates likely encounter many stressors throughout their lifetime, from fighting off a predator to coping with unpredictable weather. As a result, vertebrates will mount an acute response to the stressors. Here, we outline previous research conducted in behavioral endocrinology and stress physiology as it relates to our research. We then discuss our study with white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) in Tioga Pass Meadow, in which we examined how the acute stress response affects foraging behavior 24 hours after a stressor. In birds that underwent a stress series, we found there to be a significant 57% decrease in foraging behavior 24 hours following the stressor. Additionally, we found no significant difference in foraging of unstressed birds during this same time frame. Our findings suggest that the acute stress response in this species causes a reduction in foraging activity 24 hours following a stressful event.
Osborne, Sarah C., "Effect of the Acute Stress Response on Foraging Behavior in Mountain White-Crowned Sparrows, Zonotrichia Leucophrys" (2015). Scripps Senior Theses. 573.

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Retrieved Text: Should We Expect to Find Transitional Forms in the Fossil Record?
A favorite argument of creationists has always been the lack of transitional organisms preserved in the fossil record. The argument goes like this: If one basic type of animal evolved into another basic type, it must have passed through "in between" stages, or transitional forms. Whether or not these transitions were ever preserved as fossils, they must have existed. In fact, they must have existed by the trillions.
Consider an evolutionary favorite—the evolution of a four-legged land animal (variously described as cow-like or wolf-like), into a whale. Surely this incredible transition couldn't take place in just a few steps—legs into flippers, fur into oily skin, etc. Where are the transitional forms?
In general, evolutionists are quick to admit the almost complete lack of transitional fossils. In fact, many of the current leaders in evolutionary thought have made their careers attempting to explain this lack by proposing that evolution of isolated groups went so rapidly in the past that no individuals of the in-between forms were fossilized. Why should we expect to find fossils of organisms which existed only for a short time? Furthermore, they point out that fossilization rarely occurs today. It usually takes massive flooding and rapid burial.
But then a new question arises. How complete is the fossil record? Can we legitimately expect to find these transitions?
Dr. Michael Denton, an agnostic but a decided non-evolutionist compiled a chart on "The Adequacy of the Fossil Record" in his book, Evolution: A Theory In Crisis, by comparing the number

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Retrieved Text: Glasgow Museums has an extensive and internationally significant natural history collection. It comprises over 585,000 specimens, which date from about 2,800 million years ago in the Precambrian to the present. This collection is one of the largest owned by a local authority in the UK. It includes specimens that range from tiny insects to large mammals, and which come from all over the world. Many parts of the collection have a strong emphasis on the British Isles and Scotland in particular. The collection is divided into three categories. Geology comprises fossils, minerals and rocks. Botany covers the major plant and fungi kingdoms – algae, flowering plants and ferns, mosses and liverworts, and fungi. Zoology contains vertebrates – fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals – and invertebrates, including arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, corals and other smaller groups. The collection notably has many unique and unusual specimens, including more than 1,500 type, figured and cited specimens, which are invaluable for taxonomic research.

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Retrieved Text: Invertebrates are animals that have no backbones. They account for 97% of all known animal species. Vertebrates have one phylum (Chordata) that covers Amphibians, Birds, Fish, Mammals, and Reptiles. Invertebrates have over 30 phylum including sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, segmented worms, mollusks, arthropods, insects, centipedes & millipedes, crustaceans, arachnids, and more. Where vertebrates have endoskeletons (typically bony structures with an outer covering), invertebrates have exoskeletons (an external skeleton that supports and protects the animal.) So from the flatworm to the octopus, the stink bug to butterfly, invertebrates are very diverse. Here at Scovill Zoo, you will see all sorts of “free range” invertebrates. Look for ants, butterflies, spiders, bees, and beetles walking, flying, crawling, and standing motionless. We have a few invertebrates in our herpaquarium. We have Emperor Scorpions, Hissing Cockroaches from Madagascar, and tarantula.

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Retrieved Text: Every organisms living on this earth is unique in itself. This uniqueness of each living individual is the basis of the great differences or diversity of the living world. The type of living organism found in one place is entirely different from organisms found in another place. For example, animals found in plains is different from the animals found in mountains or hilly regions. In fact different places, in different part of the world have their own typical kind of living Organisms. The degree of diversity in the living world is endless.
With such vast differences and large number, it is very difficult to study each and every living organism separately, at the individual level. Therefore to study and understand the life of animals effectively they have been classified into different groups, on the basis of certain criteria.
The animals are broadly divided into two major groups based on the presence or absence of the major characteristic feature, that is, the back bone.
Invertebrates are those animals which do not have a backbone or vertebral column. They are considered to be primitive form of life on the earth. A large variety of small animals like insects, worms, slugs, snail, spider and scorpion etc. belong to this group. A surprising fact is, earth is home to more insects than any other kind of animal. Insets are very unique, among all living creatures on the Earth.
The body of an insect is divided into three parts head, thorax and the abdomen. The head contains the mouth, the eyes and the antennas. Some

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Retrieved Text: In this course we will focus on the evolution, ecology, conservation and management of vertebrates (i.e., birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals). We will use a variety of sources (e.g., textbooks, primary literature, web sites, samples) to explore these topics.
Wildlife Biology is each Fall Semester. BIOL 4300 is the undergraduate section and BIOL 5300 is the graduate section.
Students are challenged with adopting a wildlife species and writing about its evolution, ecology and conservation, evaluating case studies, readings with class discussions, hands-on exercises using real data, and issue debates.
Understand the evolution of vertebrates and the distinguishing characteristics of each group.
Develop good problem solving skills and approaches.
Enhance ability to critique scientific literature and communicate your ideas readily to others.
Aquire an appreciation of the extent and nature of human impacts on natural systems.

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Retrieved Text: Neonicotinoid insecticides are widely used in agriculture to prevent damage caused by insect pests. Owing to their mode of action, they have been considered much less toxic to vertebrates than insects. However, seed-eating vertebrates may be exposed to sublethal doses when they consume treated seeds, and studies suggest that sublethal effects, such as reduction of feeding, movement impairment or loss of functional reproduction may be induced at doses lower than the ones with acute toxicity. However, no studies have investigated whether very low chronic sublethal doses (e.g. daily doses of 0.05% of the LD50 over several weeks) of neonicotinoids have any impact on complex behavioural traits such as cognitive capacities. Using an experimental approach, my project aims to provide insights into the effects of chronic sublethal doses of neonicotinoids on the behaviours, the cognitive capacities and the physiology of small birds.

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Retrieved Text: At first glance, little animals like grey geckos and big ones like whale sharks don’t seem to have much in common. Researchers examining extensive data on body mass and threat status have recently discovered, however, that larger and smaller vertebrate species worldwide are more likely to go extinct than those in between, mostly due to human impacts.
“In addition to the largest animals being highly threatened, the smallest vertebrates were also highly threatened,” said William Ripple, first author on the paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Ripple, a distinguished professor with Oregon State University, had come across a couple bird and mammal studies that suggested bigger species faced greater extinction risk. To test whether this pattern held true across vertebrates, his team compiled the most comprehensive existing global dataset on vertebrate body mass, covering over 27,000 species of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, cartilaginous fish and bony fish. Combining these numbers with endangerment classifications for each species from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the scientists formulated models to investigate the extinction probability looming over vertebrates based on their size.
Large-bodied vertebrates may be highly imperiled in part because they have slow life history traits and require vast habitat, Ripple said, but also because humans hunt, fish and trap them for meat and other purposes. Smaller animals, on the other hand, have limited geographic ranges and suffer from habitat degradation and loss driven by human activities.
Ripple urged careful harvest management and landscape conservation for large species and habitat protection for small species, particularly terrestrial

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Retrieved Text: This proposal will investigate how a substance (hormone) from the brain of a primitive fish, sea lamprey, controls reproductive functions. This substance from the brain is a protein called gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is present in all brains of all vertebrates including mammals (which includes humans), birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Most studies on this brain substance have been done in mammals. More information is needed in other vertebrates. In mammals, many analogs (related compounds to gonadotropin-releasing hormone) have been made and used in research to test these proteins as conceptive and contraceptive measures. Some of these gonadotropin- releasing hormone analogs are presently being used in therapeutic clinical applications (breast cancer, prostatic cancer, etc.). Before these analogs could be made, numerous studies were (and are) necessary for the basic understanding on how these substances function. Dr. Sower's studies will focus on the basic understanding of how this gonadotropin releasing hormone works in a very primitive fish. Knowledge of the structure and function of this protein in vertebrates other than mammals will further our understanding of reproduction in vertebrates. In addition, these studies may lead to the development of gonadotropin- releasing hormone analogs which could be used for controlling reproduction in sea lampreys. One of the major goals of the Fisheries Commission is the development of a lamprey control program that will include not only the use of lamprey poisons in streams but also the development of contraceptive methods for reducing the numbers of sea lampreys in the Great Lakes Region. These investigations will include if gonadotropin-releasing

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Retrieved Text: The egg laying group of vertebrates those typically have power of flying. The beaks, wings and feathers makes them unique from other species. Birds also classified into different groups in accordance with their diet, wingspan, mating…etc.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

An ionic compound contains positive and negative ions.


Q: What type of ions do ionic compounds contain?

 Choices:

- negative and neutal

- positive and charged

- regular and irregular

- negative and neutal

A:

Target Text: positive and negative

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: A conductor is a substance which conducts electricity but is not chemically changed during the conduction.
Electrolytes are compounds that can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous solution. Examples of electrolytes are acids, alkalis and salts dissolved in water or molten salts. All these are ionic substances.
A non-electrolyte is a liquid which does not allow the passage of electricity. Examples of non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes and strong electrolytes.
Most of the electrolytes are wither liquid (molten) ionic compounds or the aqueous solution of ionic compounds.
Figure below shows the arrangement of ions of solid sodium chloride, molten sodium chloride and aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
In solid, the ions are not free to move whereas in liquid (molten) and in aqueous solution, the ions can move freely.
Q: Explain why solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity.
In solid ionic substances, the ions are held together in fixed positions by strong forces.
There are no free moving charge particles presences in solid ionic substances.
Q: Explain why molten sodium chloride can conduct electricity while molten naphthalene cannot?
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. Molten sodium chloride can conduct electricity because of the presence of the free moving ions in the liquid.
Naphthalene is a covalent compound. It does not contain any ions. Therefore, molten naphthalene cannot conduct electricity.
Most covalent compounds are non-electrolyte. However, some covalent compound such as hydrogen chloride and ammonia are electrolyte because they react with water to produce ions.
In electrolytic cell, electric current is flowed through an electrolyte to produce a chemical reaction. Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy, and the process is

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Retrieved Text: What two subatomic particles are in the nucleus of an atom?
What charge do protons have?
What charge do neutrons have?
No charge, they are neutral.
What charge do electrons have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons, how many protons does it have?
Fluorine has 9 electrons how many neutrons does it have?
What charge to atoms have?
What happens when electrons are added to an atom?
It becomes a negative ion.
What happens when electrons are removed from an atom?
It become a positive ion.
How many types of atom do elements contain?
Why do Lithium and Rubidium react in similar ways?
Because they both have one electron in their outer shells. They are both in the same group also.
Because they have a complete outer shell (8), which means they are stable.
Why is argon used in filament bulbs?
Because argon has a full outer shell and so won't react with the hot tungsten in the filament.
What happens when different elements react with each other?
They form chemical bonds known as compounds.
a metal and a non-metal.
In ionic compounds do metals loose or gain electrons?
They loose electrons forming positive ions.
In ionic compounds do non-metals loose or gain electrons?
They gain electrons forming negative ions.
When atoms gain or loose electrons.
When a metalled a non-metal bond ionically do they share or give electrons?
Why are ionic bonds attracted to each other?
Because of the negative and positive ions.
When negative and positive ions are attracted to each other. They give electrons away in this process.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
what is the electronic arrangement of the first 3 shells?

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Retrieved Text: Compounds are mixtures of elements bonded together to make one material. Compounds can contain two or more elements. Those elements have to be found in a specific ratio. Two materials that contain the same two elements bonded together, but in different ratios, are two different compounds. Two materials that contain two different pairs of elements bonded together, but in the same ratio, would still be different compounds.
In nature, elements are found bound up in compounds more often than not. One common way for elements to be bound together is to form a salt. Salts are found very frequently in the earth's crust. A salt contains both anions and cations. Cations are not generally found alone. Anions are not generally found alone. They need counterions to balance out their charges.
Imagine two atoms get together to form a salt. A sodium atom comes together with a fluorine atom. The sodium atom lets one of its electrons go, and the fluorine atoms snatches it up. Now there is a sodium cation and a fluoride anion. The two ions are held together by the attractive forces between their opposite charges. They have formed a salt.
Anions and cations are always found together.
The charges on the cations must balance the charges on the anions.
For example, sodium chloride is a very common ionic compound. It is the main component of table salt, used in cooking. Sodium chloride contains sodium ions, each with a +1 charge, and chloride ions, each with a -1 charge. Overall, the compound has no charge, because the positive sodiums

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Retrieved Text: Acid: In everyday life we deal with many compounds that chemists classify as acids. For example, orange juice and grapefruit juice contain citric acid. Bases: Bases are ionic compounds containing metal ions and hydroxide ions. For example, sodium hydroxide contains sodium ions and hydroxide ions. When sodium metal is placed in water, sodium hydroxide is formed and hydrogen gas is released. Salts: Many chemical compounds may be classified as salts. The salt most familiar to all of us is table salt -- sodium chloride.

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Retrieved Text: Search Writing Chemistry Formulas. Visit & Lookup Immediate Results Now.
Check Out Chemistry Formulas on eBay. Fill Your Cart With Color Today!
Don't Waste Any Time, Find Writing Chemistry Formulas On Zenya, Now!
Writing the chemical formula of compounds requires identifying chemical symbols, understanding numbers in formulas and recognizing key prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes like bi- and tri- help identify the number of ions in a molecule. Compounds such as stannous fluoride use non-standard terminology.
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions. Writing a formula for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions also involves the same steps as for a binary ionic compound. Write the symbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion.
While there are many thousands of different chemical compounds there is a very definite system of nomenclature whereby we can name or write chemical formulas for most compounds. We divide the compounds into two main types – binary compounds and ternary compounds. Binary Compounds . All true binary compounds contain only two elements.
Title: Writing Chemical Formulas and Naming Compounds 1 Writing Chemical Formulas and Naming Compounds 2 Ions and charges. Main groups on the periodic table ; Positive ions (cations) name of element followed by the word ion ; Negative ions (anions) drop the ending of the name and add the suffix ide. Then add the word ion.
Chemical Compounds Practice Quiz This online quiz is intended to give you extra practice in naming compounds, writing formulas and calculating molar masses (formula weights). Select your preferences below and click 'Start' to give

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Retrieved Text: Defects : These are basically irregularities in the arrangement of constituent particles. Defects are of two types which are point defects and line defects.
Note : Defects in crystals are due to the fast or moderate speed of crystallisation.
Point Defects : This is the deviation from ideal structure around a point or atom in a solid.
Line Defects : This is the deviation from ideal structure in entire rows or lattice points. These irregularities are called crystal defects.
In this, Stoichiometry of the solid does not change. They are called intrinsic or thermodynamic defects.
(i) Vacancy Defect : This is due to the vacancy present in the crystal. Due to this, density of crystal decreases. This defect can develop when a substance is heated.
(ii) Interstitial Defect : In this, some constituent particles occupy an interstitial site. Due to this defect, density of the substance increases.
Note : (i) Both these defects are shown by non-ionic solids.
(ii) Ionic crystals always maintain electrical neutrality.
(iii) Vacancy and interstitial defects are shown as frankel and schottky defects.
(i) Shown by ionic compounds.
(ii) In this, smaller ion (usually cation) is dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial site.
(iii) It creats a vacancy defects at its original site and an interstitial defect at its new location.
(iv) Also called dislocation defect.
(v) Density of the solid remains same.
(vi) Shown by ionic compounds which have large difference in the size of ions.
(i) It is a vacancy defect.
(ii) Shown by ionic compounds.
(iv) Density of the solid decreases.
(v) No. of defects in solid is quite significant. e.g. there are `10^6` schottky pairs

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Retrieved Text: What Elements Tend to Form Ionic Compounds?
The elements that tend to form ionic compounds include cadmium, chromium, cobalt, iron, gold, copper, nickel, manganese, mercury, silver, zinc, tin, bismuth and lead. In the periodic table, these elements belong to the B group of the transition metals and groups IVA and VA of the post-transition metals.
Ionic compounds are formed from the chemical bonding of metals with nonmetals or the combination of metals with polyatomic ions. These compounds consists of electrically charged particles known as ions, which occur when neutral atoms or molecules either gain or lose electrons. Some examples of ionic compounds are ferrous hydroxide, chromium phosphate and mercury(I) chloride.
Search Example Of Ionic Compound.

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Retrieved Text: In this module we're going to look at molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations.
exactly the change that's happening in a reaction between two ionic compounds.
up until now are were actually molecular equations.
dealing with the reaction between two ionic compounds.
we first need to look at the complete ionic equation.
And from that we can then get to the net ionic equation.
So we're going to look at the process of how we go from one to two to three.
From molecular to the complete ionic to the net ionic.
those ionic compounds are going to dissociate into their ions.
What I have are ammonium ions, sulfide ions, copper ions, and nitrate ions.
But this is the molecular equation that shows these as molecules.
It's not necessarily showing us the chemical change that's happening.
Then we can go do a complete ionic equation.
To do this, we simply show anything that's dissolved.
So that anything that's labeled as aqueous in the ionic form.
Because that's how it actually exists in water.
has been broken down into ammonium ions and sulfide ions.
Copper nitrate becomes copper ions and nitrate ions.
copper sulfide remains as CuS because it's solid, it's insoluble in water.
And so that's the precipitate that forms from this reaction.
going to do is look for those ions that are actually not involved in the reaction.
things that do not change from the reactant side to the product side.
in this case our ammonium ion, and the phase is aqueous.
aqueous, I notice these are exactly the same.
go from left to right.
but on the right sulfur is now in a compound.
ion of sulfide to having sulfur

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Retrieved Text: CHEMISTRY: So did today help? How’s it going with writing formulas and naming compounds? On the worksheet for tonight, write the formula in one column and in the other column, write the name of the formula you just wrote – just like we did today in class. Lab tomorrow, don’t forget the lab write-up!
A couple of important announcements: The polyatomic ion quiz will be Monday, not Tuesday. Also, don’t forget to turn your AIG trip permission slip in on Thursday.
Speaking of class – bad day for recording, especially when the teacher forgets to turn on the mic! Here’s the vodcast, but with no sound. I’m still posting it, however, because I want you have access to the “Naming Chemical Formulas” flow chart that I showed you in class today. Copy this chart into your notes and use it every time you write a chemical formula name until you can do it correctly without looking!
CHEMISTRY: Okay, I’m not saying that learning to name and write chemical formulas is as bad as a jellyfish sting, but you do have to really, really pay attention to the details!! Here’s the lecture from today on writing formulas and names for binary molecular compounds. Part of it’s really similar to what you learned to do last week for ionic compounds, but another part is totally different.
Make sure you keep everything straight. Do something that will organize all the information for you, so you won’t get confused. Also, don’t forget the lists you have to memorize, especially the one for next Tuesday

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Retrieved Text: Writing And Naming Polyatomic Compounds Worksheet. formulas with polyatomic ions worksheet worksheets releaseboard free printable worksheets and. writing and naming ionic compounds worksheet worksheets releaseboard free printable worksheets. free worksheets polyatomic ions worksheet free math worksheets for kidergarten and preschool. naming ionic compound worksheet free worksheets library download and print worksheets free. polyatomic ion worksheet free worksheets library download and print worksheets free on. worksheet writing chemical formulas worksheet grass fedjp worksheet study site. name writing compounds with transition metals. printables writing ionic compound formula worksheet answers kigose thousands of printable. worksheet writing formulas for ionic compounds worksheet grass fedjp worksheet study site. writing formulas and naming compounds worksheet the large and most comprehensive worksheets. [Janefondasworkout.com].

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Retrieved Text: We are going to be looking at reactions in aqueous solutions (in water). The reason for this is that in order for a reaction to occur, the atoms, molecules and ions have to be able to interact with each other. They can do this if they are in either liquid or gaseous phase, but it is harder for this to happen if the compounds in question are in solid phase. While you can have solutions of solids, liquids or gases, but we will speak almost entirely on liquids. By convention, we call the thing that is present in greater concentration the "solvent" (this is the thing doing the dissolving) and the thing that is dissolved in it is called the "solute" (this is the thing dissolved).
BTW, here are the pages from the white board today.
The definition is functional: a solution that conducts electricity. In practice, this means that there are ions in solution, as opposed to molecules, since it is the presence of positive and negative ions that allows conductivity. Any electrolyte must involve some ions separating from each other. If a compound produces a lot of ions in solutions, such as when an ionic compound like NaCl dissolves, it is a strong electrolyte. Things that ionize only a little, like weak acids, will be weak conductors. Weak electrolytes, weak acids and weak conductors should be linked in your mind. A strong acid results in a low pH and will be good a conductor. Strong and weak bases will be analogous.
Solutions of ionic compounds in water

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Retrieved Text: How can you tell whether a given chemical formula is an ionic compound or not? How can we derive their names?
This video continues on from the previous video on the basics of ions, and seeks to answer these questions with some simple examples. These are some examples that you might expect in a junior science class, however a future video will help explain some of the more advanced name/formula situations, as well as their physical properties.
How to identify an ionic compound?
Ionic compounds are made of ions; cations and anions bound together by electrostatic attraction (opposite charges attract); this requires a combination of metals and non-metals. This is because metals tend to give their valence (outer shell) electrons away, making them positively charged ions, and non-metals tend to steal electrons to complete their valence shell (outer electron shell), making them negatively charged ions. This method will not always work as there are some exceptions like steel (Carbon & Iron), but will work for most compounds.
Another method of identifying ionic compounds is to examine their physical properties; however this will be covered in a later video.

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Retrieved Text: The solute is the substance that is present in the smaller amount. The solvent is the substance that is present in the larger amount. Either may be a solid, liquid or gas although some solute/solution combinations are more common. A concentrated solution has a relatively large quantity of s specific solute per unit amount of solution, a dilute solution has a relatively small quantity of the same solute per unit ammount of solution. Solubility is a measure of how much solute will dissolve in a given amount of solvent and a given temperature. A solution that can exist in equilibrium with undissolved solute is a saturated solution. A solution whose concentration corresponds to the solubility limit is therefore saturated. If the concentration of solute is less than the solubility limit, it is unsaturated. Under carefully controlled conditions, a solution can be produced in which the concentration of solute is greater than the normal solubility limit. such a solution is said to be supersaturated. Miscible and immiscible are terms usually limited to solutions of liquids in liquids. If two liquids dissolve in each other in all proportions they are said to be miscible. If two liquids are insoluble in each other, they are said to be immiscible.
The dissolving process depends on surface area. A finelydivided solid offers more surface area per unit of mass than a coarsly divided solid. Therefore a finely divided solid dissolves more rapidly.
In a still solution, concentration builds up around the solute surface, causing a higher re-crystallization rate than would be present ifthe

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Retrieved Text: Describe the main differences between Sn1 and Sn2 substitution reactions, and describe the trends for transition-state stability/reactivity.
Sn1 substitution occurs via a stable intermediate, a carbocation, in a two-step pathway. Generally, the reactant gets deprotonated in the first step to form a carbocation in which the positive charge is retained on this intermediate substrate. The second step involves a nucleophile donating electron charge to form the product. The rate determining step is unimolecular. Reactivity: allylic ~ tertiary > secondary > primary substrates. Sn2 substitution occurs via a one-step pathway, in which the nucleophile bonds to the reactant and the reactant leaving group leaves in the same step (concerted mechanism). Due to this kinetic behavior, Sn2 reaction rate is bimolecular and does not proceed through a stable intermediate. Reactivity: allylic ~ primary > secondary > tertiary substrates.
When elements combine to form compounds, ionic or covalent bonding can occur. Define ionic and covalent compounds, and describe characteristics of each bonding type.
Ionic compounds are formed when electrons are donated from one atom to another in order to form a bond. Examples include metals forming salts (Na Cl). Characteristics of ionic compounds include: reacting of positive and negative ions to form ionic bonds; formation of solid salts; high melting and boiling points; strong attraction force between particles to form lattice structures; ionic compounds separate (dissociate) in water to form electrolyte solutions that can conduct electricity. Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms to form a bond. Examples include non-metals forming neutral compounds (H2O, water). Characteristics of covalent compounds

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Retrieved Text: A single grain of sand contains about 2.3 x 10^19 silicon dioxide molecules. That may seem like a lot, but that sand grain contains even more atoms than molecules, since each silicon dioxide molecule is made up of three atoms. Relationships exist between atoms, ions, molecules and compounds, but these entities also have significant differences.
Atoms are incredibly tiny particles that make up everything. If you could peek inside one, you'd see one or more tiny electrons orbiting a nucleus, the central location where larger protons and neutrons reside. Protons have positive charges, electrons have negative charges and neutrons are electrically neutral. Atoms themselves are electrically neutral when they contain the same number of electrons and protons. Each proton and neutron in an atom consists of three smaller particles called quarks.
An ion differs from a regular atom because it contains an unequal number of electrons and protons. If an atom loses electrons, it acquires a positive charge. Gaining electrons creates a negatively charged atom. An ion has reactivity and chemical properties that differ from a neutral atom. A spectacular display of ionic activity occurs when the sun's ultraviolet light hits gas molecules in a comet's coma creating an ion tail.
Larger than an atom, a molecule is a group of bonded atoms. Atoms can combine in various ways to form molecules and compounds. An element, such as gold, is composed of molecules of only one type of atom, while compounds have different types of atoms. You can tell how many atoms of each kind exist in a molecule

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Retrieved Text: In metallic bonding the attraction is between cations and a mass of delocalised electrons. The electrons move between the cations which form a lattice. This lattice structure depends on the metal.
Electrical conductivity: the electrons in metals are delocalised. This means that when a potential difference is applied they can move in a certain direction and, therefore, conduct electricity. This is the case whether the metal is in a solid state or a liquid state.
Melting and boiling points: the attraction between ions is not as strong as in ionic compounds however it is still strong. This means that the melting and boiling points are relatively high.
Non-directional bonding: non-directional bonding means that it does not matter how cations are oriented in terms of each other as there are always delocalised electrons around to hold them together. This means that cations are able to move over each other quite easily making most metals are ductile and malleable.
Oppositely charged ions form ionic bonds. Once formed, ions build up lattices. In this structure, all cations are surrounded by anions and all anions are surrounded by cations.
The number of oppositely charges ions which surround an ion within an ionic solid is its coordination number. Different substances have different coordination numbers however they tend to be 4, 6 or 8.
The melting and boiling points of an ionic compound are very high because the attraction between ions is very strong. A lot of kinetic energy is needed to overcome this attraction.
As a liquid, the ions are still charged and so the attraction between them

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Retrieved Text: There are many compounds which have ionic bonds. They are called ionic compounds, and they are formed when metals react with nonmetals. In section 5.1.1 we saw an example of an ionic compound.
Recall from section 4.6, a magnesium atom loses its 2 outer-shell electron to become a magnesium ion, (i.e. cation). The magnesium metal is said to be oxidized.
Recall from section 4.7, chlorine is a diatomic element. The covalently bonded Cl2 molecule gains two electrons to become two chloride ions, (i.e. anions). Chlorine is said to be reduced.
Combining the above oxidation and reduction processess, the overall effect is the transfer of TWO electrons from magnesium to chlorine.
The oppositely charged of the magnesium and chloride ions attract each other and ionic bonds are formed. In the solid state, each cation is surrounded by anions, and each anion is surrounded by cations. The simplest ratio of Mg+2 : Cl- is 1:2. The simplest formula for this ionic compound is MgCl2.

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Retrieved Text: Explain why some molecules do not dissolve in water.
Water dissociates salts by separating the cations and anions and forming new interactions between the water and ions.
Water dissolves many biomolecules, because they are polar and therefore hydrophilic.
dissociationThe process by which a compound or complex body breaks up into simpler constituents such as atoms or ions, usually reversibly.
hydration shellThe term given to a solvation shell (a structure composed of a chemical that acts as a solvent and surrounds a solute species) with a water solvent; also referred to as a hydration sphere.
Sugar, sodium chloride, and hydrophilic proteins are all substances that dissolve in water.
Oils, fats, and certain organic solvents do not dissolve in water because they are hydrophobic.
Water, which not only dissolves many compounds but also dissolves more substances than any other liquid, is considered the universal solvent. A polar molecule with partially-positive and negative charges, it readily dissolves ions and polar molecules. Water is therefore referred to as a solvent: a substance capable of dissolving other polar molecules and ionic compounds. The charges associated with these molecules form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water molecules. This is referred to as a sphere of hydration, or a hydration shell, and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water.
When ionic compounds are added to water, individual ions interact with the polar regions of the water molecules during the dissociation process, disrupting their ionic bonds. Dissociation occurs when atoms or groups of atoms break off from molecules and form ions. Consider table salt (NaCl,

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Retrieved Text: I ammonia an ion when it is dissolved in water?
The anoxic layer also contains high concentrations of ammonia and phosphate. These chemicals are almost completely absent from the upper layer.
1. Is it technically correct to call ammonia (NH3?) an ion when it is dissolved in water. I understand that salt (NaCl) disassociates when dissolved in water. Does ammonia do something similar?
2. If ammonia did disassociate in water what does it disassociate into?
3. Does dissolution in water generally involve some kind of disassociation? Would the disassociated components generally be called ions? For instance does glucose disassociate when dissolved in water or for the most part are there just complete glucose molecules floating in water in a glucose solution.
I have more questions but for the most part I don't know enough to ask good questions on this. I am really looking for just a little general information about the nature of solutes and in particular how should the sentences in the Jellyfish Lake article linked to above be worded to be correct.
It is incorrect to call ammonia an ion. It is a molecule.
Ammonia does not dissociate, but it does ionize in solution to a small degree. NH3 + H2O <-> NH4+ + OH-. The degree depends on conditions, but is unlikely to be above 5%.
Only for ionic compounds (and acids). Glucose and ammonia are neither.
Thanks for the response. Could you confirm that I understand all this correctly?
1. Only a small percentage of the ammonia dissolved in water turns into ions so the use of the term "ammonia ions"

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Retrieved Text: However, merchandise marketed as silver hydrosol are literally adverts for ionic silver products that are usually 95% ionic silver. Covalent silver is the newest within the ionic name game. Once you learn the detailed description for covalent silver you will eventually find that the time period is referring to silver ions. What is Ionic Silver? Technically speaking, a silver ion is an atom of silver that is missing one electron. The outermost electrons of an atom decide the physical properties of the matter. Take away one electron from a silver atom and you get a silver hydrosol by reduction with ferrous citrate ion. Ionic silver will not be the identical as metallic silver, silver particles or colloidal silver. Colloidal silver is made up of tiny nanoparticles of metallic silver. The particles are full and do not mix with different parts. In its ionic kind, silver is highly reactive with other elements, and will readily mix to type compounds.
These names are used to hide the truth from you. You’re getting an ionic silver answer, not colloidal silver. If the product is clear, like water with sugar dissolved in it, it is ionic silver, not colloidal silver. Colloidal silver has an obvious colour. This can be a colloidal silver fact. HOW To check IT. Add desk salt to the product. If silver ions are current, the answer ought to turn cloudy. If it stays clear, nonetheless, it could merely imply no silver is present in any respect. Unfortunately, lab evaluation has proven that some “silver” products include absolutely

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Retrieved Text: The Bonding chapter of this High School Chemistry Help and Review course is the simplest way to master chemistry. This chapter uses simple and fun videos that are about five minutes long, plus lesson quizzes and a chapter exam to ensure students learn the essentials of chemical bonding.
Verify you're ready by completing the Bonding chapter exam.
Be Ready on Test Day: Use the Bonding chapter exam to be prepared.
Get Extra Support: Ask our subject-matter experts any chemical bonding question. They're here to help!
Mom always said that sharing is caring. This lesson will explore how electrons affect the chemical reactivity of atoms and specifically the merits of sharing electrons.
Did you know that the scientific name for table salt is sodium chloride? Find out how sodium and chlorine atoms come together to form your favorite seasoning.
Are you confused about how you can tell what kind of bond two atoms will form? This lesson will help you understand the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds as well as how to predict how two atoms will interact.
This lesson defines and discusses important concepts behind hydrogen bonding. You'll learn when and why these bonds occur and which atoms are often involved.
Learn the octet rule and how it applies to electron energy levels. Identify valence electrons and learn how to determine them by looking at the periodic table. Also, discover how they pertain to the octet rule. Learn how to draw the Lewis diagram of an atom, and understand how it provides clues to chemical bonding.
Learn how ions are formed using the

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Retrieved Text: Atoms gain or lose electrons in order to achieve a noble gas configuration (an octet). The formula for the ionic compound zinc chloride is ##"ZnCl"_2##. When forming an ion, a zinc atom loses its two valence electrons, becoming a ##"Zn"^"2+"## ion. The chlorine atom has seven valence electrons, and will gain one valence electron to form a chloride ion, ##"Cl"^"1-"##. Ionic compounds are neutral, which means that the sum of the positive charges and the negative charges must equal zero. Therefore, two chloride ions, ##"Cl"^"1-"## must bond with one zinc ion, ##"Zn"^"2+"##. The sum of the positive two charge on the zinc and the negative one charge on the two chloride ions equals zero. The ionic bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

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Retrieved Text: Chemical bonding and structure MCQs, chemical bonding and structure quiz answers, O level chemistry test 1 to learn chemistry online courses. Learn ionic compounds: crystal lattices multiple choice questions (MCQs), chemical bonding and structure quiz questions and answers for study abroad scholarships exams. Practice assessment test on ionic compounds: crystal lattices, molecules and macromolecules, ions and ionic bonds, transfer of electrons test prep for online chemicals courses distance learning.
Practice chemical bonding and structure career test with multiple choice question: metals are solids, except, for distance learning chemistry degree programs with options selenium, helium, mercury, potassium with common interview questions and answers for online pre-employment assessment of job seekers. Prepare jobs' assessment test for learning online ionic compounds: crystal lattices quiz questions for chemistry major, competitive assessment tests.

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Retrieved Text: Colloidal silver facts abound, but misinformation about colloidal silver facts is also plentiful. Our purpose here is to provide three colloidal silver facts, coupled with warnings.
Products sold under the general label "colloidal silver" may actually be any one of three distinct products.
Most products labeled and sold as colloidal silver are, unfortunately, ionic silver. This is because it is so much easier and less costly to produce this type of silver product. Among misrepresented colloidal silver facts, this is perhaps the most common.
Ionic silver products are made up of silver ions and silver particles. Using electrolysis, the manufacturer produces silver ions. Silver ions are really dissolved silver. Because most of the silver (about 90%) in ionic silver products is dissolved silver instead of silver particles, these are really solutions of silver.
These products are frequently advertised as containing silver ions that are small silver particles. That is confusing, however, since silver ions are different from silver particles.
Silver ions combine with chloride ions to form silver chloride, but silver particles do not.
Some manufacturers hide the identity of their ionic silver behind terms such as monatomic silver and silver hydrosol. These names are used to hide the truth from you. You are getting an ionic silver solution, not colloidal silver.
If the product is clear, like water with sugar dissolved in it, it is ionic silver, not colloidal silver. Colloidal silver has an apparent color. This is a colloidal silver fact.
Add table salt to the product. If silver ions are present, the solution should turn cloudy. If it remains clear, however,

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Retrieved Text: Ionic Bonding — electron transfer. Draw electron dot diagrams for given elements. This last will be welcome news to cable viewers, sure. The leaflet was signed by Rahmat Ali and three fellow students at Cambridge University.
A single dot represents one valence electron. Unfortunately this type of should be monitored. Are the octets of all the atoms filled? List of free sample resumes, resume templates, resume examples, resume formats and cover letters.
Why is H2O a dipole but CO2 is not, yet they both have 2 polar covalent bonds? Only one ion of each is needed to balance these charges. By convention, the lowest whole number ratio is used in the formulas of ionic compounds.
The melting points of the sodium halides Figure 8. To draw the Lewis electron dot diagram we picture in our minds the symbol for Mg in a box with all of its core electrons i. What we'll do is take these two up here, and let's move them between the Oxygen and Carbon; we're going to share them.
This type of arrangement, where two atoms share a pair of electrons, is known as covalent bonding, and the shared pair of electrons constitutes the covalent bond. He was forced to leave Pakistan inreturned to Cambridge and died there of influenza and a medically undiagnosed broken heart on February 3, The word first appeared in a four-page leaflet entitled Now or Never, published January 28, Oh well, a little bit of inconsistency to spice the pot.
Given its repeated appearance, I'll mention that according to its colophon, Librairie

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Retrieved Text: The COSMO-RS method, a quantum-chemically based method for the prediction of thermodynamic properties of pure and mixed fluids, has originally been developed and parameterized only for neutral compounds. Nevertheless, without any technically changes toward ions, it has been applied to the prediction of thermodynamic properties of ionic systems, as ionic liquids, dissociation into ions, i.e. pKa, Gibbs energies of transfer of ions from gas phase to water and between aqueous and organic phases, and to the prediction of ionic strength on activity coefficients of solutes in aqueous solution. In some of the cases COSMO-RS was extremely successful, but nevertheless in other situations there are severe limitations. In this talk an overview of the different ion-related applications of COSMO-RS will be given, and rules for the applicability and current limitations of COSMO-RS will be worked out.

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Retrieved Text: Chemical compounds are created when two molecules join together because of a chemical reaction, and these compounds come in two distinct forms: ionic and molecular. These types of compounds contain many structural differences and properties that distinguish them from one another, but two of the most basic are the types of bonds that hold them together, and their abilities to conduct heat or electricity.
When molecules join together to form compounds, they do so by having their atoms bond chemically to one another. Molecular compounds form with covalent bonds, which share electrons, and the mutual attraction for the shared electrons holds the molecules together. Ionic compounds, conversely, don't share electrons; they transfer them from one atom to another.
Another major characteristic of molecular compounds is that they do not conduct electricity or heat well at all. However, ionic compounds, when melted, will conduct both heat and electricity quite well.
Frostburg State University: What Properties Distinguish Molecular Compounds from Other Materials?
Cascio, Christopher. "What Are Two Major Characteristics of a Molecular Compound?" Sciencing, https://sciencing.com/two-major-characteristics-molecular-compound-12437.html. 24 April 2017.

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Retrieved Text: Early theories and observations by Dalton, Thompson, Millikan, and Rutherford shaped the way we view the modern structure of the atom.
What differentiates one atom from another is the number of protons it possesses. When the number of protons are varied, the identity of the atom is changed. Atoms are neutral species, meaning that they have the same number of protons and electrons. When the number of electrons is varied atoms form charged particles called ions. An ion with a positive charge is called a cation and an ion with a negative charge is an anion.
In addition to having varying number of electrons, atoms of a given element can also contain a varying number of neutrons, called isotopes. Since isotopes of an atom have different numbers of neutrons their mass is different.
Most of the matter we will analyze and observe does not exist as single atoms. More commonly, matter exists as molecules or ions.
Once we start to observe molecular and ionic compounds we need to come up with a system to name them. The system outlined in the videos below are the foundation of the vocabulary we use in chemistry and a knowledge of nomenclature is essential if you want to communicate with other chemists.

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Retrieved Text: Reactions that result in the formation of an insoluble product are known as precipitation reactions. A precipitate is an insoluble solid formed by a reaction in solution.
The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent. Only 1.2 X 10-3 mol of PbI2 dissolves in a liter of water at 25¡ C. In our discussions any substance with solubility of less than 0.01 mol/L will be referred to as insoluble. [PbI2 has a very low solubility in water.] In those cases the attraction between the oppositely charged ions in the solid is too great for the water molecules to separate them to any significant extent, and the substance remains largely undissolved.
All common ionic compounds of the alkali metal ions (group 1A of the periodic table) and of the ammonium ion, NH4+, are soluble in water.
Such reactions are known as exchange reactions or metathesis reactions. Precipitation reactions conform to this pattern.
Let's consider the precipitation reaction between Pb(NO3)2 and 2KI.
An equation written in this fashion, showing the complete chemical formulas of the reactants and products, is called a molecular equation, because it shows the chemical formulas of the reactants and products without indicating their ionic character.
An equation written in this form, with all soluble strong electrolytes shown as ions, is known as a complete ionic equation.
Notice that K+(aq) and NO3-(aq) appear on both sides of the equation. Ions that appear in identical forms among both the reactants and products of a complete ionic equation are called spectator

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Retrieved Text: Q.1 Take samples of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium. Note the appearance of each sample.
Sol. They appear a little shiny.
Q.2 Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing them with sand paper and note their appearance again.
Sol. They appear very shiny.
(iv) Astatine is the poorest conductor of heat among all metals. Its conductivity is less than even some non-metals like graphite.
Q.2 Explain the meanings of malleable and ductile.
Malleable : Some metals can be beaten into thin sheets. This property is called malleability.
Ductile : The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
Q.1 Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil ?
Sodium reacts with oxygen and moisture at room temperature. But, it neither react nor dissolve in kerosene. So, sodium is kept under kerosene.
(ii) calcium and potassium with water.
(i) Which s the most reactive metal ?
(ii) What would you observe if B is added to a solution of Copper (II) sulphate ?
(iii) Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of reactivity.
(i) Metals B is most reactive.
Q.4 Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal ? Write the chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
Hydrogen gas is evolved along with salt of the metal.
Q.5 What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron (II) sulphate ? Write the chemical reaction that takes place.
Zinc will displace iron from iron (II) sulphate.
Q.1 (i) Write the electron-dot structures for sodium, oxygen and magnesium.
(iii) What are the ions present in these compounds ?
Q.2

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 




Q: All living things need air and this to survive?

 Choices:

- stimuli

- habitat

- ecosystem

- water

A:

Target Text: water

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Retrieved Text: In this world, every thing that are living can breathing in air. Air is the important part of our life. There are three essential things and without this living organisms are not live and survive in this world.
That things are water, air and food. But animals, plants and human beings need air for the survival. Air are the combination of different gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen and other gases. All these gases can combine to form outer atmosphere of air.
In living organisms, every species need the different types of gases for their growth like human beings inhaled the oxygen and release the carbon dioxide during breathing but the plants use carbon dioxide for the preparation of their food in the presence of sunlight. Animals are also used oxygen for breathing.
During the last 5 to 10 years, by increasing the population the number of factories, industries, auto mobiles are increases. All these things disturb the environmental balance due to the release of dangerous gases. These dangerous gases when enters the atmosphere as a result the fresh air would be polluted.
Another factor of air pollution are the cutting of large number of trees because the trees absorb the carbon dioxide and release the oxygen and make the environment fresh.
The present situation of the environmental are so miserable, which is the great danger for the next generation because when the amount of dangerous gases increases in the atmosphere, as a result the human beings, plants and animals do not survive.
So it is the responsibility of

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Retrieved Text: Air and water are a major part of the environment.
Living things need air and water to survive.
Changes to air and water affect living things and the environment.
Our actions affect the quality of air and water, and its ability to sustain life.
demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which air and water are used by living things to help them meet their basic needs.
Rocks and minerals have unique characteristics and properties that are a result of how they were formed.
The properties of rocks and minerals determine society’s possible uses for them.
Our use of rocks and minerals affects the environment.
demonstrate an understanding of the physical properties of rocks and minerals.

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Retrieved Text: Ever wonder to think about this? Whenever it comes about our identity we just produce our documents which tell about our identity. But, deep down the line, looking back thousands of years from now, the questions remain the same. Who are we? Many theories have been put forth to explain this (well, all are just theories!) scientifically also and spiritually also.
Let’s speak about Human features first.
Compared to other living creatures on Earth, human skin has no fur, thick layer of hairy coat or feathers, etc. why is this so? Why do we need to wear clothes to protect our skin while other creatures on Earth don’t need it?
Why are Humans so susceptible even to the smallest change to temperature, heat, air quality, bacteria, etc?
Why do humans need to create and depend on gadgets and machines so much?
Why humans have no special physical features to protect themselves from other creatures?
Why do humans need walk on two legs to make two hands free for doing various activities and stand upright? While no other creature on earth needs hands to survive! Is it just mutation that we evolved from Monkeys? (as we have a common theory that all dinosaurs survived after meteor strike, are transformed into birds!) by the same logic, why all monkeys not transformed into humans? Even monkeys have their skin protected with a thick layer of hairs? Why in the process of evolution we sacrificed this feature?
Human body is too week to protect against all such things and humans need to depend on his brain. Ever

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: EARTH’S RESOURCES Earth’s Natural Resources Natural resources are useful things that we can find on the Earth. Natural resources are important to living things, including us! Some examples of natural resources are water, land, and air. Water Water is natural resource that people and animals use. They drink water in order to survive. Plants also need water to grow. Water is a resource that will never run out thanks to the Earth’s water cycle! Soil Soil is a natural resource that plants need. Plants grow in soil. If plants did not grow, animals would not have anything to eat! © Copyright NewPath Learning. All Rights Reserved. Permission is granted for the purchaser to print copies for non-commercial educational purposes only. Visit us at www.NewPathLearning.com.
Air People, plants, and animals use AIR and need it to live. Air is a resource that never runs out on Earth! Rocks Rocks are natural resources too! Rocks are nonliving things found on Earth. Rocks come in many shapes and sizes. Some animals, such as bats, use rocks for their homes. People use rocks for many different reasons too. When you go to the beach, that sand you walk on is made up of tiny pieces of broken rock. Minerals What are minerals? Minerals are natural resources found in rocks and soil. Minerals are nonliving things. People use minerals for many different reasons. Example: We use minerals to make pencils. © Copyright NewPath Learning. All Rights Reserved. Permission is granted for the purchaser to print copies for non-commercial educational purposes only. Visit

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Retrieved Text: Q1: by which organs does the fish breathe in?
Ans: The surroundings where organisms live is called a habitat.
Ans: The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called adaptation.
Q4: What is terrestrial habitat?
Ans: The plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial habitats.
Q5: What is aquatic habitats?
Ans: Plants and animals that live in water are called aquatic habitats. Ponds, swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans are some examples of aquatic habitats.
Q6: What are biotic components?
Ans: The living things such as plants and animals, in a habitat, are its biotic components.
Q7: What are abiotic components?
Ans: Various non-living things such as rocks, soil, air and water in the habitat constitute its abiotic components.
Ans: Germination is the beginning of a new plant, when the seed turned into a sprout, This process is called germination.
Q9: What is the cause of diversity of organisms in various habitats?
Ans: There change in abiotic factors of various habitats. Animals adapt to different abiotic factors in different ways. Those animals which cannot adapt to these changes die out, and only the adapted ones survive. The result is variety of organisms present in different habitats.
Q10: List the common characteristics of the living things.
Ans: Living things need food, they respire and, excrete, respond to their environment, reproduce, grow and show movement.
Q11: There are some sea animals like dolphins and whales that do not have gills, by which organs do they breathe in?
Ans: They breathe in air through nostrils or blowholes.
Ans: The

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Retrieved Text: Q – by which organs does the fish breathe in?
Q – What is habitat?
A - The surroundings where organisms live is called a habitat.
Q – What is adaptation?
A - The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called adaptation.
Q – What is terrestrial habitat?
A - The plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial habitats.
Q – What is aquatic habitats?
A – Plants and animals that live in water are called aquatic habitats. Ponds, swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans are some examples of aquatic habitats.
Q – What are biotic components?
A – The living things such as plants and animals, in a habitat, are its biotic components.
Q – What are abiotic components?
A – Various non-living things such as rocks, soil, air and water in the habitat constitute its abiotic components.
Q – What is germination?
A – Germination is the beginning of a new plant, when the seed turned into a sprout, This process is called germination.
Q – What is the cause of diversity of organisms in various habitats?
A – There change in abiotic factors of various habitats. Animals adapt to different abiotic factors in different ways. Those animals which cannot adapt to these changes die out, and only the adapted ones survive. The result is variety of organisms present in different habitats.
Q – List the common characteristics of the living things.
A – Living things need food, they respire and, excrete, respond to their environment, reproduce, grow and show movement.
Q - There

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Retrieved Text: Natural Resources: The material on the earth like rocks, minerals, coal, petroleum, air, plants, water, animals etc are the natural resources.
These are gift of natural for human being. Natural resources are in different forms it may be solid, liquid or gas. It may be organic or inorganic, renewable or non-renewalbe, metallic or non-metallic.
Natural resources is an important element of nature that has utility for all living things like human, plant, animal etc.
All the living things are depended on natural resources directly or indirectly, so “conservation of natural resources” is very important so that all living things can survive.
Conservation of natural resources is also very important so that environment will be in balance. If we continuesly misuse or over use the natural resources like water, fuel, minerals, soil etc, it can affect the environment and all living things.
All the things we need in our daily life that such as food, water, air, fuel comes from natural resources. Cutting of trees, water shortage, soil erosion, depletion of fuel are all in balancing the nature.
‘Conservation of Natural Resources‘ does not mean that is stop using them but it means that don’t misuse and try to manage them for their best use and proper use over time.
Because solar and wind energy is unlimited source of energy and from this we can produce power and use it again and again.
To prevent the soil erosion plant the trees. It is also save the nature and make balance in the environment.
since water is very essential and very important for all living things to

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Retrieved Text: Taking a leaf off the ground and contemplating it as an object in and of itself is very inspiring. Its shape and color, the way it feels in your hand, its delicate veins and the stem that once held fast to the branch of a tree – all of these qualities reveal a leaf to be a miniature work of natural art.
A leaf transforms the elements of its environment, sunlight, carbon dioxide and rain into nourishment for its tree. This beautiful, nearly weightless, piece of nature is a vital conduit to the branch, that is a conduit to the tree, that is a conduit to the roots of the tree.
One of the many gifts that nature offers us is a clear demonstration of the interdependence between all living things.
The person who exhales the carbon dioxide, the clouds that produce the rain, the sun that gives light, the leaf that transforms all these things into sustenance for a tree – not one of these could survive without being part of the cycle.
Each living being is dependent upon other living things for its survival. When we look at the world, we see that this is not a place where different beings survive independently of one another.
Earth is home to a web of living things that are connected to each other through a spinning kaleidoscope of relationships.
We need each other to survive and thrive.

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Retrieved Text: What is the most vital element on earth we need to survive? I’m going to go ahead and say oxygen, because, while, in some cases, we can go without food for a month (or even a bit longer), a number of days without water and, I’m pushing it here, years without “Dancing With the Stars,” we can last only minutes without oxygen, and I’m not talking about the television network.
Big deal, you say. Unlike most things in life, oxygen is free. Try telling that to an asthmatic or, even someone renting across the hall from a smoker.
Knowing that city living can be tough on the lungs – or anywhere if stanchioned in an air-polluted area – I’m going to feature some air purifiers today (and before you go all ape$#!@ on me, I know there are conflicting opinions whether these devices can in fact filter cigarette smoke; do your research).
Some people – those with health problems or even the super-health conscious – might already own one. Either way, this is good information to know if you want to breathe the cleanest air you can while living in your Gaithersburg apartment.
I’ve found a site titled Air Purifier Ratings.org. Yeah, that’s its name. Kinda like saying it snows in the Arctic, these people see no need to beat around the O2 bush. And before you scream that it looks like a paid advertising site, hey, it seems to have some good information, and I’ll trust you, the smart consumer, to ascertain whether it’s on the level. I think

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Retrieved Text: These people were trying to catch fish on dry land. They were actually looking for Lungfish – a special type of fish that can survive on drylands for years breathing normal air until rainwater fills their holes.
Playing a Violin with a Substitute Arms?
How that fish live without water?
I cant believe there’s such things like this. That fish is living in a dry place. I thought they only lived in water.
that’s a mud fish that’s why they lived in the dry place.
I was in awe after seeing the first lung fish.I didn’t even know there was such fish who could survive in drylands for years.
Wow. Amazing this video.. I though fish is living on the water only.
Lungfish are found only in Africa, South America and Australia. The local people, said that this fish have a strong taste.

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Retrieved Text: The first and most obvious reason is that humans need fresh, potable drinking water to drink. It is the lifeblood of all living things on earth; most plants and animals are made up of 70 or more percent water, and aside from precious few highly-adapted desert organisms, most living things cannot survive long without water–a matter of days for most plants and animals.
Many research organizations note that a billion people and countless billions of animals and plants are in danger of running out of access to fresh water by natural or irrigated sources. Between overuse, climate change, and contamination, there are water crises unfolding in arid regions like the United Arab Emirates and Iran as well as a place once known as ‘City of Drizzle’–not Seattle, but Sao Paulo, Brazil.
The other is by using technology to create fresh water–including in some remarkably science-fiction ways. From filtering saline ocean water to purifying water that was once deemed permanently toxic to pulling water from ‘thin air,’ even in arid climates, technology promises to save water in multiple ways.
The main reason is that the two primary desalination processes–steam distillation and reverse osmosis–are both incredibly energy and cost-intensive and create large amounts of waste byproducts.

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Retrieved Text: At First You Will Only See This As A Black Hole, But You'll Never Believe That There Is An Entire Village Living Underneath!
It is widely taught in Science that humans are the ones who have to adapt to their environment. Different environmental conditions require people to find their own way to survive. As a matter of fact, this is the basis of Charles Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution”. Humans and animals are evolving into something that is fit to survive in the given environment. Moreover, they need to either adapt to the local climate or perish as another failed mutation in evolution.
This is why people in South Australia decided to build “Coober Pedy”. Coober Pedy is an underground town located under a huge hole in one of the opal mining towns in South Auntralia.
The people in that particular region have to find their own unique way to live in order to survive the drying heat of the sun in the morning and the biting freezing cold of the air during the night. The area’s temperature can reach as high as 120 degrees Fahrenheit during the day while it can also drop to “insane levels” of temperature during the night. People cannot survive living above the ground because of its extreme temperature conditions. Elite Reader even claimed that around 40 lives are lost every year due to this insane climate.
As a solution, the people started to establish their own underground village!
The underground homes are actually called “dugouts” and they have built over 1,500 homes. There are homes which

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Retrieved Text: Is there enough water for plants and animal?
The water on Earth today is all the water we have so we need to look after it. We know that humans require fresh water in order to survive but so do all other living things on our planet – kangaroos, gum trees, mushrooms, ferns and moles!
All living things are mostly made up of water. Did you know that a chicken is 75% water? An earthworm is 80% and a tomato is 95%? And you are 65% water. Which means only do we require it to live, we are in fact mostly made up of water.
Plants need water, just like all living things, to grow and stay alive. They use water directly when they capture the light energy of the sun and transform it into energy. Plants are the foundation of all food chains so animals and humans rely heavily on plants for their survival. The water cycle is also reliant on plants filtering the water and releasing it back into the atmosphere.
Animals need fresh water for their bodies to function. They gain water not only through the action of drinking but also from the food they eat. Water is vital for bodily functions such as regulation of temperature, nutrient uptake, removing wastes, body weight, and health. Losing one tenth of the body’s water can results in death as the body will shut down.
Animals don’t have the same luxurious that humans do when it comes to sourcing fresh water. For example, an elephant can’t turn on a tap or

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Retrieved Text: EE LING'S PLANET: Blood Donation - Do your part if you can!!
Life is important to all living things no matter how small it is. Each beings is struggling to survive in this world. All are trying their best to live a colourful life so that we would not regret when we leave this material world later. I fell much blessed and appreciated cos I am living and growing up in places where there are no war, no disasters.
However, there are some parts of people in those places are struggling to survive due to some diseases and accidents that occur. Yes, some of those need blood to survive. Blood is always in shortage in any part of the world. Do you know that your blood can change a person's life? So try not to be too selfish. If you are physically fit and healthy as a bull, a little bit of blood wont take you anywhere! Dont be embarass saying you are afraid of the needle. I am scare too. But imagine if you can save a person life just by donating, why not!
Ok going out for my lunch!! Enjoy reading and remember to do your part!!! Save a life!!

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Retrieved Text: (Noun)	Something eaten, usually orally, that gives nutrients and energy to an organism.
Usage: People eat food daily.
Usage: I ate some food because I was hungry.
(Noun)	Something that we eat. to keep our bodies nourished and to give us calories.
Usage: Food is so good for our bodies.
(Noun)	It's a word that means an edible, consumable object used to provide nutrients for the body.
Usage: peanuts are food with lots of protein.
(Noun)	Nourishment in solid and liquid form to make a body stronger.
Usage: I like to eat Mexican food.
(Noun)	It is anything that people eat. Like turkey, ham, or a nasty burger. It is also food like carrots, green tomatoes, and purple watermelon. Yum!
Usage: I like food: food is good.
things required for survival of life for a living body to give energy to its evolution of its species!
(Expression)	it is used to fill living things stomach and it helps living things survive. Without food, all living things will die.
Usage: Food is the most important thing on earth.
Usage: This is the best food I have ever tasted!
Usage: My favorite food is sushi.
Usage: Ancient cultures ate food such as rice, wheat, and maize.
Usage: My favorite food for breakfast is cereal.
Usage: The food made it possible for the starving squirrel to live.
Usage: People who don't have food are in danger.
(Noun)	Nourishment that every living soul is entitled to have.
Usage: Everyone needs food to eat.
(Noun)	Something an animal or human needs to survive. Meat, fruits, vegetables, and other edible things are food.
Usage: I want to by some food.
Something delicious that many people need.
(Noun)	something to be eaten for nourishment.
Usage: He had enough

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Retrieved Text: Oh, I have been thinking too much again. But this time, I think I’m on to something here. So let me ask you something. What is the difference between living and surviving? And when do we get to finally “live” anyway? Is it our own choice, or not?
I read this in a comment from one of my YouTube viewers recently and it really stuck out to me. See, even though I’ve been pretty much “healed” for years and even though I’ve created a wonderful life for myself, there is something that I still struggle with: living in survival mode.
But reading that comment from one of my amazing fellow empaths led me to a serious lightbulb moment: trying to survive and actually living are two different things. Completely different.
See, when you’re trying to survive, you do what you need to do to get by. And when you focus your energy on BEING a “survivor,” what do you attract? More reasons to NEED to SURVIVE.
But when do we stop surviving and start really living? Survival mode could be the only thing you know. Maybe no one taught you how to live or maybe you don’t think you deserve to stop living in survival mode or that you’re not really “there yet,” right?
And when we think of our times of crisis, how many of them could be avoided with proactive behavior, or with more intentional choices? If I’m being honest, there is a pretty high rate of “if only I would have done X” in my own life, where

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Retrieved Text: Don’t ignore your indoor plants, keep them fresh and healthy.
Indoor plants are one of the most difficult things to be maintained at home. Most of us face problems maintaining or keeping indoor plants fresh and prim.
Here are a few ways by which you can take care of fragile home plants.
1. Right position – Plants need to undergo photosynthesis to be alive. Make sure that you keep the plants at a spot where it can receive maximum sunlight. An open window can be a great idea as it is a place where it can receive air as well as sunlight.
2. Place them in darkness – This might seem a bit strange, but plants also need some amount of darkness to be alive. So make sure that you turn off the lights completely at bedtime.
3. Water the plants – Plants need water to survive like every living being does. This also depends on what kind of plants you keep at home. There are certain plants which do not require much water so make sure that you don’t overwater them.
4. Right fertilizers and soil – It is also important to give plants the right soil and fertilizers. Get your plants the right soil that is needed for their growth, and fertilizers to provide nutrition.

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Retrieved Text: As hard as life may seem, we all hope to find the good things that can come. Coming from a family that served in the US military for over 20 years, Jampee has a lot to live for.
Being the mother to 3 kids, 15 grandchildren and 5 great grandchildren and wife to a retired Air Force servicemen. A burnt down house, losing a husband to a car accident and being diagnosed with cancer she has fought thru a lot to get to this point. With the help of Hearts for Hope and its generous donors we have been able to provide a month of living expenses to give Jampee and her family one less thing to worry about.
After being diagnosed with Stage 3 Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma she has the strong will to survive.

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Retrieved Text: Living things need air to stay alive.
Living things need pen to stay alive.
Living things need water to stay alive.
Living things need pencil to stay alive.
Living things need food to stay alive.
Living things need chair to stay alive.
All animals and plants are living things.
Living things can move on their own.
Living things cannot move on their own.
Animals move from one place to another in search of food and shelter.
Plants move from one place to another in search of food and shelter.
Animals move from one place to another in search of chair and table.
Green plants make their own food.

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Retrieved Text: CAN YOU SURVIVE THE ZOMBIE APOCALYPSE?
Zombie Scavengers leads you into the city to collect supplies to survive during this interactive scavenger game.
With the whole world in chaos and zombies outnumbering the living 10 to 1, small colonies of the living are doing all they can to survive. Using your smartphone, your team will be tasked with scavenging the city for food, supplies, weapons, and shelter. The more things you find, the more points you get and more likely you are to survive. Along the way, you will be asked to do a challenge or answer a trivia question in order to be rewarded virtual weapons to ward off the zombies. The area is crawling with relentless zombies, and rival colonies are moving in. If you get too relaxed, rival colonies will take what you worked hard to find. The goal is to find all of the items in hopes that you will survive the zombie apocalypse.
This outdoor activity takes place in the downtown or metropolitan area of your city. Using a smartphone, you will download an app to help you play the game. You will also be texting with a remote survival guide for 2 hours while you play the game.
You'll be given a list of items on the app. You will need to walk around the area and find these items around the city and take a photo through the app to get points.
You'll be able to see the "rival colonies" on the app and see how your survival rate compares to theirs based on

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Retrieved Text: How does an amoeba survive harsh environmental conditions?
How do amoebas compete for food space to survive?
Amoebas compete for food as they feed on algae, plant cells,bacteria etc. They feed on other microorganisms through pseudopod.yes but how do they compete for space?
Environmental conditions include a number of things, such as:noise, temperature and odors. They also include the vibration andfumes of a specific environment.
What is environmental condition is in India today?
India has major environment problems. The air pollution is at adeadly level, water pollution, inadequate waste management andother issues represent challenges for India. However, it hasimproved slightly from 1995 when all of these issues far worse.
How do you amoebas compete for space to survive?
How does the amoeba survive?
What happens if environmental conditions change?
Actually its what ARE environmental conditions, and environmental conditions are the type of weather that is in a specific area.
Some environmental factors that affect plants are the amount oflight and temperature. Humidity and amount of water available alsoaffect plants.
What are the environmental conditions necessary for cell survival?
Unanswerable.. What cell? Seeds contain living cells and they can survive incredible extremes of time, temperaure, humidity etc.
How the environmental conditions affects the community?
What does amoeba need to survive?
Amoeba are single-celled and very small so naturally they would eat bacteria, algae, and other protozoa. But you should also consider the fact that some are parasites.
What is the environmental conditions that the sunflower needs?
Present environmental condition of the world?
In order for life to survive bodies or cells must adjust to environmental conditions is called?
In order for life to survive, bodies or

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Retrieved Text: “It hits you in the stomach. The feeling fills you up-that gut-twisting hang wringing anxiety that is so familiar to..… It is what causes us to do much of what we do that hurts ourselves. It is the substance worry and obsession feed upon. It is fear at its worse. Fear usually comes and goes, leaving us in flight ready to fight, or just temporarily frightened. But anxiety hangs in there. It grips the mind, paralyzing it all but for its own purposes- an endless rehashing of the same useless thoughts. It is the fuel that propels us into controlling behaviors of all sorts.. We can think of nothing but keeping the lid on things, controlling the problem, and making it go away.” This is an excerpt from “Codependent No More” by Melanie Beatty.
I used to have these dreams where I would be under water and I was struggling to get to the top so I could get air. Somewhere in my desperation for air I would take a breath and I could breathe; I could breathe water. I was no longer struggling to get to the top for air. I would just swim around and enjoy my surroundings. I knew I still needed air but there was no urgency.
I think recovery can be sort of like that. When you are involved in the addictive behavior you are desperate for air. You spend time seeking alternatives to air because the struggle for air is too painful and scary. Are you going to survive-make it. It takes

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Retrieved Text: During this excursion we investigate both the living and non living aspects of the rock platform and bushland environments at Bradleys Head. We consider how some physical aspects of the environment such as temperature and salinity effect the survival of various species. We also consider the resources needed to survive by various organisms.
The excursion also includes an exciting investigation by torch light of the tunnels in the historic battery built by convicts in the 19th century.
During the rock platform excursion we investigate the living and non-living aspects of the coastal landscape. This includes structural properties of plants, algae and an animal we will catch on the day. We also consider producers and consumers as well as the predator and prey relationships. We use these findings to draw a food web.
This excursion is focused around the living and non living aspects of the rainforest ecosystem. This includes measuring or classifying the soil, water and light in the rainforest and considering why living things need these to survive. We will catch minibeasts and consider how their structural adaptations enable them to survive in the rainforest.
Between a creek based larval animal catch and a bushland bug catch, we are able to see the full life cycle of an insect at our bushland site, Camp Kedron. We also consider the non-living aspects of the two environments to consider how the insect survives at these various stages of life in the different environments.
Through close observation we record various physical attributes of the animals found. These help us to consider what defines

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Retrieved Text: Even those people who live with only the items they can carry had an initial purchase of the backpack and those items. Most items usually have to purchased somehow. Even though a lot of people barter and trade for things and claim they don't use the money, they don't realize that bartering and trading is a form of currency - just not actual money.
One of the things I notice in a lot of these stories of living with no money is that people are usually taking advantage of other people's kindness and their willingness to either donate goods to or spend the money on that person. The person themselves may not be using any money and technically living without money, however, other people are spending their money on that person somehow.
Many preppers have this idea that if and when WROL (without rule of law) happens, money as we know it will mean nothing. You will need gold and silver to pay for items or otherwise you will need to sharpen your bartering and trading skills. However, you will notice that some form of currency will still be needed or used in their line of thinking. While I don't disagree with them, without a standard unit of measurable value, gold and silver will not mean much either unless a value is attached to it. Without rule of law, who will attach a value to it? There is great potential for inflation in this problem which will cause people to live without as much as possible in order

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Retrieved Text: The content of the new system of banking would be a basic income as the method to place the national currency into circulation. The basic income would be issued through the local public banks as an equal amount in a year. The equal amount in a year would be the equivalent of a living wage in one year, a living wage defined as a minimum wage calculated to the cost of living. This form of basic income would be seen as apublic dividend, where a public dividend is a rent on the private use of the commons that is shared by all citizens as co-owners of that commons. The rent on the commons would be the initial reserve held by the various countywide public banks, aside from the private deposits of individuals. The currency that would be issued as a basic income would still be a fiat currency, not backed by something like gold or silver, but would still have value based on the intrinsic worth of the commons. In this respect the commons would include the natural commons such as public land, air, and water as well as the artificial commons that includes ideas and open source designs. When the basic income is instituted, a reevaluation of welfare and taxes can be conducted. Welfare has historically been a way to fill in the gaps of capitalism, making it possible for people to survive despite the boom and bust cycles of the economy. Welfare helps people in the short-term but prevents calls for real structural change

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Retrieved Text: Earth is the beautiful planet on which several living beings are surviving, and it consists of valuable ores, minerals and other natural resources that can help the humans in making various useful things. Such earth has been undergoing with pollution effect that is changing the life of the living beings on the earth. Many things have been under consideration as the environmental hazards which are not preferable for the safe and happy life. The plants, animals, birds, insects, human beings and many other organisms survive on the earth, and all these together constitute the environment.
Tree removal and deforestation etc.
These are only a few factors that are affecting the environment with tree pruning Perth, and there are much more that are influencing either directly or indirectly. Most of the people move from rural areas to urban areas for their survival and for accommodations they need to adopt deforestation. Otherwise, it cannot be possible for the people to have space in cities and towns. They need to cut off the trees in the outskirts and have to clean up to make it suitable for living.
It can be the responsibility of the people to increase the greenery around them by planting more plants. The trees and plants can help the people in reducing the pollution and increase the oxygen levels in the atmosphere. The industries are one of the reasons for the severe pollution as they are releasing the toxic gasses into the air and water causing different types of pollution. The local governing bodies should take necessary steps

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Retrieved Text: Question: Why are bacterial spores a problem in sterilizing instruments and equipment?
Asked by luxiliu to Cat, Daz on 24 Jun 2011.
Well some spores are very very resistant to the things we can kill normal bacteria with! Usually we could use antibiotics or alcohols or heat to sterilize things, depending on what the instruments and equipment are made from.
So these treatments will usually kill bacteria, because bacteria suffer from pressure and temperature easily, because their insides are watery and under quite high pressure. If you break or expand them, they will burst and that is how we usually kill them. Antibiotics damage the outside so the pressure bursts them, heat probably destroys them by unfolding proteins.
So, in bacterial spores there is some kind of protection against these things – I think there is a shell around them which protects against all of these things. But with this shell, they can’t live and act like normal because they can’t grow or divide! They are completely dormant, and from this point, some things can cause them to wake up again, and they will be living and active again.
The problem exists because the spores can survive the treatments, but bacteria will not. If we then assume that they are sterile, the spores may come alive again and then the instruments we have are contaminated with bacteria again.
Some bacterial spores are a problem because they can survive really high temperatures because of their super resistant coat or shell they put up around themselves. They do this so they can survive times

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Retrieved Text: Are you looking to save energy this summer? We’ve got some tips for you.
Summertime usually comes with a whole lot of energy usage and that leads to energy bills that we’d rather not see. That’s why we’re giving you some awesome energy saving tips for the summer so that you can spend your money on something a little more fun than your electric bill. Are you ready to stay cool, save money, and learn more? Let’s do this.
Let’s start saving at the AC.
You can save lot of money by using your air conditioning a little differently. First things first, you need to make sure that you’re only using it when you need it. This could mean turning it off at night or when you’re not at home. If you think you can survive without it, then lower it or turn it off for a bit. If you have pets who stay home alone all day, then you may want to leave it on low so that they don’t get hot. However, a fan might help keep them cool instead. Just don’t forget about them. You should also make sure that your vents and air registers don’t have things blocking them so that air can circulate freely. Do not close the vents in an attempt to contain the air in one room. It will not stop the air conditioner from trying to pump air throughout the apartment and it is actually bad for it.
Save money throughout the house.
This entry was posted on Monday, June 22nd, 2015	at 7:33

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Retrieved Text: My dear friends…promise me that during this lovely new year you will spend time with some “old folks” and little children. For it is with their company that you will gain the most knowledge concerning living a sweet and fulfilled life! Perhaps I know this having been raised by “old folks” and perhaps I might have gained this insight having now photographed children for over 20 years. The children will ask you in no uncertain terms how the universe works amongst other things and expect you to just know. The “old folks” will tell you in no uncertain terms how the universe works amongst other things and expect you to listen. Both are wise beyond their years in terms of expectations, gratitude and of course showing love. The first group have not gotten mixed up in worry and the latter have learned from living there’s simply no time for any of that. What’s more and this is really important for you to note…all of them are close to their “soul.” When we first get here we are full of light and energy and hope and goodness and as we are departing we are also as full of light and energy and hope and goodness as we could ever possibly be. That is why when I was given the opportunity to go “home” for Thanksgiving I took my time and spent it wisely with “old folks.” I traveled to Greensboro, North Carolina and spent the day with two of my favorite grandparents in my client base. They

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Some Eukarya are also single-celled, but many are multicellular. Some have a cell wall; others do not. However, the cells of all Eukarya have a nucleus and other organelles.


Q: The cells of all eukarya have a what?

 Choices:

- epidermis

- chloroplast

- nucleus

- necrosis

A:

Target Text: nucleus

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: During the last third of the 20th century, biologists sorted life into five kingdoms. These were Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera. We’re all familiar with animals, plants, and fungi, but what are protista and monera? Protista are all the one-celled creatures whose cells contain a nucleus, and Monera are all the one-celled creatures whose cells do not contain a nucleus.
One problem with this system of categorizing living things is that it is a human system, based more on what humans see than on what is actually true about the living organisms. For instance, four of the kingdoms, animals, plants, fungi, and protists, consist of creatures made of eukaryotic cells, that is, cells with a nucleus. Yet these are grouped as if they were as different from one another as all of them are from the monerans.
For a long time, the members of monera were thought to be “bacteria and blue-green algae.” Eventually, researchers realized that those “blue-green algae” were actually photosynthetic bacteria. So actually, Kingdom Monera should simply have been called “Kingdom Bacteria.” But then, in the late 1970’s, a biologist named Carl Woese announced a startling discovery. He had compared RNA from a number of different living types and had found that Monera actually contained two quite different forms of life.
Woese called the two forms of monerans “eubacteria” and “archaebacteria.” Furthermore, Woese could show that the eukaryiotic forms of life were more closely related to the archebacteria than to the eubacteria. Woese proposed that above the “Kingdom” category in the hierarchy of life forms,

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Retrieved Text: Prepare to receive your Biology The Essentials 1st Test Bank in the next moment.
1. What does a pine tree, an octopus, and a bacterium have in common at the microscopic level?
A. Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann.
3. Why are cells called “the fundamental unit of life”?
A. All known organisms have one or more cells.
B. Earliest life on Earth is hypothesized to have been single-celled.
C. Some cells are separate living entities that can survive individually.
D. Cells are the smallest unit of life that can function independently.
D. Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann.
5. Which component of the cell theory argues against life on Earth evolving from inorganic molecules?
A. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
B. The cell is the fundamental unit of all life.
C. All cells come from preexisting cells.
D. Cells are small in size.
E. All cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
B. Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann.
C. all organisms have DNA, all organisms are made of cells, and all cells produce proteins.
8. How do cells avoid surface area limitations?
E. a sugar molecule attached to a protein.
A. has a hydrophilic head that is repelled by water.
B. has hydrophilic tails that are repelled by water.
C. has a hydrophilic head that is attracted to water.
D. has a hydrophobic head that is repelled by water.
E. has hydrophobic tails that are attracted to water.
E. composed of phospholipid molecules.
D. hydrophilic and selectively permeable.
E. hydrophobic and selectively permeable.
A. has a cell wall with peptidoglycan.
B. is usually smaller than a prokaryotic cell.
C. does not have membrane-bound organelles.
A. Bacteria, Animalia, and Plantae.
B. Fungi, Protista, and Animalia.
C. Archaea,

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Retrieved Text: Endosymbiosis is the process that sparked the origin of eukaryotic cells on Earth.
It’s the idea that a prokaryote engulfed a bacteria capable of aerobic respiration.
Then, this turned into mitochondria and became part of a eukaryotic cell.
Because they both symbiotically gain from the encounter, they asexually multiply and evolve this way.
Long ago, mitochondria was a living organism all by itself. It lived freely doing aerobic respiration.
The idea of endosymbiosis starts with a mitochondrion latching onto a prokaryote. Next, the prokaryote engulfs it as part of its cytoplasm.
So the mitochondrion leverages the nutrient-rich surrounding of the prokaryote. And in return, the prokaryote receives energy from the mitochondria powerhouse during its permanent residence.
The mitochondria once lived free but are now part of complex cells. So the eukaryotic cells originated from endosymbiosis.
One of the key differences between eukaryotic cells is that they have organs that are sealed off from the rest of the environment.
They have a nucleus that houses chromosomes and DNA. Further to this, eukarya have organelle like mitochondria (through endosymbiosis) and chloroplasts all within its cell membrane.
Even though single cell eukarya exist, eukaryotes are mostly multicellular. For example, the plant and animal kingdoms are mostly multicellular.

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Retrieved Text: Domain: Eukarya - Multicellular, genetic material is in a membrane bound nucleus. Contains membrane-bound organelles.
Kingdom: Animalia - Multicellular, heterotrophic, cells lack rigid cell walls.
Phylum: Chordata - Endoskeleton, notochord(spine), three germ layers and a well developed coelom.
Class: Mammalia - Contains hair and mammary glands.

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Retrieved Text: 1. What is a Microbe?
A microbe is quite simply a microscopic organism. Microbes can be single-celled or comprise clusters of cells. They even include very small animals and other multicellular organisms; many are colonial and assume forms in nature that are easily visible to the naked eye. Microbes can be classified into four discrete groups.
Bacteria are single-celled microbes whose DNA is not bounded by a nuclear membrane.
Archaea are also single-celled microbes superficially similar to bacteria, but their genes reveal them to be distinct organisms. Archaea are the source of many genes found in animals.
Eukarya are organisms distinguished by complex cells having a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles, like mitochondria. Eukarya include not only microbes, but also larger animals plants and fungi.
Viruses are infectious microbes that reproduce only inside living cells. Many scientists debate whether viruses should be considered living organisms or not.
Microbes living across our planet are the foundation of the entire global ecosystem. They were also the first organisms to evolve on a tumultuous infant Earth, a world that we would not recognize today. Its surface and atmosphere would have been inhospitable to nearly all life as we know it. As these early microbes evolved and diversified, their activities transformed the planet’s environment and laid the groundwork for the evolution of new life, including multicellular organisms like fungi, plants and animals.
Microbial life is orders of magnitude more diverse and abundant than the multitude of organisms we see around us every day. Scientists estimate that there may be a trillion or more species of bacteria, archaea, microbial

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Retrieved Text: Mallery's web-links for CMB RESOURCES.
The goal of cell & molecular biology is to understand the molecular basis of cell function and the fundamental cellular processes ranging from cell division and protein trafficking to signal transduction and cell migration, to the formation of tissues during development and wound healing. The experimental approaches used in studying cell regulation and function are multidisciplinary and include: biochemical and biophysical approaches and molecular and genetic manipulation of functions at both the cellular and organismal levels.
the definitive methodological approach of 20th century science.
i.e., " knowing the parts may explain the function of the whole "
a bottoms-up approach - " one can't truly understand what one can't build "
1. Evolution - Darwinian Natural Selection.
through the processes of evolution, via mechanisms of Natural Selection. "
LUCA = a single cell that lived perhaps 3-4 billions years ago & from which ALL LIFE has since evolved.
from all other physical forces found outside living things.
entirely by the workings of laws of chemistry and physics without a ‘vital force’.
"There are no laws of Chemistry or Physics unique to the living condition. "
studying cells in one organism has direct application to other organisms.
genes contain "naked DNA" -, i.e., there are no "chromosomes?"
eukarya: includes the fungi, algae, protozoa, slime molds, & all plants & animals.
1809 Jean Baptiste Lamarck " Living body is a mass of cells "
1824 Henri Dutrouchet mild acid dissolves extra-cellular matrix some of 1st biochem.
- the formal birth of discipline of "Cell Biology"
...suggests cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
Watson & Crick (1953) Nature 171: 737-738 & 964-967

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Retrieved Text: 2.5. How Did Life Emerge?
A drastic change took place in the world of biology in the year 1977.
how we look at the history of life itself on this planet.
>> This is a real strong evolutionary tool.
you just weren't bacterial, and the same for eukaryotic.
of ten minutes to say, something's wrong here, something's wrong with prokaryote.
That's when I started deconstructing.
>> He was a real eye-opener.
of course, his work was groundbreaking.
It was so novel, and it gave so much excitement to my science.
using these brand new tools of molecular phylogeny?
the Earth had what we call pre-biotic soup.
ended up being some of the components that were used, of the building blocks of life.
But really life hadn't taken a foothold and emerged at that time.
So before we had life we called it the pre-biotic soup.
including RNA, including perhaps partial pieces of viruses.
but we didn't have cells at all.
We just had some of the molecules that make up cells.
if you will, at the very early stages of life.
phylogeny, is that some of those molecules became more complex.
molecules became larger, but we still didn't have cell walls.
they were very different from the kind of cells that we think of now.
And so, that's been called the progenote.
we haven't moved to a point where we have cells as we know them now.
like the cell walls we have now, and some of the more complex molecules.
between everything that was merging towards cellular life as we know it.
that was called the Darwinian Transition.
And the Darwinian Transition is when cell walls actually formed.
loose stage to a real

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Retrieved Text: Paul Andersen starts with a brief description of the history of life. He then discusses the seven characteristics of life and why viruses are not alive. He then describes the three domains in the current classification system and explains why eukaryotes are more closely related to members of the Archaea domain.
Paul Andersen explains the current classification system that we use in Biology. He starts with a brief history of taxonomy. He explains how the goal of classification is to reflect evolutionary relationships. He then explains how each individual organism is classified according to genus and species.
Paul Andersen describes the important characteristics of viruses. He starts with a brief description of origin theories. He then describes the two characteristics of all viruses; genetic information and protein coats. He also describes how some viruses use specialized envelopes to gain entry to their host cells. He also explains the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles.
Paul Andersen describes the defining characteristics of the domain Eubacteria. He begins with a quick description of the phylogeny of bacteria and horizontal gene transfer. He then surveys the structures of a bacteria; nucleoid region, capsule, pilli, cell wall with peptidoglycan, flagella. He describes the differing morphologies and metabolism in different bacteria. He describes how bacteria can be Gram positive or Gram negative. He finishes with a brief discussion of quorum sensing.
In this video Paul Andersen describes the defining characteristics of members in the domain archaebacteria. He starts with a brief description of the phylogeny of this group. He then describes the major characteristics on an

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Retrieved Text: Young child examining an empty horseshoe crab shell.
A horseshoe crab is apart of the eukarya domain because it is a multicellular species whose cells contain a true nucleus as well as membrane bound organelles.
This organism is part of the animalia kingdom because it is multicellular and has to obtain food by eating and digesting other organisms which means that they are heterotrophic. Their cells have a cell membrane but not a cell wall which is another characteristic of the animalia kingdom.
A horseshoe crab is part of the phylum arthro poda. It has five pairs of jointed-legs and is also a invertebrate, meaning an animal without a backbone. This organism has a chitinous exoskeleton and grows by molting. Want to learn more about some different arthropods? Click here to explore the world of the deer tick and here for the yetti crab!
Above: An overturned horseshoe crab.
A horseshoe crab is part of the cheilcerata because it lacks jaws.
The horseshoe crab is a merostomata because its legs surround the mouth.
The horseshoe crab has a sword tail which the Xiphos- Greek prefix means sword. The –ura suffix means tail therefore placing it in the Xiphosura subclass.
A horseshoe crab is part of the xiphosurida order because it is a sword-tailed animal.
Members of the limulidae family only contain the four species of horseshoe crabs, therefore, limulidae means horseshoe crab.
The horseshoe crab has compound eyes that are sideways therefore is part of the Limulus genus. Limulus is a Latin term meaning slanting, unusual, or crooked.
The horseshoe crab has simple eyes located on the

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Retrieved Text: This section is the heart of Palaeos. We have to begin this section somewhere, and so this is also the Beginning of Life. If time permits, we will one day add sections on the definition of "life" and the ways it may have begun. For a recent review, see Robinson 2005). However, that kind of systematic treatment is not exactly what this site is all about (see, infra, the Purpose of Life). So instead, we'll get right to business.
Broadly speaking, we will follow the "Three Domains" model of evolution, at least for organizational purposes. In this model, the earliest and most basic life forms are the Archaea: relatively simple, mostly chemoautotrophic single-celled organisms. Today, these organisms are still often found as "extremophiles," living in harsh, toxic environments using a remarkable diversity of metabolic tricks and adaptations to survive under apparently impossible conditions.
From the Archaea developed two, quite different groups, the Eubacteria and the Eukarya. The Eubacteria are also single-celled organisms, but with complex cell walls, involving peculiar biochemicals which allow us to conclude, with moderate confidence, that they are a natural group. They include the organisms we normally think of as bacteria and also the blue-green algae. The Eukarya include all organisms made up of cells with nuclei. That is, their DNA is walled off in a separate compartment of the cell. Again, this feature is striking enough that we can be reasonably sure that the Eukarya all derived from a single common ancestor, probably within Archaea. Eukaryotes may be single-celled organisms (such as Amoeba or

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Retrieved Text: A New Proposal The Three Domains of Life Carl Woese 1990 Starting in the early 1970s Dr. Carl Woese a professor in the Department of Microbiology University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and other scientists began to find evidence for a previously unknown group of prokaryotic organisms.
The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese et al. in 1977 that divides cellular life forms into archaea bacteria and eukaryote domains.
The three domains of life Learn with flashcards games and more for free.
A comparison of key characteristics from the three domains of life Enlarge This Image Comparison of key characteristics from the three domains of life.
Cells in all three domains are based on the same basic foundations of cell structure but there are key differences between the domains.
Start studying Comparison of the Three Domains of Life Bacteria Archaea Eukarya . Learn vocabulary terms and more with flashcards games and other study tools. Learn vocabulary terms and more with flashcards games and other study tools.
Three Domains of Life Click on a domain to begin exploring. Until comparatively recently living organisms were divided into two kingdoms animal and vegetable or the Animalia and the Plantae.

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Retrieved Text: Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) monomers assemble to form a ring-shaped clamp complex that encircles duplex DNA. PCNA binding to other proteins tethers them to the DNA providing contacts and interactions for many other enzymes essential for DNA metabolic processes. Most eukarya and euryarchaea have only one PCNA homolog but Thermococcus kodakarensis uniquely has two, designated PCNA1 and PCNA2, encoded by TK0535 and TK0582, respectively. Here, we establish that both PCNA1 and PCNA2 form homotrimers that stimulate DNA synthesis by archaeal DNA polymerases B and D and ATP hydrolysis by the replication factor C complex. In exponentially growing cells, PCNA1 is abundant and present at an ~100-fold higher concentration than PCNA2 monomers. Deletion of TK0582 (PCNA2) had no detectable effects on viability or growth whereas repeated attempts to construct a T. kodakarensis strain with TK0535 (PCNA1) deleted were unsuccessful. The implications of these observations for PCNA1 function and the origin of the two PCNA-encoding genes in T. kodakarensis are discussed.
Nucleic Acids Res. 2014; 42(9):5776-5789.

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Retrieved Text: Biofouling: Process by which unwanted microbial, plant or animal materials or organisms accumulate on man-made surfaces.Photobioreactors: Devices for generating biological products that use light as the energy source. They are used for controlled BIOMASS production such as growing cyanobacteria, mosses, or algae.Thoracica: A superorder of marine CRUSTACEA, free swimming in the larval state, but permanently fixed as adults. There are some 800 described species, grouped in several genera, and comprising of two major orders of barnacles: stalked (Pedunculata) and sessile (Sessilia).Estuaries: A partially enclosed body of water, and its surrounding coastal habitats, where saltwater from the ocean mixes with fresh water from rivers or streams. The resulting mixture of seawater and fresh water is called brackish water and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt. (accessed http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/estuaries/estuaries01_whatis.html)Tenuazonic Acid: 3-Acetyl-5-sec-butyl-4-hydroxy-3-pyrrolin-2-one. A metabolite found in a strain of the fungus Alternaria tenuis Auct. which functions as an antibiotic with antiviral and antineoplastic properties, and may also act as a mycotoxin.Corrosion: The gradual destruction of a metal or alloy due to oxidation or action of a chemical agent. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)Biofilms: Encrustations, formed from microbes (bacteria, algae, fungi, plankton, or protozoa) embedding in extracellular polymers, that adhere to surfaces such as teeth (DENTAL DEPOSITS); PROSTHESES AND IMPLANTS; and catheters. Biofilms are prevented from forming by treating surfaces with DENTIFRICES; DISINFECTANTS; ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; and antifouling agents.Adhesiveness: A property of the surface of an object that makes it stick to another surface.Eukaryota: One of the three domains of life (the others being

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Retrieved Text: A cell is a pool of controlled chemical composition bounded by an outer membrane. It is the main structure of undifferentiated single-celled organisms and the essential building block of highly complex multicellular animals composed of many different cell types. A cell (1) sequesters biological resources relative to the outside world, and also internally; (2) maintains the necessary concentrations of chemical components, pH, and so forth; (3) localizes, transports, exports, and imports select molecules; (4) uses selected, controlled, context-dependent subsets of its genes and controls whether gene products are kept local, for use by this cell, or are sent outside the cell; (5) allows differentiation from the surrounding medium, and (6) provides a building-block mechanism by which life can evolve more complex traits.
Although there is extensive variation in cells found in the biosphere, generalizations can be made about them and hence about life, a fact basic to our understanding of how life works and evolved. These generalizations have placed at least some constraints on what has evolved and on what can or will evolve in the future. All known organisms (except very primitive "life" forms like viruses and prions, which, although not cells themselves, depend on cells to replicate and to continue to exist) are composed of one of two basic cell types, prokaryote and eukaryote, shown schematically in Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2 provides a detail of the cell membrane. See Table 6-1 for details of the structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
All cells use the DNA-RNA coding system for replication and for coding proteins. All cells are

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Retrieved Text: Organisms that are unicellular and lack a membrane bound nucleus are called _____.
Organisms that are unicellular or multicellular and have a membrane bound nucleus are called ______.
These organisms are found almost everywhere including the air and soil as well as your digestive tract.
Biology is the study of _____.
Which of the following is generally tested by experimentation?
Which two of these are typically use to test a hypothesis?
A representation of an actual subject that can be studied firsthand and that aids in our understanding of a process is called a(n) ______.
Which group in an experiment, is a test group that isn't exposed to the experimental variable?
The results of an experiment are referred to as _______.
In science, a concept that is supported by a broad range of observations, experiments, and data is called a scientific ______.
Also known as the independent variable, the factor in an experiment that is being tested is called the experimental _____.
The manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an experiment.
Two statements that best describe the responding (dependent) variable.
It is due to the experimental treatment.
It is called the dependent variable.
It is held constant throughout the experiment.
It is the factor that is being tested.
It is due to the experimental treatment. AND It is called the dependent variable.
The basic building block of life, and the biological level in which the properties of life are first observed is the _____.
The hereditary information for an organism is held by _____ molecules.
The capacity to do work is called ______.
Which of the following is a characteristic of all living organisms?
Unicellular organisms

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Retrieved Text: The domain within your query sequence starts at position 53 and ends at position 338; the E-value for the Q_salvage domain shown below is 9.7e-122.
Queuosine salvage proteins occur in most Eukarya as well as in a few bacteria possible via horizontal gene-transfer. Queuosine (Q) is a chemical modification found at the wobble position of tRNAs that have GUN anticodons. Most bacteria synthesize queuosine de novo, whereas eukaryotes rely solely on salvaging this essential component from the environment or the gut flora. The exact enzymatic function of the domain has yet to be determined, but structural similarity with DNA glycosidases suggests a ribonucleoside hydrolase role [(PUBMED:24911101)].

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Retrieved Text: 1. Ishino, Y., Krupovic, M., Forterre, P. , History of CRISPR-Cas from Encounter with a Mysterious Repeated Sequence to Genome Editing Technology. , Journal of Bacteriology, doi: 10.1128/JB.00580-17., 2018.03, Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas systems are well-known acquired immunity systems that are widespread in archaea and bacteria. The RNA-guided nucleases from CRISPR-Cas systems are currently regarded as the most reliable tools for genome editing and engineering. The first hint of their existence came in 1987, when an unusual repetitive DNA sequence, which subsequently was defined as a CRISPR, was discovered in the Escherichia coli genome during an analysis of genes involved in phosphate metabolism. Similar sequence patterns were then reported in a range of other bacteria as well as in halophilic archaea, suggesting an important role for such evolutionarily conserved clusters of repeated sequences. A critical step toward functional characterization of the CRISPR-Cas systems was the recognition of a link between CRISPRs and the associated Cas proteins, which were initially hypothesized to be involved in DNA repair in hyperthermophilic archaea. Comparative genomics, structural biology, and advanced biochemistry could then work hand in hand, not only culminating in the explosion of genome editing tools based on CRISPR-Cas9 and other class II CRISPR-Cas systems but also providing insights into the origin and evolution of this system from mobile genetic elements denoted casposons. To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the discovery of CRISPR, this minireview briefly discusses the fascinating history of CRISPR-Cas systems, from the original observation of an enigmatic sequence in E. coli to genome editing

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Retrieved Text: Single-celled organisms, including bacteria and protists, are the simplest of all organisms. Along with viruses, they are both helpful and harmful to other living things.
Echo Reading: Provide a model of expressive, fluent reading by conducting an echo read of the text on this page. Begin by reading the heading and first sentence aloud, and then ask the class to repeat after you. Take care to pronounce unfamiliar words clearly and repeat sentences as needed. Gradually increase your reading speed to encourage students to identify words more quickly.
Productivity and Accountability: Ask students to distinguish between productivity and accountability. Point out that accountability means that a person is publicly responsible for something they have done. Ask students to describe the connection between accountability and personal reputation.
As students plan their compare-and-contrast paragraphs, discuss alternate organizational structures for their writing. They could list all the relevant characteristics of the first item and then write about how the characteristics of the other item are the same or different, or they could compare and contrast each aspect of the items, one after the other.
Find out how much students know about the microbes that are a part of their daily lives. Students may think of microbes only as germs or agents of disease. Explain to students that microbes can be both beneficial and harmful. Ask students if they are familiar with any food items that are made using microbes; for example, some students may know that yogurt, cheese, and bread are made using microbes. Tell students that this lesson may surprise them as

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Retrieved Text: The biology of organisms that grow optimally under extreme conditions has been of considerable interest in recent years and especially of those organisms thriving at extremes of temperature, pH or high salt concentrations. Most of these organisms are Archaea not Bacteria or Eukarya.
Although Archaea are likely to constitute at least 20% of the planet's biomass, and to exert a major influence on the biosphere, less than 0.1% of Archaea have been cultured and characterized. At present we are rapidly increasing our knowledge about the cellular molecular biology, biodiversity and evolution of the Archaea, complementing studies on Bacteria and Eukarya which have both been studied extensively, albeit very selectively.
The Danish Archaea Centre (DAC) has a long term basic research program focused on understanding the basic molecular and cellular biology of Archaea and in characterising their archaea-specific and many proto-eukaryotic cellular mechanisms and processes. We have been working with members of the crenarchaeal hyperthermophilic Order of Sulfolobales as model organisms and with the euryarchaeal extreme halophilic genus Haloferax. Much of the current research is genome-based exploiting in-house developed genetic systems. Our major current interests (described here) extend from characterising the diverse archaeal viruses which, morphologically and genomically, are quite distinct from bacterial and eukaryal viruses to archaeal enzymes which are are useful for biotechnological and industrial processes because of their high stability to extremes of temperature, pH and salt.
1. He, Fei; Bhoobalan, Yuvaraj; Van, Lan B.; Kjeldsen, Anders Lynge; Dedola, Matteo; Makarova, Kira S.; Koonin, Eugene V.; Brodersen, Ditlev E.; Peng, Xu. 2018. Anti-CRISPR proteins encoded by archaeal

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Retrieved Text: A routine castle tour turns enchanting when King Philip shows up to teach a lesson on classification. Using examples from his castle, microscopic footage, and animation, King Philip helps us see and make sense of difficult concepts. Mnemonics help students memorize the levels of classification from Domain to Species! The differences between the three Domains are explained memorably and graphically. From simple examples to an exploration of each of the four kindgoms in the Eukarya Domain, this tour provides a concrete foundation for a complex subject.

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Retrieved Text: Ferrell, M., Abendroth, J., Zhang, Y., Sankaran, B., Edwards, T.E., Staker, B.L., Van Voorhis, W.C., Stewart, L.J., Myler, P.J.
Giardia lamblia is an anaerobic aerotolerant eukaryotic parasite of the intestines. It is believed to have diverged early from eukarya during evolution and is thus lacking in many of the typical eukaryotic organelles and biochemical pathways. Most conspicuously, mitochondria and the associated machinery of oxidative phosphorylation are absent; instead, energy is derived from substrate-level phosphorylation. Here, the 1.75 Å resolution crystal structure of G. lamblia aldose reductase heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli is reported. As in other oxidoreductases, G. lamblia aldose reductase adopts a TIM-barrel conformation with the NADP(+)-binding site located within the eight β-strands of the interior.

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Retrieved Text: In the microbial realm, one of the three domains of life -- the Eukarya -- has received little attention in deep-sea research. This stands in contrast to the fact that in all known aquatic environments, and measured by the amount of material and energy transferred, the link between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is one of the most significant trophic interactions on Earth. In terms of volume, the deep sea is the largest biome, and despite its tremendous role in long-term biogeochemical cycles, it has largely been neglected. Biological activity in the deep sea is neither negligible nor homogeneous in space and time. Recent data suggest that biological activity in the dark ocean (as evidenced by respiration rates, bacterial secondary production and a variety of other metrics) is much higher than anticipated from all known organic carbon fuel sources combined (i.e., POC flux, DOC convection, in situ production and active transport by zooplankton). Water masses in the deep ocean represent highly-diverse biogeographic regions with distinct communities and particle distributions. Moreover, because of feeding thresholds, cold temperatures, extreme pressures and unique adaptations that deep-sea microbes exhibit, biological activity rules cannot simply be extrapolated from laboratory cultures and from experiments with surface-dwelling microbes. This study focuses on the fundamental role of eukaryotic microbial communities in deep-sea ecology with the overarching hypothesis that protists represent sensitive biological indicators of utilizable organic carbon. There is good reason to believe that microbial eukaryotes and their activities are better indicators of "new" sources of organic carbon than particle inventories, sediment traps, isotope ratios,

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Retrieved Text: This is an image of a colony of mold. The sample, dark brown to black in color, was collected from the air conditioning unit in my room on 4/15/19 at 4:30 pm. It was then mounted on a glass slide with a droplet of water and plastic cover slip. The picture was taken by a Samsung S5 Galaxy and Foldscope lens.
Judging from the intertwined structure made of filaments characteristic of fungi, the kingdom of the organism is Fungi and the domain is Eukarya.
I’m impressed by the lighting and image quality, but you might want your air-conditioning unit maintenanced!

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Retrieved Text: The Domain Eukarya is made up of eukaryotic organisms. Eukaryotic organisms have membrane bound organelles, such as mitochondria. Kingdom Animalia is also called Kingdom Metazoa. It is made up of organisms that are heterotrophic and multicellular (Myers,2011). The word Mollusca comes from the Latin word Molluscus, which means "soft bodied." The characteristics of the molluscs include bilateral symmetry, an open circulatory system, and many, though not all have a shell (Ramel). The Class Gastropoda is made up of snails and slugs. Many gastropods are recognized by a single spiraled shell that the animal can revert back into for protection. All gastropods can also be identified because they go through a process called torsion, a rotation of the visceral mass (Myers & Burch, 2011). The Order Stylommatophora is characterized by eyes on the tips of the tentacles and all of these snails and slugs are terrestrial (Webster). Snails of the Family Zonitidae are also called "true glass snails" because their shells may be glassy or translucent and they can fully withdraw into their shells (Nordsieck, 2009).
Why is Nesovitrea electrina called the Amber Glass snail?
The Nesovitrea electrina is called the Amber Glass snail because it is a snail from the group known as "true glass" snails. The species name, electrina, means amber, which is a brown color.

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Retrieved Text: The discovery of two giant viruses called Tupanviruses is described in a study published in Nature Communications this week. The viruses contain the most comprehensive set of genes necessary for protein assembly of all known viruses and provide insights into their evolution.
The discovery of giant viruses has sparked a debate on virus evolution, with two prominent theories. One possibility is that complex, giant viruses have evolved from a simple ancestor by acquiring genes from infected hosts. Alternatively, the ancestor of giant viruses may have already been a giant virus, and genes that were not required were lost over time.
Bernard La Scola and colleagues discovered the Tupanviruses in samples collected from a soda lake and deep ocean sediments in Brazil. Analyses of the genomes of these viruses show that they contain similar genes to those from known viruses and organisms from the three domains of life: archaea, bacteria and eukarya. However, homologues to about 30% of the genes have not been identified in other organisms. Compared to other viruses, the authors found that the Tupanviruses contain the largest set of genes involved in protein assembly and have genes necessary for incorporating all 20 amino acids into proteins. The origin of these 20 genes currently remains unclear.
Although further research will be necessary, the discovery of Tupanviruses provides an important step in understanding virus evolution, the authors conclude.

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Retrieved Text: "Identification of a novel gene encoding a flavin-dependent tRNA:m5U methyltransferase in bacteria--evolutionary implications."
Published 2005-01-01 in Nucleic Acids Res volume 33 .
Formation of 5-methyluridine (ribothymidine) at position 54 of the T-psi loop of tRNA is catalyzed by site-specific tRNA methyltransferases (tRNA:m(5)U-54 MTase). In all Eukarya and many Gram-negative Bacteria, the methyl donor for this reaction is S-adenosyl-l-methionine (S-AdoMet), while in several Gram-positive Bacteria, the source of carbon is N(5), N(10)-methylenetetrahydrofolate (CH(2)H(4)folate). We have identified the gene for Bacillus subtilis tRNA:m(5)U-54 MTase. The encoded recombinant protein contains tightly bound flavin and is active in Escherichia coli mutant lacking m(5)U-54 in tRNAs and in vitro using T7 tRNA transcript as substrate. This gene is currently annotated gid in Genome Data Banks and it is here renamed trmFO. TrmFO (Gid) orthologs have also been identified in many other bacterial genomes and comparison of their amino acid sequences reveals that they are phylogenetically distinct from either ThyA or ThyX class of thymidylate synthases, which catalyze folate-dependent formation of deoxyribothymine monophosphate, the universal DNA precursor.

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Retrieved Text: Peer through a microscope at some pond water today and you might see what Antonie van Leeuwehnoek or Robert Hooke saw in the mid-1600s: tiny organisms darting, wiggling and oozing to and fro. These single-celled organisms come in two distinct sizes, the larger ones easily big enough to engulf the smaller ones.
Now it’s a new millennium and scientists are still struggling to understand the evolutionary relationships among different types of cells. The small cells van Leeuwenhoek saw – mere specks even at 300x magnification – are the Archaea and the Bacteria.
Eukaryotes as a group also contain other so-called organelles, such as mitochondria (left) and chloroplasts (right).
The larger cells swimming in pond water are essentially similar to the cells of all multicellular organisms, including humans. In the 1820s, as scientists began to revive the microscopic study of cells after a century-long hiatus, they discovered that cells of larger single-celled organisms, plants, fungi and animals all contain a large more or less central part which absorbs certain stains. They called this the nucleus, and cells that contain nuclei eukaryotes (true-kernel cells). The most recent classification of all life on Earth, then, includes three domains: Archaea, Bacteria (also called Eubacteria) and Eukarya, each of which contains a number of kingdoms.
Eukaryotes as a group also contain other so-called organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Less than 100 years after the discovery of the nucleus, a Russian scientist named Mereschowsky first suggested that at least some organelles, including the nucleus, evolved from bacteria engulfed by early cells.
Most scientists today accept that

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Retrieved Text: Depending on your view of phylogenetics, a recent publication in Nature reporting the discovery of a new kingdom-level branch on the tree of life, basal to Kingdom Fungi, is either a major revision of our current view of taxonomy or completely unsurprising and expected. While we mostly refer to the four kingdoms within Domain Eukarya as Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia, it’s understood by the scientific community that Protista is essentially a catch-all category, not a true clade, for eukaryotes that don’t quite fit into the other three groups. While this is convenient for organization, it fails to adequately express the diversity of protists. Four kingdoms is a useful system, but there’s no reason why diversity at the kingdom level couldn’t be much higher. A strict cladist could create hundreds, if not thousands of kingdoms from Protista alone.
Objective 2: Draw in whatever readers push passed the unwieldy title with an unconventional narrative structure.
Objective 3: Hook the reader with a fascinating, though brief, background on seahorses, seadragons, and pipefish.

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: Phosphoketolases (XFPs) are glycolytic enzymes present in several organisms belonging to the Eukarya and Bacteria domains. A total of 151 putative xfp genes were detected in 650 complete genomes available in public databases. Elimination of redundant sequences and pseudogenes rendered a final data set of 128 phosphoketolases, which was analyzed by phylogenetic methods. The distribution of xfp genes was uneven in most taxonomic groups, with the exception of the taxonomical division Lactobacillaceae, in which all the species studied harbored a putative xfp gene. Putative xfp genes were also present predominantly in Rhizobiales and Actinobacteria divisions, in which 23 out of 28 genomes and 23 out of 41 genomes contained at least one putative xfp homolog, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses showed clear discordance with the expected order of organismal descent even in groups where xfp is prevalent, such as Lactobacillaceae. The presence of putative paralogs in some organisms cannot account for these discrepancies; instead, these paralogs are most possibly xenologs. The results of the phylogenetic analyses, the distribution of xfp genes and the location of some xfp genes in plasmids are independent pieces of evidence that point to horizontal gene transfer as a major driving force in the evolution of phosphoketolases. Copyright © 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel.

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Retrieved Text: Animal cells never have cell walls.
This Biology quiz is called 'Cell Structure' and it has been written by teachers to help you if you are studying the subject at middle school. Playing educational quizzes is a fabulous way to learn if you are in the 6th, 7th or 8th grade - aged 11 to 14.
Students of middle school Biology will be expected to familiarize themselves with the various features of plant and animal cells, such as the nucleus or the mitochondria for example. This quiz on cell structure will help them to do just that.
In the early 1800s, Scottish scientist Robert Brown was examining plant cells under a microscope when he noticed that there was a similar structure in each and every cell he looked at. It had been seen before but it was Brown who first realized it was present in all plant cells, and he called it ‘the nucleus’.
We now know that animal and plant cells have many features in common - a nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes and a cell membrane. Plant cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis, a permanent vacuole and a cell wall. Brown had no idea of the importance of the nucleus, or that it was also found in animal cells too, but scientists have gradually discovered more and more about how cells work.
The nucleus contains the DNA of an organism and it is this that instructs the cell what to do and how to do it. Most cells contain DNA but bacterial cells do not have a nucleus as the DNA

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Divergent plate boundaries produce huge mountain ranges under water in every ocean basin.


Q: What type of plate boundaries produce huge mountain ranges in the ocean basin?

 Choices:

- tractional

- coherent

- divergent

- parallel

A:

Target Text: divergent

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Retrieved Text: According to plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust is comprised of over a dozen rigid slabs, or plates. As these plates move over the Earth’s fluid mantle, they interact with each other, forming plate boundaries or zones. Areas where plates are colliding form convergent boundaries, and areas where plates are expanding create divergent boundaries. Rift valleys are formed by divergent boundaries that involve continental plates.
Oceanic divergent boundaries create what are known as mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Rising convection currents in the athenosphere press upward on the thin oceanic plates, causes the plates to bulge upwards. As these currents reach the plates, they also spread outward, pulling the plates apart. As the plates are stretched thin by the upward and outward forces, they fracture. These fractures are quickly filled by solidifying magma and the process begins again. This process produces sub-surface mountain ranges, fissure eruptions, shallow earthquakes, new seafloor and a widening of the ocean basin. This divergent process is characterized by slow and steady expansion, approximately 2.5cm a year.
Continental plates are much thicker than oceanic plates. The force produced by upward currents in these divergent boundaries is not strong enough to create a single break through the entire plate. Instead, the plate bulges upward as it is stretched and fault lines develop on each side of the crest. When these faults fracture, intense earthquakes are produced and the center block drops, forming a rift-like structure. This continental divergent process is much choppier than the smoother oceanic divergence, and is characterized by more sudden, irregular

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Retrieved Text: The crust and the uppermost portion of the mantle together are known as the lithosphere.
Describe the structure and properties of the lithosphere.
The lithosphere is rigid but broken into plates. It is about 100 km thick.
How are the composition and density of continental crust different from that of the rest of the lithosphere?
Continental crust (the continents) is lighter and occurs as pieces embedded into the lithosphere.
The lithosphere sits upon a layer of the mantle called the asthenosphere . This layer is thought to cause plate movement.
What is the major property of the asthenosphere?
How do lithospheric plates move where convection currents are rising?
How do the plates move where convection current are sinking?
All continents had been part of a larger continent that broke and moved apart.
List 3 pieces of evidence that Wegener used to support the theory of continental drift.
(1) similarities in continental shape; (2) similar fossils found in Africa and South America but no where else on Earth; (3) some particularly distinctive rocks found on both continents.
Why to earthquakes and volcanoes occur at plate boundaries?
These boundaries are places where plates are moving moving relative each other. Stresses build up and when pressure must be released, it comes in the form of volcanoes and earthquakes.
Where is the largest belt of active earthquakes and volcanoes?
Describe Earth's magnetic polarity when the magnetic poles are reversed.
The North magnetic pole became the South magnetic pole and vice versa.
What are spreading centres? What occurs there?
A spreading centre are ares where the lithosphere plates are moving apart. As they do this they carry their continents

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Retrieved Text: There are two types of convergent boundaries ocean to ocean and continent to continent. But they each have the same stress which is compression or them colliding with each other.
Continent to continent convergent boundaries make mountain ranges since they are equally dense and uplift that folds the land to make mountain ranges.
Some real life examples are the Himalayan mountains which is a mountain range created by continent to continent convergent boundaries. Another example is the andes mountains in south america that were also created by continent to continent convergent boundaries.
In subduction zones old crust is getting recycled and put back into the mantle.
Some real world examples of these are the marinas trench which was formed by subduction and is the deepest point on earth another example is Alaska and its small islands made from subduction creating a volcano arc.
along with convergent boundaries divergent boundaries also have two types oceanic to oceanic and continent to continent. Divergent boundaries are were the plates are pulling apart and creating tension stress.
The first one is oceanic to oceanic and when they pull apart magma comes up from the mantle to create new crust along with ridges in the ocean.
A real life examples of this boundary are the mid atlantic ridge that makes new crust when the plates pull apart.
the other type of divergent is continent to continent which also pull apart and create tension. then it leads to the creation of a rift that pulls the land apart.
An example of this is the east african rift. it is getting pulled

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what type of mountain ranges form at convergent plate boundaries convergent boundaries what type of mountain ranges form at convergent plate boundaries answerscom.
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the axons of ganglion cells converge to form the axons of ganglion cells converge to form quizlet.
the distal aspect of the tibia forms the posterior view of lower end tibia the the distal aspect of the tibia forms the medial aspect of the ankle.

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Retrieved Text: Match the landforms to their definitions.
large mountain ranges where rock layers have been crumpled together as plates have collided.
deep sections of the ocean and usually form where an oceanic plate is subjecting (sinking below) a continental plate.
a steep sided volcano that is made up of layers of ash and lava.
a broad, gentle sloping volcano mainly made of lava.
Well done. Fold mountains are large mountain ranges where rock layers have been crumpled together as plates have collided. Oceanic trenches are deep sections of the ocean and usually form where an oceanic plate is subjecting (sinking below) a continental plate.
Close but not quite there. Fold mountains are large mountain ranges where rock layers have been crumpled together as plates have collided. Oceanic trenches are deep sections of the ocean and usually form where an oceanic plate is subjecting (sinking below) a continental plate. Composite volcanoes are steep sided volcanoes that are made up of layers of ash and lava whereas shield volcanoes have broad, gentle sloping sides and are mainly made of lava.
Young fold mountains are the highest areas in the world and include Mount Everest.
Well done, young fold mountains are the highest areas in the world and include Mount Everest.
Sorry, you got this one wrong. Young fold mountains are the highest areas in the world and include Mount Everest.
Ocean trenches form some of the deepest parts of the ocean.
Well done, ocean trenches form some of the deepest parts of the ocean.
Sorry, you got this one wrong. Ocean trenches form some of the deepest parts of the ocean.
Sort

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Retrieved Text: pressing “cntrl-alt-del” to login, simply press the “return” key; there’s no password required to log in.
“PlateTec.” Turn off the sound.
Q1: What was the Theory of Plate Tectonics first called?
Q2: What type of scientist was Alfred Wegener?
Q3: What would have prevented Mesosaurus from swimming across the Atlantic?
Q4: What mountain range continues from North America into Europe?
Q5: Why were glaciers able to form in Africa?
Q6: What are the correct answers to the review questions?
Q7: How far back in time does the Continental Drift Explorer go?
Q9: What is another name for fossil magnetism?
Q10: What evidence made the polar wandering hypothesis less likely?
Q11: What are the correct answers to the review questions?
Q12: How old were the oldest rocks found on the floor of the Atlantic?
Q13: What are the correct answers to the review questions?
Q14: How many tectonic plates are mostly ocean crust?
Q15: What are the correct answers to the review questions?
Q16: Where are most divergent plate boundaries located?
Q17: What are the correct answers to the review questions?
Q18: What is a subduction zone?
Q19: What are the 3 types of convergent boundaries?
Q20: What is the NEWS FLASH about?
Q21: How many people were killed?
Q22: How far away was ash detected?
Q23: What 3 mountain ranges formed at a convergent continent-to-continent boundary?
Q24: What are the correct answers to the multiple choice review questions?
Q25: What type of fault is found where plates slide past each other?
Q26: Where were these faults first identified?
Q27: What two tectonic plates slide past each other to form the San Andreas Fault?
Q28: What are the correct answers to the multiple choice review

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Retrieved Text: The Great Basin, generally speaking, is a geographic area between the Sierra Nevada mountains on the west, the Rocky Mountains on the East and the Snake River on the North. About 95% of the state of Nevada is in the Great Basin. About half of Utah falls within the Great Basin, as do parts of California, Oregon, Idaho and Wyoming.
Depending upon the kind of scientist you are talking to, and the parameters used for he definition, the boundaries of the Great Basin might be drawn with minor differences. But the major defining factor of the Great Basin has always been water, or the watershed of the region. A watershed is an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins or seas. The defining attribute of the Great Basin is that precipitation falls within it’s watershed and never reaches an ocean – it drains to the salty basins and lakes of the interior intermountain west where it eventually seeps into the ground or evaporates. All water drains internally. The Great Basin is a 210,000 square mile bathtub with no drain.
Several river systems and lakes are of interest in the Great Basin. Lake Tahoe, a vibrant freshwater Sierra Nevada lake, flows down the Truckee River, quickly loses elevation and drains into the salty, geographic sink of Pyramid Lake. Other salty basin lakes that receive water form the Sierra Nevada range include Walker Lake, Mono Lake and the Carson sinks, all remnants of ancient Lake Lahontan. On the easter side of the Basin, The

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Retrieved Text: Gently rounded or capped by tall peaks, mountains are the planet’s most striking showpieces. They are also Earth’s highest land features. Many of these massive, often steep formations are located along the edges of continents. They may form chains, or ranges, that extend for thousands of miles (or kilometers). The principal mountain ranges include the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, which run from North America all the way down through South America, the Atlas Mountains in Africa, the Himalayas in Asia, and the Alps in Europe. The longest mountain range in the world is at the bottom of the ocean! It measures more than 40,000 miles (65,000 km) long and reaches several miles (or kilometers) high. As solid and imposing as these mountains may appear, they are far from being immobile. Throughout their existence, mountains rise, change shape, and wear down.
Earth’s history is marked by three great periods when mountains were formed. The first occurred more than 400 million years ago. Some mountain ranges in the eastern part of North America are remnants of that period. The second period was around 300 million years ago, when the Appalachian Mountains and some of the massifs of Europe and central Asia were formed. All these mountains are classified as ancient. They are distinguished by their gentle slopes, which have been made round by erosion. The last period occurred barely 50 million years ago, when the Alps and the Himalayas were formed. These young mountains are marked by their irregular, jagged peaks. Since the process of erosion is slower

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Retrieved Text: 1 You have probably heard of Mount Saint Helens. This mountain is part of the Cascade Range in the northwestern United States. You know that these mountains were formed by magma. But did you know that the Adirondack Mountains in New York were also formed by magma?
2 Volcanic mountains are formed when magma erupts onto earth's surface. Many of these mountains are found along mid-ocean ridges. These are divergent boundaries where tectonic plates are spreading apart.
3 As the sea floor spreads apart, magma moves upward to fill the space. It cools and forms mountains. As the eruptions continue, the mountains grow taller. Huge mountain ranges are formed under the ocean.

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Retrieved Text: African Continent is Splitting to Form an Ocean Basin!
Are these Common Lifestyle Habits Good or Bad?
we have a new continent?
The African continent is splitting in two and the result will eventually be a huge new continent. which will leave Africa without its’s horn. The reason is a geological rift which runs down the eastern side of the continent which will eventually be replaced with a new ocean basin.
Things began to change around 180 million years ago when the modern South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Indian Oceans began to form. Since the super-continent PANGEA split apart, creating the land masses we now recognise as South America, Australia, India, Madagascar, Antarctica and, Africa.
African continent is splitting!! WHAT! WHY? HOW?
The Earth’s lithosphere (formed by the crust and the upper part of the mantle of the earth) is broken up into a number of tectonic plates.
These movements are the causes of various changes on earth’s continent’s structures (African continent split) and even earthquakes, which are merely to settle down the disturbed areas of earth.these pushes and forces passes the convection currents within the asthenosphere and it is generated at the boundaries between the plates.
These forces can also cause plates to rupture, forming a rift and potentially leading to the creation of new plate boundaries. which is formally known as a “Rift valley”.
The East African Rift Valley stretches over 3,000km. It is from the Gulf of Aden in the north towards Zimbabwe in the south, splitting the African plate into two unequal parts: the Somali and Nubian plates. The new

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Retrieved Text: north map rocky mountains picture united states mountain ranges x pixels of canada with.
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Retrieved Text: The Earth's crust is broken up into around seventeen major pieces that we call tectonic plates. These plates form a jigsaw pattern around the planet with their edges interacting to cause earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain ranges and deep ocean trenches. But what makes up these jigsaw pieces?
The crustal plates are made up of the two types of crust - continental crust and oceanic crust. We classify plates into three groups depending on their size - Major, Minor, and Micro plates.
These are plates that are greater than 20 million square kilometers.
By the way, lots of maps divide the Indo-Australian plate into two separate plates...but I have not seen any evidence that they are separate. One day we will have evidence for one way or the other...but for now, the evidence does not show them being two plates.
These are plates that are less than20 million square kilometers but greater than one million square kilometers.
These are plates that are less than one million square kilometer in size. Currently, around 56 have been identified, but this changes as new information is discussed by scientists studying the Earth's plates.
Imagine a hard boiled egg with the shell cracked before you peel it. You will find large pieces, smaller pieces and in some places lots of tiny pieces. That is what the Earth's crustal plates are like.
One major misconception is that a plate can only be ONE type of crust. For example, a plate made up of just continental crust. But this is not the case. Most plates are made up of a combination

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Retrieved Text: The Himalayan Mountain Range or Himalayas literally means “Abode of Snow”. It is the youngest Mountain range with a cluster of Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks. The origin of Himalayas is traced back to the Tectonic Plate collisions. About 50-55 Million years back, when the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate to join the Asian Continent the impact Plate collision led to the formation of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
This is the reason behind Himalayas being called as “Fold Mountains”. It is considered to be the world’s highest mountain Range, with its highest peak being “Mount Everest”, which lies along Nepal-China Border. The highest Peak of Himalyan Range in India is the Kanchenjunga.
The Himalayas separate Indian Sub-continent and the Tibetan Plateau. To the glory of Himalayas, it contains two of the World’s highest peaks, K2 and Mount Everest, which are called Eight Thousanders as they cross the mark of 8000 meters.
If we consider the entire Himalayan system which includes a number of smaller outlying ranges, than the system covers six countries, namely India, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Pakistan. Many mountains in the Himalayan Range carry a religious significance for both Hindus and Buddhists. Major rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus, Yangtse originate from this range and the ultimate basin called the Alluvial Plain formed by them pave home for about 1.4 billion people.
The Himalayan Range is extremely huge in itself with a diverse variety of Flora and Fauna. The Kind of flora and fauna varies with the Soil, Climate, rainfall, Altitude. Above the Alluvial Plain in the Indo-Gangetic

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Retrieved Text: Chapter 16. Mountain Building. Mountain Building. Mountains and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection?
Download "Chapter 16. Mountain Building. Mountain Building. Mountains and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection?"
Section 10.1 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions This section discusses volcanic eruptions, types of volcanoes, and other volcanic landforms.
Learning Objectives (LO) What we ll learn today:!
GLY 155 Introduction to Physical Geology, W. Altermann. Press & Siever, compressive forces. Compressive forces cause folding and faulting.
Do NOT open the test until instructed to do so.
Chapter 15. Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection? At the boundaries friction causes plates to stick together.
Chapter 15 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics what s the connection? As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe At the boundaries friction causes plates to stick together.
You must take the exam in the lecture section for which you are registered. Any exceptions must be cleared with the instructor in advance.
Use a highlighter to mark the most important parts, or the parts. you want to remember in the background information.
Plates & Boundaries The earth's continents are constantly moving due to the motions of the tectonic plates. As you can see, some of the plates contain continents and others are mostly under the ocean.
NC Earth Science Essential Standards EEn. 2.1 Explain how processes and forces affect the Lithosphere. EEn. 2.1.1 Explain how the rock cycle, plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes impact the Lithosphere.

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Retrieved Text: Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motion of Earth’s lithosphere. This theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift which was developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted the theory after the concepts of seafloor spreading were later developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Figure 1. The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (on Earth, the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary; convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes,volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically varies from zero to 100 mm annually.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth’s lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by the rotation of the globe and the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative

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Retrieved Text: The "Great Basin" that Great Basin National Park is named after extends from the Sierra Nevada Range in California to the Wasatch Range in Utah, and from southern Oregon to southern Nevada. This is an area where no water drains to an ocean, but drains inward. As big as it is, the Great Basin is only part of an even larger region called the Basin and Range province that extends down into Mexico. The landscape around Great Basin National Park is a good example of what is found throughout the Basin and Range province - long mountain ranges separated by equally long, flat valleys. Great Basin National Park encompasses most of the South Snake Range. The bulk of the rocks exposed in this range are formed of sediments like sand, mud and limey ooze (silt and clay particles mixed with calcium carbonate) that were laid down on the bottom of a shallow sea during the late Precambrian and Cambrian (around 560 million years ago).
As layers accumulated upon layers, the sediments were turned into sedimentary rock. Sand lithified into sandstone, mud into shale, and limey ooze into limestone. Many limestone rocks are partly made up of silt and clay along with many shells of small marine organisms that have died and have fallen to the bottom of the sea. However, the limestone in which Lehman Caves has formed, the Pole Canyon Limestone, probably consists mostly of calcium carbonate that chemically precipitated out of the seawater. Very few fossils are found in the Pole Canyon Limestone. Layers of

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Retrieved Text: What is Plate Tectonics as Earthquake Terminology? What are Aseismic and Seismic Deformation?
Dear reader we have discussed about continental drift in the very beginning posts of our blog. We have also learnt about formation of Mount Everest and Andes earlier. This theory shows us that the massive continents are pushing across ocean floor and through seas by some forces.
These are also called microplates.
Microplates were broken from large plates (major plates) near boundaries of many plates. The deformations generated between plates are found to occur near narrow zones of their boundaries, some deformations are continuous and slow and some are sudden.
The slow and continuous deformation will not produce earthquake i.e. aseismic deformation and the sudden deformation produce earthquakes i.e. seismic deformation.
According to this theory, as deformations mainly occur at plate boundaries, it is also expected to found epicenters of earthquake near plate boundaries. The figure provided above showing earthquake epicenters also supports this theory.

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Retrieved Text: Plate tectonics is a theory of geology. It explains movement of the Earth's lithosphere which is the earth's crust and the upper part of mantle. The lithosphere is divided into several plate, some of which are very big and can be entire continents.
Dissipation of heat from the mantle is the original source of energy driving plate tectonics. Exactly how this works is still a matter of debate. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on-going research.
The outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers. The lithosphere, above, includes the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere. Although solid, the asthenosphere can flow like a liquid on long time scales. Large convection currents in the asthenosphere transfer heat to the surface, where plumes of less dense magma break apart the plates at the spreading centers. The deeper mantle below the asthenosphere is more rigid again. This is caused by extremely high pressure.
There are two types of tectonic plates; oceanic and continental.
An oceanic plate is a tectonic plate at the bottom of the oceans. It is primarily made of mafic rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than felsic, continental crust, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; and denser. It is also younger than continental crust. When they collide, the oceanic plate moves underneath the continental plate because of its density. As a result, it melts in the mantle and reforms. The oldest oceanic rocks are less than 200 million years

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Retrieved Text: Students investigate how mountains are formed. Concepts include the composition and structure of the Earth's tectonic plates and tectonic plate boundaries, with an emphasis on plate convergence as it relates to mountain formation. Students learn that geotechnical engineers design technologies to measure movement of tectonic plates and mountain formation, as well as design to alter the mountain environment to create safe and dependable roadways and tunnels.
Engineers create tunnels through mountains for transportation purposes. Before constructing a mountain tunnel, geotechnical engineers bore test holes into the mountain rock to sample and analyze the material that will be bored or drilled into during tunnel construction. To succeed with these big projects, engineers must have a solid understanding of the drilling process, and the composition and features of the mountain of interest—both of which are determined during the mountain's ancient formation.
Explain the connection between tectonic plates and mountain formation.
Describe several types of technologies designed by engineers that are related to mountain formation, including tools and processes for measuring formation, predicting natural hazards, and determining the location of natural resources.
Students should have some familiarity with the existence of tectonic plates, that they move and the various tectonic plate boundaries that exist.
Did you know that we live on gigantic moving rocks? We call these rocks tectonic plates. They are what make mountain formation possible. What happens when the Earth's 14 major tectonic plates and many minor ones are all moving around? They are bound to start bumping into each other! Natural phenomena such as earthquakes, mountain formation, and volcanoes occur at

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Retrieved Text: Plate tectonics and mountain building MCQs, plate tectonics and mountain building quiz answers for online elementary school courses. Practice plates tectonics multiple choice questions (MCQs), plate tectonics and mountain building quiz questions and answers. Career test on breakup of pangaea, tectonic plates boundaries, plate tectonics and mountain building test prep for teacher certification.
Study elementary school courses, online earth science degree programs MCQs: tectonically active volcanic mountain of pacific ocean is regarded as, with choices ring of fire, mountain of fire, ring of volcano, and island of volcano for online school degrees. Free Earth science student portal for online learning plate tectonics and mountain building quiz questions, MCQs to find questions answers based online learning tests.

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Retrieved Text: It has been said that about 90% of all earthquakes occur along this place, which is also home to 75% of all active and dormant volcanoes on Earth. Interestingly, all but 3 of the world’s largest eruptions in the last 11,700 years have occurred here. The Ring of Fire, as opposed to its literal meaning, is a 40,000 km long, horse-shoe shaped, seismically active area in the Pacific Basin, which is highly prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. Such is the strength of the ‘fire’ power in its area, that the entire basin earned its name purely on merit.
The Ring of Fire, is resultant of tectonic plate movement. Tectonic plates are huge slabs of the Earth’s crust, which fit together like pieces of a puzzle. The plates are not fixed, but are constantly in motion on the crest of a layer called the mantle. Sometimes these plates collide, move apart, or slide next to each other.
The Pacific Plate, on which the ring is situated, is the largest tectonic plate of our dear planet, and spreads over an area of 103 million square kilometres. Most of the active volcanoes in this area are found underwater.
It is said that if the water is drained out of the Pacific Ocean, one would be able to see a series of deep ocean trenches that run parallel to volcanic arcs, which are found along the Ring of Fire. These arcs create both islands and continental mountain ranges.
There’s high probability that one would think and re-think a million times before buying a real

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Retrieved Text: Regional setting and tectonic domains of Myanmar (modified after Bender 1983; Khin Zaw 1989, 1990; Khin Zaw et al. 2015). 1, Arakan (Rakhine) Coastal Strip; 2, Indo-Myanmar Ranges; 3, Western Inner-Burman Tertiary Basin; 4, Central Volcanic Belt (Central Volcanic Line); 5, Eastern Inner-Burman Tertiary Basin; 6, Mogok–Mandalay–Mergui Belt (MMMB); 7, Eastern Shan Highlands.
Map showing locations of most of the ore deposit types discussed in this chapter. Geological characteristics, deposit types, host lithologies, alteration and ore mineral assemblages of the deposits are listed in Table 24.1.
Characteristics of geological units, lithologies, mineral/metal association, deposit types and time–space relations during Cambrian–Devonian time in Myanmar.
Characteristics of geological units, lithologies, mineral/metal association, deposit types and time–space relations during Permian–Recent in Myanmar. Age of magmatic intrusions from Crow & Khin Zaw (2017), Hla Htay et al. (2017), Kyaw Thu & Khin Zaw (2017) and Kyi Khin et al. (2017a, b). Red, granitic intrusions; dark green, basaltic ocean crust and gabbroic intrusions; light green, volcanic rocks in West Myanmar Block; pink, duration of the igneous episodes.
Tectonic setting and metallogenic evolution of Myanmar. (a) Cambro-Ordovician (490–460 Ma). The Myanmar region was part of the West Australian continental margin of the Gondwana Supercontinent. Deposition of carbonate and clastic sediments in a back-arc basin was accompanied by volcanicity, associated with an Inner Volcanic Arc which resulted in the formation of the Bawdwin Pb–Zn–Ag–Cu VHMS deposit and several Pb–Zn–Ag SMHS deposits late in the Cambrian, and Pb–Zn–Ag MVT mineralization hosted by limestones during Middle Ordovician–Middle Devonian time. (b) Late Permian (250 Ma). The West Australian margin of

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Retrieved Text: 30 Apr A new lodge set in the Peruvian Andes celebrates local produce and culinary inventiveness. Paul Richardson tucks in. 26 Mar Peru, country in western South America. Except for the Lake Titicaca basin in the southeast, its borders lie in sparsely populated zones. The boundaries with Colombia to the northeast and Brazil to the east traverse lower ranges or tropical forests, whereas the borders with Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to. The history of Peru spans 4 millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development in the mountain region and the coastal desert. About 15, years ago, groups of people are believed to have crossed the Bering Strait from Asia and survived as nomads, hunting, gathering fruits and vegetables and.
At the time, an economic crisis was developing due peru the creation of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of its territorythe duty exemptions that moved the commercial center from Lima to Caracas and Buenos Airesand the decrease of the mining and lick whooty production. Kuczynski is committed to integrating and acknowledging Peru's indigenous populations, and state-run TV has begun daily news broadcasts in Quechua and Aymara. As every foodie knows, this Latin American country is, along with Denmark, leading the world in culinary loira cumfiesta — and its cuisine is madly fashionable. Some experiences can only be found in one country–Peru. Peru officially the Republic of Peru is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east

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Retrieved Text: The story of plate tectonics starts deep within the Earth. Although the Earth appears to be made up of solid rock, it’s actually made up of three distinct layers: the crust, mantle, and core. Each layer has its own unique properties and chemical composition.
The crust is the thin, solid, outermost layer of the Earth. The crust is thinnest beneath the oceans, averaging only 5 kilometers thick, and thickest beneath large mountain ranges. Continental crust is much more variable in thickness but averages about 30-35 km. Beneath large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas or the Sierra Nevada, the crust reaches a thickness of up to 100 km.
The layer below the crust is the mantle. The mantle has more iron and magnesium than the crust, making it more dense. The uppermost part of the mantle is solid and, along with the crust, forms the lithosphere. The rocky lithosphere is brittle and can fracture. This is the zone where earthquakes occur. It’s the lithosphere that breaks into the thick, moving slabs of rock—the Tectonic plates.
Deeper into the Earth, the temperature rises to the point where part of the mantle is partially molten, the asthenosphere. As rock heats up, it becomes pliable or ‘plastic’. Rock here is hot enough to fold, stretch, compress, and flow very slowly without fracturing. The plates, made up of the relatively light, rigid rock of the lithosphere ‘float’ on the more dense, flowing asthenosphere.
At the center of the Earth lies the super-dense core. With a diameter of 3486 kilometers, the core is larger than

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Retrieved Text: Plate Tectonics is a theory that describes the movement of the seven largest plates of the Earth. The concept came into existence during the 1960s. The earth’s lithosphere is made up of different levels that differ from each other in physical and chemical properties. Apart from these, there are the continental and oceanic crusts. These make various landforms and are susceptible to various types of tectonic movements.
It was over the past hundred thousands of years, the tectonic plates have been moving leading to continental drift. So, the lithosphere comprises of seven to eight major and several minor plates. The meeting place of these plates decides the type of their boundaries. These can be of the following types: Convergent, Transformed or Divergent. These boundaries are the places where activities like Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Ocean trench formation and Mountain building happen. The divergent boundaries are when the two plates spread apart. On the other hand, convergent margins are the ones in which the plates come together and the Transform boundaries are the ones in which the plates slip and grind past each other horizontally.
The force that drives the plate tectonics is convection of the mantle. The hot material in the core called the Magma rises and the cold mantle rocks sink. This leads to a continued pushing and opening out at the Mid-ocean ridges and sinking down at the subduction zones. The Magma builds up in these ridges making the plates move even further apart and creating new oceanic crust.
The major plates are Antarctic, African, Eurasian, South American, Pacific,

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Retrieved Text: Trenches along with volcanic arcs and zones of earthquakes that dip under the volcanic arc as deeply as 700 km are diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations, subduction zones.
Trenches are centerpieces of the distinctive physiography of a convergent plate margin.
Trenches distant from an influx of continental sediments lack an accretionary prism, and the inner slope of such trenches is commonly composed of igneous or metamorphic rocks.
Tonga is recognized as the type example of an extension-dominated, non-accretionary convergent margin (e.g., Tappin, 1994; Tappin et al., 1994a; MacLeod, 1996), with active extensional tectonism throughout the forearc and landward trench slopes.
The axis of the Tonga Trench is offset roughly 50 km to the northwest, relative to the axis of the Kermadec Trench (Figure 1).
The Tonga Trench and forearc are dominated by abundant normal faulting, and typically have numerous canyons that allow substantial volumes of material to move from the Tonga platform to middle and lower slope basins.
Tonga Trench, world’s second deepest point after the Mariana Trench.
Until 1970 the Philippine Trench was regarded as the deepest point of the earth.
Deeper is the Mariana Trench (11,034 meters), the Tonga Trench (10,882 meters) and the Kuril Trench (10,542 meters).
In the Philippine Trench in a depth of until up to three miles one of the world-largest deposits of deuterium (heavier hydrogen) was also found.
Tonga consists of 176 islands ranging from high volcanic to low coral terrain create scenic variety seldom matched elsewhere in the world.
In all, Tonga is comprised of 176 coral and volcanic islands, thirty-six of which are inhabited.
Tonga

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Retrieved Text: From its location near the active boundary of the Pacific plate with the North American plate, UC Riverside gives its faculty and students ready access to a variety of geological, geochemical, and geophysical problems. The campus stands on batholithic rocks at the northern limit of the Peninsular Ranges where they approach two elements of the Transverse Ranges. The latter are separated from each other by the San Andreas fault. The Peninsular Ranges abut the San Bernardino Mountains to the east across the San Andreas fault; the San Gabriel Mountains are encroaching from the north over an active thrust system.
These three mountain ranges near the Riverside campus preserve different segments of a zoned suite of Mesozoic granitoid plutons. Their motions have grouped together a Pre-Cambrian anorthosite complex, Pre-Mesozoic cratonal metasediments, a Mesozoic oceanic greenschist series, and Mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The pre-plutonic marbles are an important source of cement and lime products. The skarns at the Crestmore Quarry, four miles north of the campus, are world-famous for their diversity of minerals.
The active margins of these ranges and their intramontane basins are the sites of late Cenozoic sediment accumulation, active seismicity, landsliding, hot spring activity and urban development. They are within the world's best developed regional seismic monitoring network and the focus of "state of the art" earthquake prediction and engineering hazard mitigation.
The geomorphology bears a strong imprint from active faulting and landslides. Spectacular ground rupture from the 7.5 Ms Landers earthquake provides an ideal area for studying complex surface rupture. Wrightwood, on the east margin of

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Retrieved Text: Asia, largest of the Earth’s seven continents, lying almost entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. With outlying islands, it covers an estimated 44,391,000 sq km (17,139,000 sq mi), or about 30 percent of the world’s total land area. Its peoples account for three-fifths of the world’s population; in 2005 Asia had an estimated 3.91 billion inhabitants.
Most geographers regard Asia as bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Bering Strait and the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the southwest by the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. On the west, the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia is drawn at the Ural Mountains, continuing south along the Ural River to the Caspian Sea, then west along the Caucasus Mountains to the Black Sea. Some geographers include Europe and Asia together in a larger Eurasian region, noting that western Asian countries, such as Turkey, merge almost imperceptibly into Europe.
South of the mainland in the Indian Ocean are Sri Lanka and smaller island groups, such as the Maldives and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. To the southeast is an array of archipelagoes and islands that extend east to the Oceanic and Australian realms. Among these islands are those of Indonesia, including Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and Borneo. The western end of the island of New Guinea is within Indonesia and for that reason geographers occasionally consider it part of Asia. In this encyclopedia, however, it is treated as a part of the Pacific Islands. The Philippine Islands, which include Luzon

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Retrieved Text: Divergent plate boundaries, caused by the shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates, create igneous rocks as the plates move. The rocks are formed by cooling magma, and their specific type depends on the minerals available in the area.
DIvergent plate boundaries are areas in the Earth's crust where two of the tectonic plates are moving away from each other. This motion opens deep cracks in the crust, allowing magma to seep through and rise to the surface. This magma leakage creates types of rock that are common at divergent boundaries, but relatively rare elsewhere.
The main type of rock found at divergent plate boundaries is igneous. These rocks are formed when magma cools and becomes solid, either above or below ground. They are rich in elements including silicon, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium and iron, and make up about 95 percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust. More than 700 types of igneous rock have been identified.
Most rocks formed at divergent boundaries are categorized as malefic igneous rocks, which are dark-colored due to their high magnesium and iron content. This category includes basalt, gabbro and peridotites, which are often found at these boundaries.
Divergent plate boundaries are usually found at mid-ocean ridges, such as those in the Gulf of California and in the mid-Atlantic Ridge. There is also a divergent boundary in the East African rift zone and one in the Dead Sea rift valley, on land.
Graniteland.com: What is Igneous Rock?
From 2006 through 2009, Rebecca Jernigan wrote and edited articles for Laurin Publishing, where she was published in

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Retrieved Text: Next Article Internal waves & Layer of darkness "Quran on Oceanography"
In these two Qur’anic verses it is explicitly stated that the stabilization of the Earth by means of its mountains was a specific stage in the long process of creation of our planet and still is a very important phenomenon in making that planet suitable for living. Now, the following question arises: how can modern Earth Scientists visualize mountains as means of fixation for the Earth? As mentioned above, the rocky outer cover of the Earth (the lithosphere, which is 65-70 km thick under oceans and 100-150 km thick under continents) is broken up by deep rift systems into separate plates (major, lesser and minor plates as well as micro plates, plate fragments and plate remains).
Each of these rigid, outer, rocky covers of the Earth floats on the semi-molten, plastic outermost zone of the Earth’s Mantle (the asthenosphere) and move freely away from, past or towards adjacent plates. At the diverging boundary of each plate, molten magma rises and solidifies to form strips of new ocean floor, and at the opposite boundary (the converging boundary) the plate dives underneath the adjacent plate ‘(subducts) to be gradually consumed in the underlying uppermost mantle zone (the asthenosphere) at exactly the same rate of sea-floor spreading on the opposite boundary. An ideal rectangular, lithospheric plate would thus have one edge growing at a mid-oceanic rift zone (diverging boundary), the opposite edge being consumed into he asthenosphere of the over­riding plate (converging or subduction boundary) and the other two edges

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======= Instance Index 37 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

temperatures with electropositive metals such as those of groups 1 and 2 and aluminum produces ionic carbides, which contain discrete metal cations and carbon anions. The identity of the anions depends on the size of the second element. For example, smaller elements such as beryllium and aluminum give methides such as Be2C and Al4C3, which formally contain the C4− ion derived from methane (CH4) by losing all four H atoms as protons. In contrast, larger metals such as sodium and calcium give carbides with stoichiometries of Na2C2 and CaC2. Because these carbides contain the C4− ion, which is derived from acetylene (HC≡CH) by losing both H atoms as protons, they are more properly called acetylides. As discussed in Chapter 21 "Periodic Trends and the ", Section 21.4 "The Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2)", reacting ionic carbides with dilute aqueous acid results in protonation of the anions to give the parent hydrocarbons: CH4 or C2H2. For many years, miners’ lamps used the reaction of calcium carbide with water to produce a steady supply of acetylene, which was ignited to provide a portable lantern. The reaction of carbon with most transition metals at high temperatures produces interstitial carbides. Due to the less electropositive nature of the transition metals, these carbides contain covalent metal– carbon interactions, which result in different properties: most interstitial carbides are good conductors of electricity, have high melting points, and are among the hardest substances known. Interstitial carbides exhibit a variety of nominal compositions, and they are often nonstoichiometric compounds whose carbon content can vary over a wide range. Among the most important are tungsten carbide (WC), which is used industrially in high-speed cutting tools, and cementite (Fe3C), which is a major component of steel. Elements with an electronegativity similar to that of carbon form covalent carbides, such as silicon carbide (SiC; Equation 22.15) and boron carbide (B4C). These substances are extremely hard, have high...


Q: Interstitial carbides are produced by the reaction of most transition metals at high temperatures with what element?

 Choices:

- nitrogen

- oxygen

- hydrogen

- nitrogen

A:

Target Text: carbon

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 43.30444
Retrieved Text: Calcium carbide is a solid chemical compound of calcium and carbon, with the formula CaC2, a carbide, that reacts with water to produce acetylene. Calcium carbide reacts vigorously with water to produce calcium hydroxide and acetylene gas.
We are offering calcium carbide. calcium carbide is used in the desulfurisation of iron (pig iron, cast iron and steel); as a fuel in steelmaking to extend the scrap ratio to liquid iron, depending on economics and also as a powerful deoxidizer at ladle treatment facilities.
I used the Calcium Carbide to "jump start" my pineapple plant into making fruit. It took about 6-8 weeks, but it worked! I now have a baby pineapple starting on my 3 year old plant.
Calcium carbide is synthesized industrially from calcium oxide (lime), CaO, and carbon in the form of coke at about 2,200 °C (4,000 °F). Pure calcium carbide has a high melting point (2,300 °C [4,200 °F]) and is a colourless solid.
Calcium carbide, it states, is a grayish black, irregular, hard solid that must be kept dry. It adds that the compound has an odour like garlic. As for Willson, he became known as Carbide Willson, the man who turned water into light.
Calcium carbide is an inorganic compound with the following primary commercial applications: production of calcium cyanamide (a nitrogen fertilizer), generation of acetylene, and usage in the iron (foundry) and steel industries as a desulfurization reagent.
Calcium Carbide Calcium carbide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CaC2. Calcium carbide reacts with water to generate acetylene gas. The acetylene gas is

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Rank: 1
Score: 41.33278
Retrieved Text: Crystallographic studies on some deformed hard materials.
Porter, Leslie James. (1971) Crystallographic studies on some deformed hard materials. Doctoral thesis, University of Surrey (United Kingdom)..
X-ray line broadening techniques were used to investigate the deformation characteristics of various hard materials. A detailed comparison of the Warren-Averbach, variance and integral breadth methods of analysing a broadened X-ray diffraction peak showed that they give comparable results. The effect of temperature on the deformation characteristics of materials with different types of chemical bonding was investigated. Ionic and covalent bonds are extreme examples of the same type of bond, and in materials with these bond types it was found that the amount of covalency in the bond governed the microplastic behaviour. The behaviour of the transition metal carbides was less predictable on account of their complicated mixture of metallic, ionic and covalent bonding. Studies on tungsten carbide powders showed that considerable deformation was induced by ball milling. The deformation could be relieved by annealing. Deformation stacking faults, involving slip on the basal plane, were observed. Studies on the worn surfaces of sintered blocks and single crystals revealed plastic deformation that extended to a depth of several microns below the surface. Hafnium carbide showed a marked anisotropic behaviour when deformed. The deformation could be annealed out by recovery and recrystallisation processes as in metals. The hafnium carbide lattice was found to be remarkably stable at high temperatures compared with other transition metal carbides. Studies on the polymorphic refractory oxide, zirconia, showed that tetragonal zirconia was formed from monoclinic zirconia when the particle size

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Rank: 2
Score: 41.135788
Retrieved Text: "UHTCs: Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic Materials for Extreme Environmen" by Eric J. Wuchina, Elizabeth J. Opila et al.
Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics are a family of compounds that display a unique set of properties, including extremely high melting temperatures (> 3000⁰C), high hardness, and good chemical stability and strength at high temperatures. Structural materials for use in high-temperature oxidizing environments are presently limited mostly to SiC, Si3N4, oxide ceramics, and composites of these materials. The maximum-use temperatures of silicon-based ceramics are limited to approximately 1700⁰C due to the onset of active oxidation (lower temperatures in water vapor environments. The development of structural materials for use in oxidizing and rapid heating environments at temperatures above 1700⁰C is therefore of great engineering importance. UHTC materials are typically considered to be the carbides, nitrides, and borides of the transition metals, but the Group IV-V compounds (Ti, Zr, Hf, Ta) are generally considered to be the main focus of research due to the superior melting temperatures and formation of stable high-melting temperature oxides. The combination of properties make these materials potential candidates for a variety of hightemperature structural applications, including engines, hypersonic vehicles, plasma arc electrodes, cutting tools, furnace elements, and high temperature shielding.
E. J. Wuchina et al., "UHTCs: Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic Materials for Extreme Environment Applications," Electrochemical Society Interface, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 30-36, Electrochemical Society, Inc., Dec 2007.
© 2007 Electrochemical Society, Inc., All rights reserved.

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Rank: 3
Score: 40.02015
Retrieved Text: Cubic and hexagonal close packing.
A metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable - that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking - as well as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals (some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms).
Atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat and electricity. While this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond.
Crystalline solids consist of repeating patterns of its components in three dimensions (a crystal lattice) and can be represented by drawing the structure of the smallest identical units that, when stacked together, form the crystal. This basic repeating unit is called a unit cell.
This is not a close packed structure. Here each metal atom is at the centre of a cube with 8 nearest neighbors, however the 6 atoms at the centres of the adjacent cubes are only approximately 15% further away so the coordination number can therefore be considered to be

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Rank: 4
Score: 39.590843
Retrieved Text: A scientific research paper about Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Carbides published in ACS Nano has been selected as recipient of a prestigious award from the American Ceramic Society (ACerS).
ACerS' Ross Coffin Purdy Award recognized the article, which was the first to describe a facile method to produce a large family of two-dimensional layered, early transition metal carbides and nitrides, labeled MXenes. The latter are so-called because they are produced by selective etching of the A-group element — aluminum in this case — from an even larger family of layered solids labeled the MAX phases.
The annual Ross Coffin Purdy Award recognizes researchers "judged to have made the most valuable contribution to ceramic technical literature." The ACerS board unanimously agreed to grant the honor to the Barsoum and Gogotsi team's work.
The award was presented at the ACerS 115th Annual Meeting held in conjunction with MS&T’13 in Montreal, Canada in October 27-31, 2013. The MS&T Conference brings together scientists, engineers, students, suppliers and more to discuss current research and technical applications, and to shape the future of materials science and technology.

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Rank: 5
Score: 38.529484
Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Refractory Metals mean?
Refractory metals refer to a class of substances with good electrical and thermal conductivity that possess a very high melting point of greater than 2000°C (3632°F). They are strongly resistant to wear, deformation and corrosion.
With their extremely high melting points, these metals can withstand creep deformation when subjected to extremely high temperatures. Refractory metals are commonly used in metallurgy, material science and engineering.
These elements possess similar electronic structures to one another - characterized by transition elements with incomplete D sub-shells on the subatomic microscopic level.
The high melting point of these metals make them uniquely equipped with strength, hardness, resistance to corrosion, resistance to heat and minimal reactivity with water. The above listed metals are used to fabricate tools, casting molds, wire filaments and nuclear reaction control rods. Due to their high melting point, they are never fabricated by casting but rather by powder metallurgy.
Molybdenum, tantalum and tungsten have higher melting points and can be useful in glass making and the processing of molten metals. Tungsten also has outstanding strength.

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Rank: 6
Score: 37.66224
Retrieved Text: The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it transforms from a solid to a liquid state. Metals show a high melting point as they exist in a crystalline solid form. High melting point metals have strong intermolecular forces between atoms. Electrostatic attraction forces between metal ions and free electrons create strong metallic bonds with stronger bonds resulting in higher melting temperatures.
There are two accepted definitions for refractory metals. One states a metal must have a melting point above 2200 °C, whilst the other states all metals with a melting point above 1850 °C are considered refractory metals. Using the broader definition, the following 14 metals are classified as refractory metals.
Refractory metals have highly specialised applications such as in lighting, tools, lubricants and nuclear reaction rods. They cannot be cast into shapes and can only be processed using powder metallurgy.
Lutetium, Lawrencium and Protactinium also have high melting points. But they are highly radioactive or have very limited applications and are not commonly used.
Palladium is a shiny, silvery-white metal that melts at 1555 °C and has a density of 12.02g/cm3. The metal is highly corrosion resistant in air but may tarnish in moist air containing sulphur. It has no biological role and is non-toxic.
The metal is produced as a by-product during the refining of copper and nickel ores. It is extremely ductile and can easily be beaten into a thin leaf shape used for decorative purposes or as jewellery.
It is most commonly used in the manufacture of automobile catalytic converters. It is also widely

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Rank: 7
Score: 37.579758
Retrieved Text: Polymer derived ceramics (PDC) is an important class of ceramics that are fabricated from the inert atmosphere pyrolysis of Si- containing precursors. Various Si- based ceramics including silicon oxycarbide (SiCO), silicon carbonitride (SiCN), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon borocarbonitride (SiBCN) etc. can be prepared from various Si- containing precursors. These ceramics are characterized by their high specific strength, oxidation resistance, enhanced creep resistance and other functional properties. One of the most important developments in the ceramic system is the possibility of using these materials as coatings for high temperature structural ceramics. Although oxidation resistance of PDCs are good, they need to be fabricated in the multilayer structures that includes phase stability with various other metal oxides and carbides. The present work focuses on transition metal modified Polymer derived ceramics (PDC). Poly (methyl) silsesquioxane was used as the preceramic polymer in the process. Various transition metal elements having similar atomic size and different valence such as Al and Ti were introduced in the SiCO structure to form modified PDC. The doping amount in the structure is varied to study effect of amount of transition metal doping at the molecular level on phase evolution at different temperatures Phase evolution and thermal behavior of the modified PDCs at different high temperatures are studied.

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Rank: 8
Score: 37.382206
Retrieved Text: Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are sensors that measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is typically relatively fragile, so it is generally installed inside a sheath to protect it. The RTD element is constructed from a pure material, the resistance of which, at various temperatures, has been documented by various international standards institutes. The material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature varies; it is this change that is used to determine temperature.
RTDs are generally considered to be among the most accurate temperature sensors available. In addition to offering very good accuracy, they provide excellent stability and repeatability. RTDs also feature high immunity to electrical noise and are, therefore, well suited for applications in process and industrial automation environments, especially around motors, generators and other high voltage equipment.
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is cooled or heated a voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature. Most thermocouple alloys are commonly available as wire.

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Rank: 9
Score: 37.16133
Retrieved Text: Pure rhenium is an important material for many scientific instrument filaments, as well as other electron and ion source filaments. Most rhenium naturally occurs in porphyry copper deposits. Hydrogen reduction is used to convert ammonium perrhenate to pure rhenium powder. The pure rhenium powder is pressed and sintered into ingots. These pure rhenium ingots are then swaged, rolled, and/or drawn to the final wire or ribbon size.
Because rhenium retains its ductility from subzero to high temperatures, it does not have a Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT). Rhenium also has one of the highest modulus of elasticity among all metals, second to only iridium and osmium. As the temperature increases from room temperature to 725°C, rhenium’s modulus only decreases about 20%. This property allows for filaments made with pure rhenium to have excellent mechanical stability and rigidity. Even at high stresses and temperatures up to 2800°C, the rupture life of rhenium is longer than that of tungsten.
In addition, out of all the refractory metals, rhenium has the highest recrystallization temperature. A high recrystallization temperature is important, because this ensures good creep resistance. Compared to other refectory metals, rhenium has superior tensile and creep-rupture strengths over a wide temperature range. Pure rhenium can also accommodate wide swings in operating temperature without experiencing mechanical damage. Additionally, rhenium does not form stable carbides and is resistant to the water cycle.
Here at Union City Filament, we use rhenium as the base material for mass spectrometer filaments and other scientific instrument filaments. We began using rhenium in the 1990s for mass spectrometer filaments

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Rank: 10
Score: 37.070694
Retrieved Text: Circular saw-blades with cemented carbide tips are used for a wide variety of purposes. These range from light use (DIY) to heavier professional construction work or arduous sawmill applications. The carbide tips or 'teeth' need to be held strongly in the joint, which must also be able to cushion the carbide from the stresses it will encounter as a result of the brazing process and in subsequent service. Choice of brazing filler metal is therefore important.
Aufhauser has developed a range of copper-based brazing filler metals for brazing of rock drills and mining tools. In addition to these copper alloy filler metals, SilverAlloy silver brazing filler metals may also be used. These brazing filler metals must be capable of producing high strength joints that will be reliable in the most arduous of service environments. A range of applicable products is shown below.
Brazing of cemented tungsten carbide tools such as reamers, routers and rotary burrs is a specialist area. Selection of the brazing filler metal will be determined by factors such as the need to ensure adequate wetting of the filler metal and to avoid the possibility of cracking in the cemented carbide tip. Brazing filler metals containing nickel and or manganese have been shown to have improved wetting characteristics on cemented carbides that are difficult to wet. The thicker joints made with SilverAlloy A-49NiMn and LayerMet A-49NiMn as a 'rule of thumb' will be suitable on carbide segments of up to 20mm and 25mm respectively. Some of the specialized brazing filler metals for this type of component

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Rank: 11
Score: 36.739113
Retrieved Text: Borides are hard, heat-resistant materials, often used for coating structures that will have to withstand high temperatures and high-pressure environments. But even the best borides are susceptible to oxidation — the chemical reaction that causes corrosion and rusting.
Borides are among the hardest and most heat-resistant substances on the planet, but their Achilles’ Heel, like so many materials’, is that they oxidize at high temperatures. Oxidation is the chemical reaction commonly known as corrosion or rusting — it can signal the end for a material’s structural integrity. But researchers from Drexel University, Linkoping University in Sweden and Imperial College London have produced an aluminum-layered boride whose unique behavior at high temperatures keeps it one step ahead of nature’s slow march toward high- temperature chemical degradation.
So impressive is their perceived durability, that borides are used as coatings for surfaces that must survive the harshest environments — from the inside of combustion engines to cutting tools for hard metals. But, according to Michel Barsoum, PhD, distinguished professor in Drexel’s College of Engineering who is the lead author of research recently published in Scientific Reports, we can make borides better.
Materials scientists have made a layered boride material that is corrosion-resistant at high temperatures.
“This discovery is quite significant because it is the first example in the history of mankind of a transition metal boride that is quite oxidation resistant,” said Barsoum, who heads Drexel’s MAX/MXene Research Group in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering.
To make their boride material, called molybdenum aluminum boride (MoAlB), Barsoum and his team combined a molybdenum-boron

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Rank: 12
Score: 36.346165
Retrieved Text: Fast-SCR was investigated for NOx reduction in internal combustion engines. H2 addition was found to increase NO2 formation over a Ag/Al2O3 catalyst. This led to an improved NH3-SCR activity at low temperature. It is concluded that NO2 formation before the Ag/Al2O3 catalyst either in the engine or a Pt/Al2O3 based DOC will improve SCR performance. This NO2 promotion effect was less at higher temperatures.
Reformed exhaust gas recirculation (REGR) provides H2 to the combustion process to recover heat from exhaust and improve fuel conversion efficiency. A full scale prototype reformer for gasoline direct injection engines is presented and its performance is assessed. The performance is better at higher temperatures with a decline in performance at lower exhaust temperature. The reformate quality is also dependent on process temperature and reactant composition.
New methods for synthesising natural products and active pharmaceutical ingredients have been explored using palladium-catalysed ɑ-arylation of carbonyl compounds. The advantages of this particular method are an increase in the overall yield, an improved synthesis scope and a reduction in the number of steps. The significance of palladium-catalysed ɑ-arylation methods are discussed and a number of case studies have been included.
The variation in atomic structures of size-selected Au and Pd nanoclusters (containing 923 and 2057 atoms) supported on amorphous carbon films before and after being exposed to the vapour-phase hydrogenation of 1-pentyne was studied. The populations of the nanoclusters were studied at atomic resolution before and after the reaction using an aberration-corrected high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The atomic structures of the observed

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Rank: 13
Score: 36.30932
Retrieved Text: Which of the following temperature measuring elements/devices measures temperature as the result of an electromotive force being generated that is proportional to a temperature difference (Seebeck effect) between two dissimilar, joined metals?
Answer A is not correct: An RTD measures temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. As the temperature increases, the resistance increases.
Answer B is not correct: Bimetallic expansion thermometer converts a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals, which expand at different rates as they are heated.
Answer D is not correct: IR Thermometers infer temperature using a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object of measurement.
The voltage difference, V, produced across the terminals of an open circuit made from a pair of dissimilar metals, A and B, whose two junctions are held at different temperatures, is directly proportional to the difference between the hot and cold junction temperatures, Th − Tc. A voltage or current is produced across the junctions of two different metals, caused by the diffusion of electrons from high electron density region to low electron density region. This diffusion of electrons occurs because the density of electrons is different in different metals.

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Rank: 14
Score: 36.02432
Retrieved Text: Yttrium is a chemical element with symbol Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanides and it has often been classified as a "rare earth element". Yttrium is almost always found combined with the lanthanides in rare earth minerals and is never found in nature as a free element. Its only stable isotope, 89Y, is also its only naturally occurring isotope.
Zirconium is a chemical element with the symbol Zr and atomic number 40. The name of zirconium is taken from the mineral zircon. Its atomic mass is 91.224. It is a lustrous, gray-white, strong transition metal that resembles titanium. Zirconium is mainly used as a refractory and opacifier, although minor amounts are used as alloying agent for its strong resistance to corrosion. Zirconium is obtained mainly from the mineral zircon, which is the most important form of zirconium in use.
Niobium, or columbium, is a chemical element with the symbol Nb and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which is often found in the pyrochlore mineral, the main commercial source for niobium, and columbite. The name comes from Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus.
Molybdenum is a Group 6 chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The name is from Neo-Latin Molybdaenum, from Ancient GreekΜόλυβδος molybdos, meaning lead, itself proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages, since its ores were confused with lead ores. The free element, which is a silvery metal, has the sixth-highest melting point of any

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Rank: 15
Score: 35.78791
Retrieved Text: What Did The Periodic Table Almost Look Like?
The lanthanide /ˈlænθənaɪd/ or lanthanoid /ˈlænθənɔɪd/ series of chemical elements comprises the fifteen metallic chemical elementswith atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium. These fifteen lanthanide elements, along with the chemically similar elements scandium and yttrium, are often collectively known as the rare earth elements.
The informal chemical symbol Ln is used in general discussions of lanthanide chemistry to refer to any lanthanide. All but one of the lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell; lutetium, a d-block element, is also generally considered to be a lanthanide due to its chemical similarities with the other fourteen. All lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln3+, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which decreases steadily from lanthanum to lutetium.
They are termed as lanthanides because the lighter elements in the series are chemically similar to lanthanum. Strictly speaking, both lanthanum and lutetium have been labeled as group 3 elements, because they both have a single valence electron in the d shell. However, both elements are often included in any general discussion of the chemistry of the lanthanide elements.
In presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table, with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series (either lanthanum and actinium, or lutetium and lawrencium) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely

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Rank: 16
Score: 35.66696
Retrieved Text: ????????? ?.?., ????? ?.?., ???????? ?.?., ???? ?.?.
POLEMA JSC is the leading global manufacturer of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten products, metal powders and composites. The enterprise has great production facilities and analytic base, plants of isostatic molding, high-temperature sintering, extrusion, rolling mills, up-to-date machine pool producing unique large-size rolled stock and refractory metal products.
The delivery of heat shields and refractory metal crucibles for growth setup furnaces was started in 1998. The enterprise extended the products’ range and increased volume of crucibles production, large-size molybdenum rolled stock and ??70W30 alloy and tungsten products. POLEMA introduced extra capacities into operation for production of large-size tungsten crucibles. It also expands production of molybdenum large-size thin-sheet rolled stock and furnaces under customers’ drawings.
molybdenum rolled sheet of high precision, Spec. 14-22-149-2001.
Rolled stock is produced with the thickness of 0,3 - 45 mm. It’s characterized by high purity in reference to interstitial and metal impurities (table 1), high plasticity and homogeneous structure.
Molybdenum sheets are supplied annealed for inner stress relieving unless otherwise specified by the customer. Table 2 contains typical strength values of rolled stock under room temperature.
Thickness, mm Strength σ?, kgs/mm2 Relative elongation δ, % Hardness, ??
Molybdenum rolled sheet is applied for flat and round heat screens. The sheets are recommended to be treated with local gas-plasma or inductive heating under the temperatures depending on rolling thickness and deformation degree during screen forming at bending press. E.g. the recommended temperature range for the sheet with thickness of 0,5mm is about >100-3000°?, the sheet of 1mm - >150-3500°?, the sheet of 2 mm

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Rank: 17
Score: 35.634224
Retrieved Text: Transition metal carbides (TMCs), e.g., nickel carbide (Ni3C), molybdenum carbide (Mo2C), and tungsten carbide (WC), can exhibit metallic conductivity with outstanding thermal and mechanical stability, making them a popular category of substrate for noble metal catalysts, e.g., platinum (Pt), gold (Au), palladium(Pd), and alloys of such elements. In addition, the TMCs themselves are excellent catalysts with performance challenging noble metals in some applications. Solution phase synthesis is widely used for preparing complex nanostructures. However, for Ni3C, only a few cases have been reported, including morphologies such as dots, spheres and multipods. Accessible surface area, along with intrinsic catalytic activity, determines the performance of materials in catalytic applications. Here we report a hierarchical structure of Ni3C with significantly increased specific surface area. The nanostructure is synthesized via the thermal decomposition of an organometallic nickel precursor. The NCs initially form as a Ni3C1-x solid solution. As the reaction proceeds, HCP nickel is gradually carburized into rhombohedral Ni3C. A typical hierarchical nanocrystal (HNC) consists of one core, many radial branches, and hexagonal platelet “caps” on the end of most branches. We conclude that the displacement causing stacking faults is in (0 0 1) planes in each branch, which is common for hexagonal lattices. To optimize the synthesis of HNCs and provide insights into the steps producing the HNCs, we conducted time-dependent growth experiments. These show a sequence of events in which NCs evolve from aggregates of primary particles, from which “buds”, then branches grow. Finally hexagonal “caps” grow on the end of the branches producing a hierarchical structure on

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Rank: 18
Score: 35.438137
Retrieved Text: Science has come along way since Aristotle’s theory of Air, Water, Fire, and Earth. Scientists have identified 90 naturally occurring elements, and created about 28 others.
the entire universe. make up our bodies. and in fact. our world. alone or in combinations.Elements  The elements. our sun. .
.The most abundant element in the earth’s crust is oxygen.
Periodic Table    The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. Understanding the organization and plan of the periodic table will help you obtain basic information about each of the 118 known elements. you can predict with reasonably good accuracy the physical and chemical properties of the element. . For example. You can also predict what other elements a particular element will react with chemically. A great deal of information about an element can be gathered from its position in the period table.
Key to the Periodic Table  Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic number. usually found near the top of the square.  The atomic number refers to how many protons an atom of that element has. No two elements have the same atomic number.  The atomic number is unique to that element. .  For instance. hydrogen has 1 proton. so it’s atomic number is 1.
. but usually:      atomic number symbol atomic mass number of valence electrons state of matter at room temperature.What’s in a square?  Different periodic tables can include various bits of information.
Atomic Number   This refers to how many protons

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Rank: 19
Score: 34.975807
Retrieved Text: In this study, Mo-Ni-B alloy system which can be a new hard alloy alternative to tungsten base cemented carbides, was investigated by means of thermochemical calculations and experimental trials. Thermochemical calculations were carried out to estimate the adiabatic temperatures and possible product compositions in the alloys by using FactSage 7.0 thermochemical software. The combustion synthesis process was performed under normal gravity and air in Cu copper crucibles by using metal oxides (MoO3 and NiO), boron oxide (B2O3) as a boron source and aluminum (Al) as a metallic reductant. Alumina, (Al2O3) as a functional additive (diluent), were also added in order to reduce the adiabatic temperature of the reaction. Since the attained reaction temperatures for this system during the exothermic SHS process is so high (above 2000 °C), the reaction is self-sustaining and the melt consists of insoluble mixture of metallic compound and oxide phase which can be segregated under normal gravity force.

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Rank: 20
Score: 34.96462
Retrieved Text: FOSHAN RISING TECHNOLOGY CO.,LTD is a professional leader China Green silicon carbide, green silicon carbide powder, silicon carbide ceramic product manufacturer with high quality and reasonable price.
Silicon carbide is used in abrasives, in polishing and grinding. It is widely applied in applications calling for high endurance, such as automobile brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests.
Silicon Carbide Powder is a perfect tool for flattening and lapping synthetic and natural stones. Choose one of 9 available grit: F 60, F 120, F 220, F 320, F 400, F 600, F 800, F 1200 and F 2000.
Industrial grade Silicon Metal in the form of powders, grains or chunks for use in a wide range of applications including Reaction Bonded Silicon Carbide, Siliconized Recrystallized Silicon Carbide, and Reaction Bonded Boron Carbide parts.
SILICON CARBIDE page 2 of 6 This Fact Sheet is a summary source of information of all potential and most severe health hazards that may result from exposure.
Find great deals on eBay for silicon carbide powder. Shop with confidence.
Abrasive black silicon carbide powders are the perfect material that specifically manufactured to be used for general abrasive applications in bonded abrasive tools, lapping and polishing processes.
Supplier of Metals, Alloys, Ceramics, Polymers, Compounds, Intermetallics & Composites for research & industrial markets. View our small quantity Catalogue.
Silicon Carbide (SiC) 409-21-2 96-100 N Total Dust 10 10 Respirable Fraction 5 5 ... EMERGENCY OVERVIEW: Non-flammable black solid or powder.
Online Ordering of Black Silicon Carbides, 50lb pails, also sold in bulk 300 lb drums (wholesale).
Silicon Carbide Powder (or SiC) is designed

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Retrieved Text: Tungsten carbide (Tungsten Carbide)Is a compound composed of tungsten and carbon. The molecular formula is WC and the molecular weight is 195.85.It is a black hexagonal crystal with a metallic luster and a hardness similar to that of diamond. It is a good conductor for electricity and heat. Tungsten carbide is insoluble in water, hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid, and is easily soluble in a mixed acid of nitric acid-hydrofluoric acid. Pure tungsten carbide is brittle, and if a small amount of metal such as titanium or cobalt is incorporated, brittleness can be reduced. Tungsten carbide used as a steel cutting tool is often added with titanium carbide, tantalum carbide or a mixture thereof to improve the antiknock ability. The chemical properties of tungsten carbide are stable. Tungsten carbide powder is used in cemented carbide production materials.
Active oxidation occurs at temperatures above 500 ° C in the air, and the antioxidant capacity is weak.
Chemical reaction formula: W + C = WC Note: The reaction is carried out at 1150 °C.
It does not react with chlorine below 400 ° C; it reacts violently with fluorine at room temperature; it is oxidized to tungsten oxide when heated in air.
Using tungsten and carbon as raw materials, the tungsten powder with an average particle diameter of 3 to 5 μm and the carbon black of the same amount are dry-blended with a ball mill, thoroughly mixed, and then placed into a graphite disk by press molding, and then placed in a graphite resistance furnace. Or in an induction furnace to

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Retrieved Text: Named from the Greek words meaning “water forming”, hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up nearly 75% of all matter. It is a very light, colorless, odorless gas and is highly flammable.
Hydrogen is essential to life. It is one of the six bulk elements and it is the third most common element in the human body. Hydrogen is a component of water, without which, life could not exist. Hydrogen also is a constituent of DNA and most other organic molecules. Pure hydrogen is not used by higher life forms, but is metabolized by some types of bacteria.
Most hydrogen is obtained from a reaction between methane gas and water. It also is produced by the reaction of water and metallic iron at high temperatures. Hydrogen also is obtained from the electrolysis of water. Hydrogen is present in many minerals as a component of water.

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Retrieved Text: What is Deep Cryogenic Processing?
Deep cryogenic treating is a one-time, homogenous process that permanently and dramatically improves the performance and useful life of metals in everything from brake rotors and performance engines to machine tools and gun barrels. Using a proprietary computer-controlled process, the metal is cooled slowly to deep cryogenic temperatures (-300°F), and slowly returned to room temperature, then heat-tempered as the final step. Computer technology allows us to regulate temperatures to 1 degree, accurately manipulating our Cryo treatment in accordance with the mass of your parts.
Although not apparent to the naked eye, the improvements to the metal are significant. Deep cryogenic processing creates dramatic increases in abrasive wear resistance and durability. The increases in tensile strength, toughness and stability couple with the release of internal residual stresses.
Deep cryogenic processing permanently refines the grain structure of metals at the atomic level. Carbon particles precipitate as carbides into a lattice structure and fill in the microscopic voids. This creates metallurgically improved and stabilized rotors that have a denser, smoother surface. As a result, you reduce heat and wear on brake rotors and pads.

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Retrieved Text: Use of various powders (pastes) made of metal nano powders (30/100 microns) such as Au, Ag and Ni as a next-generation leading material is anticipated.
The rare metals tungsten and Molybdenum are vital materials in the fields of super-high temperatures exceeding 1500°C. These materials are commonly used in applications that use their high specific gravity.
This nickel-based porous metal (CERMET), featuring a 98% porosity, is popularly used as an air electrode for batteries.
Fine ceramics made of nitrides and carbides are often used for semiconductors, FA devices and automobiles, etc. Nagoya Denki is aiming to develop new applications.
Nagoya Denki has many three-dimensional metal parts that use MIM (metal injection molding) technology. Consult with us for use in steel-based, SUS-based, copper-based or Mg-based applications.

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Retrieved Text: Ask any chemists what element they think of when they hear ‘cross-coupling’ and the answer will most likely be palladium. But it turns out that phosphorus – as Andrew McNally calls it, an ‘unfashionable reagent’ – outclasses palladium when it comes to connecting pyridines.
Since their development in the 1970s, cross coupling reactions have become the medicinal chemists’ favourite. They form carbon–carbon bonds by reacting an organohalide with an organometal or alkene. Today, there are countless different cross-coupling variants, most catalysed by palladium.
‘But these are not very good when it comes to coupling electron-deficient heterocycles, in particular pyridines and diazines,’ McNally says.
Although nitrogen heterocycles are part of many drugs, such as the cancer medication imatinib, they often prove challenging for palladium. They can bind to the catalyst, killing its reactivity. Even just making the corresponding cross coupling precursors – like halogenated pyridines or pyridine boronic acids – is notoriously difficult.
McNally and Robert Paton from Colorado State University, US, and their team have discovered that phosphorus – an element better known for its role in palladium ligands – excels at making these connections.
Their reagent – a phosphine carrying two phenyl and one methyl propanoate substituent – makes carbon–carbon bonds between pyridines. McNally describes the two-step reaction sequence as operationally simple, using reagents everyone can get their hands on.
The phosphine handles compounds with various functional groups, such as amines and chlorides, that palladium catalysts can’t. Even attaching pyridine to the tricyclic ring system in the hayfever drug loratadine is no problem.
In the reaction, phosphorus behaves not unlike a transition

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Retrieved Text: Neodymium is a ferromagnetic metal with a Curie temperature of -254 degrees celcius. This means that it is only magnetic at extremely low temperatures, however, compounds of Neodymium can be created with transition metals like iron and these compounds have Curie temperatures higher than room temperature, these compounds are what Neodymium magnets are made out of. The strength of Neodymium magnets is due to a few factors. A crystal of the compound preferentially magnetises along a specific crystal axis, but it is incredibly difficult to magnetise in other directions. Unpaired electrons in a magnet, which are aligned in the same direction generate the magnetic field. Because the Neodymium compound Nd2Fe14B has more unpaired electrons it has a high saturation magnetisation. In 1982 General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals both discovered the Nd2Fe14B compound.
Neodymium is a ferromagnetic metal with a Curie temperature of -254 degrees celcius. This means that it is only magnetic at extremely low temperatures, however, compounds of Neodymium can be created with transition metals like iron and these compounds have Curie temperatures higher than room temperature, these compounds are what Neodymium magnets are made out of.
The strength of Neodymium magnets is due to a few factors. A crystal of the compound preferentially magnetises along a specific crystal axis, but it is incredibly difficult to magnetise in other directions.
Unpaired electrons in a magnet, which are aligned in the same direction generate the magnetic field. Because the Neodymium compound Nd2Fe14B has more unpaired electrons it has a high saturation magnetisation.
In 1982 General Motors and Sumitomo Special

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Retrieved Text: A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the thermal quantity into any physical quantity such as mechanical energy, pressure and electrical signals etc.
E.g. In Thermocouple the electrical potential difference is produced due to temperature difference across its terminals. So, thermocouple is an temperature transducer.
The sensing element in the temperature transducers is the element whose properties change with change in temperature. As the temperature changes the corresponding change occurs in certain property of the element.
Example- In the Resistance Thermometers the sensing element is the Platinum metal.
It is the element that transforms the output of the sensing element into electrical quantity. The change in the property of the of sensing element acts as the output for it. It measures the change in the property of sensing element. The output is of transduction element is then calibrated to give output which represents the change in the thermal quantity.
Example- In the thermocouple the potential difference produced across the two terminal is being measured by voltmeter and magnitude of voltage produced after calibration gives idea of change in temperature.
In these the sensing element is in direct contact with the thermal source. They use the conduction for transfer of thermal energy.
The word thermistor can be termed as Thermal Resistor. So as the name indicates it is a device whose resistance changes with the change of the temperature. Due to there high sensitivity they are widely used for the measurements of the temperature.They are usually called the ideal temperature transducer. Thermistors are generally composed of mixture of metallic oxides.
They are generally used

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Retrieved Text: Vapor Deposition Low Friction Coatings - Tell Me Additional!
Vapor deposition low friction coatings, you say? Yes! Also referred to as tough thin film coatings, they may be in ever growing demand for engineered goods, larger overall performance requirements, too. Their resistance to put on is exceptional. And now, their low friction surface characteristics are, also.
Let's start with coatings developed by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). Right here, gaseous chemical compounds are transported to a reaction chamber, activated thermally close to the ready operate piece, and, lastly, made to react, form a solid deposit, on the surface. Examples involve carbides, nitrides, borides, and oxide coatings.
Compared with other vapor deposition strategies, coatings created from CVD are comparatively denser, purer, and higher-strength components that penetrate and cover intricate, complex shapes, uniformly. 'Throwing power' is exceptional.
CVD coating thickness normally ranges from 0.0002 to 0.050 inch. Compatible substrate can involve high-speed steels, stainless steels, and cemented carbides, primarily based on reaction temperatures normally ranging from 1500 F to 2200 F.
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) is yet another type of difficult coating procedure. Here, in an array of vacuum processes, materials are physically removed from a supply by means of sputtering or evaporation, moved in vacuum by the power from the vaporized particles, and, ultimately, condensed as a film onto the functioning surface.
More than the years, cvd coating processes have had several descriptive terms, including sputtering by magnetron, planar diode or triode, DC or radio frequency, electron beam or arc evaporation, and other folks.
Common PVD coating thickness ranges from 1 to 200 micro inch

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Retrieved Text: Sodium carbonate, sometimes called washing soda or soda ash, is an inorganic weak base with chemical formula Na2CO3. One of few water-soluble carbonates, sodium carbonate finds abundant use as a cheap source of the carbonate ion, and also as a precursor to other sodium salts. Sodium carbonate occurs in nature as mineral Natrite.
Sodium carbonate will react with acids to form sodium salts and carbon dioxide.
At very high temperatures, it decomposes to form sodium oxide and carbon dioxide.
However, unlike other carbonates, the decomposition of alkali carbonates is complicated.
Bubbling carbon dioxide in an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate will give sodium bicarbonate.
If sulfur dioxide is used, sodium sulfite is produced. Excess SO2 gives sodium bisulfite.
This route can be used to remove the sulfur dioxide produced from various reactions.
Sodium carbonate is often used in ore refining, in which it is fused with metal oxides at high temperatures to generate water-soluble compounds of the metal. An example of this is the roasting of chromium(III) oxide with sodium carbonate in the presence of oxygen to generate sodium dichromate.
Sodium carbonate is a white hydgoscopic compound, soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents. It reacts with acids, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, as well as halogens, the reaction proceeding faster in the presence of water. Sodium carbonate crystallizes from water to form three different hydrates: monohydrate, heptahydrate and decahydrate.
Historically, sodium carbonate could be produced by leaching the ashes of burnt seaweed or glassworth, but this leads to an impure product. Today, sodium carbonate can be easily and cheaply prepared by the thermal decomposition

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Agents of Decomposition The fungus-like protist saprobes are specialized to absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms or their wastes. For instance, many types of oomycetes grow on dead animals or algae. Saprobic protists have the essential function of returning inorganic nutrients to the soil and water. This process allows for new plant growth, which in turn generates sustenance for other organisms along the food chain. Indeed, without saprobe species, such as protists, fungi, and bacteria, life would cease to exist as all organic carbon became “tied up” in dead organisms.


Q: Fungus-like protist saprobes play what role in a food chain and are specialized to absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms or their wastes?

 Choices:

- aphids

- Soil

- decomposers

- fluxes

A:

Target Text: decomposers

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Retrieved Text: Arthrobotrys oligospora is a fungus and like other fungi it likes to break down organic matter.
These guys like to feed on small animals, particularly nematode worms. They are not their only source of food, but they are a good source of nitrogen. It might sometimes be hard to find dead nematodes so these guys are a little more proactive. Their hyphae form little sticky rings which constrict when a nematode comes across them, much like a snare we might use for animal trapping. The fungus will then grow its hyphae into the nematode and absorb all the nutrients out of its body.
But these fungi don't always lay down these snares. They can detect when there are nematodes around by the chemicals present on the skin of the nematodes. In the presence of nematodes the fungus will build snares. When there are no nematodes around they feed off other thing, but they are always watching and waiting for nematodes.
Arthrobotrys oligospora is a wide ranging species and from what I can tell they are probably cosmopolitan.

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Retrieved Text: What is ecology? The scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, or surroundings.
What does the biosphere contain? Necessary things, such as land, water, and air, or atmosphere.
Why do ecologists ask questions about events and organisms that range in complexity from an individual to the biosphere? To understand the relationships within biosphere.
Ecosystem (Second highest level of organization) A collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment.
Why might an ecologist set up an artificial environment in a laboratory? To imitate and manipulate conditions that organisms would encounter.
Why are many ecological phenomena difficult to study? They occur over long periods of time or on such large spatial scales that they are difficult to study.
Why do ecologists make models? To gain insight into complex phenomena such as the effects of global warming on ecosystems.
What is at the core of every organism's interaction with the environment? The organism's need for energy to power life's processes.
What source of energy to organisms use if they don't use the sun's energy? Energy stored in inorganic chemical compounds.
What are autotrophs? Plants, some algae, and certain bacteria that capture energy from the sunlight or chemicals and use that energy to produce food.
Why are autotrophs also called producers? They make their own food.
What do autotrophs do during photosynthesis? They harness solar energy.
What is chemosynthesis? When organisms use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.
Where do bacteria that carry out chemosynthesis live? Very remote places on Earth such as volcanic vents on the deep-ocean floor

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Retrieved Text: As its name suggests, the Scarlet Elfcup is a bright red, cup-shaped fungus. It is widespread, but scarce, and can be found on fallen twigs and branches, in shady, damp places.
The Scarlet Elfcup displays bright red cups with short stems. It can be seen in late winter and early spring on fallen twigs and branches (often Hazel, Elm and Willow), usually buried under moss. It is reasonably widespread, but not very common. It is mostly found in damp, shady areas. Fungi belong to their own kingdom and get their nutrients and energy from organic matter, rather than photosynthesis like plants. It is often just the fruiting bodies, or 'mushrooms', that are visible to us, arising from an unseen network of tiny filaments called 'hyphae'. These fruiting bodies produce spores for reproduction, although fungi can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
The Scarlet Elfcup has rounded, regular-shaped fruiting bodies that look like cups; they have a bright scarlet and smooth inner surface. The outer surface is pale pink and covered in tiny hairs. The cup has a very short stem.
The Scarlet Elfcup is very similar in appearance to the Ruby Elfcup (Sarcoscypha coccinea), although the latter is slightly smaller and deeper red in comparison.
Fungi play an important role within our ecosystems, helping to recycle nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter, and providing food and shelter for different animals. The Wildlife Trusts manage many nature reserves sympathetically for the benefit of all kinds of wildlife, including fungi: you can help by supporting your local Trust and becoming a member.

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Retrieved Text: Essential Questions How do different forms of energy transfer and/or change matter? In what ways can energy be effectively conserved? How do machines use energy to do work? What would energy-efficient machines look like? What strategies/ideas can we pose to promote the effective use and conservation of energy?
Energy Policy - Which energy policy would make the United States most environmentally friendly?
Essential Questions What causes weather conditions? How do matter and energy interact to produce weather patters? Why do different locations have different weather conditions? What short-term/long-term solutions can we propose that will reduce pollution?
Essential Question How does the transfer of matter and energy through biological communities support the diversity of living things?
Microorganisms in Our Environment - How do microorganism in our environment impact our lives?
Essential Questions In what ways are living and nonliving things dependent on each other? What factors affect the interdependence of living and nonliving things?
The Food Chain - How do human interactions interrupt the food chain?

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Retrieved Text: Microbe World indicates that fungi absorb food from their immediate surroundings directly through their cell walls unlike animals, which eat food, and plants, which produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Kew Gardens adds that fungi function like an inside-out version of an animal's stomach. Instead of eating food and digesting it internally, fungi first dissolve food into simpler nutrients and then absorb the food after they digest it.
Microbe World states that most fungi are "grazers," passively eating the food that they grow on. Other fungi, however, are "hunters," trapping active prey that pass their way. For example, these fungi may utilize sticky substances on the end of their hyphae. According to the Journal of Wild Mushrooming, hyphae are threadlike, branching structures that make up the body of the fungus.
Microbe World describes one species of fungus, called "Arthrobotrys dactyloides", that actually creates snares to capture prey by forming looped hyphae. The snares are used to trap tiny nematodes. Other fungi live in partnership with other species. Lichen look like plants, but they are actually a combination of two organisms: a fungus and a plant. The plant feeds the fungus, and the fungus anchors and protects the plant. However, even with these unusual species, the basic principle remains the same. Fungi absorb and externally digest their food, whether it is by grazing, trapping it or by being fed by a plant partner.
Find Fungi Food. Examine Now.

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Retrieved Text: Detritus includes all forms of nonliving organic carbon (C) including fallen leaves, the waste products and carcasses of animals, fragments of organic material of unknown origin, and organic compounds. Originally restricted to particulate matter, it now is considered to include dissolved organic matter (DOM) as well (Wetzel 2001). Nonliving organic C from diverse sources provides important energy inputs to most food webs, and this is especially true in fluvial ecosystems. While primary production by the autotrophs of running waters can be substantial (Chapter 6), much of the energy that supports fluvial food webs derives from particulate detritus and DOM. These energy pathways are referred to as detrital or detritus-based, and the immediate consumers of this material are decomposers and detritivores.
Plant litter and other coarse debris that falls or blows into stream channels, fine particulates that originate from many sources including the breakdown of plant litter, and DOM constitute the three main categories of nonliving OM in most situations (Table 7.1). Some of this material originates within the stream, such as dying macrophytes, animal feces, and extracellular release of dissolved compounds, and some is transported into the stream from outside the channel, such as leaf fall, soil particulates, and compounds dissolved in soil water. Collectively these sources can substantially exceed the energy fixed within streams by photosynthesis.
The division of nonliving organic energy sources into size classes is widely employed in studying detrital dynamics in streams. The usual categories are coarse particulate OM (CPOM, >1 mm), fine particulate OM (FPOM, <1 mm and >0.5 |im), and DOM (<0.5

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Retrieved Text: The importance of mushrooms & microfauna within a living vivarium environment can't be understated. Mushrooms are the fruiting body of a fungus which can sound "icky" at first, until we consider the incredible importance of mycorrhizal relationships. Mycorrhizal fungi grow (usually) mutualistically with plants to help the flora better absorb minerals & nutrients within the substrate, while the fungus benefits from being hosted in & on the plant's root systems, absorbing carbohydrates. The vast majority of plants within live vivariums benefit from this relationship. A step up the food chain, we'll find Springtails & Isopods munching on any spent mushrooms (and subterranian fungus), while also consuming other detritus that would otherwise build up within the enclosed environment. This is why these species of Microfauna are often referred to as "clean up crews" or "vivarium janitors". In truth, they might not be able to do all the work themselves, without the help of the mycorrhizal fungi! It's all really a fascinating, functional slice of natural biology once it's understood & appreciated. Below, we've got some of our favorite images of Springtails, Isopods, and Mushrooms we've seen in our vivaria.
These are some of the most common types we see!
One of our favorite vivarium photos!

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Retrieved Text: The vacuole is an important component of plant, fungal and animal cells. The primary responsibility of vacuoles is to maintain the turgor pressure in cells. The different vacuole functions are listed below.
Vacuoles of plant cells are known to attain a large size. These vacuoles can cover up to 95% of the cell space. Generally, these vacuoles acquire 80% of the cell space.
Vacuole is an important organelle present in the cells of plants, animals, protists, fungi and bacteria. Apart from water, vacuoles also contains different kinds of organic/inorganic molecules, solid materials and enzymes. Vacuoles are kind of large-sized vesicles. Multiple membrane vesicles come together to form vacuoles; which is why they are larger than other cell organelles. Vacuoles play an important role in the smooth functioning of various processes of plant and protist cells. The role played by vacuoles in animal and bacterial cells is not as significant as that in plant and protist cells.
Vacuole is considered as the 'storage bin' of cells. Along with nucleus, vacuole is one of the important organelles of cells. The different functions performed by vacuole are listed below.
The waste products generated in cells are accumulated in vacuoles. Thus, vacuoles protect other organelles of the cell from harmful effects of wastes.
Maintaining the right pH level is one of the important functions of vacuoles. The vacuoles help in maintaining an acidic internal pH in cells. Apart from maintaining the cell pH, vacuoles also maintain the turgor and hydrostatic pressure.
The toxins produced in cells have the potential to harm/disturb the health of cells. Vacuoles

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Retrieved Text: Innovations in organic farming have brought in new methods and ways to provide healthy energy and digestion options. Thankfully, more Canadians are becoming aware of the value of quality digestion. It can be linked to many parts of the body. But, how? The below is an overview of healthy digestion support in the body, and what organic produce and root tea from Kiss Me Organics can help.
Toxins will accumulate throughout the body. This can take effect a number of ways. The most obvious is the accumulation of waste in the intestines. Few Canadians take seriously their own lack of quality digestion, and build-up will make them sicker. The accumulation of this waste, in even the slightest ways, will promote toxin development and production. The toxins have a direct impact on the liver and kidneys. The liver is the blood factory of the body, and the source of quality blood circulation to and from the heart. Kidneys absorb and allocate nutrients from the blood.
The kidneys are directly correlated to healthy digestion and the removal of toxins. The kidneys can easily by overburdened by toxin growth, which brings everything full circle. Toxins from the intestines accumulate in the kidneys and liver. Both of these organs are greatly strained by this excess toxin production.
The kidneys mostly absorb nutrients, but what happens why they are “busy” fighting off toxins? The kidneys consequently absorb less nutrients, which makes even the best vitamins and organic products less effective. It becomes a chain link, where the lack of nutrients decreases cognitive potential. It

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Retrieved Text: An immature stemonitis slime mold. When they are mature, the sporangia will turn brown in color. This one is exuding red droplets, a process known as guttation, which occurs during growth.
This slime mold likes to inhabit dead and rotting logs on the forest floor.
Slime molds used to be considered fungi, but have been reassigned to the supergroup Amoebozoa.
Project Noah Fact of the Day: Slime molds are not fungi but often form fungus-like fruiting bodies. Although many slime molds fruit on wood, they do not actually penetrate the surface but form structures called plasmodia - masses of protoplasm that lack cell walls and have the ability to creep around engulfing bacteria, spores of fungi and plants, protozoa, and particles of nonliving organic matter.
Stemonitis slime mold (Stemonitis sp.) spotted in Ohio, USA by PN user Eis4Xtreme.

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Retrieved Text: 2 Why Is Most of the Heat in the Human Body Generated in the Mitochondria?
Oxygen is an essential and pervasive element in virtually all biological environments. Most ecosystems contain aerobic microbes and animals that require atmospheric oxygen for respiration, and even exotic ecosystems dominated by anaerobic bacteria include oxygen as an atomic component of molecules such as carbon dioxide, nitrate and water. The fundamental cycle of oxygen in most ecosystems involves a balance between organisms that release oxygen and organisms that absorb oxygen.
In the context of environmental systems, the term "oxygen" usually refers to diatomic oxygen, which is a molecule consisting of two oxygen atoms. Individual oxygen atoms are highly reactive and readily combine with other elements to form compounds; ozone, which consists of three oxygen atoms, is also highly reactive yet is nonetheless essential to life as a component of the upper atmosphere, where it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation. Diatomic oxygen, on the other hand, is a stable gaseous molecule that mixes freely into the atmosphere. Atmospheric oxygen can retain this diatomic form when it is incorporated into an ecosystem's various components and organisms -- such as the oxygen trapped in the pore spaces between soil particles and the dissolved oxygen present in waterways and the bloodstreams of animals.
A convenient starting point for the oxygen cycle is the diverse group of organisms that, through photosynthesis, are able to transform water, carbon dioxide and light energy into sugar and oxygen. Examples include trees in forest ecosystems, perennial grasses in prairie ecosystems, algae in freshwater aquatic ecosystems

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Retrieved Text: "The Benefits of A Healthy Intestine"
If you're eating right now, it might be best to read this email after you finish eating. Intestines are not exactly scrumptious but play a vital role in our overall health. The truth is that like any other organ we cannot live without them.
What are intestines and what do they do?
Intestines come in two sizes; big (about 5 feet long) and small (about 20 feet long). Everyone has one of each. The role of the intestines is to absorb the good in the food we eat and filter out the stuff that our body doesn't need or can't use. The intestines absorb most of the water and nutrients that we consume.
The intestinal track is just like every other organ and body part where we have to take care of it. Eating more fiber will help clean out the wall of the intestines. Eating or drinking citrus fruits and chewing well, will also help with digestion.
If we chew our food more fine, then the more saliva is produced and the food breaks down to smaller pieces. The saliva helps break down the food particles and acts as a lubricant when the food goes down the esophagus. Chewing your food well helps the stomach break it down much easier. Eating a citrus fruit like an orange after or during a meal will also help break down the food before it gets to the intestines. This is because citrus fruit has a higher acid level.
Chewing well and adding citrus fruits as well as fiber

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Retrieved Text: Suppose you see something in freshwater that certainly appears to be living. How can you begin to determine what it is? Here is a key (not quite perfect) that you might use to help determine the kingdom to which it belongs.
1. Is it green or does it have green parts?
2. Could be a plant or a protist, or blue-green bacteria. Make sure that the green is really part of the organism, though. An animal might have eaten something green, for example.
Multicellular? Plantae. Look for cell walls, internal structure. In the compound microscope you might be able to see chloroplasts.
3. Could be a moneran (bacteria), protist, fungus, or animal.
4. Could be a moneran or a protist. Can you see any detail inside the cell?
Yes – Protista. You should be able to see at least a nucleus and/or contractile vacuole, and a definite shape. Movement should be present, using cilia, flagella, or amoeboid motion. Cilia or flagella may be difficult to see.
No – Monera. Should be quite small. May be shaped like short dashes (rods), small dots (cocci), or curved or spiral shaped. The largest them that is commonly found in freshwater is called Spirillum volutans. It is spiral shaped, and can be nearly a millimeter long. Except for Spirillum, it is very difficult to see Monerans except in a compound microscope with special lighting.
5. Animalia or Fungi. Is it moving?
Yes – Animalia. Movement can be by cilia, flagella, or complex, involving parts that contract. Structure should be complex. Feeding activity may be obvious.
No – Fungus. Should be

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Retrieved Text: A daily whole food multivitamin with patented organic minerals and whole food vitamins. Quantity mix and match discounts apply to Catie’s Organic Greens, Catie’s Whole Food Vitamin C Plus, and Catie’s Raw Vegetable Calcium. No matter how carefully you plan your meals and snacks, a hectic schedule can often result in convenience food substitutes and unhealthy snacking, leaving your body craving the nutrients it needs to keep you going. \n\nWe’ve been made to believe that eating fresh whole foods are time-consuming. This is what is sold as vitamin C in most supplements on the market today. Whether you use vital nutrients as your barometer of what and how much to eat, or the guide in determining what wholefood supplements you need, determining their presence or lack thereof is probably the best way to evaluate a diet.\n\nFoods that only contain artificial ingredients, preservatives, chemical additives, artificial sugars and loaded with salt are devoid of nutrients and are therefore, dead. Though there is still no evidence that synthetic vitamins can bring any damage to the body, but it is a fact that most of the synthetically made nutrients are lost since the body can not absorb them. \n\nGood plant sources of fiber include psyllium seed husk, bran flakes, legumes, oats, rye, barley, prune juice, plums, lentils, beans, quinoa, berries, bananas, broccoli, carrots, artichokes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, whole grain foods, wheat, corn bran, flax seed, green beans and tomatoes.\n\nYou will find that regular synthetic vitamins cost less on the shelf but since you are only getting 10% of

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Retrieved Text: It may be tempting to grow crops without soil by using water-based hydroponic systems. These systems however have significant drawbacks. First, they can only provide for a fraction of our food needs. They are unable to grow large quantities grain such as rice, wheat, soya and corn that account for 60% of our diet (much of this is fed to the animals we eat). Second, they are capital and energy intensive, making them uneconomical except in circumstances where there is an abundance of both and a shortage of arable land (such as the Middle East).
In contrast, the vast majority of farmers are armed simply with a handful of seeds, a hoe, and a patch of earth. Even without additional inputs, healthy soil can contain many of the nutrients a plant needs to grow (such as calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, zinc, sulfur, copper, maganese). Humans also require these minerals but do not have the capacity to absorb them directly from the soil. Instead, we rely on plants to process the laundry list of minerals and repackage them into edible leaves, roots, seeds and fruits. It follows that the health of the soil dictates the amount of nutrients we derive from the plants we eat.
A thriving soil ecosystem means healthy, nutritious crops and a productive farm. Maintenance of a farm’s soil however is often neglected. For example, many farmers in colder climates leave their fields bare over the winter. Unprotected from the elements, the topsoil erodes, severely reducing the amount of organic matter and microorganisms. Conventional farmers also

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Retrieved Text: A natural wetland is a complex ecosystem. Like other ecosystems, whether land- or water-based, many factors affect the form and function of the wetlands. Both biotic and abiotic factors and processes are integral to the natural wetland ecosystem. The term "biotic" refers to living things. The term "abiotic" refers to the materials, processes or factors that are nonliving.
Water itself is perhaps the quintessential abiotic factor in natural wetlands. Although essential to virtually all biological processes, water itself is nonliving and it can occur independently of living things. In natural wetlands, water is the medium in which the entire ecosystem exists and functions. Wetlands in regions that have been glaciated in the past -- in the form of massive ice sheets -- may owe their early beginnings to the powerful carving effects of the glacier. So, even water in that dramatically different form was a significant factor in the development of the wetlands.
Unlike water, air is composed of more than one chemical compound. Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and several other gaseous substances form air’s chemical composition. Air, especially the oxygen contained within it, is another critical abiotic factor in natural wetlands. Virtually any wetland ecosystem features many kinds of plants and animals. Green plants make use of carbon dioxide from the air; in turn, they release oxygen as a waste product. Animals do the inverse; they take in and use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide as a waste product. Although there are organisms that can and do live and grow in the absence of oxygen, the

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Retrieved Text: The name fairy ring comes from an old folk-tale. People once believed that mushrooms growing in a circle followed the path made by fairies dancing in a ring. Fairy rings are found in open grassy places and in forests. In grass, the best known fairy ring fungus has the scientific name Marasmius oreades. The body of this fungus, its mycelium, is underground. It grows outward in a circle. As it grows, the mycelium uses up all of the nutrients in the soil, starving the grass. This is the reason a fairy ring has dead grass over the growing edge of the mycelium. Umbrella-shaped fruiting bodies, called mushrooms, spring up from just behind the outer edge of the mycelium.
Large rings are created when the older mycelium in the center finally exhausts the soil nutrients and dies. On the death of the central mycelium, the nutrients are returned to the soil and grass can grow again. The living edge of the mycelium continues to grow outward. As it grows, it secretes chemicals into the ground ahead. These chemicals break down the organic matter, releasing nutrients so that the mycelium will have food when it reaches this area. For a brief time, the grass at the outer edge of the ring also benefits. The extra nutrients make the grass darker green, taller, and thicker than the rest of the lawn or pasture. This lush grass dies when the mycelium grows under it and steals the nutrients. Fairy rings made by fungi like Marasmius oreades are called "free" rings.
They will

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Retrieved Text: This article is part of a series entitled Soils and Fertilizers for Master Gardeners. The rest of the series can be found at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topic_series_soils_and_fertilizers_for_master_gardeners. A glossary can also be found at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG457.
Organic matter normally occupies the smallest portion of the soil physical makeup (approximately 5% of total soil volume on average, and usually 1 to 3% for Florida's sandy soils) but is the most dynamic soil component (Figure 1). The primary sources of soil organic matter are plant and animal residues. Soil organic matter is important for maintaining good soil structure, which enhances the movement of air and water in soil. Organic matter also plays an important role in nutrient cycling. This publication is designed to educate homeowners about the importance of soil organic matter and provide suggestions about how to build the organic matter in garden and landscape soils.
What is the composition of soil organic matter?
Soil organic matter contains (i) living biomass: plant, animal tissues, and microorganisms; (ii) dead tissues: partly decomposed materials; and (iii) non-living materials: stable portion formed from decomposed materials, also known as humus. Soil organic matter typically contains about 50% carbon. The remainder of soil organic matter consists of about 40% oxygen, 5% hydrogen, 4% nitrogen, and 1% sulfur.
The amount of organic matter in soils varies widely, from 1 to 10% (total dry weight) in most soils to more than 90% in organic (muck) soils. The amount of organic matter depends upon the inputs of plant residues, animal manure, composts, and other organic materials. Biological processes, including plant growth and microbial

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Retrieved Text: In most terrestrial ecosystems the bulk of nutrient cycling occurs in the topmost layers of soil. The main sources of the nutrient inputs to these soil layers comes from weathering, rainfall, fertilizers, atmospheric fallout, and organisms. Organism add nutrient matter via excreted wastes, shed tissues, and from the decomposition of their tissues when they die. Under most conditions, plants are the greatest single source of nutrients to soils. Plants not only supply nutrients released by organic decomposition of shed tissues and dead body parts, but also substances carried in from the plant leaves when water flows over them (foliar leaching). Losses or outputs of nutrients within ecosystems are by leaching, erosion, gaseous loss (like denitrification), and plant root uptake for growth purposes. Within the soil, nutrients are found attached to the surface of soil particles by chemical bonds, stored within the chemical structure of dead organic matter, or in chemical compounds.
Organic matter decomposition is the main process that recycles nutrients back into the soil. Decomposition of organic matter begins with large soil organisms like earthworms, arthropods (ants, beetles, and termites), and gastropods (slugs and snails). These organisms breakdown the organic matter into smaller pieces which can be decomposed by smaller organisms like fungi and heterotrophic bacteria (Figure 9q-1).
Figure 9q-1: Fungi play an important role in the decomposition process converting organic matter back into basic inorganic chemicals.
Decomposition of organic matter may take several months to several years to complete. In tropical regions, the whole process is quite quick because moist conditions and high temperatures enhance the rate

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Retrieved Text: Brown Patch isn’t Brown Patch anymore!
That’s right. The fungal plague that makes big splotches of yellow and brown in your yard is now known as “large patch” – at least here in southeast Texas. Both are caused by the same fungus (Rhizoctonia solani – try saying that quickly three times.) But there are two different strains of the fungus.
The second strain, “Large Patch”, affects St. Augustine, Bermuda, Zoysia and other warm season grasses. Large Patch usually affects grass in the winter, but most often the damage isn’t visible until spring. Somewhat circular patches that are yellow, tan or straw-brown initially are 2-3 feet in diameter, but they can grow to 10 feet or more in diameter, hence the name “large patch”. Sometimes, several Large Patch infections will grow together, causing an even bigger problem.
Landscapers know that one of the most crucial elements to having a beautiful lawn is healthy soil. Healthy soil is loose and aerated, a place where roots can spread deeply and organisms thrive.
Compacted soil, which lies underneath most lawns in The Woodlands, actually sets off a chain reaction. It encourages puddling. The soil dries out quickly and becomes rock hard. When that happens, air, water and nutrients cannot penetrate the soil. Beneficial organisms that are necessary for healthy soils die and the soil becomes barren. The consequences don’t stop there.
Emerald colors are emerging in The Woodlands and thoughts are turning to soft, cool, green lawns.
For decades, homeowners have looked at conventional ways to keep lawns healthy and lush. April sees scores of bags

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Retrieved Text: Benefits of Organic Food Supplements There is a saying that goes, let your medicine be your food and food be your medicines. We need to get our bodies nourished well. The aim is to provide the body natural and organic food. We are not designed to absorb and be nourished by food with plenty of chemicals and to use synthetic vitamins. Our body deserves to get a lot of organic food. The growth of organic food has been fueled by the reality of having real food. There is such a huge demand for organic food supplements as they can provide a wide range of benefits for the body like a tangerine drink. So, what are the benefits one can get from taking organic food supplements? Find out the list of benefits you can get when taking organic food supplements. The body is designed to absorb the nutrients from organic food supplements well. It is a known fact that supplements are able to provide nutrition to the body for a longer period of time. Synthetic sources are not able to stay in the body longer and excreted easily by the body via the urine. There is no real benefit one can get from synthetic nutrients with no clear benefit and the urine is just going to be more expensive. One can get better benefit from health and wellness with the help of organic food supplements. It is truly a huge waste to spend money on synthetic nutrients. One great feature of using organic food supplements is the

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Retrieved Text: Living organic soils and the foods you apply to them should not only have large quantities of Beneficial Microorganisms (BM) but a large variety as well. In a few grams of good potting soil you will find hundreds of diverse varieties making up its 1,000,000,000 bacteria. Live Organic Fermented Liquid Fertilizers are bubbling with BMs, which ensure the microbe population is made up of the “good guys”. A large and divers community population will control pathogens. They compete with the pathogens for exudates, nutrients, air, water, and space. If the soil food web is a healthy one, the competition keeps the destructive microbes at bay. There are some other added benefits as well. The fungi hyphae extending around and near the plant’s roots act as an external protection to attack and defend plants and herbs roots from fugues or bacteria pathogens and other undesirable microorganisms. The photo, upper left, is a foraging, root-eating nematode, trapped by a fungal hyphae, Courtesy H. H. Triantaphyllou, American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. Microbes cover surface areas so completely, there is simply no place for pathogens to affix themselves. Should anything negatively affect the beneficial microbes and the quantities fall or disappear, the herb, flower or vegetable will most likely end up being infected.
Specific soil fungus, named mycorrhizal fungi, set themselves up in a symbiotic partnership beside plant roots, providing them not only with an external barrier but with a varied nutritional supply as well. In return for root exudates, the fungus supply groceries to the roots with fresh H2O,

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Retrieved Text: Though crops like tomatoes are being produced in greater abundance, their nutritional value has declined.
According to the report, Still No Free Lunch, food scientists have compared the nutritional levels of modern crops with historic, and generally lower-yielding, ones. Today’s food produces 10 to 25 percent less iron, zinc, protein, calcium, vitamin C, and other nutrients, the studies show. Researchers from Washington State University who analyzed 63 spring wheat cultivars grown between 1842 and 2003 found an 11 percent decline in iron content, a 16 percent decline in copper, a 25 percent decline in zinc, and a 50 percent decline in selenium.
Improving the nutritional quality of food on a per-serving basis is an important step in addressing worldwide health problems, the report notes. “Less nutrient-dense foods, coupled with poor food choices, go a long way toward explaining today’s epidemics of obesity and diabetes,” says The Organic Center’s chief scientist, Charles Benbrook.
Plants cultivated to produce higher yields tend to have less energy for other activities like growing deep roots and generating phytochemicals—health-promoting compounds like antioxidants—the report explains. And conventional farming methods, such as close plant spacing and the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, often cause crops to absorb fewer nutrients and have unhealthy root systems and less flavor, and sometimes make them more vulnerable to pests.
Organic farming methods, on the other hand, use manure or cover crops to provide nutrition to crops, have more balanced mixtures of nutrients, and tend to release the nutrients more slowly, the report explains. According to Benbrook, this means plants “develop more

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Retrieved Text: EM•1® Microbial Inoculant accelerates the soil building process and promotes beneficial soil microbe communities. The soil building process revolves around soil aggregate formation. Soil aggregates form as mineral and decomposed organic matter particles are bound together by soil organism secretions that act as glues. Stable and well-formed soil aggregate is the key to overall soil function. EM•1® produces high levels of polysaccharides and other beneficial organic acids and enzymes in the soil that help build stable aggregate and soil structure. Increased aggregate stability prevents the pore spaces between the aggregates from collapsing during heavy, saturating rains and reduces compaction caused by machinery. Furthermore, improved soil aggregate stability reduces soil erosion and run-off. Soils are better able to absorb and retain moisture, as well as cycle nutrients. It is important to build up the organic matter content in your soil. EM•1® lives on the organic matter and clay particles in your soil. To improve soil conditions and accelerate the conversion of plant residue to stable humus, spray all plant residue with EM•1®.
Soils rich in organic matter such as beneficial soil microbes and that have been treated with organic fertilizers will require significantly less EM•1® than soils with low organic matter and those that have been treated with conventional synthetic fertilizers. Compacted soils and those that have had high incidences of diseases in the past are also candidates for higher application levels.
EM•1® soil microbes have been used in agricultural applications since 1982. Farmers have documented the benefits on 6 continents, demonstrating that EM•1® Microbial Inoculant can improve all

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Retrieved Text: Its been a good year for mushrooms or fungi, on our smallholding.
Fungi, together with the bacteria, are the ‘decomposers’ of our environment and they are just as important as the ‘producers’ the green plants. Fungi lack the green pigment chlorophyll, the pigment that is essential in converting sunlight into plant energy, because they don’t have this pigment, fungi have to get their energy from other sources, from organic material produced by other plants.
Fungi are not plants but belong in a kingdom of their own. Their cell walls are made of chitin (a white horny substance more easily recognised as the substance that forms the outer skeletons of crabs!) and instead of using photosynthesis to obtain energy they digest organic matter.
Where will I find fungi?
Many fungi grow only in very specific places, or are associated with particular kinds of trees. i.e. ‘Birch’ polypore or Razorstrop, a bracket fungus. Fruiting bodies may also be produced in a particular season. Although Autumn (August to November) is the most fruitful season. In spring for example, there are Saint George’s mushroom so named because the fruiting bodies first appear around the 23rd April, which is St. George’s Day. In Summer – giant Puffballs and the edible bracket ‘Chicken of the woods’.
The fungi in the picture above is likely to be Honey Fungus. This is a destructive parasite which can be found on tree stumps, roots and buried branches. It is recognisable from the black rhizomes encircling its host which resemble a network of leather bootlaces. Do not eat raw. Collect the

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Retrieved Text: My research interests lie in understanding how ecosystems function and more specifically, what roles animals play in ecosystem functioning. While the role of animals in ecosystems are often studied in terms of their top-down effects on lower trophic levels through consumption, there is increasing interest in their bottom-up effects on primary producers, like plants and algae, through nutrient storage and excretion. Using a system of patch reefs off the coast of the Bahamas (and two incredibly charismatic species: Donkey Dung and the Five-Toothed Sea Cucumber!), I intend to examine the role that sea cucumbers play in recycling organic matter on the ocean floor and providing nutrients for primary produces like seagrass. By employing both observational and manipulative techniques, I hope to determine (i) how much nitrogen sea cucumbers are moving from the sediments back into the biosphere and (ii) whether or not the excretion of nutrients from these animals have a significant impact on seagrass growth rate and density. Currently, sea cucumber fisheries are expanding worldwide and overexploiting many populations. As such, it is important to understand the role these animals play in the productivity and health of their communities to better inform policy to promote sustainable fishing practices.

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Retrieved Text: UH Biology» Blog Archive » There’s More In The Ocean Than Meets The Eye!
There’s More In The Ocean Than Meets The Eye!
Discovered in 1977 during a research expedition in the Arabian Sea, Synechococcus (and later Prochlorococcus in the Sargasso Sea) are two species of cyanobacteria that collectively, are the most abundant organisms on earth (Waterbury, 2005). These photosynthetic picoplankton grow no larger than 2 micrometers, yet despite their seemingly insignificant stature, play an essential role in the majority of primary productivity that takes place in the oceans.
One of the important roles that they play has to do with the carbon cycle, which they influence by harnessing energy from the sun and turning it into organic matter via photosynthesis. Because these picoplankton occupy the lowest level of the food chain, they are vital for all subsequent consumers to exist (including the Ahi that we love to eat here in Hawaii!). Another essential role that cyanophytes play is in nitrogen fixation, or the reduction of dinitrogen obtained from the atmosphere into ammonium. Its ability to fixate nitrogen through specialized structures called heterocysts, allows the bacteria to flourish in nutrient depleted water, and provide nitrogen to organisms that consume it (Zehr, 1996).
Clearly, cyanophytes play an integral role in our oceans. Alas, had they not had the misfortune of being named Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus, but instead, “Superalgae” or “Superbacteria,” they would have already been household names today, and gotten the true recognition that they deserve.
Waterbury, J. (2004). Little things matter a lot. Oceanus Magazine, 43(2).
Zehr, J. P., & Capone, D.

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Retrieved Text: Soil Reef™ Gardeners Blend is an all-in-one biochar blended soil enhancement made with 50% biochar, top grade organic compost, organic worm castings and kelp meal.
Our biochar is sustainably produced from wood waste and forest residue and is made in the U.S.A.
At $49.00, including free shipping, our product is an unbeatable $2.00 per pound and a great value for a premium biochar blend. Approximate shipping weight is +/- 25 lbs.
A one cubic foot bag of Soil Reef treats up to 24 sq. ft. of garden space. Or mix in your containers, at approximately 10% by volume, with your potting medium.
* Shipping is free anywhere in the continental United States!
* Receive a free Biochar eBook with your Soil Reef™ Pure Biochar or Gardeners Blend purchase.
Sustainable Biochar – provides inorganic carbon, which builds soil and acts as a nearly permanent sponge to absorb nutrients and water, and creates a home for microorganisms.
Compost – provides immediate soil food with organic carbon and living soil microbes, building soil tilth and humus. Combined with biochar, the benefits of compost are more pronounced.
Worm Castings – provides nutrients, enzymes, and Actinomycetes bacteria, which fix nitrogen and break down tough organic matter into food plants can use.

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Retrieved Text: Understanding the sustainability of a forage production operation requires some understanding of the ecosystems involved. An ecosystem may be defined as a system of interacting organisms (biotic environment) and their nonliving (abiotic) environment. Biotic components in a pasture ecosystem would include any living components of the ecosystem such as forage plants, livestock, disease causing fungi, soil bacteria, or earthworms. Abiotic components of a pasture ecosystem would include any nonliving components of the ecosystem such as climate, soil nutrients, or soil moisture.
Although it is possible to draw simple representations of the major components of a pasture ecosystem, it should be understood that in reality any ecosystem is a very complex system.
What factors in a typical pasture ecosystem are important to consider in the sustainability of the system? In a theoretical sense, all the factors of an ecosystem are important, since a change in one factor will potentially influence many other components of the ecosystem. From the more practical perspective of a forage-livestock producer, there are several major factors that should be considered. Two of the most important are nutrient resources (i.e. soil fertility) and water resources.
One of the more important factors to consider in sustainability is soil fertility, since this is the ultimate source of most of the nutrients for forage plants and grazing animals. To the extent that soil nutrients are available on a long term basis, it is possible to produce forage to feed livestock. In a completely sustainable system, nutrient use (output) should be balanced by nutrient input. Nutrients are removed from the pasture

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Retrieved Text: If our bodies could speak, they would implore us for authentic, organic vitamins and minerals in a form our bodies were naturally designed to thrive on, as part of a living, whole food completely free of detrimental chemicals and additives.
That is the essence of our remarkable Organically Grown Nutrients — vitamins and minerals that are “grown” as a whole food, not manufactured in a lab. And even better, they’re grown in accordance with the certified protocols of organic food so you can be sure that you are feeding your body completely pure nutrients, not chemicals.
As you’ll learn, making vitamins and minerals in this way is not easy. It takes total commitment and devotion to a time-consuming, totally hands-on process.
We view the process of making our Organically Grown Nutrients as similar to making a very fine cheese or wine. It is a finely honed craft that combines an old-world, artisan ethos with the best of modern food science. For us, it is the only way to truly honor the incredible richness and vitality of living nutrients.
Out of an abundance of certified organic vegetables, fruits, sprouts, grasses, and much more, we create an intensely nutritious broth ideally suited for growing each one of our unique vitamins and minerals. Once the broth is just right, we add by hand certified organic Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an amazing, ancient yeast capable of bio-transforming all of the nutrients into one of the most dynamic, nourishing foods ever created.
Once the yeast has used its natural intelligence to transform and absorb the optimal amount of

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======= Instance Index 39 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Ribosomes are small organelles and are the sites of protein synthesis (or assembly). They are made of ribosomal protein and ribosomal RNA, and are found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Unlike other organelles, ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane. Each ribosome has two parts, a large and a small subunit, as shown in Figure below . The subunits are attached to one another. Ribosomes can be found alone or in groups within the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (as shown in Figure below ), and others are attached to the nuclear envelope.


Q: What are the sites of protein synthesis or assembly?

 Choices:

- chromosomes

- chloroplasts

- plasma

- ribosomes

A:

Target Text: ribosomes

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to proteins with the aid of tRNA. In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria. Proteins synthesized in each of these locations serve a different role in the cell. In prokaryotes, ribosomes can be found in the cytosol as well. This protein-synthesizing organelle is the only organelle found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, asserting the fact that the ribosome is a trait that evolved early on, most likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that only bind together during protein synthesis. The purpose of the ribosome is to take the actual message and the charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate the protein. To do so, they have three binding sites. One is for the mRNA; the other two are for the tRNA. The binding sites for tRNA are the A site, which holds the aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and the P site, which binds to the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain.
Peptide synthesis by a ribosome.: The ribosome assembles amino acids into a protein. The specific amino acids are controlled by the mRNA sequence. This is required by all living cells

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Retrieved Text: Peptide synthesis is usually straightforward. Yet, it helps to look at a couple of factors. The accurate and purification assembly is dependent upon various things, including the length, composition and sequence of their amino acid.
When there are multiple Met, Cys or Trp residues present, it gets difficult to find the maximum purity. Some of the reasons is why these residues are vulnerable to oxidations or side reactions. As much as feasible, sequences that reduce those spores must be chosen by you. There are replacements available for such residues and they're less reactive. Competent professionals and researchers are well-versed with the alternatives and so they see to it that they obtain the outcomes.
If you happen to need to prepare an overlapping peptide from the particular protein chain, you must create an alteration at the starting point of custom peptide synthesis to bring a balance between hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues. There are additional remedies to handle the protein and the pros know.
To your information, a protein can be a complex organic compound with high plasma, containing of amino acids that are connected with peptide bonds.
* Reputable Technical Support: 24/7 use of Ph.D.-level technical account managers and online tools to encourage our customers from the start to the end in their peptide-based research.
It's likely to get peptide synthesis. There are sites that manage synthesizing proteins. With a few convenient methods, you can process your request and get the desired results. These organizations have a team of other trained folks that are proficient at tackling the techniques and well-versed in

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Retrieved Text: Ribonucleic acids - RNAs for short - serve as intermediates in the ordered translation of the hereditary information stored in the DNA into blueprints for the synthesis of specific proteins. In the cell nucleus, defined segments of the DNA are first transcribed into RNA copies called messenger RNA precursors (pre-mRNAs). In many cases, these primary transcripts contain interspersed sequences that interrupt the actual protein-coding sequence. These "introns" must be removed and the coding sequences spliced before the information can be used for protein synthesis. Indeed, a given gene may encode for several different forms of a protein by a process called alternative splicing, which plays an important role in post-transcriptional gene regulation - for differently spliced mRNA strands code for different protein forms that may also differ in their function. All splicing operations are carried out by a complex molecular machine in the cell nucleus, which is referred to as the spliceosome. Researchers led by Professor Don Lamb at the Department of Chemistry at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich and Professor Michael Sattler (Helmholtz Zentrum München und Technical University of Munich (TUM)) have now shown that the distinct structural configurations adopted by a protein which is essential for assembly of the spliceosome on mRNA precursors have a critical influence on splicing efficiency. The new findings appear in the latest edition of the journal PNAS.
The spliceosome found in human cells is made up of many different subunits, which must be assembled onto the mRNA precursor in a series of carefully choreographed steps. The binding specificity of individual subunits

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Retrieved Text: After splicing, the mRNA moves through the pores in the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm. Although the nuclear pores allow the diffusion of small molecules and ions between the nucleus and cytoplasm, they have specific energy-dependent mechanisms for the selective transport of large molecules such as proteins and RNA.
In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds to a ribosome, the cell organelle that contains the enzymes and other components required for the translation of mRNA's coded message into protein. Before describing this assembly process, we will examine the structure of a ri-bosome and the characteristics of two additional classes of RNA involved in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes and rRNA As described in Chapter 3, ri-bosomes are small granules in the cytoplasm, either suspended in the cytosol (free ribosomes) or attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes). A typical cell may contain 10 million ribosomes.
A ribosome is a complex particle composed of about 80 different proteins in association with a class of RNA molecules known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The genes for rRNA are transcribed from DNA in a process similar to that for mRNA except that a different RNA polymerase is used. Ribosomal RNA transcription occurs in the region of the nucleus known as the nucleolus. Ribosomal proteins, like other proteins, are synthesized in the cytoplasm from the mRNAs specific for them. These proteins then move back through nuclear pores to the nucleolus where they combine with newly synthesized rRNA to form two ribosomal subunits, one large and one small. These subunits are then individually transported to the

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Retrieved Text: Beginning within the nucleus, the first step leading to the synthesis of a polypeptide is _____.
Pancreatic cells, which secrete a large amount of digestive enzymes, are labeled with radioactive leucine and then chased for several hours with nonradioactive leucine. Photographic emulsions are prepared at different times during the chase. Where would the black spots appear on an emulsion prepared 3 hours after the pulse?
What path does a protein in the secretory pathway take, starting from its site of synthesis?
During a pulse-chase experiment, photographic emulsions were prepared at different times during the chase, and radioactive spots were detected at the following times and locations: 5 minutes: rough ER; 10 minutes: Golgi apparatus; 40 minutes: endosomes; 70 minutes: lysosomes; 140 minutes: lysosomes. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from these results?
A. The final destination of the proteins was the lysosome.
B. The proteins were secreted.
C. The proteins traveled from lysosomes to endosomes.
D. The proteins did not travel through the Golgi apparatus.
What scientific hypotheses can be tested by a pulse-chase experiment?
True or false? Proteins produced during the "chase" phase of a pulse–chase experiment are labeled with radioactive material.
What is the first step in a pulse-chase experiment?
_____ are surface appendages that allow a bacterium to stick to a surface.
The DNA-containing region of this bacterial cell is indicated by the letter _____.
In a bacterium, where are proteins synthesized?
What name is given to the rigid structure, found outside the plasma membrane, that surrounds and supports the bacterial cell?
The _____ is the bacterial structure that acts as a selective barrier, allowing nutrients

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Rank: 5
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Retrieved Text: Type Conserved_site Description Ribosomes are the particles that catalyse mRNA-directed protein synthesis in all organisms. The codons of the mRNA are exposed on the ribosome to allow tRNA binding. This leads to the incorporation of amino acids into the growing polypeptide chain in accordance with the genetic information. Incoming amino acid monomers enter the ribosomal A site in the form of aminoacyl-tRNAs complexed with elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) and GTP. The growing polypeptide chain, situated in the P site as peptidyl-tRNA, is then transferred to aminoacyl-tRNA and the new peptidyl-tRNA, extended by one residue, is translocated to the P site with the aid the elongation factor G (EF-G) and GTP as the deacylated tRNA is released from the ribosome through one or more exit sites [, ]. About 2/3 of the mass of the ribosome consists of RNA and 1/3 of protein. The proteins are named in accordance with the subunit of the ribosome which they belong to - the small (S1 to S31) and the large (L1 to L44). Usually they decorate the rRNA cores of the subunits. Many ribosomal proteins, particularly those of the large subunit, are composed of a globular, surfaced-exposed domain with long finger-like projections that extend into the rRNA core to stabilise its structure. Most of the proteins interact with multiple RNA elements, often from different domains. In the large subunit, about 1/3 of the 23S rRNA nucleotides are at least in van der Waal's contact with protein, and L22 interacts with all six domains of the 23S rRNA. Proteins S4

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Retrieved Text: Palmitoylation in apicomplexan parasites: from established regulatory roles to putative new functions.
Home » Topics » Nutrition » Research » Palmitoylation in apicomplexan parasites: from established regulatory roles to putative new functions.
Summary of "Palmitoylation in apicomplexan parasites: from established regulatory roles to putative new functions."
This minireview aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis on protein palmitoylation in apicomplexan parasites and higher eukaryotes where most of the data is available. Apicomplexan parasites encompass numerous obligate intracellular parasites with significant health risk to animals and humans. Protein palmitoylation is a widespread post-translational modification that plays important regulatory roles in several physiological and pathological states. Functional studies demonstrate that many processes important for parasites are regulated by protein palmitoylation. Structural analyses suggest that enzymes responsible for the palmitoylation process have a conserved architecture in eukaryotes although there are particular differences which could be related to their substrate specificities. Interestingly, with the publication of T. gondii and P. falciparum palmitoylomes new possible regulatory functions are unveiled. Here we focus our discussion on data from both palmitoylomes that suggest that palmitoylation of nuclear proteins regulate different chromatin-related processes such as nucleosome assembly and stability, transcription, translation and DNA repair.
Genome-wide analysis of regulatory G-quadruplexes affecting gene expression in human cytomegalovirus.
IL-21 promotes allergic airway inflammation by driving apoptosis of FoxP3 regulatory T cells.
STING palmitoylation as a therapeutic target.
This study is aimed to evaluate the roles of specific miRNAs in osteoporosis in men.
Ribonucleic acid in fungi having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles

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Retrieved Text: Type Family Description Ribosomes are the particles that catalyse mRNA-directed protein synthesis in all organisms. The codons of the mRNA are exposed on the ribosome to allow tRNA binding. This leads to the incorporation of amino acids into the growing polypeptide chain in accordance with the genetic information. Incoming amino acid monomers enter the ribosomal A site in the form of aminoacyl-tRNAs complexed with elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) and GTP. The growing polypeptide chain, situated in the P site as peptidyl-tRNA, is then transferred to aminoacyl-tRNA and the new peptidyl-tRNA, extended by one residue, is translocated to the P site with the aid the elongation factor G (EF-G) and GTP as the deacylated tRNA is released from the ribosome through one or more exit sites [, ]. About 2/3 of the mass of the ribosome consists of RNA and 1/3 of protein. The proteins are named in accordance with the subunit of the ribosome which they belong to - the small (S1 to S31) and the large (L1 to L44). Usually they decorate the rRNA cores of the subunits. Many ribosomal proteins, particularly those of the large subunit, are composed of a globular, surfaced-exposed domain with long finger-like projections that extend into the rRNA core to stabilise its structure. Most of the proteins interact with multiple RNA elements, often from different domains. In the large subunit, about 1/3 of the 23S rRNA nucleotides are at least in van der Waal's contact with protein, and L22 interacts with all six domains of the 23S rRNA. Proteins S4

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Rank: 8
Score: 26.773605
Retrieved Text: Since a number of mitochondria appears at specified periods or sites during early development from germ cell to embryonic cells, these mitochondria are looked for an important role in the differentiation of embryos. A transient increase in protein synthesis was observed in mitochondria fraction of starfish, cricket and Xenopus embryos as well as sea urchin embryos at 20 to 30 hr after fertilization. In starfish embryos there were only three species of newly synthesized proteins in mitochondrial fractions, as recognized by purification with column chromatography and gel electrophoresis. Protein synthetic activity in cricket embryos increased transiently, though the activity in mitochondrial fraction increased successively. The increasing of amino acid content in cytosol during development caused a suppression of the incorporation of labeled amino acid into mitochondrial proteins. In contrast to mitochondrial protein synthesis before differentiation, the appearance of enzyme protein which concerns with the differenentiation afterwards was examined by acetylcholinesterase. Two molecular fores of the enzyme protein consisting of same three subunits appeared at different stages during development (before fertilization and after gastrulation), though mitochondrial protein synthesis in the embryos occurred before differentiation (mesenchyme blastula). From these results, the occurrence of mitochondrial protein synthesis might play an important roles in the beginning of differentiation in embryonic development.
[Publications] Ohta,K. and Nakazawa,T.: "Molecular differentiation and activity of acetylcholinesterase during embryonic development of sea urchin"
[Publications] Ohta, K. and Nakazawa, T.: "Molecular differentiation and activity of acetylcholinesterase during embryonic development of sea urchin."
[Publications] Ohta,K.and Nakazawa,T.: "Molecular differentiation and activity of acetylcholinesterase during embryonic development of sea urchin"

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Retrieved Text: In this lesson, we'll talk about protein synthesis, particularly cell-free protein synthesis. We'll discuss why scientists like to make proteins without cells and how they do it.
You probably know that your DNA codes for all those complex things that make you, you! What exactly does DNA code for? Protein! Your body's DNA template makes another, short-lived RNA template. This RNA template makes proteins. That's it! So you might guess that if proteins are what your DNA builds, they must be pretty important and we must be able to use proteins for all kinds of things. You'd be right!
Living organisms take too long to make proteins, because they have to engage in the other biological processes of life.
Living organisms aren't always terribly efficient at making proteins, because they have to busy themselves with the other processes they need to live.
Living organisms must be kept at a constant temperature that is conducive to life.
Some proteins are toxic to living cells, especially in high concentrations. What if we want to make a protein that is toxic to cells at high concentrations?
You can't open up a cell to check and see how things are going without killing the cell.
This is when cell-free protein synthesis, also known as in vitro translation, can come to the rescue. Cell-free protein synthesis isn't a cure-all, however. Often the DNA that codes for the proteins we want to make will degrade quickly in cell-free protein synthesis. Scientists are currently working on improving the yield of cell-free protein synthesis without allowing the DNA to degrade.
Recently, scientists

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Retrieved Text: GenScript®, a leading gene synthesis provider, announced at the PEGS Summit in Boston the launch of a public beta testing program for its new Precision Mutant Library Services for the drug development, industrial chemical and synthetic biology markets. The new services, which utilize advanced semiconductor-based oligonucleotide synthesis technology, allow defined distribution of each codon, resulting in a well-designed diverse library containing complete coverage of only the desired mutant variants.
GenScript's Precision Mutant Library Services involve construction of custom mutagenesis libraries using a patented semiconductor technology developed by CustomArray, Inc., which GenScript acquired in 2018. The platform uses CMOS technology to construct integrated circuits in order to precisely control tens of thousands of electrodes for DNA synthesis. This overcomes the challenges with current chemical synthesis methods used to randomize codons for protein expression. Although degenerate NNK and NNS libraries have proved economical, scientists waste valuable screening time due to the poor representation of desired amino acids at certain positions.
"With this technology we are able to precisely control the composition and proportions of amino acids at one or multiple variant sites in a single protein. The technology is as reliable as your iPhone," said Dr. Cedric Wu, Senior Director of Research and Development. "This saves scientists a tremendous amount of time and money because it prevents codon bias and ensures all variants have the designed distribution."
GenScript's Precision Mutant Library Services include site-saturation mutagenesis, saturation scanning mutagenesis, or combinatorial mutagenesis libraries. Saturation mutagenesis libraries provide the ability to screen mutations located at several sites within a protein sequence or across

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Mechanism of bacteriophage T4 DNA holoenzyme assembly: the 44/62 protein acts as a molecular motor.
Mechanism of bacteriophage T4 DNA holoenzyme assembly: the 44/62 protein acts as a molecular motor.
The role of ATP hydrolysis by the 44/62 protein in formation of the stable holoenzyme DNA replication complex has been further elucidated by specifically examining the role that the 44/62 protein plays in loading the 45 protein onto the DNA substrate. A stable phospho-45 protein or phosphorylated holoenzyme complex was not detected or isolated, suggesting that the 44/62 protein may not act as a protein kinase. Product and dead-end inhibition data are consistent with an ordered kinetic mechanism with respect to product release in which phosphate is released from the 44/62 protein prior to ADP. Positional isotope effect studies support this mechanism and failed to demonstrate that ATP hydrolysis by the 44/62 protein is reversible. Steady-state ATPase assays using aluminum tetrafluoride as an inhibitor are also consistent with release of ADP being partially rate-limiting. Aluminum tetrafluoride acts to trap ADP on the enzyme after turnover, forming a stable transition state analog that dissociates slowly from the enzyme. Processive DNA synthesis does not occur using the accessory proteins in the presence of pre- or post-hydrolysis analogs of ATP nor in the presence of ADP-AlF4, indicating that turnover of the 44/62 protein is absolutely required for formation of the holoenzyme complex. Collectively, data obtained regarding ATP hydrolysis by the 44/62 protein are described in terms of the clamp loading protein functioning as a molecular motor, similar to

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is an important part of protein synthesis, which takes place within the cell. Read this article to gain more information about this subject.
Living beings are made up of cells, which conduct many functions that help in sustaining a healthy and normal life. One of the most important functions of the cell is called protein synthesis. This is done with the help of hereditary material - DNA and RNA. Both are made up of nucleic acids, and they play an important role in transferring genetic information from one generation to the other. The protein synthesis process can be divided into two important processes: transcription and translation. Both of them are done inside the cell, but they take place at different places.
Transcription is a process in which the DNA is transcribed into mRNA. This is a very important part of the protein synthesis process. Eukaryotic cells are facilitated with the nucleus, and they can have one or more nucleus, which contains the genetic materials such as DNA and RNA. These materials actively participate in the process of protein synthesis, which takes place inside the nucleus, and subsequently, mRNA is formed. Then the transcribed mRNA comes out of the nucleus pores into the cytoplasm. The translation takes place, and thus, completes the process of protein synthesis.
This process is initiated when the DNA molecule uncoils its strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds, which hold the complementary base pairs together. When the strand uncoils, one of its parts behaves as a template for the production of mRNA, and is known

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Retrieved Text: Quasi-​racemic X-​ray structures of K27-​linked ubiquitin chains prepared by total chemical synthesis.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 7429-7435.
A synthetic molecular system capable of mirror-image genetic replication and transcription.
Nat. Chem. 2016, 8, 698-704.
Robust chemical synthesis of membrane proteins through a general method of removable backbone modification.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 3553-3561.
Total chemical synthesis of photoactivatable proteins for light-​controlled manipulation of antigen-​antibody interactions.
Chem. Sci. 2016, 7, 1891-1895.
Utilization of a photoactivatable antigen system to examine B-​cell probing termination and the B-​cell receptor sorting mechanisms during B-​cell activation.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, E558-E567.
Diaminodiacid bridges to improve folding and tune the bioactivity of disulfide-rich peptides.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 14276-14281.
Blocking of the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction by a D-peptide antagonist for cancer immunotherapy.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 11760-11764.
Chemical synthesis of a two-photon-activatable chemokine and photon-guided lymphocyte migration in vivo.
Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 7220.
An efficient one-pot four-segment condensation method for protein chemical synthesis.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 5713-5717.
Peptide o-aminoanilides as crypto-thioesters for protein chemical synthesis.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 2194-2198.
Synthesis of and specific antibody generation for glycopeptides with arginine N-GlcNAcylation.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 14517-14521.
Expedient total synthesis of small to medium-sized membrane proteins via Fmoc chemistry.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 3695-3704.
Irreversible site-specific hydrazinolysis of proteins by use of sortase.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 2198-2202.
Chemical synthesis of proteins using peptide hydrazides as thioester surrogates.
Nat. Protoc. 2013, 8, 2483-2495.
Diaminodiacid-based solid-phase synthesis of peptide disulfide bond mimics.
Development of new thioester equivalents for protein chemical synthesis.
Acc. Chem. Res. 2013, 46, 2475-2484.
Synthesis of autophagosomal marker protein LC3-II under detergent-free

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Retrieved Text: Professor Burke completed his undergraduate studies at Johns Hopkins University in 1998 and his Ph.D. at Harvard University in 2003. After completing an M.D. at Harvard Medical School, he joined the faculty in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois in June of 2005. His research interests are in the area of organic chemistry with a specific focus on the synthesis and study of small molecules with protein-like functions.
To most effectively harness the potential impact of complex small molecules on both science and medicine, it is critical to maximize the simplicity, efficiency, and flexibility with which these types of compounds can be synthesized in the laboratory. In this regard, modern peptide synthesis, involving the iterative coupling of bifunctional amino acids represents a valuable benchmark. Amino acid building blocks are now commercially-available in suitably-protected form as stable, crystalline solids, and the process of peptide synthesis is routinely automated. As a result, this powerful discovery engine is accessible to a broad range of scientists. In sharp contrast, the laboratory synthesis of small molecules remains a relatively complex and non-systematized process. We are currently developing a simple and highly modular strategy for making small molecules which is analogous to peptide synthesis and involves iterative Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of B-protected haloboronic acids. In this approach, building blocks are prepared (or in the future simply purchased) having all of the required functional groups preinstalled in the correct oxidation state and with the desired stereochemical relationships. These building blocks are then brought together via the recursive application of one mild reaction.

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Retrieved Text: 3-nitrotyrosine attenuates respiratory syncytial virus infection in human bronchial epithelial cell line.
A developmental mutation (npfL1) resulting in cell death in Physarum polycephalum.
A mutant of the motor protein kinesin that moves in both directions on microtubules.
A point mutation in the microtubule binding region of the Ncd motor protein reduces motor velocity.
A transgenic toolkit for visualizing and perturbing microtubules reveals unexpected functions in the epidermis.
Acrylamide and carbon disulfide treatments increase the rate of rat brain tubulin polymerization.
Arrestin translocation is induced at a critical threshold of visual signaling and is superstoichiometric to bleached rhodopsin.
Binding sites on microtubules of kinesin motors of the same or opposite polarity.
Calmodulin, cell growth and gene expression.
Calmodulin-microtubule association in cultured mammalian cells.
Cell polarity in sea urchin embryos: reorientation of cells occurs quickly in aggregates.
Cellular events during sexual development from amoeba to plasmodium in the slime mould Physarum polycephalum.
Characterization of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell combinations for vascularized bone engineering.
Checkpoint signals in grasshopper meiosis are sensitive to microtubule attachment, but tension is still essential.
Decoupling of nucleotide- and microtubule-binding sites in a kinesin mutant.
Differential localization patterns of septins during growth of the human fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus reveal novel functions.
Differential regulation of polarized synaptic vesicle trafficking and synapse stability in neural circuit rewiring in Caenorhabditis elegans.
Dilution-induced disassembly of microtubules: relation to dynamic instability and the GTP cap.
Divergent regulation of functionally distinct γ-tubulin complexes during differentiation.
Dynamic microtubules drive circuit rewiring in the absence of neurite remodeling.
Dynamic positioning of mitotic spindles in yeast: role of microtubule motors and cortical determinants.
Dysferlin, annexin A1, and mitsugumin 53 are upregulated in muscular dystrophy

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Retrieved Text: Office Address: 2125 Biomolecular Sciences Bldg.
Structural and functional studies of proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis.
Biophysical characterization of secreted mycobacterium virulence proteins.
Biophysical and biochemical studies of macromolecules.
Determination of protein and nucleic acid structures by X-ray crystallography.
Graduate Program Committee, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland (2007 to 2010, 2011-present), American Association of Undergraduate Women, International Grant Panel Member (2007 to 2011). Grant Review (Ad-Hoc, NSF, 2007, 2008, 2011; Guest Panelist, NIH, 2012; Panelist NSF, 2012). Editorial Advisory Board (FEBS J.) Manuscript Review (Structure, FEBS J., FEBS Lett. Eur. J. Med. Chem., J. Biol. Chem., J. Struct. Biol., PLoS One, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Gene Ther.).
Have mentored or currently mentoring 3 high school students, 21 undergraduates (3 current), 7 graduate students (4 graduated, 3 current) and 2 post-doctoral trainees.
My laboratory is focused on the study of molecules required for the synthesis of new ribosomes. A proliferating cell devotes 75% of its energy towards making these machines for protein synthesis. In the process of assembly of this large complex of RNA and proteins, an estimated 400 ribosome processing factors are utilized in humans. Although many of these proteins and protein-RNA complexes have been identified, for several of them their exact function in the process remains unknown. We are interested in determining the molecular details of how these macromolecules function in eukaryotic organisms.
We are currently studying the structural biology of the RIO kinases, a group of ancient atypical serine protein kinases, and Nep1, a putative RNA methyl transferase. These molecules are essential for the processing of the small ribosomal,

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Retrieved Text: Gentamicin is a kind of aminoglycoside. Its mechanism is to act on the ribosome of bacteria, inhibit bacterial protein synthesis, and destroy the integrity of bacterial cell membrane. Gentamicin can first pass through the cell membrane pore protein through the passive diffusion, and then enter the cell through the cell membrane through the transport system, and not reversibly bind to the separated ribosome 30S subunit, which leads to the destruction of the A site.
1.prevent the correct positioning of the ammonia tRNA at the A position, especially the binding of thiamyl tRNA, which interferes with the assembly of functional ribosomes and inhibits the formation of the 70S initiating complex.
2.a mismatch between tRNA and mRNA codon three, which causes the 30S subunit of the complete ribosome to misread the genetic code, causing the wrong amino acid to insert the protein structure and lead to the abnormal, non functional protein synthesis.
3.hindering the termination factor from binding to the A site, the synthesized peptide chain can not be released and prevents the complete ribosomal dissociation of 70S.
4.hindering the process of depolymerization and assembly of ribosomes, causing ribosome depletion in bacteria. Gentamicin has strong antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, proteus (indole positive and negative), Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacteriaceae, Sarre, Shigella, citrate, Neisseria, and Staphylococcus aureus (excluding methicillin resistant strains). Gentamicin was ineffective for Streptococcus (including Streptococcus pyogenes, pneumococcus, Streptococcus faecalis, etc.), anaerobes (bacteriobacterium), Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Rickettsia, virus and fungi.

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Retrieved Text: Exclusive from the protein do the photosynthetic process by the human cancer at: the dna. Short essay - entrust your body. Published in protein expression of protein synthesis involves two questions. Filter dec 01, 2017 sample records for q4. Learning activity click to continue argumentative essays. 1997 protein synthesis. Below is an allosteric protein synthesis by combining different types of agaricus species 67% for me! Enjoy proficient essay community.
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Retrieved Text: Description RPS14 Full-Length MS Protein Standard (NP_001020241), Labeled with [U- 13C6, 15N4]-L-Arginine and [U- 13C6, 15N2]-L-Lysine, was produced in human 293 cells (HEK293) with fully chemically defined cell culture medium to obtain incorporation efficiency at Creative-Proteomics. Ribosomes, the organelles that catalyze protein synthesis, consist of a small 40S subunit and a large 60S subunit. Together these subunits are composed of 4 RNA species and approximately 80 structurally distinct proteins. This gene encodes a ribosomal protein that is a component of the 40S subunit. The protein belongs to the S11P family of ribosomal proteins. It is located in the cytoplasm. Transcript variants utilizing alternative transcription initiation sites have been described in the literature. As is typical for genes encoding ribosomal proteins, there are multiple processed pseudogenes of this gene dispersed through the genome. In Chinese hamster ovary cells, mutations in this gene can lead to resistance to emetine, a protein synthesis inhibitor. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding the same protein have been found for this gene.

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Retrieved Text: Hydroxyurea blocks an enzyme which converts the cytosine nucleotide into the deoxy derivative. In addition, DNA synthesis is further inhibited because hydroxyurea blocks the incorporation of the thymidine nucleotide into the DNA strand.
Mercaptopurine, a chemical analog of the purine adenine, inhibits the biosynthesis of adenine nucleotides by acting as an antimetabolite. In the body, 6-MP is converted to the corresponding ribonucleotide. 6-MP ribonucleotide is a potent inhibitor of the conversion of a compound called inosinic acid to adenine Without adenine, DNA cannot be synthesized. 6-MP also works by being incorporated into nucleic acids as thioguanosine, rendering the resulting nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) unable to direct proper protein synthesis.
Thioguanine is an antimetabolite in the synthesis of guanine nucleotides.
Alkylating agents involve reactions with guanine in DNA. These drugs add methyl or other alkyl groups onto molecules where they do not belong. This in turn inhibits their correct utilization by base pairing and causes a miscoding of DNA.
In the first mechanism an alkylating agent attaches alkyl groups to DNA bases. This alteration results in the DNA being fragmented by repair enzymes in their attempts to replace the alkylated bases.
A second mechanism by which alkylating agents cause DNA damage is the formation of cross-bridges, bonds between atoms in the DNA. In this process, two bases are linked together by an alkylating agent that has two DNA binding sites. Cross-linking prevents DNA from being separated for synthesis or transcription.
The third mechanism of action of alkylating agents causes the mispairing of the nucleotides leading to mutations.
There are six groups of alkylating agents:

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Retrieved Text: Will Post Workout Protein Build Muscles?
“Hi Brad, When it comes to how much protein I should eat for muscle building I was wondering if you could tell me what the difference is between ‘whole body protein synthesis’ & ‘mean muscle protein synthesis’?
For instance, I am really interested in the benefits of drinking a protein shake during my workouts since the guy who I buy my protein from said this would help me build muscle.
“During subsequent overnight recovery, whole-body protein synthesis was 19% greater in the protein group compared to the placebo group (P < 0.05).
However, mean muscle protein synthesis rates during 9 h of overnight recovery did not differ between groups and were 0.056 ± 0.004%/h in the protein group and 0.057 ± 0.004%/h in the placebo group (P = 0.89).
We conclude that, even in a fed state, protein and carbohydrate supplementation stimulates muscle protein synthesis during exercise.
You need to remember that you are looking at two different measurements of protein synthesis.
“Whole body protein synthesis” measures the protein synthesis taking place in your entire body – including your liver, heart, lungs, brain, digestive system and muscles. The measurement won’t tell you where the process is happening, just that it’s happening.
“Muscle protein synthesis” specifically measures the amount of synthesis taking place in your skeletal muscle.
According to the quote you shared, the post workout protein shake increased whole-body protein synthesis, but didn’t increase muscle protein synthesis. The extra protein increased synthesis elsewhere in the body, but didn’t have a measurable effect on muscles.
If you’re trying to build muscle

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Retrieved Text: Today we have on Baylor Professor and Advisor to the ISSN, Dr. Darryn Willoughby. Dr. Willoughby is a competitive bodybuilder and researcher. He is currently researching the effects of exercise and nutrition on physical, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms. Ben and Dr. Willoughby discuss muscle protein synthesis, the scientific thought process and whether there is a need for supplementation. Dr. Willoughby shares his protein and supplement regimen as well as what he is excited about in the world of exercise science research in this science deep dive episode.
This episode is brought to you by Thrive Market. We have been LOVING Thrive’s new meat selection. Eat like Ben and order the Premium Cuts Beef Box and don’t forget to use code Muscle Expert for 25% off and a month of free shipping!
6:30- How the scientific thought process evolves. How Dr. Willoughby forges the path for new discoveries in science.
9:45- Exploring exercise research methods. Should we study the average population or the optimized?
12:30- Limitations in research. Tech, time, and money. Just because a study comes up with a finding we cannot take that as gospel until it is further backed up.
21:45- What influences muscle protein synthesis?
25:30- What else, besides protein, influences our bodies ability to build muscle?
31:45- How to optimize protein synthesis. What influences mTOR?
36:00- How Dr. Willoughby tests protein synthesis in a lab. Is protein synthesis gradient or binary?
44:30- The influence of your current protein synthesis state on your future state.
50:30- How different types of training influences protein synthesis.
56:00- How androgens and testosterone influence muscle protein synthesis.
59:00- How

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Retrieved Text: Macromolecules in the cell such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are interdependent for mutual synthesis. Within the cell, proteins used for enzyme catalysis, structural components, energy generation, and digestion of food, are produced through an amazing manufacturing process, involving DNA as a template for the three types of RNA (MRNA, TRNA, and RRNA), which in turn act as different components in the synthesis and coding of each protein molecule. But, each step in this complicated synthesis is catalyzed by an enzyme, which, since it is a protein, would have had to be synthesized by the same process! In other words, the end products of this reaction aid in the synthesis of the starting components and catalyzes each reaction along,the way, making up a complicated series of interrelationships. In order to explain life, then, the appearance of this entire machinery must be explained.
Macromolecule synthesis in the cell is a very efficient process, far exceeding the efficiency of laboratory synthesis. This difference is due to the enzymatic activity of proteins in the cell. A reaction that takes many minutes or hours with low yield in the absence of an enzyme occurs in a split second with high yield in the presence of an enzyme which acts as a catalyst.
form van der Waals bonds.
The importance of each amino acid side chain is illustrated by the fact that mutations which change the structure of the enzyme by placing a different amino acid in the enzyme usually render it inactive, although it is true that sometimes one amino acid may replace

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Retrieved Text: Source Reference: [PubMed ID: 2472383] Tsubata T, Takahashi K, Limited proteolysis of bovine myelin basic protein by calcium-dependent proteinase from bovine spinal cord. J Biochem. 1989 Jan;105(1):23-8.
[PubMed ID: 5096093] Eylar EH, Brostoff S, Hashim G, Caccam J, Burnett P, Basic A1 protein of the myelin membrane. The complete amino acid sequence. J Biol Chem. 1971 Sep 25;246(18):5770-84.
[PubMed ID: 4129204] ... Brostoff SW, Reuter W, Hichens M, Eylar EH, Specific cleavage of the A1 protein from myelin with cathepsin D. J Biol Chem. 1974 Jan 25;249(2):559-67.
[PubMed ID: 1382581] ... Pirollet F, Derancourt J, Haiech J, Job D, Margolis RL, Ca(2+)-calmodulin regulated effectors of microtubule stability in bovine brain. Biochemistry. 1992 Sep 22;31(37):8849-55.
[PubMed ID: 8530487] ... Prasad K, Barouch W, Martin BM, Greene LE, Eisenberg E, Purification of a new clathrin assembly protein from bovine brain coated vesicles and its identification as myelin basic protein. J Biol Chem. 1995 Dec 22;270(51):30551-6.
[PubMed ID: 5442707] ... Eylar EH, Caccam J, Jackson JJ, Westall FC, Robinson AB, Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: synthesis of disease-inducing site of the basic protein. Science. 1970 Jun 5;168(3936):1220-3.
[PubMed ID: 4994464] ... Brostoff S, Eylar EH, Localization of methylated arginine in the A1 protein from myelin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1971 Apr;68(4):765-9.
[PubMed ID: 57115] ... Chou FC, Chou CH, Shapira R, Kibler RF, Basis of microheterogeneity of myelin basic protein. J Biol Chem. 1976 May 10;251(9):2671-9.
[PubMed ID: 1700979] ... Erickson AK, Payne DM, Martino PA, Rossomando AJ, Shabanowitz J, Weber MJ, Hunt DF, Sturgill TW, Identification by mass spectrometry of threonine 97 in bovine myelin

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Retrieved Text: Abstract The ribosome is a complex macromolecule consisting of RNA and protein subunits that is responsible for translating the genetic code and protein synthesis. Within its large subunit, the exit tunnel exists as a conduit for nascent peptides to traverse before reaching the cytoplasm or membrane translocon. The tips of the extended loops (also called tentacles) of two proteins, L4 and L22, contribute to the surface of the narrowest portion of Escherichia coli's exit tunnel. Mutations in the tentacles of the L4 and L22 proteins promote resistance to a class of antibiotics referred to as macrolides. Although the mutant strains have the advantage of growing in the presence of the antibiotic, erythromycin, they have the disadvantage of growing slower than the wildtype. The decreased rate of growth may be a reflection of structural changes within the 23S rRNA component of the large subunit induced by structural changes in L4 and L22, which in turn result in defects in ribosomal assembly and/or peptide synthesis. My research involved determining whether the reduced growth rate can be attributed to the rate of peptide bond formation in the peptidyltransferase (PT) center and/or the reduced efficiency of ribosomal assembly. I used the peptidyltransferase assay on total ribosomes and purified subunits to evaluate the effect of the L4 and L22 mutations on ribosomal function. A decrease in PT activity was observed amongst all mutants. Analyses of Variance and Tukey's honestly significant difference test indicated that the differences between the wildtype and the mutants were statistically significant. Additional statistical analyses revealed a strong

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Retrieved Text: Whenever someone thinks about changing how their body looks (gaining muscle or losing fat), the plan almost always includes adding more protein to their diet. Many people choose to supplement with protein powders to increase their protein intake. With so many different companies, products and types of protein supplementation on the market, which types are the best? To understand which protein supplements are the best, we should learn a little more about proteins and their vital role in the human body.
Proteins are molecular bundles of chains, built from amino acids. When you consume whole foods higher in protein (think fish, chicken, steak, quinoa, beans, nuts) the body breaks the protein molecules down into their basic amino acid forms. The body uses these amino acid/protein combinations to do amazing things.
Proteins create hair, skin, nails and cartilage.
Proteins allow for the movement of sperm cells.
Proteins make up every muscle in the body.
Proteins create cellular binding sites and transport channels for enzymes and other molecular reactions.
Proteins form enzymes which accelerate chemical reactions including digestion.
If it’s not yet obvious, proteins are a VERY big deal!
Why do people increase protein when trying to change their body composition? For adding muscle tissue or reducing fat, increasing protein intake may be beneficial for several reasons.
For losing weight – Protein is a high satiety food. What that means is that eating 100g of lean protein is going to make you FEEL more satisfied than eating 100g of easily digestible carbohydrates. This means that you will feel full longer! When food is digested, a biproduct is

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Single-molecule investigation of the T4 bacteriophage DNA polymerase holoenzyme: multiple pathways of holoenzyme formation.
Single-molecule investigation of the T4 bacteriophage DNA polymerase holoenzyme: multiple pathways of holoenzyme formation.
In T4 bacteriophage, the DNA polymerase holoenzyme is responsible for accurate and processive DNA synthesis. The holoenzyme consists of DNA polymerase gp43 and clamp protein gp45. To form a productive holoenzyme complex, clamp loader protein gp44/62 is required for the loading of gp45, along with MgATP, and also for the subsequent binding of polymerase to the loaded clamp. Recently published evidence suggests that holoenzyme assembly in the T4 replisome may take place via more than one pathway [Zhuang, Z., Berdis, A. J., and Benkovic, S. J. (2006) Biochemistry 45, 7976-7989]. To demonstrate unequivocally whether there are multiple pathways leading to the formation of a productive holoenzyme, single-molecule fluorescence microscopy has been used to study the potential clamp loading and holoenzyme assembly pathways on a single-molecule DNA substrate. The results obtained reveal four pathways that foster the formation of a functional holoenzyme on DNA: (1) clamp loader-clamp complex binding to DNA followed by polymerase, (2) clamp loader binding to DNA followed by clamp and then polymerase, (3) clamp binding to DNA followed by clamp loader and then polymerase, and (4) polymerase binding to DNA followed by the clamp loader-clamp complex. In all cases, MgATP is required. The possible physiological significance of the various assembly pathways is discussed in the context of replication initiation and lagging strand synthesis during various stages of T4 phage replication.
Formation of a holoenzyme complex

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Retrieved Text: Rifampicin sodium (Rifampin) is a semisynthetic antimicrobial compound derived from rifamycin SV and originally developed by the Lepetit group in 1965. Rifampicin shows activity against gram-positive bacteria, particularly mycobacteria like tuberculosis, some gram-negative anaerobic bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and poxviruses.
Rifampicin sodium inhibits the assembly of DNA and protein into mature virus particles. It inhibits initiation of RNA synthesis by binding to β-subunit of RNA polymerase, which results in cell death.
Rifampicin sodium has been shown to inhibit α-synuclein fibrillation and disaggregate fibrils in a concentration-dependent manner. Rifampicin can activate pregnane X receptor (PXR), which affects cytochrome P450, and the activity of glucuronosyltransferases and P-glycoprotein. Rifampicin has been shown to enhance CYP2C-mediated metabolism, affect compounds that are transported by P-glycoprotein and metabolized by CYP3A4.
Rifampicin sodium is an immunosuppressive agent.
For a safer and easier to use Rifampicin, try TOKU-E's ready-made Rifampicin Solution (10 mg/mL in water).
Rifampicin sodium targets prokaryotic DNA dependent RNA polymerases which prevent subsequent RNA transcription and protein translation.
Rifampicin sodium is commonly used in bacterial recombinant protein expression to inhibit bacterial RNA polymerase activity and synthesis of host bacterial proteins. Rifampicin sodium can also be used as a selective agent to isolate Campylobacter jejuni.

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Retrieved Text: Journal: Nature. 2018 Sep;561(7722):268-272. doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0462-y.
The folding of newly synthesized proteins to the native state is a major challenge within the crowded cellular environment, as non-productive interactions can lead to misfolding, aggregation and degradation1. Cells cope with this challenge by coupling synthesis with polypeptide folding and by using molecular chaperones to safeguard folding cotranslationally2. However, although most of the cellular proteome forms oligomeric assemblies3, little is known about the final step of folding: the assembly of polypeptides into complexes. In prokaryotes, a proof-of-concept study showed that the assembly of heterodimeric luciferase is an organized cotranslational process that is facilitated by spatially confined translation of the subunits encoded on a polycistronic mRNA4. In eukaryotes, however, fundamental differences-such as the rarity of polycistronic mRNAs and different chaperone constellations-raise the question of whether assembly is also coordinated with translation. Here we provide a systematic and mechanistic analysis of the assembly of protein complexes in eukaryotes using ribosome profiling. We determined the in vivo interactions of the nascent subunits from twelve hetero-oligomeric protein complexes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae at near-residue resolution. We find nine complexes assemble cotranslationally; the three complexes that do not show cotranslational interactions are regulated by dedicated assembly chaperones5-7. Cotranslational assembly often occurs uni-directionally, with one fully synthesized subunit engaging its nascent partner subunit, thereby counteracting its propensity for aggregation. The onset of cotranslational subunit association coincides directly with the full exposure of the nascent interaction domain at the ribosomal tunnel exit. The action of the ribosome-associated Hsp70 chaperone Ssb8 is coordinated with assembly. Ssb transiently engages partially

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Meiosis I begins after DNA replicates during interphase of the cell cycle. In both meiosis I and meiosis II , cells go through the same four phases as mitosis - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. However, there are important differences between meiosis I and mitosis. The eight stages of meiosis are summarized below. The stages will be described for a human cell, starting with 46 chromosomes.


Q: What must replicate in the cell cycle before meiosis i takes place?

 Choices:

- dna

- cell walls

- sperm

- meiotic fluid

A:

Target Text: dna

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: 1. All organisms have the same universal genetic system. What are the implications of this universal genetic system?
2. Why are the viruses that infect mammalian cells useful for studying the genetics of mammals?
* 3. List three fundamental events that must take place in cell reproduction.
4. Outline the process by which prokaryotic cells reproduce.
5. Name three essential structural elements of a functional eukaryotic chromosome and describe their functions.
* 6. Sketch and label four different types of chromosomes based on the position of the centromere.
7. List the stages of interphase and the major events that take place in each stage.
* 8. List the stages of mitosis and the major events that take place in each stage.
* 9. What are the genetically important results of the cell cycle?
10. Why are the two cells produced by the cell cycle genetically identical?
11. What are checkpoints? What two general classes of compounds regulate progression through the cell cycles?
12. What are the stages of meiosis and what major events take place in each stage?
*13. What are the major results of meiosis?
14. What two processes unique to meiosis are responsible for genetic variation? At what point in meiosis do these processes take place?
*15. List similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis. Which differences do you think are most important and why?
16. Outline the process by which male gametes are produced in plants. Outline the process of female gamete formation in plants.
17. Outline the process of spermatogenesis in animals. Outline the process of oogenesis in animals.
What two general classes of compounds regulate progression throughout the

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Retrieved Text: Gametogenesis is the process whereby a haploid cell (n) is formed from a diploid cell (2n) through meiosis and cell differentiation. Gametogenesis in the male is known as spermatogenesis and produces spermatozoa. Gametogenesis in the female is known as oogenesis and result in the formation of ova. In this article we shall look at both spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Males start producing sperm when they reach puberty, which is usually from 10-16 years old. Sperm are produced in large quantities (~200 million a day) to maximise the likelihood of sperm reaching the egg. Sperm are continually produced as males need to be ready to utilise the small window of fertility of the female.
Sperm production occurs in the testes of the male, specifically in the seminiferous tubules. The tubules are kept separate from the systemic circulation by the blood-testis barrier.
The blood-testis barrier is formed by Sertoli cells and is important in preventing hormones and constituents of the systemic circulation from affecting the developing sperm, and also in preventing the immune system of the male from recognising the sperm as foreign – as the sperm are genetically different from the male and will express different surface antigens. Sertoli cells also have a role in supporting the developing spermatozoa.
Spermatogonia are the initial pool of diploid cell that divide by mitosis to give two identical cells. One of these cells will be used to replenish the pool of spermatogonia – these cells are A1 spermatogonia. This replenishment of spermatogonia means that males are fertile throughout their adult life. The other cell –

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Retrieved Text: Cell division the most interesting subject matter deals with the distribution of all same or identical genetic material like DNA to get involve with two daughter cells. The most remarkable feature is the fidelity through which the DNA is passed from one generation to the next without any dilution or error.
You can enrich your knowledge on cell division by going through cell division: mitosis and meiosis homework help.
Want to get an idea of the core concept?
It is universally true that all organisms are made of cells and they arise from all the preexisting cells.
New cells are generated through mitosis.
On the other hand, meiosis is the process in which the gametes are developed for reproduction.
The life cycle of a cell presents the entire phases during the life of a cell.
The S phase or the DNA replication must proceed beyond mitosis so that the daughter calls can get the same kind of compliment of chromosomes like the parent cells.
The mitosis and S phase are separated by the gap phases.
Mitosis is the process by which the copied chromosomes are separated into separate cells.
The irregularity in cell division can cause cancer.
Mitosis and DNA replication takes place when the cell cycle checkpoints work normally.
Isn’t the topic very interesting? Do you want to learn more? The easiest way to build up your concept is by going through cell division: mitosis and meiosis assignment help. We, at myhomeworkhelp.com are sincerely working together with exceptionally brilliant experts to provide you with the best eve support.
If you want to understand the basic concept of genetics

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Retrieved Text: Spindle assembly during meiosis I in primary Drosophila spermatocytes.
Recording of GFP-alphaTubulin84B in primary Drosophila spermatocytes reveals the location of two diametrically opposed asters around the nuclear envelope before meiosis I. Upon nuclear envelope breakdown, indicated by the sudden entry of GFP signal into the nuclear area, spindle assembly takes place. Intranuclear microtubules form a bipolar structure that connect the asters at the two poles. Extranuclear microtubules derived from both asters expand toward the cortex and converge in the equatorial plane of the cell.
Recording of GFP-alphaTubulin84B in primary Drosophila spermatocytes reveals the behaviour of intra- and extranuclear microtubules during the first stages of spindle assembly. Later, at anaphase I, intranuclear microtubules contacting the chromosomes shorten, whereas extranuclear microtubules expand towards the cortex and converge at the position where the cytokinesis furrow will form.
Spindle assembly and chromosome behaviour during meiosis I in primary Drosophila spermatocytes.
Recording of GFP-alphaTubulin84B (in yellow) and Histone2-YFP (in red) reveal microtubule and chromosome behaviour during spindle assembly in meiosis I. During prometaphase I bivalent chromosomes interact with astral microtubules and congress to the metaphase I plate.
Recording of GFP-alphaTubulin84B (in yellow) and Histone2-YFP (in red) reveal microtubule and chromosome behaviour during spindle assembly and division in meiosis I. During anaphase I homolog chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles as kinetochore microtubules shorten.
Spindle assembly and central spindle formation during meiosis I in primary Drosophila spermatocytes.
Recording of GFP-alphaTubulin84B in a primary Drosophila spermatocyte from the onset of meiosis I to telophase I. The different sets of microtubules can be tracked all throughout the cell cycle. Note

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Retrieved Text: Hey guys, I was just wondering does interphase double the chrosome number from 46 to 92 due to DNA replication?
Is meiosis part of the cell cycle?
HELP - Mitosis and Meiosis???
It doesn't double the chromosome number, but it doubles the amount of DNA. Chromosomes usually look like chromatids, but because you only see them in prophase, you see them with twice the amount of DNA. There are the same number of chromosomes, as the number of centromeres does not increase.
But how can it go from 46 to 46 to 23? How can it divide in way that maintains the same no. of chromosomes after a division into 2 cells?
It contains 46 chromosomes. It divides to give 23 chromosomes in meiosis 1. This then divides again to give 23 chromosomes.
The original DNA has been replicated before division. The reason you think a chromosome lookes like and "X" rather than an "l" is because you only see them during mitosis when they are dividing.
But they are still called a single chromosome, because a) the two strands are exactly the same and b) they are attached to a single centromere.
So it starts with 46, then divides to give 2 cells of 23 each, then those divide to give 4 cells of 23?
the cell goes through normal interphase and chromosones are copied and are visible as sister chromoatids.
chromotids are seperated in meiosis 2.
so to answer your question it goes 2N -> 2N -> N -> N because after interpahse the chromosones are sister chromatids (the have replicated) but they are still

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Retrieved Text: Cell Division. Meiosis. Cell Biology. Genetics and Heredity. Biology. In which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur? Update Cancel. Answer Wiki. 7 Answers. William Halmeck, Ambassador for civilization serving a community of youth. Answered May 10, 2016 · Author has 3k answers and 3.8m answer views.
Crossing over occurs during prophase I, one of the longest phases of meiosis. Recombination or crossing over has rarely been observed during mitosis. It is completed before the cell proceeds to either metaphase I or to the second meiotic division.
Why does crossing over occur in meiosis and not mitosis?
Start studying Mitosis and Meiosis and Cell Cycle. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. ... Cancer is essentially a disease of cell division - a failure of cell division. p53: the "Guardian Angel Gene" / tumor suppressor gene ... Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis vs. Mitosis study guide by Kerri_Abbott includes 27 questions covering vocabulary, terms and more. Quizlet flashcards, activities and games help you improve your grades.

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Retrieved Text: Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in a certain area in the body that can spread. The way we treat cancer as of now is chemotherapy, or injecting radiation into the body to kill the extra cells. Chemotherapy is very dangerous and kills people all the time, but it is the only way we know of at the moment to treat cancer. When the cancer cell isn’t checked by polymerase and gets sent through and replicates, it makes more and more of the bad cells and is unable to be stopped. Cancer keeps going through the replication process making more cells than needed and unless treated soon, will kill you.
The G1 phase also known as the growth phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle. This phase is where cells and the contents of cells excluding chromosomes. Helicase is used here to unzip the double helix.
The next phase in the cell cycle is the S phase, this is where the chromosomes replicate and consist of two sister chromatids.Genes are located in chromosomes and DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
G2 phase is up next and this is where error check occurs for mutations and preparation of the cell for mitosis using DNA polymerase.Cancer skips this step and just keeps replicating without being checked.
Cell division begins with prophase where the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The chromatin is at its least dense state.
The next phase of cell division is metaphase or the middle phase, this is where chromosomes become

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Retrieved Text: Give any two similarities between behavior of genes (Mendelâ??s factor) during inheritance & chromosomes during cell division.
(i) Both the chromosomes as well as Mendelian factors (whether dominant or recessive) are transmitted from generation to generation in an unaltered form. (ii) A trait is represented by only one Mendelian factor inside a gamete. A gamete similarly contains a single chromosome out of a pair of homologous chromosomes due to meiosis that occurs before the formation of gametes.
Since genes are located on the chromosomes, all the behavioral propteries that chromosomes exhibited are shown by the genes also. Say for example, Seggregation and Independent assortment. During mitosis as well as during meiosis chromosomes replicate (DNA replication), so the genes also replicate, chromosomes seggregate into the daughter cells without mixing, so as the genes (some exceptions are due to crossing over) and so on.
I have passed 12th exam with subject PCM . What I can do apply for Short service commission?
This lesson is about effective learning with corresponds to time management.

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Retrieved Text: Start studying Mitosis Worksheet. Color the Mitosis stage purple. A L, K, U, Y, F, R, X, H, B, G, color T, C, S, E, M, I, J, W, Q, O, V, N, P, D Z. MEMKS 040801e- mitosis Page 5 of 10 Retinol Solubility Retinol is miscible with fats and oils. Delegation strategies for the NCLEX FREE NCLEX exams for the NCLEX, FREE NCLEX Quizzes for the NCLEX, Prioritization color for the NCLEX, Infection color Control mitosis for the NCLEX, FREE resources for the NCLEX Failed the NCLEX - Help is here. Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals which all have in common their asbestiform habit: i. agar- A polysaccharide complex extracted from seaweed ( Rhodophyceae) and used as an. Mitosis Coloring.
This bundle is full of coloring pages crossing over, readings, , cut- , nondisjunction, spermatogenesis, question pages to help you teach about mitosis, meiosis,- paste activities, oogenesis! Topics may include diseases in those sheet systems as well as the general anatomy and function of each system from the cellular to the holistic scale. Cell Cycle and Mitosis coloring sheet I wanted my students to have a good sheet visual of the cell cycle in their notes. During which stage of a cell’ s cycle do the replicated chromosomes thicken and become visible? I also wanted them to distinguish between color the phases of mitosis. Color each of the titles below color and their matching parts in the pictures the following colors: • mitosis Mitosis – purple ( also outline each

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Retrieved Text: Mitosis Matching Worksheet Answers. 13 best images of mitosis notes worksheet mitosis worksheet answers mitosis worksheet answer. 14 best images of mitosis worksheet answers crossword cell division crossword puzzle answer. 15 best images of phases of mitosis worksheet answers meiosis matching worksheet answer key. 19 best images of mitosis matching worksheet answers cell cycle and mitosis worksheet answer. onion cell mitosis worksheet answers worksheet resume. 13 best images of meiosis matching worksheet cheat sheet cell cycle and mitosis worksheet. mitosis worksheet answer 8 meiosis internet lesson biological science picture directory. cell cycle mitosis worksheet answer sheet. cell cycle and mitosis worksheet answer key worksheet resume. 16 best images of steps of meiosis worksheet answers meiosis stages worksheet meiosis. [Janefondasworkout.com].

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Retrieved Text: It's meiosis that gives us the male and female reproductive cells known as the egg and sperm. In meiosis, two cell divisions take place, which produces four genetically unique cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
I have a brother. He has brown hair and brown eyes. I don't look much like him because I have blonde hair and blue eyes. We share the same parents, yet we don't share all of the same genes. For instance, my brother got the gene for brown eyes, and I got the one for blue eyes. While there are a number of things to consider, it's basically meiosis that gave me different genes than my brother.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes. The term gametes is just the scientific way of saying sperm and eggs. During meiosis, one parent cell divides into two cells and then divides again to make a total of four cells. During all of this dividing, genes get shuffled around, and the number of chromosomes gets cut in half. So the result of meiosis is four genetically unique cells, or gametes, with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Now that we kind of have an overview, let's take a closer look at how this works.
Before we go too far, I want to point out something. Meiosis is different than mitosis, which you might have learned about in a different lesson. In mitosis, we see body cells divide to form identical body cells. For example, skin cells

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Retrieved Text: Cell cycle MCQs, cell cycle quiz answers 15 to learn secondary education online courses. Practice phases of meiosis multiple choice questions (MCQs), cell cycle quiz questions and answers for biology class. Free e-learning tutorial on cell cycle, apoptosis and necrosis, phases of meiosis, significance of mitosis test prep for secondary school teaching certification.
Study high school biology multiple choice questions (MCQs): cell cycle, apoptosis and necrosis, phases of meiosis, significance of mitosis, with choices transports material, releases carbon dioxide, respires, and is damaged for online secondary education degree. Free biology study guide for online learning phases of meiosis quiz questions to attempt multiple choice questions based test.

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Biology Chapter 10 Cell Cycle and Cell Division free download in PDF for or to Study online without downloading files. Download Solutions of other subjects and study notes related to all chapters.
Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by half, hence it is called reductional division.
Occurs during gametogenesis in plants and animals.
Involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
It results in 4 haploid daughter cells.
Interphase occurs prior to meiosis which is similar to interphase of mitosis except the S phase is prolonged.
Format ion of gametes: In sexually reproducing organisms.
Genetic variability: Variations are very important for evolution.
Maintenance of chromosomal number: By reducing the chromosome number in gametes. Chromosomal number is restored by fertilisation of gametes.
Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is called as equational division. Mitosis is divided into four sub stages.
Replicated chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids, condense and become visible.
Microtubules are assembled into mitotic spindle.
Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.
Centriole moves to opposite poles.
Spindle fibres attached to kinetochores (small disc-shaped structures at the surface of centromere) of chromosomes.
Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle to form metaphase plate.
Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
Chromatids move to opposite poles due to shortening of spindal fibres.
Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.
Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosomes clusters’.
Nucleolus, Golgi Complex, E.R. reforms.
Maintenance of surface/volume ratio. Maintain Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
Reproduction in unicellular organisms, lower plants and some insects.
Vegetative reproduction in plants takes place by mitosis.

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tet1 controls meiosis by regulating meiotic gene expression.
Title Tet1 controls meiosis by regulating meiotic gene expression.
Meiosis is a germ-cell-specific cell division process through which haploid gametes are produced for sexual reproduction. Before the initiation of meiosis, mouse primordial germ cells undergo a series of epigenetic reprogramming steps, including the global erasure of DNA methylation at the 5-position of cytosine (5mC) in CpG-rich DNA. Although several epigenetic regulators, such as Dnmt3l and the histone methyltransferases G9a and Prdm9, have been reported to be crucial for meiosis, little is known about how the expression of meiotic genes is regulated and how their expression contributes to normal meiosis. Using a loss-of-function approach in mice, here we show that the 5mC-specific dioxygenase Tet1 has an important role in regulating meiosis in mouse oocytes. Tet1 deficiency significantly reduces female germ-cell numbers and fertility. Univalent chromosomes and unresolved DNA double-strand breaks are also observed in Tet1-deficient oocytes. Tet1 deficiency does not greatly affect the genome-wide demethylation that takes place in primordial germ cells, but leads to defective DNA demethylation and decreased expression of a subset of meiotic genes. Our study thus establishes a function for Tet1 in meiosis and meiotic gene activation in female germ cells.

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Retrieved Text: The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus.
arrangement of p g pairs of chromosomes. The diagram below g shows four possible arrangements of chromosomes during metaphase 1 from an individual that has 6 total chromosomes. chromosomes Suppose that the pink chromosomes are those that the individual inherited from its mother and the blue colored ones were inherited from its father. For each chromosome pair, the chromosome that is on the left (maternal or paternal) is determined randomly. As can be , g p seen, there are several alignment possibilities.
Can you tell the stage of cells Can o (image in the right hand) What do the different colors represent for?
chromosomes, four per set. In the h f t I th following diagram, what phase of mitosis, meiosis I or meiosis II, is this cell in?
The cell is in metaphase of meiosis II. You can tell because the chromosomes are lined up along the metaphase plate, and it plate has only four pairs of sister chromatids. If it were mitosis, the cell would have eight pairs of ll ld h i ht i f sister chromatids.
A cell is diploid and contains three chromosomes per set. Draw the arrangement g of chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, and metaphase I and II of meiosis.
1. Division of intracellular organelles 2. Cell cycle control 3. Mechanics of cell division 4..

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Retrieved Text: On 29th November, Plant Physiology online published a research paper entitled “Stage-specific gene profiling of germinal cells helps delineate the mitosis/meiosis transition” from Prof. Weihua Tang’s group at CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Science (CAS). This study revealsthe transcriptome dynamics of germinal cells undergoing the mitosis-meiosis switch and pinpoints crucial turning pointsfor this transition.
Sexual reproduction is the predominant reproduction style in nature. The most pivotal event of sexual reproduction is the transition from mitotic to meiotic cell cycle. In plants, committed germinalcells undergo several rounds of mitotic proliferation before entering meiosis.However, the mechanisms orchestrating meiosis initiation in germinal initial cells remain elusive.
Based on the precise analysis of germinal cell stage in developing maize anthers, Dr. Tang and her colleagues obtainedgerminal cells at three sequential stages, i.e.archesporial cells (AR) undergoing the last phase of mitotic proliferation, enlarging pollen mother cell (ePMC) at interphase andpollen mother cell just starting meiosis, using laser capture microdissection, and performed microarray analysis. The expression features of key meiosis genes,transcription factor subsets and E3 ubiquitin ligases in germinal cells indicate that the ePMC stage is a critical turning point for the mitosis-to-meiosis transition.Mass spectrometry result further suggeststhat many meiotic genes are not only transcribed but also translated before meiosis. This study identified more candidate meiosis-specific genes and pathwaysenriched in the mitosis/meiosis transition. Therefore, this study provides more leads for scientific hypotheses for testing, and helpsdelineate the molecular basis for the mitosis/meiosis transition.
This research was supported by the Strategic Priority Research

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Retrieved Text: During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.... prophase I - meiosis term refers to the first phase of meiosis I, which together with meiosis II results in the reductive cell division only occurring gametes. Prophase can be further divided into a number of stages: leptotene zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis.
Go back to prophase 1 and write in alleles for your chromosomes. The drawing below shows what they would look like before they are copied during interphase. Make sure that you write in the alleles on the copied sister chromatids too! a A. B b g G . R r H h. D d. Now, show the alleles of one gene crossing over in one set of homologous chromosomes. Circle the set you chose. Now follow along and... During the prophase stage of cell division, chromosomes begin to condense, coil and fold, making them visible under a light microscope. When the duplicated chromosomes continue to coil, the chromosomes are shortened and thickened to a more visible state.
Prophase – The replicated chromosomes condense into compact rods. Each rod Each rod consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere or the chromosome.
☆ These questions asked the reader to describe and draw the cell when it was in the telophase and the late prophase stages of mitosis. ☆ During meiotic prophase in females, chromosomes condense and pair to

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Retrieved Text: Like all plants Toxicodendron diversilobum exhibits an alternation of generations. This means that during the life cycle of the plant it alternates between a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation and a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation. Since the Pacific poison oak is in the phylum Angiosperm it has a dominant sporophyte generation which means that the gametophyte generation will be more dependent on the sporophyte generation.
The first part of the angiosperm life cycle takes place in the flower of the plant. Here in the anther the microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis which produces haploid microspores. Each microspore undergoes one division of mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Together they form an immature pollen grain. The generative cells then go through a second mitotic division which produces two sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule one megaspore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore. Three die off and one remains. The remaining megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions and generates an 8 nucleate embryo sac also known as a megagametophyte.
Next pollination occurs. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma where a pollen tube grows down into the style. Eventually it grows down into the ovary through the micropyle. One sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg which creates a diploid zygote, and the other sperm fuses with the central cell of the egg to form the endospore.
Now that the embryo has formed it grows inside the embryo sac. The ovule creates a protective seed coat around the embryo and embryo sac. Then the seed is dropped from fruit

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Retrieved Text: Fission yeast Myo51 is a meiotic spindle pole body component with discrete roles during cell fusion and spore formation.
Class V myosins are dimeric actin-associated motor proteins that deliver cellular cargoes to discrete cellular locations. Fission yeast possess two class V myosins, Myo51 and Myo52. Although Myo52 has been shown to have roles in vacuole distribution, cytokinesis and cell growth, Myo51 has no as yet discernible function in the vegetative life cycle. Here, we uncover distinct functions for this motor protein during mating and meiosis. Not only does Myo51 transiently localise to a foci at the site of cell fusion upon conjugation, but overexpression of the Myo51 globular tail also leads to disruption of cell fusion. Upon completion of meiotic prophase Myo51 localises to the outside of the spindle pole bodies (SPBs), where it remains until completion of meiosis II. Association of Myo51 with SPBs is not dependent upon actin or the septation initiation network (SIN); however, it is dependent on a stable microtubule cytoskeleton and the presence of the Cdc2-CyclinB complex. We observe a rapid and dynamic exchange of Myo51 at the SPB during meiosis I but not meiosis II. Finally, we show that Myo51 has an important role in regulating spore formation upon completion of meiosis.

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Retrieved Text: A reproductive cell such as a spermatocyte or an oocyte, or a cell that will develop into a reproductive cell.
The nucleus of a primary oocyte , the development of which is suspended in prophase I of the first meiotic division between embryohood and sexual maturity.
A developing female reproductive cell which divides by meiosis into four haploid cells, forming one ovum that goes on to potentially become fertilized by a sperm cell and two to three polar bodies that subsequently degenerate.
An oocyte is an ovum just before ovulation. It has been stimulated to complete the first meiotic division (it was arrested in the end of the first meiotic division at the birth of the person). The other daughter cell, call the first polar body, fragments and disintegrates. An oocyte begins the second meiotic division, and stops at metaphase . The oocyte may be fertilized by a sperm .
A cell that will/is undergo/ing development into a female gamete.
The process of oocyte development, whereby a primordial germ cell eventually becomes a mature ovum .
The release of the oocyte onto the surface of the ovary ; occurs at the midpoint of the ovarian cycle.The release of the ovum (egg) from the ovary after the peaking of luteinizing hormone concentration in the blood during the menstrual cycle .
A small cell which is the product of an uneven division of the cytoplasm during meiosis ; the smaller of the two cells produced during a meiotic division of oogenesis (the larger one becomes an oocyte or ovum ). It eventually degenerates.

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Retrieved Text: An innovative way to teach mitosis and meiosis!
Students make colourful model chromosomes and use them to work through the stages of cell division. The model can be used to teach mitosis and meiosis.
Students cover the stages of mitosis, including chromosome alignment and segregation. They will also learn about the cell cycle as they make two diploid daughter cells.
Students can then carry out the stages of meiosis, including independent assortment and crossing over, whilst creating four haploid daughter cells.
The model can be printed in colour, or in mono on coloured or white paper.
Dimensions: largest chromosome 12cm/5in long.

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Retrieved Text: Animal Cell Mitosis - CELLS alive!
Events during Mitosis. Interphase: Cells may appear inactive during this stage, but they are quite the opposite.This is the longest period of the complete cell cycle during which DNA replicates, the centrioles divide, and proteins are actively produced.
Mitosis: Mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells. Strictly applied, the term is used to describe the duplication and distribution of chromosomes, the structures that carry the genetic information.
Mitosis - When Cells Split Apart Eventually cells need to duplicate. There are two main methods of replication, mitosis and meiosis.This tutorial will talk about mitosis. The big idea to remember is that mitosis is the simple duplication of a cell and all of its parts.
Mitosis Skit Students should write and perform a skit to show the process of mitosis, using the loose guidelines that follow. These guidelines are intended to help get you started, as well as provide room for the development of a skit that suits your class size, available supplies, and students' creativity.
In this cell division exercise, you drag and drop chromosomes to demonstrate your knowledge of the difference between mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis definition is - a process that takes place in the nucleus of a dividing cell, involves typically a series of steps consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, and results in the formation of two new nuclei each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
You'll find out how cells divide, how organisms grow, and

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: Catalytic domain of Male germ cell-Associated Kinase-like Serine/Threonine Kinases. Serine/Threonine Kinases (STKs), Male germ cell-Associated Kinase (MAK)-like subfamily, catalytic (c) domain. STKs catalyze the transfer of the gamma-phosphoryl group from ATP to serine/threonine residues on protein substrates. The MAK-like subfamily is part of a larger superfamily that includes the catalytic domains of other protein STKs, protein tyrosine kinases, RIO kinases, aminoglycoside phosphotransferase, choline kinase, and phosphoinositide 3-kinase. This subfamily is composed of human MAK and MAK-related kinase (MRK), Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ime2p, Schizosaccharomyces pombe Mei4-dependent protein 3 (Mde3) and Pit1, Caenorhabditis elegans dyf-5, Arabidopsis thaliana MHK, and similar proteins. These proteins play important roles during meiosis. MAK is highly expressed in testicular cells specifically in the meiotic phase, but is not essential for spermatogenesis and fertility. It functions as a coactivator of the androgen receptor in prostate cells. MRK, also called Intestinal Cell Kinase (ICK), is expressed ubiquitously, with highest expression in the ovary and uterus. A missense mutation in MRK causes endocrine-cerebro-osteodysplasia (ECO), suggesting that this protein plays an important role in the development of many organs. MAK and MRK may be involved in regulating cell cycle and cell fate. Ime2p is a meiosis-specific kinase that is important during meiotic initiation and during the later stages of meiosis. Mde3 functions downstream of the transcription factor Mei-4 which is essential for meiotic prophase I.
This domain occurred 429 times on human genes (997 proteins).

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Retrieved Text: I am a postdoc in Anne Villeneuve's lab in the Department of Developmental Biology working on meiosis and recombination in C.elegans. I am mostly interested in how recombination is regulated to ensure genome stability. I previously conducted a PhD thesis at INRA de Versailles (France) under the direction of Raphaël Mercier on new genes controlling meiotic recombination level in Arabidopsis. I am interested in genetics, epigenetics, evolution but also in popularization of science.
Meiotic crossovers (COs) are critical for the balanced segregation of homologous chromosomes at meiosis I. Crossover recombination events between DNA molecules of homologous chromosomes, together with sister chromatid cohesion, establish a physical connection between homologs (chiasmata), which in turn ensures their correct orientation toward oppotiste poles of the meiosis I spindle.
Crossover (CO) formation at meiosis relies on the formation and repair of numerous double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs). Most species make very few COs per chromosome pair despite a substantial excess of DSBs, and C.elegans stands at one hand of this spectrum with one, and only one, CO formed per chromosome pair. We are using direct genetic screening approaches to elucidate and decipher the mechanisms underlying meiotic CO formation and its regulation.
Our goal is to identify factors that normally function in antagonizing CO formation; as part of our strategy, we are conducting a genetic screen for suppressors of a temperature-sensitive mutation affecting the conserved CO-promoting complex MSH-4/MSH-5. The msh-4(ts) mutant is characterized by a decrease in CO formation at the restrictive temperature of 24°C, associated with a small brood size. We will report on the

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Retrieved Text: Cutaway drawing of a eukaryotic cell. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Bacterial cells differ from animal cells and plant cells in several ways. One fundamental difference is that bacterial cells lack intracellular organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and a nucleus, which are present in both animal cells and plant cells. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a clearly defined nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts (unique to plant cells), a Golgi apparatus, an endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that prepares a cell for the process of cell division. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
meiosis; gameteGametes are formed through meiosis (reduction division). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
…spindle, which is formed by centrioles (cylindrical cell structures). This climax in the events of fertilization creates a joint product known as the zygote, which contains all the factors essential for the development of a new individual.

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Retrieved Text: Unit 5 - Patrick Stephen Jr.
A student can model what complementary base pairs means in a strand of DNA.
A student can identify the difference between a 5' and a 3' deoxyribose sugar and relate these differences to the leading and lagging strands of DNA.
A student can identify the different sections of a chromosome including (centromeres (acrocentric, metacentric, submetacentric), sister chromatids, coding and non coding bands, telomeres).
A student can create an argument as to why genetic variation is important for the survival of a species.
A student can utilize proper vocabulary in distinguishing the types of cells created during mitosis and meiosis.
A student can explain the differences that occur during prophase and anaphase of mitosis and meiosis I.
A student can create an argument on the age and/or health of a plant or animal tissue by analying the cells in specific mitotic stages.
A student can explain how carcinogens impact the cell cycle controllers such as the p53 gene and the BRCA1 gene.

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Retrieved Text: The research and people in the laboratory are supported by the Wellcome Trust, BBSRC and the Darwin Trust.
A new visiting master student, Simona, from University of Pavia (Italy) has joined the lab.
A collaboration grant with Prof Goshima lab in Nagoya University (Japan) has been awarded by UK Research Innovation/BBSRC and JSPS. The panel said "Both applicants are cutting edge researchers in the field of spindle formation. Both have excellent track records."
A new technician, Emiliya, has joined the lab.
Hiro is nominated by an undergraduate student for EUSA teaching award for the Best Overall Teacher Award. "His lectures were very well organised and delivered! He was very approachable and knowledgeable!"
Hiro is invited for a talk by the Edinburgh University Biomedical Society.
A new postdoc, Lucia, has joined the lab.
Fiona, Charlotte, Maria and Hiro visited Ormiston Primary School in East Lothian to show wonders of life under microscopes. Thanks to all kids who shared a fun with us.
Congratulations to Pierre. His paper on a novel microtubule nucleation pathway in oocytes has just been accepted for publication in J. Cell Biol!
Hiro gave an invited talk at Gordon Research Conference on Meiosis in New Hampshire (USA), and also presented a poster too.
Hiro gave an invited talk at the EMBL/EMBO Symposium on Microtubules in Heidelberg. Mariana presented a poster on spindle maturation at the conference.
Pierre was selected for a talk, and Mariana, Charlotte and Fiona presented a poster in the British microtubule meeting in Edinburgh. All were well received.
Hiro gave a talk and Charlotte presented a poster in the biannual symposium of Wellcome

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Earthquakes are primarily the result of plate tectonic motions. What type of stress would cause earthquakes at each of the three types of plate boundaries?.


Q: What phenomenon is primarily the result of plate tectonic motions?

 Choices:

- volcanoes

- earthquake

- tsunamis

- eruption

A:

Target Text: earthquake

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The surface of the Earth is divided into rigid blocks, called tectonic plates that re bounded by narrow regions of high deformation called plate boundaries. Tectonic plates are comprised of both crust (oceanic or continental) and mantle rock and owe their rigidity to the stiffness of mantle rock at low temperatures. Tectonic plates come in various shapes and sizes and are continuously changing shape, either through the addition of new crust and lithosphere at mid-ocean spreading centers, or through the loss of material at subduction zones. Tectonic plate shape can also change due to breaking of the plate or accretion of a piece of an adjacent plate.
Tectonic plates move at rates of a few to tens of centimeters per year. However, just as the shaped of the plates are continuously changing, so to are the motion of the plates - both in terms of speed and direction. The complex shapes of the tectonic plates, the geometric constraints of plates moving on the confined surface of a sphere and changes in the forces acting on the plates all lead to changes in plate motion over time. The motion of tectonic plates are primarily driven by gravitational buoyancy forces associated with sinking of cold material into the mantle at subduction zones and rising of hot material at mid-ocean spreading centers. This motion is resisted by viscous forces on the base of the plates, by the strength of the plate itself, which resists bending into the mantle at subduction zones, and by the frictional and viscous forces acting between

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Retrieved Text: Download "Leaving Cert Geography Revision Notes"
Layers of the Earth s Interior 1 Focus Question How is the Earth like an ogre? 2 Objectives Explain how geologists have learned about the interior of the Earth. Describe the layers of the Earth s interior.
Standards Addressed Lesson 13: Plate Tectonics I Overview Lesson 13 introduces students to geological oceanography by presenting the basic structure of the Earth and the properties of Earth s primary layers.
Section 2 Types of Volcanoes Key Concept Tectonic plate motions can result in volcanic activity at plate boundaries. What You Will Learn Nonexplosive eruptions of basaltic magma occur at divergent boundaries.

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Retrieved Text: Our expertise in tectonic problems extends from using satellite geodesy for understanding large scale plate motions to extracting the tectonic implications of small-scale fold and fracture features. Seismic imaging to depths of 700km in active tectonic provinces and sedimentary basins adds a third dimension to these studies.
Associate Professor, SEOE. Clastic sedimentology, tectonics and sedimentation, basin analysis, thermochronology, sediment provenance, and tectonics of the southern Andes and Antarctica.
Director of the Andean Geophysical Laboratory, at the University of South Carolina, and is Editor-In-Chief of the Journal of South American Earth Sciences. My research interests include geodetic, gravity and tectonic studies of active margins and the Andean orogenic belt where I haveworked for the last 30 years.
Clastic sedimentology, stratigraphy, sediment provenance, basin analysis, tectonics and sedimentation, stable isotopes, paleoelevation, paleoclimate, petroleum geology, reservoir architecture and characterization.
Most of the Earth's surface is hidden underwater, from the deep seafloor to wetland environments. Revealing the patterns and processes in these marine environments is the overarching theme of Scott's research group in marine geology and geophysics.
Associate Professor, SEOE. My research combines geological field work with geochemical studies that focus primarily on the use of trace element and isotope geochemistry to understand igneous processes. I am particularly interested in understanding how the geochemistry of subduction-related magma is controlled by tectonics in different subduction settings.

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Retrieved Text: earthquake mechanisms Natural, artificial, or induced events that cause earthquakes. Natural mechanisms include rock falls and slides, spontaneous rock-bursts, volcanic explosions, and tectonic plate motions. Artificial and induced earthquakes can result from explosions (quarry blasts, pressure release below dam sites, nuclear bombs, etc.) or rock-bursts associated with pressure release due to mining, etc. Generally such stress releases are sudden, resulting in the release of seismic energy, but bradyseisms gradually release stress and thus do not result in an earthquake.
"earthquake mechanisms." A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 23 Apr. 2019 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.

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Retrieved Text: New Zealand is located on the boundary between two of the Earth's great tectonic plates - the Australian and the Pacific. Tectonic plates behave like rigid shells that slide over the surface of a sphere.
Broadly speaking, the Australian plate is heading north while the Pacific plate is heading west. The combination of these motions means that the Pacific plate, which includes much of the South Island, is moving relative to the Australian plate at a rate of about 40 millimetres each year in a southwesterly direction. So Christchurch is moving away from Auckland about 4 metres every century.
NZ Active Deformation - Modelling of crustal movement.
Subduction and fore-arc processes - with a focus on the Hikurangi margin.
Continental collision processes - Using the Southern Alps and the Alpine Fault as examples.
The plate boundary zone in New Zealand – sitting astride the boundary of two major tectonic plates.
Deformation of New Zealand – view velocity models, strain rate maps and a deformation movie.
Measuring deformation – from historical surveys to continuous GPS, including project examples.

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Retrieved Text: This analysis focuses on earthquakes of tectonic origin. It will therefore only be briefly addressed along with the parallel risk of the tsunami. Moreover, it considers a specific policy on risk. Japan has specificities both politically and in terms of planning. These features highlight the challenges of an effective management and prevention. If risk is known, does it mean that it is precisely evaluated? The views are Japanese in the sense of preventing or managing post-traumatic issues. In view of the historical data and technology, can we consider the Japanese policy of risk management as effective?
We need to restore the context of Japan's seismotectonic features that are essential to understanding the concept of hazards of earthquake. The concept of randomness that leads to "risk" is used to study the consequences of these phenomena and to study alongside the strengths and vulnerabilities of a defined territory. Prevention, risk management, technological and political points are difficult to analyze. However, disasters question the effectiveness and the possibility of limiting the effects of natural phenomenon.
Japan is an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean consisting of 6852 islands. Located north of Taiwan and east of the People's Republic of China and Russia, the islands include the four largest being Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, home to 127 million. A densely populated country (337 inhabitants. / Km2), Japan is now a hub of dynamism and attractiveness in the world. Its main economic activity is relegated to coastal areas to urban centers such as Tokyo or Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe. If it is the financial, industrial and

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Retrieved Text: There are eight sets of reconstructions. In each case, the relative plate motion (RPM) model is unchanged; the differences lie in the absolute plate motion (APM) model. This is expressed in the rotation file as the finite poles of rotation that describe motion of Africa relative to the Earth’s spin-axis. These files were the basis of the results presented in the EPSL paper.
Müller, R.D., Royer, J.Y., and Lawver, L.A., 1993, Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks : Geology, v. 21, p. 275-278.
O’Neill, C., Müller, D., and Steinberger, B., 2005, On the uncertainties in hot spot reconstructions and the significance of moving hot spot reference frames : Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst, v. 6, p. Q04003.
Schettino, A., and Scotese, C.R., 2005, Apparent polar wander paths for the major continents (200 Ma to the present day): a palaeomagnetic reference frame for global plate tectonic reconstructions : Geophysical Journal International, v. 163, p. 727-759.
Torsvik, T.H., Müller, R.D., Van der Voo, R., Steinberger, B., and Gaina, C., 2008, Global plate motion frames: toward a unified model : Reviews of Geophysics, v. 46, p. RG3004.
Steinberger, B., Sutherland, R., and O’Connell, R.J., 2004, Prediction of Emperor-Hawaii seamount locations from a revised model of global plate motion and mantle flow : Nature, v. 430, p. 167-173.
van der Meer, D.G., Spakman, W., van Hinsbergen, D.J., Amaru, M.L., and Torsvik, T.H., 2010, Towards absolute plate motions constrained by lower-mantle slab remnants : Nature Geoscience, v3, p36-40.
Torsvik, T.H., Van der Voo, R., Preeden, U., Mac Niocaill, C., Steinberger, B.,

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Retrieved Text: My primary interests are in tectonic processes and geophysical exploration. I am involved in tectonic research at all scales. Drilling into the Alpine fault investigates microscopic to mountain scales. I have worked on a variety of crustal-scale projects using geophysical methods, and on the processes of subduction zone initiation and sedimentary basin formation. I have also worked on the history of global plate motions and how and why they have changed. These various studies have also led to secondary interests in geomorphology, climate change, and natural physical resources.

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Retrieved Text: GSA Bulletin (1976) 87 (7): 969-976.
Magnetic anomalies in the North Atlantic have been analyzed by Pitman and Talwani to determine a sequence of finite difference poles of relative motion of North America with respect to Africa for the time period 180 m.y. B.P. to the present. A similar analysis of South Atlantic magnetic anomalies by the writer determines a sequence of finite difference rotations of South America with respect to Africa for the time period 127 m.y. B.P. to the present. The two sequences of finite difference rotations are used to calculate the relative motion of South America with respect to North America for late Mesozoic and Cenozoic time.
From Triassic to Early Cretaceous time, South America moved to the southeast away from North America. From Early Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous time, South America moved eastward with respect to North America. Southeastward motion of South America occurred again from Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time followed by northward motion from early to late Tertiary. Tectonic styles in the Caribbean region change when major plate motions change; however, the details of Caribbean geology cannot be explained by simple plate margins between North and South America. Tertiary compressional structures on the northern and southern margins of the Caribbean can be attributed to Tertiary closure between North and South America, but earlier tectonic regimes are not so easily related directly to North America—South America motions.

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Retrieved Text: Washington: Through analysis of volcanic tracks, a team of researchers has found that hot spots like those that formed the Hawaiian Islands do not move as quickly as previously thought.
Hot spots are areas where magma pushes up from deep Earth to form volcanoes.
The results from Rice University in Houston, Texas revealed that groups of hot spots around the globe can be used to determine how fast tectonic plates move.
“Averaging the motions of hot-spot groups for individual plates avoids misfits in data due to noise,” said a researcher Richard Gordon.
“The results allowed us to say that these hot-spot groups, relative to other hot-spot groups, are moving at about 4 millimeters or less a year,” he added.
They developed a method to analyse the relative motion of 56 hot spots grouped by tectonic plates.
They concluded that the hot-spot groups move slowly enough to be used as a global reference frame for how plates move relative to the deep mantle.
This confirmed the method is useful for viewing not only current plate motion but also plate motion in the geologic past.
Hot spots offer a window into the depths of Earth, as they mark the tops of mantle plumes that carry hot, buoyant rock from deep Earth to near the surface and produce volcanoes. These mantle plumes were once thought to be straight and stationary, but recent results suggested they can also shift laterally in the convective mantle over geological time.
A volcano forms on a tectonic plate above a mantle plume. As the plate moves, the plume gives birth to a series

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Retrieved Text: for outstanding contributions to geology, in particular to understanding the Earth’s history and the co-evolution of the Earth and the life upon it.
Maruyama, S. & Seno, T. Orogeny and relative plate motions: Example of the Japanese Islands. Tectonophysics 127, 305-329 (1986).
Maruyama, S. Plume tectonics. Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan 100, 24-49 (1994).
Maruyama, S. Pacific-type orogeny revisited: Miyashiro-type orogeny proposed. The Island Arc 6, 91-120 (1997).
Maruyama, S., Isozaki, Y., Kimura, G. & Terabayashi, M. Paleogeographic maps of the Japanese Islands: Plate tectonic synthesis from 750 Ma to the present. Island Arc 6, 121-142 (1997).
Maruyama, S., Santosh, M. & Zhao, D. Superplume, supercontinent, and post-perovskite: Mantle dynamics and anti-plate tectonics on the Core-Mantle Boundary. Gondwana Research 11, 7-37 (2007).

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Retrieved Text: Raise your hands…. who here has (consciously) been through an earthquake. Okay, one that really shook the place – not one that is reported two days later and you say, “oh, yeah”, but one that you know you’re in an earthquake. Things are popping, shaking, and rattling. Okay, so quite a few of you. One moment, everything in the world is fine, the birds are singing, the sky is blue, the ground is solid. The next moment, the very ground that was solid before is shaking and moving violently, taking away all perception of normalcy. For seemingly endless moments, there is no safe haven. Pretty nerve racking isn’t it? No, actually outright terrifying, especially if you are near the epicenter. An earthquake….
What exactly is an earthquake? Since I’m not a geologist, seismologist, don’t have any sort of degree with ologist in it, I will shy away from trying to sound like some sort of ologist. I will, however, do research on the subject and will try to provide you with as much detail in layman’s terms for all of us to understand. Understanding is what helps us prepare, which is what helps us survive. And surviving is just the start after a major earthquake.
To further break it down, earthquakes are generally produced one of two ways: either by tectonic plate / fault stress release or by vibrations caused directly by volcanic activity. For the purpose of this blog, we’ll focus in on earthquakes caused by tectonic plate activity or fault activity.
Up until the 1960’s, scientists had

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Retrieved Text: Using analytical methods to track plate motions through Earth’s history, Cande and Stegman’s research provides evidence that such mantle plume “hot spots,” which can last for tens of millions of years and are active today at locations such as Hawaii, Iceland and the Galapagos, may work as an additional tectonic driver, along with push-pull forces.
Their new results describe a clear connection between the arrival of a powerful mantle plume head around 70 million years ago and the rapid motion of the Indian plate that was pushed as a consequence of overlying the plume’s location. The arrival of the plume also created immense formations of volcanic rock now called the “Deccan flood basalts” in western India, which erupted just prior to the mass extinction of dinosaurs. The Indian continent has since drifted north and collided with Asia, but the original location of the plume’s arrival has remained volcanically active to this day, most recently having formed Réunion island near Madagascar.
The team also recognized that this “plume-push” force acted on other tectonic plates, and pushed on Africa as well but in the opposite direction.
After the force of the plume had waned, the African plate’s motion gradually returned to its previous speed while India slowed down.
“There is a dramatic slow down in the northwards motion of the Indian plate around 50 million years ago that has long been attributed to the initial collision of India with the Eurasian plate,” said Cande, a professor of marine geophysics in the Geosciences Research Division at Scripps.

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Retrieved Text: Chapter 16. Mountain Building. Mountain Building. Mountains and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection?
Download "Chapter 16. Mountain Building. Mountain Building. Mountains and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection?"
Section 10.1 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions This section discusses volcanic eruptions, types of volcanoes, and other volcanic landforms.
Learning Objectives (LO) What we ll learn today:!
GLY 155 Introduction to Physical Geology, W. Altermann. Press & Siever, compressive forces. Compressive forces cause folding and faulting.
Do NOT open the test until instructed to do so.
Chapter 15. Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics. what s the connection? At the boundaries friction causes plates to stick together.
Chapter 15 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics what s the connection? As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe At the boundaries friction causes plates to stick together.
You must take the exam in the lecture section for which you are registered. Any exceptions must be cleared with the instructor in advance.
Use a highlighter to mark the most important parts, or the parts. you want to remember in the background information.
Plates & Boundaries The earth's continents are constantly moving due to the motions of the tectonic plates. As you can see, some of the plates contain continents and others are mostly under the ocean.
NC Earth Science Essential Standards EEn. 2.1 Explain how processes and forces affect the Lithosphere. EEn. 2.1.1 Explain how the rock cycle, plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes impact the Lithosphere.

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Retrieved Text: If you just know about the incredible Alps in Switzerland, you might want to visit another natural wonder you can find in this country, namely Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona. This 32,850 hectares mountainous area is located in the North-Eastern part of Swiss is the illustration of mountain-building; through the continental collision.
Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona area has attracted many scientist and researchers to come from the era of 18th century. Commonly, they were interested to study its rock outcrop which is 25 km in width and 35 km in height. Many visits were then followed the geological study; not only for studying the tectonic arena, but also to enjoy the view. In 2008, UNESCO appointed it as another world heritage in Switzerland.
As said before, Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona is a wonderful place in Switzerland where you can see glarus thrust; the formation of mountain which height is more than 3000 meters. This is a proof of tectonic phenomenon which offers you the breathtaking scenery of Alpine.
If you are now learning about plate tectonic, Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona which becomes UNESCO natural world heritage since 2008, can be the perfect source for you.
To get Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona, you need to enter the canton of Glarus; Graubundedn and St. Gall, the eastern part of Switzerland. Cable car will deliver you to several sites where you can enjoy the natural beauty of Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona.
In order that you will have a pleasant and comfortable journey in Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona, summer can be your time choice to visit

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Retrieved Text: Why did the central Turkish plateau jump a kilometer or more skyward within 10 million years and why are all those volcanoes where none should be?
Orthahisar in Turkey. The entire city rests on a high plateau, which made this Persian city virtually unassailable in ancient times.
Laypeople think there are only two fundamental kinds of plate tectonic movements: the kind where two continental plates collide and the kind where one slips under another. Not so, it seems. The enigmatic uplift of the entire central Turkish plateau, and the volcanoes along the plateau margins, were the result of classic plate collision – and a vast bit of upper mantle and crust breaking off and sinking deep into the bowels of the earth, releasing the upper crust to leap upward. By a lot.
The scientists call the phenomenon “lithospheric drip,” lithosphere referring to the upper mantle and drip referring to drip.
Think of it like a massive drip, and then detachment, of a layer of continental plate, they explain.
Turkey isn’t best known for exploding mountains, but the fact is that it has both active and extinct volcanoes, one of which is none other than the famed Mount Ararat. (Which scholars do not think is the resting place of Noah’s Ark.) Anyway, Ararat last erupted in the year 1840, exactly 19 years after the mountain’s first known ascent. Most of Turkey’s other volcanoes are dormant, or at least have not erupted in millennia. But another mystery is why the volcanoes are where they are, which isn’t necessarily on the borders of continental

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Retrieved Text: Furlong, K.P. & Kamp, P.J.J. (2009). The lithospheric geodynamics of plate boundary transpression in New Zealand: Initiating and emplacing subduction along the Hikurangi margin, and the tectonic evolution of the Alpine Fault system. Tectonophysics, 474(3-4), 449-462.
In contrast to the normal ‘Wilson cycle’ sequence of subduction leading to continental collision and associated mountain building, the evolution of the New Zealand plate boundary in the Neogene reflects the converse—initially a period of continental convergence that is followed by the emplacement of subduction. Plate reconstructions allow us to place limits on the location and timing of the continental convergence and subduction zones and the migration of the transition between the two plate boundary regimes. Relative plate motions and reconstructions since the Early to Mid-Miocene require significant continental convergence in advance of the emplacement of the southward migrating Hikurangi subduction—a sequence of tectonism seen in the present plate boundary geography of Hikurangi subduction beneath North Island and convergence in the Southern Alps along the Alpine Fault. In contrast to a transition from subduction to continental convergence where the leading edge of the upper plate is relatively thin and deformable, the transition from a continental convergent regime, with its associated crustal and lithospheric thickening, to subduction of oceanic lithosphere requires substantial thinning (removal) of upper plate continental lithosphere to make room for the slab. The simple structure of the Wadati–Benioff zone seen in the present-day geometry of the subducting Pacific plate beneath North Island indicates that this lithospheric adjustment occurs quickly. Associated with this rapid lithospheric thinning is the development of

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Retrieved Text: Blog | Bali, an island in the middle of the Ring of Fire ?
Bali, an island in the middle of the Ring of Fire ?
Bali,an island in the middle of the Ring of Fire?
Indonesia is part of the famous Ring of Fire which is a linear alignment of volcanoes surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
How these volcanoes were formed ?
In a simple way, our earth surface is comprised of several tectonic plates, all of them in motion. They are divided in 2 categories: Oceanic and continental. The main difference between them is their thickness which is 6 km for the oceanic crust and 30 km for the continental one.
In the case of Indonesia and Bali, 2 of these plates are concerned: the Indo-Australian oceanic, and the Sonde’s continental plate. As they move closer to each others,it creates a phenomenon called subduction.This happen when one tectonic plate, in this case the Indo-Australian oceanic, sinks under the other one. This is the source of earthquake and land formation.
Is this movement responsible of the latest earthquakes ?
Yes, due to a depression of 6 cm per years , this subduction movement is the source of friction between these 2 plates and the cause of earthquakes.
Sometimes, the oceanic plate may brutally “slides” under the continental plate. The result was a disaster calls “mega-earthquake”. These are the strongest, most dangerous and devastating earthquake you can find on our planet. In some instances, if the hypocenter of the earthquake (The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts) is located in the ocean ,

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Retrieved Text: Students investigate how mountains are formed. Concepts include the composition and structure of the Earth's tectonic plates and tectonic plate boundaries, with an emphasis on plate convergence as it relates to mountain formation. Students learn that geotechnical engineers design technologies to measure movement of tectonic plates and mountain formation, as well as design to alter the mountain environment to create safe and dependable roadways and tunnels.
Engineers create tunnels through mountains for transportation purposes. Before constructing a mountain tunnel, geotechnical engineers bore test holes into the mountain rock to sample and analyze the material that will be bored or drilled into during tunnel construction. To succeed with these big projects, engineers must have a solid understanding of the drilling process, and the composition and features of the mountain of interest—both of which are determined during the mountain's ancient formation.
Explain the connection between tectonic plates and mountain formation.
Describe several types of technologies designed by engineers that are related to mountain formation, including tools and processes for measuring formation, predicting natural hazards, and determining the location of natural resources.
Students should have some familiarity with the existence of tectonic plates, that they move and the various tectonic plate boundaries that exist.
Did you know that we live on gigantic moving rocks? We call these rocks tectonic plates. They are what make mountain formation possible. What happens when the Earth's 14 major tectonic plates and many minor ones are all moving around? They are bound to start bumping into each other! Natural phenomena such as earthquakes, mountain formation, and volcanoes occur at

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Retrieved Text: Southwestern Bulgaria belongs to the southern marginal parts of the central Balkan neotectonic region and borders the northern side of the highly seismic north Aegean region. The recent horizontal and vertical motion of the tectonic structures is controlled primarily by the collision stage, caused by continuing ENE palaeosubduction in the Ionian and Adriatic seas and extensional processes northwards of the North Aegean Trough. The present-day generation of small to moderate seismicity and crustal faulting suggests that the complex tectonic processes in the SW Bulgaria region are active. To monitor and study the tectonic deformation in SW Bulgaria, a global positioning system (GPS) network was established in early 2001. Analysis of GPS data from 1996 to 2004 resulted in a horizontal velocity field representing active surface deformations. Horizontal velocities at 38 GPS sites with respect to stable Eurasia are obtained. A new map of the recent vertical velocities is compiled, based on recomputed data from the repeated precise levelling for the period 1929–1991. We obtained evidence of recent active faulting. Based on the geological and geodetic data the SW Bulgaria is separated into five blocks with homogeneous kinematic behaviour. The average motion of each block varies from 1.3 to 3.4 mm a−1, and the whole region velocity is c. 1.8±0.7 mm a−1 in a direction N154° with respect to stable Eurasia. Geodetic data correlate well with the geological data on neotectonic motions in SW Bulgaria.

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Retrieved Text: Plate tectonics describes the motions of the 15 to 20 large rigid and brittle tectonic plates into which the Earth's outermost layer (called the "lithosphere") is broken. It does a good job at explaining the distribution of most of Earth's earthquakes, mountains and other geological features, and a particularly good job at explaining features on the ocean floor. However, it is challenged to explain the details of the older rocks on the continents, and the occurrence of deformation an earthquakes off of plate boundaries.
In the Pacific Northwest movement of three tectonic plates drive our earthquake hazard. The Pacific Plate is moving to the northwest at a speed of between 7 and 11 centimeters (cm) or ~3-4 inches a year.
The North American plate is moving to the west-southwest at about 2.3 cm (~1 inch) per year driven by the spreading center that created the Atlantic Ocean, the Mid Atlantic Ridge. This may seem like small and slow motion but over geologic time scales these movements add up to hundreds and thousands of kilometers, and can reform parts of the surface of Earth.
The small Juan De Fuca Plate, moving east-northeast at 4 cm (~1.6 inches) per year, was once part of a much larger oceanic plate called the Farallon Plate. The Farallon plate used to include what is now the Cocos Plate off Mexico and Central America and the Juan de Fuca Plate in our region from N. Vancouver Island to Cape Mendicino California and a large tract of sea floor real estate in between. But the central

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Retrieved Text: Plate tectonics is a theory of geology. It explains movement of the Earth's lithosphere which is the earth's crust and the upper part of mantle. The lithosphere is divided into several plate, some of which are very big and can be entire continents.
Dissipation of heat from the mantle is the original source of energy driving plate tectonics. Exactly how this works is still a matter of debate. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on-going research.
The outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers. The lithosphere, above, includes the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere. Although solid, the asthenosphere can flow like a liquid on long time scales. Large convection currents in the asthenosphere transfer heat to the surface, where plumes of less dense magma break apart the plates at the spreading centers. The deeper mantle below the asthenosphere is more rigid again. This is caused by extremely high pressure.
There are two types of tectonic plates; oceanic and continental.
An oceanic plate is a tectonic plate at the bottom of the oceans. It is primarily made of mafic rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than felsic, continental crust, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; and denser. It is also younger than continental crust. When they collide, the oceanic plate moves underneath the continental plate because of its density. As a result, it melts in the mantle and reforms. The oldest oceanic rocks are less than 200 million years

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Retrieved Text: Five major tectonic events effected the structural development of the Biliton Basin. In order from the oldest to most recent: (Atkinson et al, 2004).
Regional metamorphism generated by subduction and evolution of the Meratus arc. Deformation, uplift, erosion and cooling occured in the Paleocene.
Indian plate collides with Eurasian coupled with change in relative plate motions of the Pacific Plate. This gives rise to dextral wrenching of the southern margin of the Sunda craton.
South China Sea rifting and accretion in Northern Kalimantan. The New Guinea margin of the Australian plate collides with several arc complexes.
South China Sea rifting ceases with the collision of continental derived Gondwana fragments (Northern Australia/ Western Papua) against the eastern Sunda Margin.
Northwest Australia collides with the Sunda Craton with development of the Sunda Trench and Indonesian Arc.
reference: Atkinson, C., Renolds, M., Clarke, A., Sampurno, 2004, Why Look In Deepwater When Elephants Prefer The Shallows, The Biliton Basin Revisited, Indonesia Petroleum Association Symposium.
The channel-lobe complex as the dominant depositional system indicates a dynamic fluidized current as the agent of deposition. The presence of relatively parallel layers suggests deposition by turbulent flows. The ability of the current to transport abundant sediment that create a very broad channel-lobe system (up to several kilometers) indicates that this current is high density and possibly high velocity.

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Retrieved Text: What type of plate movement is occurring near Vancouver with respect to the Juan de Fuca plate, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate?
Which Scientist contributed to the Plate Tectonic Theory?
What type of plate tectonic activity occurs where the Eurasian & African Plates meet?
Making an outdoor fountain, want to glue glass stones onto a terracotta plate, this plate is the top of the fountain and will have water in it constantly, need advise on what type glue to use that will hold glass stones, thanks.
What is the punishment for someone who steals a license plate from someone, and gets caught?
What is the length in feet from pitcher mound to plate in high school baseball?
How much total is it to register a car and new plate in the state of FL?

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Retrieved Text: Below is a list of GPlates-compatible data files that can be loaded seamlessly in GPlates. The feature data are available as .gpml (GPlates Markup Language), .dat (PLATES4), .shp (ESRI Shapefile) and .xy (long, lat with header record) formats.
Data by the EarthByte Group are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. When using GPlates and the sample data to make figures for publications, we recommend citing the original data sources as indicated below.
For users of GPlates 1.5, you can find the complete archived Sample Data from this link.
Below is a list of GPlates-compatible present-day rasters and time-dependent raster images that can be loaded seamlessly in GPlates. The raster data are available as a series of jpgs.
The EarthByte Phanerozoic reconstruction, published in Wright et al. 2013.
These static polygons represent the boundaries of present day plates as well as presently preserved palaeo-plate boundaries. The polygons are broken up by age over the ocean floor based on the Müller et. al. (2008) present day agegrid. Plates that have been created or destroyed in the past are not incorporated into this model. The plate polygons are based on the EarthByte 2009 plate model. This dataset is compatible with the EarthByte present day coastline file. The file can be loaded into GPlates, other GIS software (such as ArcGIS, PaleoGIS, Quantum GIS, GRASS GIS, SAGA GIS, etc) as well as technical computing programs such as Matlab. Click here for more information.
These polygons represent continuously closing plates from 140 Ma to the present. Unlike the present day polygons listed above, these polygons

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Retrieved Text: The Ocean Ridges are submarine mountain chain formed by plate tectonics. In other words, it is an underwater longest mountain range in the world. It demarcates the boundary between two plates. It is a divergent zone where Ocean plates are born, spreading apart from the central valley, or axial trough. Here, we are giving the concept of Ocean ridges, how Ocean ridges are formed and the list of Ocean ridges around the world for general awareness.
The Ocean Ridges are submarine mountain chain formed by plate tectonics. In other words, it is an underwater longest mountain range in the world. It demarcates the boundary between two plates. It is a divergent zone where Ocean plates are born, spreading apart from the central valley, or axial trough.
The Ocean Ridge is formed when magma rising between diverging plates of the lithosphere cools and forms a new layer of crust.
The uplifting of the ocean floor occurs when convection currents rise in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust and create magma where two tectonic plates meet at a divergent boundary. This uplifting is accompanied by two processes: Ridge-push and Slab pull.
1. Ridge-push: It is a proposed mechanism for plate motion in plate tectonics. Gravity and heat expelled by the magma expand the lithosphere and asthenosphere at the ridge, pushing them the surrounding ocean floor.
2. Slab pull: It is the portion of the motion of a tectonic plate that can be accounted for by its subduction. This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below the overlying plate

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Retrieved Text: moving needs. Find movers in now!
On average, the Americas move about one inch further away from Europe and Africa per year. The landmasses move away from each other due to a phenomenon called continental drift, where the tectonic plates that continents sit on are in constant motion and can drift toward and away from one another.
As the seafloor grows wider, the continents on opposite sides of the ridge move away from each other. The North American and Eurasian tectonic plates, for example, are separated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The two continents are moving away from each other at the rate of about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year.
How many centimeters do the continents move each year?
How much do the continents move per year? ... Of course, as certain continents move apart from each other, theyalso are moving closer to other continents. share with friends.
So with this in mind, how far do the continents move each year? Once upon a time, all over the seven continents were joined together in one massive super continent called Pangaea. Because of a process known as plate tectonics, this content eventually began to split apart. Landmasses rest on large masses called tectonic plates.
For 40 million years, the plates that made up Pangaea moved apart from each other at a rate of 1 millimetre a year. Then a shift in gear happened, and for the next 10 million years the plates moved at 20 millimetres a year. According to the new model, the continents split completely some 173 million years ago.
Start studying

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Retrieved Text: Tectonic plates are large segments of the Earth’s crust that move slowly. Suppose that one such plate has an average speed of 4.0 cm/year.
(a) What distance does it move in 1.0 s at this speed?
(b) What is its speed in kilometers per million years?
a) We know that the formula for the distance traveled, d, if we are given rate, r, and time, t is given by .
Therefore, the distance traveled by the tectonic plate is about .
b) We need to convert 4.0 cm/year to km/My.
Therefore, the speed of the tectonic plates is 40 km/My.

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Retrieved Text: The numerical modelling of plate subduction requires solving a coupled thermo-mechanical highly-nonlinear transient problem. The mechanical description of the phenomenon results in a multiphase quasi-static Stokes flow, where the inertia terms are neglected. The transient thermal problem is dominated by the advection term. Here, the representation and evolution of the different phases are described using level sets. The phase tracking is carried out transporting the level set along with the material, using a pure advective model. The gradient discontinuities induced by the viscosity jump across the interface are resolved numerically by enriching the solution using a partition of unity method in a eXtended Finite Element Method (X-FEM) context. These numerical tools are used to simulate plate subduction with different parameters and to derive useful correlations between relevant geophysical factors.
CitationZlotnik, S. [et al.]. Numerical modelling of tectonic plates subduction using X-FEM. "Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering", Setembre 2007, vol. 196, núm. 41-44, p. 4283-4293.

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Retrieved Text: This is a 3-D ice-model of the Alps during Last Glacial Maximum.
The Alps are steadily “growing” by about one to two millimeters per year. Likewise, the formerly glaciated subcontinents of North America and Scandinavia are also undergoing constant upward movement. This is due to the fact that at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) about 18,000 years ago the glaciers melted and with this the former heavy pressure on Earth’s surface diminished.
The ice reacted rapidly to climate change at that time whereas Earth’s crust is still responding today to this relatively sudden melting of ice. During the LGM the Alps were also coated with an ice cap that temporarily reached far into the alpine foreland. The extent of glaciation was much smaller here than on the subcontinents of North America and Scandinavia.
This is why it was assumed for a long time that the retreat of the ice cap back then did not play a significant role in the steady uplifting of the Alps today. However, an international team with the participation of the GFZ scientists Dirk Scherler and Taylor Schildgen have now been able to show that the loss of the LGM ice cap still accounts for 90 percent of today’s uplifting of the Alps.
Vertical motions of the Earth’s crust are mainly caused by tectonic deformation due to movements of tectonic plates, and by volcanism, and unloading of water, ice, and sediments. The movement of the crust can be measured by geodetic methods via satellites and ground stations. For old, tectonically stable continents like

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Ganglia A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery. Ganglia can be categorized, for the most part, as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to their primary functions. The most common type of sensory ganglion is a dorsal (posterior) root ganglion. These ganglia are the cell bodies of neurons with axons that are sensory endings in the periphery, such as in the skin, and that extend into the CNS through the dorsal nerve root. The ganglion is an enlargement of the nerve root. Under microscopic inspection, it can be seen to include the cell bodies of the neurons, as well as bundles of fibers that are the posterior nerve root (Figure 13.19). The cells of the dorsal root ganglion are unipolar cells, classifying them by shape. Also, the small round nuclei of satellite cells can be seen surrounding—as if they were orbiting—the neuron cell bodies.


Q: What is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery called?

 Choices:

- gangism

- ganglion

- organism

- crystals

A:

Target Text: ganglion

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Nervous tissue is a highly differentiated tissue composed of nerve cells, nerve fibers, dendrites, and neuroglia. It is composed of neurons, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and neuroglia, also known as glial cells or more commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as providing nutrients to the neuron.
There are several main components of our nervous system, and they are composed of nervous tissue. The word tissue tends to elicit the thought of wiping runny noses. But in terms of our body, tissue is defined as a group of cells with the same general functions forming organs and other body parts. Of the five main types of body tissue, nervous tissue is responsible for receiving, sending, and processing sensory input. In this lesson, learn about the components of nervous tissue and gain a better understanding of how it works for our body.
It is made up of different types of nerve cells, all of which have an axon, the long stem-like part of the cell that sends action potential signals to the next cell. Bundles of axons make up the nerves.
Nervous tissue makes up three major parts of our nervous system: nerves, the spinal cord and the brain. Our nervous system consists of two main parts: the peripheral and central nervous systems. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that extend to all reaches of the body- the periphery. The central nervous system is made up of the spinal cord and brain

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Retrieved Text: A sensory system involved in the inter-related sensations of touch, body position, temperature, and pain, the somatosensory system is a diversified processing complex. It includes many sensory receptors located all over the skin, bones, joints, skeletal muscles, internal organs and the parts of the cardiovascular system.
The somatosensory system is comprised of sensory (efferent) receptors and sensory (afferent) neurons that are distributes in the periphery up to the central nervous system. The sensory receptors are classified into four major types: chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, and mechanoreceptors. When a physical stimulus, for example heat, triggers a sensory neuron (in this case, a thermoreceptor), the neuron creates nerve impulses via a process called transduction. Then sensory nerves carry the information from the receptors to the spinal cord and finally to the brain using spinal tracts. The primary somatosensory area of the brain initially processes the neural information. This is located in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex.
Generally, a pathway of the somatosensory system includes three neurons – primary, secondary and tertiary neurons. The primary neuron's cell body is located in a spinal nerve's dorsal root ganglion. The secondary neuron's cell body is position either in the brainstem or the spinal cord. The ascending axons of the secondary neuron are long enough to decussate or cross to the opposite side in either the brainstem or spinal cord. The axons of the tertiary neurons mostly terminate in the relay center of the brain, the thalamus. Other axons end in either the cerebellum or the reticular activating system, which is important in

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Retrieved Text: A pseudounipolar neuron (pseudo - false, uni - one) is a kind of sensory neuron in the peripheral nervous system. This neuron contains an axon that has split into two branches; one branch runs to the periphery and the other to the spinal cord.
By definition, a pseudounipolar neuron has one axon with two branches: central and peripheral. These axonal branches should not be confused with dendrites. These sensory neurons are an exception to the typical neuron, in that they do not have separate dendrites and an axonal process, but rather one branched process that serves both functions. The axon has a peripheral branch (from the cell body to the periphery: skin, joint and muscle) and a central branch (from the cell body to spinal cord).
The soma (cell body) of each pseudounipolar neuron is located within a dorsal root ganglion. The axon leaves the cell body (and out of the dorsal root ganglion) into the dorsal root, where it splits into two branches. The central branch goes to the posterior (dorsal) horn of the spinal cord, where it forms synapses with other neurons. The peripheral branch travels through the distal dorsal root into the spinal nerve all the way until skin, joint, and muscle.
Pseudounipolar neurons are also found in the sensory ganglia of cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X, all mixed-cranial nerves. The vestibulocochlear nerve, has the bipolar neuron type in both the spiral ganglion as well as Scarpa's ganglion.
These neurons have sensory receptors on skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body. The area

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Retrieved Text: How is nervous system working? It functions by sending electrical impulses across a specialized group of cells called neurons. Learn the whole process here.
The nervous system is a complex network of interconnected excitable cells. These cells, called neurons, are capable of transmitting an electrochemical signal when appropriately stimulated. Normally, a slight negative electrical potential is maintained in the neurons (relative to the outside) and this is momentarily reversed during transmission of nerve impulse.
Activation of neuron cell and generation of a nerve impulse that moves forward from its point of origin is known as action potential. As already mentioned, the inside of a neuron is slightly electrically negative. Moreover, the inside of the neuron is relatively deficient in sodium ions (positively charged) and relatively rich in potassium ions (also positively charged). Normally, the neuron cell membrane is not permeable to these sodium and potassium ions. However, there are specialized channels that open up during action potential and allow for the movement of such ions. When an action potential is initiated, sodium channels open first and this causes entry of sodium into the neuron cell and now the inside of the neuron becomes relatively positive. After this, the potassium channels open up and the potassium from inside of neuron moves out, and the inside of the cell again becomes negative. All the nerve impulses are propagated in the form of this electrical activity caused by an action potential.
Neurons are interconnected with each other at specialized junctions called the synapses. Electrical impulse travelling in a neuron is transferred to

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Retrieved Text: The basic unit of all vertebrate nervous tissue is the neuron.
Neurons are specialised cells that can receive and transmit action potentials ( impulse) .
Neurons have a large cell body and several cell projections called dendrites. Dendrites receive electrochemical signals which creates changes in voltage of the cells. This signal is transmitted from one neuron to another across a synapse.
Several neurons group together to form ganglia. Bundles of axons along which neurons transmit and receive impulses are called nerves.

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Retrieved Text: Although the nervous system is very complex, there are only two main types of cells in nerve tissue. The actual nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits impulses and the structural unit of the nervous system. The other type of cell is neuroglia, or glial, cell. The word "neuroglia" means "nerve glue." These cells are nonconductive and provide a support system for the neurons. They are a special type of "connective tissue" for the nervous system.
Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve impulses. They are highly specialized and amitotic. This means that if a neuron is destroyed, it cannot be replaced because neurons do not go through mitosis. The image below illustrates the structure of a typical neuron.
Each neuron has three basic parts: cell body (soma), one or more dendrites, and a single axon.
In many ways, the cell body is similar to other types of cells. It has a nucleus with at least one nucleolus and contains many of the typical cytoplasmic organelles. It lacks centrioles, however. Because centrioles function in cell division, the fact that neurons lack these organelles is consistent with the amitotic nature of the cell.
Dendrites and axons are cytoplasmic extensions, or processes, that project from the cell body. They are sometimes referred to as fibers. Dendrites are usually, but not always, short and branching, which increases their surface area to receive signals from other neurons. The number of dendrites on a neuron varies. They are called afferent processes because

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Retrieved Text: Like other cells, each neuron has a cell body (or soma) that contains a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components. Neurons also contain unique structures for receiving and sending the electrical signals that make communication between neurons possible ([link]). Dendrites are tree-like structures that extend away from the cell body to receive messages from other neurons at specialized junctions called synapses. Although some neurons do not have any dendrites, most have one or many dendrites.
Neurons contain organelles common to other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria. They also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons.
Neurogenesis At one time, scientists believed that people were born with all the neurons they would ever have. Research performed during the last few decades indicates that neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood. Neurogenesis was first discovered in songbirds that produce new neurons while learning songs. For mammals, new neurons also play an important role in learning: about 1,000 new neurons develop in the hippocampus (a brain structure involved in learning and memory) each day. While most of the new neurons will die, researchers found that an increase in the number of surviving new neurons in the hippocampus correlated with how well rats learned a new task. Interestingly, both exercise and some antidepressant medications also promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Stress has the opposite effect. While neurogenesis is quite limited compared to regeneration in other tissues, research in this area may lead to new treatments for disorders such as Alzheimer’s,

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Retrieved Text: Kennedy’s disease is an inherited motor neuron disease that affects males. It is one of a group of disorders called lower motor neuron disorders. In this video, Hans, a German national, takes us through a typical day of treatment utilizing Beike’s comprehensive stem cell treatment protocols.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1 What are the function of nervous tissue?
Question 2 Define the term neuron?
Question 3 Explain the structure of nerve cell?
They are highly specialised for being stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another.
Brain,spinal cord,nerves are made up of nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue contain unit cell called nerve cell or neurons.
The impulses travel one one neuron to another neuron.
1)It consist of cell body which contain central nucleus and cytoplasm from which long thin hair like part arises called dendrons.
2)The axon is a single,long,cylindrical structure that conduct electrical impulses away from neuron’s cell body.
3)The dendrons further branches into dendrites.
thanks helped a lot ……….

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Retrieved Text: Brain cells communicate with each other through an electrochemical process. Every time you think, learn or communicate, a neuron (brain cell) in your brain sends a nerve impulse down its axon. The axon of one brain cell makes multiple thousands of connections with many thousand other brain cells. The point where one brain cell connects to another is called a synapse.
When the nerve impulse (electro-magnetic bio-chemical message) surges down the axon, it is fired across the synaptic gap via a chemical messenger called a neurotransmitter into the dendrite of the receiving brain cell. The nerve impulse then travels along the axon of this brain cell, across the synaptic gap to another brain cell and so on. When a neuron activates (“fires”) another in this way, it’s like a switch being turned on. Neurons fire like a line of falling dominoes. This activity is the process that creates the intricate pathway of thought, also called memory traces or neural pathways.
Neurons can either “excite” other neurons to make them function. Or they can “inhibit” other neurons so they don’t become active. Therefore, there are different types of neurotransmitters that either excite or inhibit other neurons. Neurotransmitters are found in the food we eat.
That is why it is important to eat the right types of brain foods in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of your mental process.
What happens when brain cells communicate?
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers which transmit the nerve impulse across the synaptic gap.
The synaptic gap is the space between neurons. Nerve impulses are transmitted from one

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Retrieved Text: Based on the primary site of involvement, peripheral neuropathies can be classified as neuronopathies, axonal neuropathies, and myelinopathies. Electrodiagnostic studies can help define this in a clinical setting. Neuronopathies result from damage to the sensory cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia or motor neuron cell bodies in the spinal cord. Their location in the CNS usually results in a degenerative process that produces incomplete recovery. Diseases that specifically affect the motor neuron cell bodies in the CNS are usually not categorized as peripheral neuropathies. Axonal neuropathies occur when damage occurs at the level of the axon. When the axon is disrupted (e.g., by trauma), the axon and distal myelin sheath may degenerate distal to the site of injury (wallerian degeneration). In toxic or metabolic injuries, when the distal axon is injured and myelin degeneration spreads proximally, it is known as "dying back" neuropathy. With the dying back process, the longer nerves tend to be affected earlier and more severely. Myelinopathies (demyelin-ating neuropathies) result from a process affecting primarily the myelin sheath. They can result from acute conditions such as Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathies (CIDPs), and certain hereditary neuropathies.

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Retrieved Text: Sensory afferent division The sensory also known as afferent division of the nervous system contains nerves that come from the viscera internal organs and the somatic areas muscles, tendons, ligaments, ears, eyes and skin. The first function is the gathering of information from the sensory receptors that monitor changes occurring internally and externally of the body. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia clusters of neurons and nerves that connect to one another and to the central nervous system. Many types of neuron possess an , a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts; axons typically extend throughout the body in bundles called nerves.
The trajectory of the ball and its speed will need to be considered. The four primary functions of the nervous system are the sensory, communicative, integrative and motor functions. All cells of the nervous system are made of neurons. Visit the Nobel Prize to play an interactive game that demonstrates the use of this technology and compares it with other types of imaging technologies. This reflex functions to protect us from injury. Nerves are large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but their internal structure was not understood until it became possible

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Retrieved Text: The neuron is the working cell within the brain. The structure of neuron is made up of different components, including the cell body, the dendrites and the axon. The axon is the portion which is most exposed to injury in a shear injury, as the long protrusion can extend substantial distances across differententially moving layers of the brain. A typical structure of the neuron to some degree resembles a dinner fork. The handle of the fork would represent the axon, the tines of the fork are the dendrites, the end of the fork is the synaptic terminal and the area where the tines branch off fork, is the cell body, or soma.
The structure of neuron and a neuron’s job is information transfer, from one end of a given neuron to the other and from one cell to another cell. Information transfer within a cell is called intracellular signaling and information transfer between cells, intercellular signaling. The intracellular signal begins at the soma body part of structure of neurons and runs down the axon, to the terminal end. The intercellular transfer is across the synapse, where the signal jumps from one neuron to another neuron.
The Role of the Axon in Intercellur Signaling.
As part of the structure of neuron, the role that the axon plays in intercellular signaling is roughly equivalent to the wire that connects a switch to an electrical fixture. Like the wires behind your drywall, the axon may run substantial distances, as much as a meter. Like an electrical wire, it is thin. And like

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Retrieved Text: Dana creates her neuron art images by using an extremely delicate technique called patch-clamp electrophysiology combined with calcium imaging. She connects a small glass tube (pipette) to the round part of the neuron (the cell body or soma) and flows fluorescent dye through the tube into the cell, similar to the way gasoline flows into a gas tank. Over 40 minutes, the dye diffuses through all the branches of the neuron.
As the fluorescent dye flows into the cell, it binds with calcium ions that are already inside the neuron. Dana shocks the neuron with a burst of electricity, which causes the calcium to move, and the dye to move with it. Calcium movement correlates with activity in the neuron, so with these experiments, Dana’s goal is to look at how the dye moves through these neurons in an autistic cerebellum vs. a non-autistic cerebellum. By comparing these, she is able to study what is different about the autistic brain. Learn more about Dana’s autism research here.
At the end of the experiment, Dana uses a confocal microscope to collect a three-dimensional image of the neuron. She creates these images by shining lasers on the fluorescent dye. Often, she adds extra background lighting to create additional colors or stripes that show off the texture of the brain slice. It takes about 20 minutes to scan the ~100 micron (0.1 millimeter) length of the neuron in three dimensions. When the microscope is done, she make a few adjustments, et voilà: neuron art!

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Retrieved Text: Which would be present in an animal with a nerve net?
What is the difference between a neuron and a nerve?
They consist of different numbers of cells.
A cluster of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system is referred to as a(n) _____.
A neuron that transmits an impulse to the central nervous system after the neuron is stimulated by the environment is called a(n) _____.
Which of the following is specifically a part or a function of the central nervous system?
Which of the following describes a withdrawal reflex response?
The part of a neuron that carries nerve impulses toward the cell body is called _____.
Schwann cells make up the _____.
Cells that provide metabolic and structural support to the neurons include _____.
Which one of the following statements is NOT true about the resting potential?
The concentration of sodium is much higher inside the cell than outside.
A drug that causes potassium to leak out of a neuron, increasing the positive charge on the outside, would _____.
Threshold depolarization is of great significance in the physiology of neurons because if threshold depolarization is not reached, _____.
An action potential is _____.
The period in which an axon membrane cannot act is called _____.
"Saltatory conduction" means that the membrane potential changes _____.
Action potentials are generated along a neuron because _____.
How are neurons structurally adapted to chemically transmit impulses to neighboring neurons?
Axon terminals contain neurotransmitter substances within synaptic vesicles.
Which one of the following statements about the transmission across a typical chemical synapse is NOT true?
Vesicles containing neurotransmitter molecules diffuse to the receiving cell's plasma membrane.
Acetylcholinesterase is the enzyme

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Retrieved Text: Neuron, also called nerve cell, basic cell of the nervous system in vertebrates and most invertebrates from the level of the cnidarians (e.g., corals, jellyfish) upward. A typical neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus and two or more long fibres. Impulses are carried along one or more of these fibres, called dendrites, to the cell body; in higher nervous systems, only one fibre, the axon, carries the impulse away from the cell body. Bundles of fibres from neurons are held together by connective tissue and form nerves. Some nerves in large vertebrates are several feet long. A sensory neuron transmits impulses from a receptor, such as those in the eye or ear, to a more central location in the nervous system, such as the spinal cord or brain. A motor neuron transmits impulses from a central area of the nervous system to an effector, such as a muscle.

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Retrieved Text: At Argonne National Laboratory, researchers are developing the next generation of computer neural networks. By more rationally modeling neuron activity, it is hoped that the elusive explanation of how epileptic seizures develop can be found.
Older neural networks treated each neuron as a fixed entity that could exist only in one of two states: firing or inactive. The more sophisticated models devised by Hereld [Argonne computer scientist Mark Hereld] and his colleagues treat each neuron as a pathway unto itself; they trace the route of an electrical signal from the fibrous dendrites into the cell body and out through the axon to other neurons. Rather than conceiving of each neuron as a single entity, Hereld’s model treats it as a data chain, where each link represents a different physical site on the cell.
Hereld’s model also offers another advantage over older neural networks. The “neurons” in the network are classified into one of six different groups, depending on their actual neurophysical role. The model also sorts the “wiring” of axons and dendrites that connects the cell bodies of different neurons into 32 separate types, each with different electrical and chemical properties.
The model has already produced findings that call into question some commonly held assumptions about how epileptic seizures arise. According to Hereld, conventional wisdom has long linked the onset of seizures to over-excitation of the brain’s network. However, he said, the Argonne model produces more epileptiform activity when the neurons have a lower excitation strength.

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Retrieved Text: The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. From a philosophical point of view, what makes the brain special in comparison to other organs is that it forms the physical structure that generates the mind. Through much of history, the mind was thought to be separate from the brain. Even for present-day neuroscience, the mechanisms by which human brain activity gives rise to consciousness and thought remain very challenging to understand: despite rapid scientific progress, much about how the human brain works remains a mystery. The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail, but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions has been very difficult to decipher.
The cerebrum, or telencephalon (Grosshirn, cerveau), that fills up most of the skull, is involved in cognition and also controls movement.
The cerebellum, or little brain (Kleinhirn, cervelet), that sits at the back of the head, under the cerebrum, controls coordination and balance.
The brainstem (Hirnstamm, tronc cérébral), that sits beneath the cerebrum in front of the cerebellum, connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate and blood pressure.
The human brain is divided into right and left halves (hemispheres). The left half controls movement on the body’s right side. The right half controls the body’s left side. In most people, the language area is mainly on the left. Preserved brains have a grey color, hence the name grey matter.
The brain’s wrinkled surface is a specialized outer layer of the cerebrum,

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Retrieved Text: is communication network that controls and coordinates the body activities.
Every though, memory, emotion or sensation a person has and every action he or she carries out is reflection of the nervous system.
works unnoticed to regulate a multitude of internal events such as blood pressure, hear rate, and body temperature in order to maintain homeostasis.
*are unique in their ability to transmit electrical signals called nerve impulses at high speeds throughout the entire body in a split second.
is provided by millions of sensory receptors that monitor changes /stimuli/ taking place inside and outside the body.
analyzes, stores, and collated sensory input and makes decisions about what actions should be taken.
which are usually muscles or glands, that results in a response to the stimuli.
transmit motor output from the CNS to muscles and glands.
control involuntary activities such as breathing rate, digestion, by activating glands, smooth muscle, and other organs.
=highly specialized nerve cells which carry electrical impulses to, from, and within the CNS.
only one structure, that usually bifurcates/divides into two structures later on, coming off the cell body.
Things that put our nervous system into action!
=One of the above stimuli will trigger a change in the membrane of a neuron. OR simply stimulation of a neuron.
is more sodium, Na, outside the cell than inside, and there is more potassium, K, inside than outside.
2. Then, the neuron encounters one or more of the 5 stimuli listed above!
3. The neuron is then said to be active and DEPOLARIZED. In this active state, sodium is actively pumped in and potassium is actively pumped out. Actively meaning

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Retrieved Text: Invertebrate animals show varying degrees of complexity in their nervous systems, but it is in the vertebrate animals (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata) that the system reaches its greatest complexity.
All of the fibers of the autonomic nervous system are motor channels, and their impulses arise from the nerve tissue itself, so that the organs they innervate perform more or less involuntarily and do not require stimulation to function.
Three kinds of tissue are found in the nervous system, nerve fibres, nerve cells, and a supporting tissue called neuroglia.
The white consists of medullated fibres belonging to the central nervous system, and these are splanchnic afferent or centripetal, and efferent or centrifugal.
The system of the lateral line or acustico-lateralis component is sometimes regarded merely as a subdivision of the somatic sensory.
The nervous system is an internal communication system, relaying signals with short electrical impulses.
The parasympathetic nervous system normalizes the body by balancing it to the state it was in before the stimulus occurred.
Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells.
The nervous system coordinates rapid responses to external stimuli.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) connects the CNS to other parts of the body, and is composed of nerves (bundles of neurons).
The nervous system is composed of all nerve tissues in the body.
The peripheral nervous system includes all nerves not in the brain or spinal cord and connects all parts of the body to the central nervous system.
In the peripheral nervous system, a chemical neurotransmitter carries the nerve impulses from neuron to neuron across a synapse (space between

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Retrieved Text: The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.
The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell nucleus, and special extensions called axons (pronounced AK-sonz) and dendrites (pronounced DEN-drahytz). Bundles of axons, called nerves, are found throughout the body. Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate, even across long distances.
Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance, motor neurons transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate movement. Sensory neurons detect light, sound, odor, taste, pressure, and heat and send messages about those things to the brain. Other parts of the nervous system control involuntary processes. These include keeping a regular heartbeat, releasing hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and regulating the digestive system.
When a neuron sends a message to another neuron, it sends an electrical signal down the length of its axon. At the end of the axon, the electrical signal changes to a chemical signal. The axon then releases the chemical signal with chemical messengers called neurotransmitters (pronounced noor-oh-TRANS-mit-erz) into the synapse (pronounced SIN-aps)—the space between the end of an axon and the tip of a dendrite from another neuron. The neurotransmitters move the signal through the synapse to the neighboring dendrite, which converts the chemical signal back into an electrical signal. The electrical signal then travels through

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Retrieved Text: This site has been created by the PLHS Biology Department. The notes and diagrams are licensed under a Creative Commons License.
Nervous control in animals, including structure and function of central nervous system (CNS).
Brain structure: cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.
Rapid reflex action and reflex arc: sensory, relay and motor neurons.
Electrical impulses move along neurons.
A synapse occurs between neurons, allowing chemicals to transfer from one neuron to another.
Endocrine glands release hormones into the blood stream.
Target tissues have cells with receptors for hormones, so only some tissues are affected by specific hormones.
Blood glucose regulation to include insulin, glucagon, glycogen, pancreas and liver.
Now that you have a better understanding of the roles different types of cells play in multicellular organisms, the majority of the remainder of this unit is spent learning about the systems multicellular organisms have evolved to overcome the problems which come with being a multicellular organism.
The first multicellular problem which we'll deal with is communication. Multicellular organisms obviously will have groups of specialised cells as tissues and organs which are physically distant from each other but need to communicate with each other. In this topic we'll learn about two ways that animals overcome this: nervous control and hormonal control.
Animals such as ourselves have a system of neurons (nerve cells) which allows for rapid communication and control of the organism. Our nervous system is divided into two inter-connected systems. The Central Nervous System (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System which consists of all other neurons in the body.
The Central Nervous System

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Retrieved Text: A two-way communication is going on within us, whether or not we are aware of it.
Thoughts affect the body and the body affects thoughts. Just thinking about a previous embarrassment will cause blushing again long after the original incident; having worrisome thoughts may make the hands sweat.
On the flip side, physical conditions affect mental functions: being inebriated interferes with better judgment; having a high fever or intense pain can cause delirium.
Our physical embodiment and mental enmindedness are the entwined employers of a biological, neuro-chemical system.
Lightning fast are our unconscious instincts. We blink as a bug flies toward our eye, we flinch when we witness someone getting hurt, and we freeze if we see a snake. The coordination of such reactions are mediated by the nervous system and happen without our conscious decisions. These instincts can be life-saving, for conscious decision making is too slow and too often erroneous.
An electrical impulse begins and ends in a nerve cell, traveling linearly from dendrite to axon terminal (left to right in the illustration below).
Between the axon of this signaling neuron and the dendrite of a receptive neuron nearby, a small distance called a synaptic gap must be bridged. See the enlargement above.
The electrical impulse is confined within the neuron; it cannot jump across the gap to the adjacent receiving nerve cell. Inter-cellular communication must translate between electrical and chemical signals. The sending cell must emit chemical signals, called neurotransmitters, which cross the gap to be received by a neighboring neuron’s dendrite.
In the graphic below, we overlay our trusty ‘Pragmatic

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Retrieved Text: What voltage damages a neuron or a group of neurons?
Neurons are stimulated for research and therapy purposes. How much voltage (current, duration, etc) can a neuron or a group of neurons, in humans, take without being damaged?
It probably mostly depends on how you stimulate them, when we probe the ulnar nerve in practical classes with a stimulator on the skin, then 20V seems about fine. Most students will handle 20V 100 ms pulses, but some will flinch.
If you have a neuron connected directly to an electrode (in a dish), then you will get decent responses from 50-100mV square voltage steps. Individual cells will respond after 10-40 mV (depending on cell type), much more than 150-300 mV will probably be problematic (and not physiological) for single cells.
It sounds like you need to read some early electrophys, start with the squid giant axon, then Neher and Sudhof were the gods for the start of my PhD.
Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged neuroscience neurophysiology electrophysiology or ask your own question.
Why is the resonance frequency of a neuron defined by peak impedance?
How the electrons from electrode play a role in stimulating the neuron?
How much electrical energy is required for intracellular stimulation of a neuron?

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Retrieved Text: Putting a turbo engine into an old car gives it an entirely new life--suddenly it can go further, faster. That same idea is now being applied to neuroscience, with a software wrapper that can be used on existing neuron tracing algorithms to boost their ability to handle not just big, but enormous sets of data. The wrapper, called UltraTracer, is highlighted this month in Nature Methods.
"In trying to uncover the diversity of neuron shapes, scale is a very large and increasingly pressing problem," says Hanchuan Peng, Ph.D., Associate Investigator at the Allen Institute for Brain Science. "We need to be able to compare tens of thousands of neuron shapes in order to really understand what they look like, and to use that information to parse individual cell 'types.'"
Peng and his team designed UltraTracer to work with existing neuron tracing algorithms designed by scientists around the world, turbo-charging them to work faster and with larger datasets. In the paper, they describe applying UltraTracer to ten different base tracers and also to any other base tracers in the BigNeuron initiative (bigneuron.org), developed by different people and that used varying techniques to automatically detect the shapes of neurons in three-dimensional image stacks.
The team was able to demonstrate UltraTracer's unique ability to supercharge existing software. Using the Allen Cell Types Database as a biological reference, the software first learned what neurons "should" look like. UltraTracer then made existing algorithms more efficient to handle bigger data sets, and combined several different algorithms in an organic way that made the most of

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Retrieved Text: A new CRISPR-based technology allows researchers to control the spatial organization of DNA inside the nucleus of a cell.
The nucleus of a cell has something in common with a cardboard box full of kittens: People get so fascinated by the contents that they overlook the container. The nucleus itself is often treated as no more than a featureless membranous bag for holding the vitally dynamic genetic material. Yet in fact it has specialized parts and an internal architecture of its own, and scientists have long speculated that precisely how the DNA positions itself with respect to those parts might matter a great deal.
Now a team of researchers is finding credible evidence that this is true and possibly an important influence on gene expression. Using a new technique based on the genome-editing tool CRISPR, they artificially pinned parts of a cell’s DNA to different regions in the nucleus and observed what happened. The work, published last month in Cell, has begun to yield intriguing insights into how various nuclear neighborhoods may relate to gene expression, as either cause or facilitator.
The 6 feet of DNA intricately bundled within a human cell’s tiny nucleus can look as chaotic as a ball of spaghetti or a tangle of thread. But how that DNA gets situated in three-dimensional space is critical — and not at all random. The degree of packing and folding enables genes to be accessible in the right place at the right time, so that the cell’s machinery can find and decode them, dial their activity up or

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Retrieved Text: "Self Reflected" Artwork by Greg Dunn and Brian Edwards. Video by Will Drinker. Music by David Haldeman.
Self Reflected is your brain perceiving itself. It is perhaps the most fundamental self portrait ever created, a hyperdetailed animated representation of human consciousness designed to mirror the functioning of the viewer’s own mind in the very moment that you are observing the piece. Self Reflected asks the question whether the brain is uniquely tuned to appreciate its own fractal-like anatomy and elegant, wavelike electrical activity as a consequence of those traits underlying its own construction. It is a work of neonaturalism, inspired by the cutting edge of neuroscience and engineering to expand our understanding of the natural world.
Much of Science is understood and taught through a process called reductionism. We take something very complicated and reduce it down to the composition of many small mechanisms, each of which is easily understood. Toward these ends, we understand the neuron very well. However, some things, such as consciousness, are irreducible. We have not been able to find consciousness through a detailed understanding of either one neuron or even the combination of many. However, we have a sense that it comes from the intricate combination of order, randomness, and chaos that is continually happening within our brain when we combine a sufficiently large number of neurons, although we still don't and possibly never will understand it.
In many cases, art is a superior communicator of complex and nuanced ideas. Self Reflected was not created to simplify the brain’s functionality for easier consumption, but

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Retrieved Text: How do neurons transmit signals throughout the body? One part of this transmission process involves what is known as an action potential. An action potential is part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron. During the action potential, part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out.
This process causes a rapid increase in the positive charge of the nerve fiber. When the charge reaches +40 mv, the impulse is propagated down the nerve fiber. This electrical impulse is carried down the nerve through a series of action potentials.
When a neuron is not sending signals, the inside of the neuron has a negative charge relative to the positive charge outside the cell. Electrically charged chemicals known as ions maintain the positive and negative charge balance. Calcium contains two positive charges, sodium and potassium contain one positive charge and chloride contains a negative charge.
When at rest, the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through while preventing or restricting other ions from moving. In this state, sodium and potassium ions cannot easily pass through the membrane. Potassium ions, however, are able to freely cross the membrane. The negative ions inside of the cell are unable to cross the barrier. The cell must activity transport ions in order to maintain its polarized state. This mechanism is known as the sodium ion pump. For every two potassium ions that pass through the membrane, three sodium ions are pumped out.
The resting potential of the

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Retrieved Text: Nerve Cells is a photograph by Science Photo Library which was uploaded on July 24th, 2016.
Nerve cells, illustration. Each nerve cell (neuron) consists of a central cell body, and several long processes called dendrites. These are responsible for receiving signals from other nerve cells. Similar structures, called axons, are used to transmit signals. In this way, information and commands in the form of electrical signals are transmitted around the body through the nervous system. Nerve cells also form connected networks of neural tissue, such as those found in the brain or spinal cord. The central nerve cell body of a neuron can vary in size from 4-100 microns (thousandth of a millimetre) across.
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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 9 Biology exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 6 - Tissues.
All our solutions for Chapter 6 - Tissues are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 9 Biology will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
A group of cells common in origin and structure and perform similar function is called a tissue. Example: blood, xylem.
A multi-cellular organism is made up of many different types of cells. Each cell carries out a specific function. A group of cells that carries out a specific function is called a tissue. Different tissues carry out different functions. This is called division of labour. A tissue gives the highest possible efficiency of function in multi-cellular organisms.
Concept insight: Different tissues carry out different types of functions, hence they show division of labour.
Concept insight: Simple tissues are made up of only one type of cells. Remember the chart for tissues and its types.
Apical meristem is found at the growing tips of stems and roots. It helps in increasing the length of stem and root.
Concept insight: Remember the types of meristem and

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 




Q: Where does most of our food come from?

 Choices:

- angiosperms

- gymnosperms

- lichen

- microbes

A:

Target Text: angiosperms

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Retrieved Text: Check out Bon Appétit Management Company’s series on the business of sustainable agriculture on TriplePundit.com, an innovative new-media company for the sustainable business community.
In our most recent post, “Seriously. Where Does Our Food Come From?” East Coast Fellow Carolina Fojo explores the complexity of the food chain and the challenges we face today in trying to source food responsibly. Read the whole post here.
East Coast Fellow at Duke University!

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Retrieved Text: It is important for children to make a connection to where food comes from beyond the supermarket With many more families living in cities, children have lost sight of where and how our food is grown.
This is a fun game looking at where things come from. Now we are going to look at some foods and see if we know where they come from. (Visual aids would be very useful — pictures or the actual food stuff would be great).
Activity 1 Where does my food come from ?

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Retrieved Text: Visit KFC Melbourne as one of the most popular fast food chains in the world. With more than 600 stores in Australia and New Zealand alone, Kentucky Fried Chicken has been satisfying our food cravings for over 80 years. KFC takes pride in their outstanding customer service, top quality food, and cleanliness.
Come and visit KFC Melbourne Central and pick all your favourites from the mouth-watering signature chicken dish range, whether it’s an original tender, or the spicy zinger variety.
For the latest KFC menu, check out your local KFC store in Melbourne, where nobody does chicken like KFC.

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Retrieved Text: We’d like to map out the food narratives for the families who send their children to our elementary school. What kind of food do they eat or purchase? Where do they go to purchase their food or meals? Where does the food they purchase come from?

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Retrieved Text: Since 2012 Magpie has been making every pie by hand with the freshest in season bounty. One of our missions as crafters of pies is to take the great classics and bring a little something new to each one, an artisanal touch that makes a deservedly classic even better. From our fruit pies, our creams and custards to our warm-your-belly savory pot pies, you will find a pie that puts a smile on your face.
In a world where well-made sweet treats of all sorts have become pretty easy to come by, great pie remains a rarity. Pie-making has become a nearly lost art. To me, there is no other food that celebrates the season— the here-and-now—like pie does, and no other food that makes us feel the way pie does: loved.
Come, sit and enjoy a pie moment. Pie is, for the most part, slow food. We hope you can settle in and take your sweet time enjoying the little things in life, like a slice of pie.
This book serves up Magpie’s seasonal menu for home bakers everywhere: fruity, creamy, and nutty pies; hand pies, pot pies, and quiches; and even pie shakes and pie “fries,” all fine-tuned to exacting standards and with lots of step-by-step instruction for that all-important crust.

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Retrieved Text: Local means different things to different people, but losing local products and local services means the same to everyone.
In Nelson, this week, we have a complaint about the government’s expanded definition of “local”. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is about to define as local any food grown within that particular province or 50 kilometres from the province.
Now, why a federal agency gives a hoot about defining “local” food boundaries is still a mystery – although actions like these often come back and bite us in the most unexpected and uncomfortable places.
The Nelson store says its customers expect the local designation to mean 50 km from where it’s produced and that such an expanded definition will dilute the confidence of their customers.
If it’s simply to let consumers know that it’s LOCAL, put a sign on it. Ashcroft’s Safety Mart does that. I’ve even seen it in Kamloops when they’ve got Ashcroft produce for sale.
But what do we consider local? I think it depends on what it is. If it’s a job, local is where you pay your taxes. If it’s food, it depends on the type. I’m not expecting my bananas to come from BC, but I do expect my tomatoes to. And I expect my onions to come from Ashcroft, along with other vegetables. If it’s a computer or a car, I’d call anything made in Canada “local”.
Local is more about keeping our businesses in business and people employed than the health of an object. Certainly, we like to buy our food from producers we can

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Retrieved Text: As unique as all of us are, each day we all do several things that are the same and which we all have in common. One of those things is the act of eating.
Each day most of us eat, on average 3 meals a day, some drinks and snacks.
But how many of us know where our food really comes from? How many know what is really in the food we eat? Or what effects it has on our body and mind?
How many of us take the time and care to pick local, organic, free-range, cruelty-free or home-made food options?
The truth is that unfortunately too few of us, and it shows. We go about our busy lives, throwing food into our system, when and how convenience strikes, as if we were some garbage system. We have become disconnected from a substance that is the living fuel for our bodies and was meant to sustain us, heal us and protect us from disease.
Today our food is causing us disease and this is showing in our poor states of health, obesity rates and overall happiness rates.
But change is in the air. Each day more and more people are waking up, taking a stand and getting empowered. Each day more and more of us are saying ‘enough‘, to a flawed food system and taking matters into our own hands. We may have allowed it to get to this point, but we have learned from our mistakes and are ready for a new way of living.
Just because junk and processed food

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Retrieved Text: Techweek TV : Where does our food really come from?
What role is traceability playing in the rapidly expanding international food industry?
With a ballooning world population, the volume of food production and distribution continues to increase at rapid pace. This fast expansion brings with it new challenges to food safety, including counterfeit products and untruthful marketing by food companies.

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Retrieved Text: I know very little about international trade, so I’m not sure why the Where Does Australia Import its Food? map upsets me so much. This map is a fascinating insight into where Australia imports food from around the world. Please see Map Republica Dominicana y Haiti full printable level 10 relief vector Adobe Illustrator for more information.
To be fair a lot of Australia’s food is imported from nearby New Zealand. For example most of Australian livestock imports come from New Zealand. However the next four top exporters of livestock to Australia are from distant European countries.
This Esri map of Australian food import shows where different types of food (bought in Australia) originate based on data from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. The map provides a number of map views based on different food groups. The only food group which is sourced (relatively) locally appears to be processed seafood. The rest of Australia’s food appears to be sourced from as far away as possible.
The map doesn’t show how much Australia relies on imported food. Therefore it is impossible to tell from this map how much these food imports contribute to Australia’s total food consumption. I also suspect that the situation isn’t very different in most first world countries.
But never mind, we can all pretend we are saving the planet by buying some seakale beets from our local farmer’s market this weekend. Source.
But independence came at a crippling cost. It had to pay reparations to France, which demanded compensation for former slave owners. The 19th century

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to your food, the declaration of “locally sourced” is everywhere these days. You’ve seen it: local cheese, local produce, local wine. It’s official; local is “in.” The natural food movement of the 1970’s has changed what we expect when we go to the grocery store – sourcing foods from our local producers is now widely under¬stood to be more ecologically sustainable and economically successful as well as a higher quality choice. Thank goodness!
But, what does it mean when local is advertised? This is actually a pretty interesting question because it can mean wildly different things from store to store. It could mean regionally sourced, as in it came from within your neighboring states. It could refer to a small sized farm business, or it could mean multi million dollar farms, which sell within their home state and beyond.
At the Olympia Food Coop, local has been a foundational value from day one. It is the bedrock to every choice we make. This value makes me beam with pride every day. I’m sure you know the feeling because at the Olympia Food Coop our local is Co-op local. It is an inspired, un¬wavering understanding that people matter; that this planet matters; that our food matters. Most of all, it is the knowledge that when you come through the Olympia Food Co-op’s doors, you won’t have to wonder exactly where something local came from, because Co-op local is clear. At the Olympia Food Coop, it means that we work directly with the food producer, building longstanding

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Retrieved Text: On Monday 30th June we had a Topic day and learnt lots about the Geography of rivers, including The Water Cycle. We presented our learning using raps, posters, labelled diagrams, acting and even paper chains!
Extreme Reading - Turtles did a bit of extreme reading on the Trim Trail!
Intercultural Week - Year 5 looked at Asia, specifically Japan. We were taught Japaneses Taiko drumming which was awesome!
Today Mrs Blake led a circle time PDL session about embarrassment. We shared our most embarrassing stories and discussed strategies to cope with our feelings.
Exercise: We will be taking part in lots of different sports including tennis, golf, dance and cricket. We need our PE kits and water bottles in school everyday.
Healthy eating: We took part in a Food Technology session led by a Tesco representative. We looked at fruit and vegetables and discussed the question: Where does our food come from? Everybody agreed that the most exciting part of the lesson was tasting new foods... including papaya!
At the end of the Spring term we created our own Greek Temples in DT dedicated to specific Ancient Greek Gods. Can you identify which?

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Retrieved Text: Why are so many people turning into becoming vegans? A healthier, happier you; A vegan diet is great for your health! … Vegans get all the nutrients that they need to be healthy, such as plant protein, fiber, and minerals, without all the nasty stuff in meat that slows you down and makes you sick, such as cholesterol and saturated animal fat. Now where does animal fat come from ? Animal fats are commonly consumed as part of a western diet in their semi-solid form as either milk, butter, lard, schmaltz, and dripping or more commonly as filler in factory produced meat, pet food and fast-food products. Why do so many choose to become vegan Parental preferences, religious or other beliefs, and health issues are among the most common reasons for choosing to be a vegetarian. Many people choose a vegetarian diet out of concern over animal rights or the environment. And lots of people have more than one reason for choosing vegetarianism.
A Vegan Diet Can Reduce Pain from Arthritis.
Becoming Vegan also protects Animal rights , yes many know accept that , that is a way of life however when it comes to animal cruelty, neglect,abuse that’s another thing. Injecting our dairy animals with hormones to fast growth just to sell faster for the money isn’t and shouldn’t be what animals are placed on earth to purpose. Not to mention those same hormones injected into these animals are the same ones we the consumer shouldn’t be feeding our families for many of reasons but if we

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Retrieved Text: This is the first in a new “Where Are They Now?”series featuring guest posts from former interns, volunteers, staff, and friends of BRIT. This month’s post is from former BRIT intern and herbarium staff, Miranda Madrid.
Hello! I wanted to share my experience in the Mile High City with all of you back home in the great state of Texas. I am currently participating in a year-long service program in Denver, Colorado, while I discern my path as an up-and-coming environmental scientist.
My first couple days in Colorado were spent in the mountains. Amazing views!
My service group, Colorado Vincentian Volunteers, is a nonprofit organization based in Denver dedicated to inviting young people into a process of transformation through companionship with those who are poor and marginalized.
Essentially, the group functions similarly to a domestic Peace Corps, but with a spirituality component. While the program consists of 20 participants, I live with 9 in a home we fondly call COHO. We are quite an interesting bunch—making the best of our small stipends and simple living by going on hikes, having movie days that turn into nights, and sharing community meals. It’s actually a lot of fun navigating a new city and continuing to transition into an “adult” with 9 other friends by your side.
A few of my housemates and I during our fall retreat in October.
Beyond the community life and spirituality component, all participants work at different nonprofits throughout the city, specifically working with those communities that society has placed on the margins. While some head off to clinics, schools,

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Retrieved Text: BRING A COOLER! There will be great cheeses, meat, and charcuterie products for you to take home. Most of the meat products will be sold frozen, so you will be able to get them home and later in the day without worrying about them getting too warm.
Where does the food that the restaurants are serving come from? Farmers will be on hand to sell their raw products, including vegetables, meat, and dairy. Value-added producers — those that take the raw products and create delicacies such as cheese, salsas, sauces, preserves, and charcuterie — will also have stands in our market.

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Retrieved Text: What is the dress code to come to the event?
Fashionable upscale attire required, and no hats permitted.
How many seats are there at Grand Bizarre?
What is the max number of people I can bring for a private group?
We can seat groups of up to 100 people.
We change up our menus every month. Follow us on social for all the sneak peeks!
Where is the Grand Bizarre Supper Club located?
What is the Grand Bizarre Supper Club? How does it work?
If you are a party of 2 or more, you can make a reservation through our website where you will be able to pick a seating time for you and your group at 8:00pm, 8:30pm, 10:00pm, 10:30pm or 11:00pm. You can then purchase your Bizarre Chips which act as our food currency, and use the Bizarre Chips at any of our ‘Food Bars’ featuring world-class chefs.
We require reservations for parties of 2 guests or more and we accept walk-ins on a first come first serve basis.
Does Grand Bizarre accept walk-ins?
Yes, we do accept walk-ins at any time between 8:00 pm - 2:00 am.
Does Grand Bizarre have private dining spaces available?
How do Bizarre Chips work?
Bizarre Chips have replaced the need for cash/debit or credit and have made monetary exchange obsolete.
Chips can be used to purchase food at any of our ‘Food Bars’ located throughout our venue. Bizarre Chips can be purchased at the booth located on the East side of our venue.
What is the minimum age requirement to visit Grand Bizarre Supper Club?
We require all guests to be 19 years of

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Retrieved Text: Click here for fun ideas for your drive!
recognize the hard work that competing teams are doing by giving them the chance to house our traveling trophy from 2019 - 2020.
Will you get involved today?
Does your church or club have a garden? Plant an extra row for the food bank. If you don't have a garden, now is a great time to start one.
List of most needed healthy non-perishable foods.
Host a fun 'get fit' activity (1K/5K, yoga class, etc.) and have people bring healthy food donations to participate. Exercise and eating right go hand in hand!
Throw a healthy recipe-themed party (Veggie Stew Social, Meatless BBQ Bash, Salad Soiree, etc...) and ask everyone to bring in the ingredients to donate. Include your recipe and it may even end up in our client's hands.
Challenge friends and family to come up with a healthy recipe under $10 that will feed a family of 4. Donate recipes and uncooked groceries for meals. Your recipe may even end up in our Food Wise blog!
Hold an event where you build the food pyramid with donations! Calculate the servings from each item and see how many individuals you fed for a day.
Feel free to bring fresh produce donations by as often as you want! Please make sure to specify that your donation is for the Spring Harvest Healthy Food Drive Challenge.

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Retrieved Text: It is officially Sustainable Seafood Week in San Diego!! Hopefully this week marks the greater awakening of a needed era in our relationship with the ocean’s edible populations. 67% of the seafood that America consumes is via restaurants. As chefs we hold the great responsibility to be responsible for the seafood we serve to our guests. How does this pertain to a farmers market report? We do not just find produce at the farmers market: there are cheese makers, cattle ranchers, egg producers, chicken growers and seafood mongers AKA fishmongers. Fishmongers are our great connection to the ocean. Just as global food distribution and our taste for seafood have increased tenfold over the past few decades, fishmongers have become a dying breed, a metaphor for what is left in the ocean and where our conventional collective consciousness lies. Food has become a forefront topic in the 21st century in a way that we have never quite seen in our lifetimes. Farmers markets are increasing in size, awareness and they are contributing to our regular source for food. We have decided we want to know where our food comes from. We want to meet the farmers and shake their hands. We trust them to grow food for our restaurant guests, our friends and families. That same connection to the farmer in the field should translate to the fishermen in the ocean, lakes and rivers. Where does your seafood come from? Who is fishing the seafood that you are putting onto the plate? Do you trust him? When

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Retrieved Text: Health Questions & Answers: ….
Do you really have salt water in your body?
Do you suffer from e-mail apnea?
How and when did the term ‘size zero’ come into use?
How and where to donate human organs?
How are the pearls that come from oysters and some other shellfish made?
How are you teeth like four different tools?
How does a person lose his memory?
How does a stinging nettle sting?
How does hair gel work?
How does one get malaria?
How does the ‘Madras eye’ spread?
If hair is made of dead cells, why are proteins necessary for its proper growth?
Is soap and water good for the skin?
Pizza, Pizza Hot Spicy Pizza! Who invented Pizza?
What are the eating habits for good teeth?
What are the Fear and Myths about Organ Donation?
What constitutes a high-fat food?
What do sugar-free products contain?
What does T in T-shirt stand for?
What is a baker’s dozen and how did the phrase originate?
What is a jungle gym?
What is a kissing ulcer?
What is a nap pod?
What is an elephant pearl?
What is Code Blue, Code Red and Code Black?
What is Munchausen by proxy?
What is Nido or Nest Therapy?
What is the difference between measles and German measles?
What is the full form of SPA?
What is the History of World Hepatitis Day?
What is the Yellow Revolution?
What is toasted skin syndrome?
What is World Heart Federation (WHF)?
What are the activities performed on World Hepatitis Day?
What are the themes for World Hepatitis Day?
What proportion of our diet should come from fat?
Where are you most likely to find trans fats?
Which fat do most of us eat too much of ?
Which human organs can be

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Retrieved Text: GUYS. I LOVE WRITING THIS SERIES. I'm not ashamed to admit that your girl is a naturally curious soul and I looove hearing about the lives of the talented makers, businesswomen and creatives I've come across while writing this blog. Thus my A Day With series was born, AKA a way to legitimise my curious ways... This month I was lucky enough to quiz the owner of my favourite Northampton café and bar, Nicola of The Artist Table. Originally a regular supper that collected together creative souls from across Northamptonshire, Nicola opened the doors of her beautiful eatery in the early summer of 2017. Her food is incredible and I loved getting to know more about her and her love for food... Enjoy!
Where did the idea for The Artist Table come from?
Artist Table name was conceived by bringing my two passions together. I originally trained in fashion and textiles and worked as an artist for many years but have always had a love for food and how it brings people together around a table. After having my son I wanted to simplify my life by bringing the things that I most enjoyed together under one umbrella so to speak. It made sense to me that ‘artist’ and ‘table’ would feature somehow. After a few different variations this is the one that stuck and held resonance and meaning for me.
What does a typical day at The Artist Table look like?
So my day begins usually with the food prep for lunch that day. I like to make everything

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Retrieved Text: The majority of food consumed on Kerry is imported.
communities need, from within our local areas.
so we need to protect our environment.
and a right of all living creatures.
CLIMATE CHANGE, PEAK OIL & ECONOMIC DECLINE.
We are about creating awareness and networks to ensure that local sustainability is at the core of all actions & policies made at local, national & international levels.
Our objective is to accelerate change through inspiring, encouraging, supporting, networking and training our communities as they consider and then implement their vision for the future they want to live in.
Like the rest of Ireland. Kerry, Tralee its other towns villages and communities are dependent on sources outside of the country for most of our food, fuel, energy, a lot of our jobs, and most of our “stuff”.
Transition Kerry believes we need to become a more self-reliant and sustainable community.
The toughest challenges facing Kerry, our communities and humanity itself are Climate Change, Peak Oil, Food Security and Economic decline.
Economic Decline and Climate Change is well documented.
However Peak Oil, Food Security, Environmental & Social decline remains under the radar for most people.
How do we transport ourselves and goods in a future with less energy?
How will we feed our Communities in the future?
How do we adapt to having less energy and where will it come from?
What does economic resilience look like in a community?
How do we work together to ensure our community’s resilience?
How do we ensure the right to quality water?
We all have at least one skill, interest, hobby or possibly a business that would be of use to

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Retrieved Text: “I can’t go on. I will go on.” Those eight words are a quotation from the Irish playwright, Samuel Beckett, a writer who is known for his terse and paradoxical statements. How can you go on, if you can’t go on? The two statements contradict one another. Yet it is in the middle of that contradiction that Beckett invites us to find meaning. Many of us here have been in a situation where we felt we could not go on. In grieving the loss of a loved one in death, in coping with a progressive disease, we can come to the point where our energy is depleted and we feel we need to stop. Consumed by depression because of some failure, rejection, or even the advancing of age may lead us to think we must sit down and quit. We can’t go on.
Yet we do go on. Another day begins and we are in it. Responsibilities arise and we meet them. We go on even though we can’t go on. We end up living in the middle of this contradiction, and living there is not easy. This is why our reading today from 1 Kings is helpful, for it shows us how we can soften the transition from where we can’t go to where we do go. The prophet Elijah has come to the end of his rope. His enemies have driven him into the desert. He believes that his life is over. He says, “It is enough.” I can’t go on. But then the prophet

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Retrieved Text: The discovery of horsemeat in a number of frozen food products at the start of this year caused a public outcry and resulted in a number of major food retailers, such as Tesco, Iceland, Lidl and Aldi withdrawing beef products from their shelves. Both Findus and Nestle were forced to recall frozen ready meals, some of which were found to consist entirely of horsemeat rather than beef. Horsemeat was found in beef burgers and horse DNA in beef meals supplied to schools and hospitals in the UK. It seems that the situation arose from deliberate mislabelling, fraud in other words and it has raised many issues regarding the traceability of the food we eat.
Food traceability does not just mean being able to trace the provenance of your food: where your food comes from originally but also where it has been and what has been done to it on its journey from the farm to your plate through all stages of production, processing and distribution. It is a legal requirement in some parts of the world, such as the European Union. However, complicated methods of food production and an ever growing public demand for exotic foods both mean that food has become increasingly difficult to trace. We want cheap food too which inevitably encourages food producers to cut corners and no doubt led to the horsemeat scandal. Whilst the country of origin and slaughter must be included on labels for fresh and frozen beef, this has not yet been extended to other meats and ingredients in processed

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Retrieved Text: Bier Garten Food and Wet Goods is your local restaurant and bar where you can enjoy a delicious meal complemented by one of our many local craft beer selections, and enjoy a fun atmosphere while you’re at it. We offer a wide selection of craft beers from local breweries – come visit us at the Bier Garten to try a new beer! We also offer a great selection of delicious food items on our menu.
Bier Garten is located in Bay City MI and attracts craft beer lovers from the entire Tri-Cities area. Come see us and taste our selection of Craft Beers today.
Delicious Food and Wet Goods!
When you’re in the mood for good times, delicious food, and great beer, be sure to check out Bier Garten Food and Wet Goods in Bay City, Michigan. We are located in one of the area’s most pleasant settings, and are known for our great staff and fun atmosphere. Since 1996, the Bier Garten has being serving lunch and dinner, and has been known for offering a great selection of craft beer from local breweries. Come visit us at the Bier Garten if you are looking for some great food and a craft beer to complement your meal.
The Bier Garten is also great for big groups and outdoor seating. If you are planning a birthday party get together, anniversary dinner, or any other big group gathering – Bier Garten Food and Wet Goods is the place to gather. Our menu and beer selection is sure to please. Check out our

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Retrieved Text: Most of us have driven through town and noticed a gathering of people on Thursday’s in the Bette Uda Park in the center of the city. Little did I know our Homedale Farmer’s Market offers much more than fresh produce to our community. Not only does this non-profit organization seek to enhance the business success of our region's small farms, chefs, and artisans by providing some of the lowest vending fees in the state, they donate these fees back to the Homedale School District to support the art programs. That is something no other market does in the state of Idaho.
where you can purchase plants.
There will also be fun events for the kids!
'Cultivate' is a children’s nutrition program: This is free to children 3-12 years of age. Classes are every Thursday from 6/1/2017 – 8/18/2017 from 6-7 pm. The children learn how to choose healthy foods. They have cooking classes, tasting classes as well as learn about our ecosystem and what we need to do to save and maintain it.
Summer meals program: From 5-6 pm every Thursday meals are served to kids 1-18 years of age for free at the market. The event runs from 6/8/2017 thru 8/18/2017.
Youth Vendor Days: 2nd Thursday of every month the youth can come and sell their produce and home made items. There is no vendor fee, but they do pay 5% of their sales at the end of each market.
EBT: We accept Food stamps at our market. See our information booth for details.
Double Up Food Bucks: For food stamp recipients

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Retrieved Text: Our reactions to trying a variety of different chocolates we had in Mexico, as well as letting others try my $1700 chocolates.
Why Do Peppers Taste Hot and Mint Taste Cold?
Why Does Toothpaste Make Things Like Orange Juice Taste So Awful?
Is it Actually Possible to Make Black Water? What Does it Taste Like?
Can You Make Oobleck From Chocolate? Edible Oobleck Experiment!
Why Did We Evolve to Taste Sour Flavors?
Why Does Spicy Food Taste Hot?
Where Does Your Music Taste Come From?

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Retrieved Text: What’s your name (and affiliation)?
What brings you to this gathering?
What does “nourish” mean to you?
What was something in the film that was new to you? What surprised you?
What content in the film affected you the most, and why?
What are some questions you have about the story of your food?
What food traditions are represented in your family? How are they celebrated?
Recall an especially memorable meal. Who made it? What was the occasion? What made it special?
What is your first memory of eating fresh, seasonal produce?
What new whole foods (fruit, vegetables, grains) have you discovered in the past two years? How did you discover them?
How has your relationship to food changed over your lifetime?
How does the modern Western diet differ from more traditional cultures’ diets? What are the health and environmental consequences of the Western diet?
What do you think is the root cause of our society’s largely unhealthy relationship to food?
What does “food culture” mean to you? What words would you use to describe our nation’s food culture?
How can we create a healthier food culture?
What food issues are you most passionate about?
Pick a recent meal or food choice that connected you to the global food system? How much do you know about where the food came from and how it got to you?
What does “interdependent” mean to you? Who are some of the people we rely on for our daily food?
Have you ever visited a farm or ranch that produces food you eat? What might be the closest one?

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Retrieved Text: Back in your SPUD bin! We’ll come right to your door to pick it up. Next we’ll bring it back to SPUD HQ where we’ll clean them for future use.
The containers are made from a renewable resource: plants!
The lids are 100% recyclable in your blue bin.
Containers: your municipal green bin, or other commercial composting facilities where they exist.
Lids: your municipal blue recycling bin.
It’s made from paper! We try to put most produce loose in the Meal Kit bag to reduce on packaging, but sometimes things need to be kept together. These bags do the trick with minimal impact on the environment.
If it is pristine, your paper recycling bin is the best place to put it. If it is food-soiled, your compost bin.
It’s compostable, from a renewable resource, and is crystal clear so you can see what’s in the package before using it.
Our spice packs are made from a new material called NatureFlex, which is constructed mainly of cellulose harvested from wood pulp from FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) managed forests.
Pull off the sticker and put it in the garbage. Put the spice packet itself in your backyard composter or in your municipal green bin, whichever you prefer.
They’re reusable! Eliminates packaging waste since they are put back into the system after you are done with them.
Keeps everything at the perfect temperature to ensure your fresh meats, veggie proteins, and dairy products are kept at the optimal temperature.
Back in your SPUD bin: we’ll come right to your door to pick them up. Next we’ll bring them back and meticulously

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Retrieved Text: The Mouth and The Stomach – is part two and three of my 5 part series on digestion. Fear comes from uncertainty; we can eliminate the fear within us when we know ourselves better.” Bruce Lee This quote sums up why I’m so adamant about learning and acquiring knowledge, and why I want to share what I’ve learned. The word doctor comes from the Latin word docēre, which means, to teach.
I hope you enjoy my take on THE MOUTH and THE STOMACH. Issues of the digestive tract are my specialty. If you are experiencing an issue with that area of your body or you know someone who does, I can help.www.digestioncoach.com or www.advancedhealing.com for more information.
The only point during the digestive process that is primarily under our voluntary control is when we are putting food into our mouth, chewing, or swallowing. Other than this brief period, where we can control our digestive fate, it’s all automatic.
We all have the option to chew are food well or simply gulp in down in just two or three chews. The latter does not bode well for achieving efficient and complete digestion, nor does it give us a leg-up on fighting potential bacterial or viral infection.
Proper chewing reduces the particle size of the food were eating into a smaller, more liquid state. This step makes it much easier and safer for the food to travel down the esophagus into the stomach. Proper chewing also allows the food to come into greater contact with saliva, which is of vital importance and

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Retrieved Text: ​Not all of us are lucky enough to have access to outdoors areas where we can grow our own food. But almost everyone can still grow at least some food inside their home. Growing food indoors, however, does come with some unique challenges. One of the things we need to consider when growing food indoors is pollination.

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Retrieved Text: Last month, we got kids thinking about where their trash ends up with Trash Talk and Loop Scoops. But let’s start at the beginning. Where does our food come from? How many places does the slice of cheese on our burger see before it ends up on our plate?
The journey starts here at “Sunset Farm”. But why are we starting on a corn field if we’re trying to get to a slice of cheese?
To feed the cows! Unfortunately, most cows in the US are fed corn rather than the tasty grass that their stomachs were built to digest. The cow’s milk then has to be transported to the cheese factory. That’s two big truck rides so far for one slice of cheese!
The cheese then gets stored in a large warehouse with other grocery goods.
A truck picks up the cheese from the warehouse and takes it to the grocery store where it’s stocked on shelves and finally awaits your purchase.
Your cheeseburger can now be assembled and enjoyed! And now what? What about the packaging your cheese slice came wrapped up in? What about all your other food scraps? Where do they end up?
Most of the time, they end up in a landfill.
Now, here’s the challenge: After students have pieced together the journey of their cheese (there are twenty cards or steps for the cheese alone!) they have to figure out how to remove pieces of the production-distribution-consumption-waste system to make the whole thing more sustainable. How can we get this slice of cheese to travel less? This

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Under what conditions then, do gases behave least ideally? When a gas is put under high pressure, its molecules are forced closer together as the empty space between the particles is diminished. A decrease in the empty space means that the assumption that the volume of the particles themselves is negligible is less valid. When a gas is cooled, the decrease in kinetic energy of the particles causes them to slow down. If the particles are moving at slower speeds, the attractive forces between them are more prominent. Another way to view it is that continued cooling the gas will eventually turn it into a liquid and a liquid is certainly not an ideal gas anymore (see liquid nitrogen in the Figure below ). In summary, a real gas deviates most from an ideal gas at low temperatures and high pressures. Gases are most ideal at high temperature and low pressure.


Q: Gases are most ideal at high temperature and what pressure?

 Choices:

- absolute

- high

- low

- stable

A:

Target Text: low

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Difference Between Standard Conditions and Standard State?
Standard conditions or STP and standard state both are used in scientific calculations, but they don't always mean the same thing.
Both STP and standard state conditions are commonly used for scientific calculations.
STP stands for Standard Temperature and Pressure. It is defined to be 273 K (0° Celsius) and 1 atm pressure (or 105 Pa).
The definition of standard state conditions specifies 1 atm of pressure, that liquids and gases be pure, and that solutions be at 1 M concentration. Temperature is not specified, although most tables compile data at 25°C (298 K).
STP is used for calculations involving gases that approximate ideal gases.
Standard conditions are used for any thermodynamic calculation.
Values cited for STP and standard conditions are based on ideal conditions, so they may deviate slightly from experimental values.
STP is short for Standard Temperature and Pressure, which is defined to be 273 K (0° Celsius) and 1 atm pressure (or 105 Pa). STP describes Standard Conditions. STP is often used for measuring gas density and volume using the Ideal Gas Law. Here, 1 mole of ideal gas occupies 22.4 L. Note: An older definition used atmospheres for pressure, while modern calculations are for pascals.
The standard state temperature is 25°C (298 K). Note that temperature is not specified for standard state conditions, but most tables are compiled for this temperature.
All liquids and gases are pure.
All solutions are at 1M concentration.
Standard state calculations may be performed at another temperature, most commonly 273 K (0° Celsius), so standard state calculations may be

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Retrieved Text: The Joule–­Thomson effect describes the increase or decrease in the temperature of a real gas (as differentiated from an ideal gas) or a liquid when allowed to expand freely through a valve or other throttling device while kept insulated so that no heat is transferred to or from the fluid, and no external mechanical work is extracted from the fluid.    The Joule–Thomson effect is an isenthalpic process, meaning that the enthalpy of the fluid is constant (i.e., does not change) during the process.
It is named for James Prescott Joule and William Thomson (1st Baron Kelvin) who established the effect in 1852, following earlier work by Joule. The Joule–Thomson effect is sometimes referred to as the Joule–Kelvin effect. Engineers often refer to it as simply the J–T effect. There is no temperature change when an ideal gas is allowed to expand through an insulated throttling device. In other words, the J–T effect does not apply for ideal gases.
Isentropic expansion (meaning an expansion at constant entropy) — in which a gas does positive work in the process of expansion — always causes a decrease in the gas temperature. For example, when gas is expanded through an expansion turbine (also known as a turboexpander), the temperature of the gas always decreases.
However, when a real gas (as differentiated from an ideal gas) expands through a throttling device, the temperature may either decrease or increase, depending on the initial temperature and pressure. For any given pressure, real gases have a Joule–Thomson inversion temperature  above which the J–T

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Retrieved Text: Determination of the mass of a sample and expressing its value in units, fractions, and multiples of the mass of the prototype of the international kilogram.
The transfer of heat or mass by large-scale fluid movements. When the process occurs, due to density and temperature differences, it is termed natural convection. When the process occurs due to external devices (such as fans), it is termed forced convection.
The volume occupied by one molecular mass in grams (g mole) under specific conditions. For an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure it is 0.0224 m3/g mole.
The amount of substance. Mass that is numerically equal to the molecular mass. It is most frequently expressed as the gram molecular mass (g mole) but may also be expressed in other mass units, such as the kg mole. At the same pressure and temperature the volume of one mole is the same for all ideal gases. It is practical to assume that petroleum gases are ideal gases.
The mass of a liquid at a given temperature compared with the mass of an equal volume of fresh water at the same temperature or at a different given temperature.
The mass of a vapor compared with the mass of an equal volume of air, both at standard conditions of temperature and pressure.
A vapor sample of known composition and concentration used to calibrate gas detection equipment.
The process whereby a volume of liquid is converted into a multiplicity of small drops. The principal goal is to produce a high surface area to mass ratio so that the liquid will

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Retrieved Text: State of Matter Compressible? Fixed Shape?
particles like to stick together, and that temperature affects the speed of these particles.
According to these principles explain why heating a solid may cause it to melt.
would the new volume of the balloon be if it were moved to a pressure of 155 kPa at 51C?
atm and a temperature of 21C?
51 kPa at a temperature of 273 K?
He leak out of the same balloon under identical conditions?
filled with N2 or O2?  Explain.
why real gases will behave like ideal gases at high temperatures.
separated into hydrogen and oxygen, what will be the pressure in the tank if the temperature is 20.0øC?

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Retrieved Text: In physics, the Joule-Thomson effect, or Joule-Kelvin effect, is a process in which the temperature of an ideal gas does not change, but the temperature of a real gas is either decreased or increased by letting the gas expand freely at constant enthalpy (which means that no heat is transferred to or from the gas, and no external work is extracted).
It's named for James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin who established the effect in 1852 following earlier work by Joule on Joule expansion in which a gas expands at constant internal energy.
The relationship between temperature, pressure and volume of a gas is simply described by the various gas laws. When volume is increased in an irreversible process, the gas laws do not uniquely determine what happens to the pressure and temperature of the gas. Isentropic expansion, in which the gas does positive work in the process of expansion, always causes a decrease in temperature.
However, when a real gas (as differentiated from an ideal gas) expands freely at constant enthalpy, the temperature may either decrease or increase, depending on the initial temperature and pressure. For any given pressure, a real gas has a Joule-Thomson (Kelvin) inversion temperature, above which expansion at constant enthalpy causes the temperature to rise, and below which expansion at constant enthalpy causes cooling. For most gases at atmospheric pressure, the inversion temperature is fairly high (above room temperature), and so most gases at those temperature and pressure conditions are cooled by isenthalpic expansion.
The value of μJT is typically expressed in

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Retrieved Text: l List five common properties of all gases.
l Apply the kinetic molecular theory of gases to explain their common properties.
l Apply Grahams Law to the relationship between the average velocity of a gas and its molar mass.
l Convert among the various units used to describe pressure.
l Describe the basis for Boyle’s law from kinetic theory.
l Calculate the effect of a change of temperature on the pressure of a gas by application of Gay Lussac’s law.
l Apply the combined gas law.
l Describe the effect on the volume of a gas by adding a specified amount of gas.
l Use the Ideal Gas Law to calculate an unknown property of a sample of gas (P, V, T, or n) when the other properties are known.
l Carry out gas law calculations for a mixture of gases.
l Gases consist of small molecules that are in constant random motion.
l The volumes of all molecules of a gas are small compared to the space between molecules (A gas is mostly empty space).
l Collisions between molecules and with their container are perfectly elastic.
l Ave. K.E. of the molecules is proportional to absolute T.
• Ave K.E. encompasses molecules that have varying speeds.
• The rates of diffusion (mixing) of two gases under identical conditions is inversely proportional to the square root of their molar masses.
• lighter molecules diffuse faster.
• Made by inverting a glass tube containing mercury into a dish containing mercury.
l Void space is nearly a vacuum, only small amount of mercury vapor present.
• The volume of a fixed quantity of gas maintained at constant

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Retrieved Text: A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Avogadro law strictly, is called an ideal gas. Real gases follow these laws only under certain specific condition. When forces of interaction are practically negligible.
The above laws can be combined together in a single equation which is known as ideal gas equation.
R is called gas constant. It is same for all gases. Therefore, it is also called universal gas constant.
R = 2 cal K-1 mol-1.
This equation is also known as combined gas law.
It states that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases i.e., the pressures which these gases would exert if they were enclosed separately in the same volume and under the same conditions of temperature. In a mixture of gases, the pressure exerted by the individual gas is called partial pressure.
where ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases and p1, p2, p3 etc. are partial pressures of gases.
Gases are generally collected over water and therefore are moist. Pressure of dry gas can be calculated by subtracting vapour pressure of water from the total pressure of the moist gas which contains water vapours also. Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour is called aqueous tension.
Suppose at the temperature T, three gases, enclosed in the volume V, exert partial pressure p1, p2 and p3 respectively.
x1 is called mole fraction of first gas.
where pi and xi are partial pressure and mole fraction of ith gas respectively.

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Retrieved Text: Gases respond more dramatically to temperature and pressure than do the other three basic types of matter (liquids, solids and plasma). For gases, temperature and pressure are closely related to volume, and this allows us to predict their behavior under certain conditions. These predictions can explain mundane occurrences, such as the fact that an open can of soda will soon lose its fizz, but they also apply to more dramatic, life-and-death situations.
Ordinary air pressure at sea level is equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch, a quantity referred to as an atmosphere (atm). Because a pound is a unit of force and a kilogram a unit of mass, the metric equivalent is more complex in derivation. A newton (N), or 0.2248 pounds, is the metric unit of force, and a pascal (Pa)—1 newton per square meter—the unit of pressure. Hence, an atmosphere, expressed in metric terms, is 1.013 × 105 Pa.
Regardless of the units you use, however, gases respond to changes in pressure and temperature in a remarkably different way than do solids or liquids. Using a small water sample, say, 0.2642 gal (1 l), an increase in pressure from 1-2 atm will decrease the volume of the water by less than 0.01%. A temperature increase from 32° to 212°F (0 to 100°C) will increase its volume by only 2% The response of a solid to these changes is even less dramatic; however, the reaction of air (a combination of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases) to changes in pressure and temperature is radically different.
Solids possess a

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Retrieved Text: What is the pressure in pascals if a force of 3.44 ×104 MN is pressed against an area of 1.09 km2?
What is the final temperature of a gas whose initial conditions are 667 mL, 822 torr, and 67°C, and whose final volume and pressure are 1.334 L and 2.98 atm, respectively? Assume the amount remains constant.
What is the final pressure of a gas whose initial conditions are 1.407 L, 2.06 atm, and −67°C, and whose final volume and temperature are 608 mL and 449 K, respectively? Assume the amount remains constant.
A sample of 6.022 ×1023 particles of gas has a volume of 22.4 L at 0°C and a pressure of 1.000 atm. Although it may seem silly to contemplate, what volume would one particle of gas occupy?
a) initial volume before ascent?
b) final volume if it descends to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, where the surrounding temperature is 1.4°C and the pressure is 1,060 atm?
17. HNO3 reacts with iron metal according to Fe(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Fe(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) In a reaction vessel, 23.8 g of Fe are reacted but only 446 mL of H2 are collected over water at 25°C and a pressure of 733 torr. What is the percent yield of the reaction?
18. NaHCO3 is decomposed by heat according to 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g) If you start with 100.0 g of NaHCO3 and collect 10.06 L of CO2 over water at 20°C and 0.977 atm, what is the percent yield of the decomposition reaction?
20. Under what conditions do gases deviate most

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Retrieved Text: So what do you think of when you hear an “ideal gas”? R22, R12 maybe… Natural? Take a look at the F-18 above… It is breaking the sound barrier and that cloud is a shockwave… This has nothing to do with this article but I think it’s pretty darn cool!
The ideal gas law is really a combination of several different laws into one.
Once the gas gets to the “supercritical” state all bets are off once again. So like most good kids, even the most ideal gasses have their limits where if pushed they become little molecular rebels.
Most of the laws we refer to in air conditioning and refrigeration are pretty obvious and practical and Dalton’s law of partial pressures is no exception. John Dalton simply observed that the pressure of air was equal to the added pressures of each gas that make up air. This means that the pressure and density of air can vary based on the exact makeup of the gases contained in the air.
In a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
This simply means that if you take two gases and you place them together in a contained space, you simply add the pressures together to get the total pressure. The only case when this does not apply is when the gasses “react” with one another to create new molecular structures.
In practical terms, this is why nitrogen or air in a refrigerant circuit increases the pressures. The pressure of

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Retrieved Text: A wide range of Trace Moisture Analysers for Medical Oxygen, Corrosive Gas and Low Temperature Applications from Meeco Inc.
MEECO, USA - Trace Moisture Analysers. Since 1948, MEECO has produced durable, high-quality moisture analysers for industry. Chief among our customers are semiconductor manufacturers and their suppliers, as well as natural and industrial gas producers and their distributors, utilities, and chemical and petrochemical companies and the makers and users of ultra-high-purity gas.
Advanced trace moisture analysis can also be found on the Tiger Optics product page.
AquaVolt&trade; provides precise, on-line moisture monitoring for industrial gases in production and at various stages of product purification. It’s also well suited for trailer and cylinder filling monitoring, as well as for shielding gases used in welding.
With a lower detection limit of 35ppb, AquaVolt+&trade; provides precise, on-line moisture monitoring for ultra-high-purity applications, such as semiconductor manufacturing, specialty gas applications, mobile cart applications, and research and industrial labs.
With a Meeco patented sensor and 1ppb detection capability, Tracer2&trade; addresses the need for accurate, reliable process controls, and moisture sampling at ppb levels. It is ideally suited for ultra-high- purity moisture detection in semiconductor manufacturing processes, inert and specialty gases, component and system testing, and laboratory research applications.
A microprocessor- based moisture transmitter with a built-in dual-stage pressure regulator and an operating pressure range of 50-3000 psig. It’s ideally suited for most industrial, natural, and process gas streams.
A microprocessor -based low pressure (5-100 psig) moisture transmitter. Whether checking moisture in bulk gas trailers prior to filling or measuring a sample stream after the process pressure reduction, the Accupoint

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Retrieved Text: Ideal Gas Law Definition. The ideal gases obey the ideal gas law perfectly. This law states that: the volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to the number on moles of gas, directly proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the pressure. i.e. pV = nRT. how to change a rooster into a capon The equipment uses normal, clean, dry air, as it behaves as an ideal gas over the range of pressures used in this equipment. A digital indicator measures the change in height of the trapped air column.
Boyle’s law PV=K Or V 1 P (at a constant temperature) Definition of terms used P = pressure V = volume K = constant Units None. Explanation Boyle’s law (Robert Boyle, 1662) describes one of the characteristics of an ideal gas. It states that if the temperature of the gas is held constant, then pressure and volume are inversely proportional. An ideal gas is a theoretical gas that obeys the how to change direct speech into indirect speech The ideal gas law states the PV=nRT, where P=pressure, V=volume, n=number of moles of gas, R=the gas constant, and T=temperature. Most gasses act very closely to prediction.

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Retrieved Text: What is a Pressure Sensor?
A pressure sensor is a device or instrument which is able to measure the pressure in gases or liquids. A pressure sensor consists of a pressure sensitive element which can determine the pressure being applied and components to convert the information into an output signal. A pressure sensor will generate a signal based on the measurement of the pressure applied.
There are different types of pressure sensors. Pressure transducers – also called Pressure Transmitters and Pressure Switches.
Pressure Switches – A pressure switch will not indicate actual pressure; they are designed to make or break a contact when the desired pressure range is reached. Pressure switches are well known for their quick response times. They are dependable and offer long working life. Pressure switches are often small in size and they are lower cost than other pressure sensing devices.
Pressure transducers – Pressure Transducers give feedback on the actual system pressure through an analogue or digital output. Pressure Transducers are generally more expensive than pressure switches but are more robust and stronger. Pressure transducers are able to withstand harsh environment conditions and are resistant to water and dirt. Pressure transducers are suitable for more industrial applications and vehicle applications offering excellent accuracy and high strength.
What are Pressure Sensors Used for?
Pressure sensors are part of our product range and are one of our more popular categories. At Variohm we can offer pressure switches,pressure transducers and combined pressure and temperature transducers.
We have our own range of pressure transducers – the EPT range. Most of this range has

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Retrieved Text: Most matter we encounter is in the form of ____.
Seawater is an example of a ____ solution.
Homogenous mixture of two or more substances.
The majority component of a solution is the ____, and the minority component is the ____.
What is the solvent and solute in seawater?
Substances tend to combine into uniform mixtures rather than separating into pure substances, unless ________________.
unless it is highly unfavorable energetically.
Why does fluid flow out of body cells and into seawater when it flows through the intestines?
The body cells have less dilute fluid than seawater, and tend toward mixing with it.
What is the solvent and solute in club soda?
Brass (copper/zinc) and other alloys are examples of what?
Per 100g H2O, at 25C, what is the solubility of NaCl?
Is grease soluble in water?
Chemical systems tend toward ____ potential energy.
Why do protons and electrons move toward each other?
If 2 ideal gases that normally would not interact with each other are placed in a split container that then has the barrier removed, they will mix.
Why will ideal gases mix if placed in a split container that then has the barrier removed?
In what 3 places do intermolecular forces occur during solution formation?
What is the first step in solution formation?
What is the second step in solution formation?
What is the third step in solution formation?
Delta H[hydration] is typically _____ for ionic compounds.
In ionic compounds, delta H[solute] = _________.
What are the three possible absolute values of delta H in ionic aqueous solutions?
Describe the dynamic equilibrium attained when a solid solute is dissolved in a liquid solvent.
At first the rate of solute

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Retrieved Text: What Is Considered Room Temperature?
Between 66 and 78 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 25 degrees Celsius) is considered room temperature, according to the West Midlands Public Health Observatory in the U.K. The average value of 23 degrees Celsius is commonly given as this temperature, although there is no formal agreement among scientists on a single temperature called "room temperature."
"Room temperature" is a colloquial expression used to describe the temperature range that corresponds to the maximum bodily comfort of the average person. Most adjustable indoor climate conditions are adjusted to around this temperature. In most contexts, the term can be used interchangeably with ambient temperature. WebMD and the Huffington Post state that 65 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit is the ideal temperature range for comfortable slumber.
Room temperature is sometimes confused with a more rigorously defined scientific parameter called "standard temperature," often accompanied by the notion of standard atmospheric pressure. Standard temperature and pressure are defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry as exactly 25 degrees Celsius and 0.987 atmospheres. Scientists use this standard set of conditions to enable comparison between different sets of experimental values. The behavior of gases in particular changes considerably as temperature and pressure are varied, making it especially important to fix these values to standard temperature and pressure or other standard values when conducting experiments.
Room Temperature. Top-Rated Apps. Review for Room Temperature.

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Retrieved Text: The Recovery of Exhaust Heat from Gas Turbines 169 2.2 Gas turbine configurations with internal heat recove ry Compared to simple cycle gas turbines, the higher costs of constructing a combined cycle plant are not always offset by higher efficiency , especially for small and medium size plants.
What is the Chimney Effect or Stack Effect?
The gas temperature inside the flue gas stack is around 140° C. The outside ambient air temperature is around say 30° C. Consider this as two air columns connect at the bottom. The high density and heavier cold air will be always pushing the low density and lighter hot gases up. This causes the natural flow of gases up the flue gas stack.
A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace, a power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other large combustion device.
We have developed a gas-turbine cogeneration system that makes effective use of the calorific value of the volatile organic compound (VOC) gases exhausted during production processes at a manufacturing plant. The system utilizes the high-temperature exhaust-gas from the regenerative thermal oxidizer (RTO) which is used for incinerating VOC gases.
Continuous Emissions Monitoring System – Standard Specification For Gas Turbine/Boiler Applications ... 3.2 EXHAUST GAS CHARACTERISTICS . Company Name Specification # Project Name ... and wired back to the DAHS PLC for continuous monitoring

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Retrieved Text: At a specific temperature and pressure, the number of molecules in a unit volume is constant for any gas or mixture of gases. For a temperature of O”C and a pressure of one atmosphere, this number is 2.705 x 1019 molecules per cubic centimetre.
At standard temperature and pressure, the mean velocity of gas molecules is of the order of 500 rn/s with a mean free path between intermolecular collision, for air, of the order of 3 x 1Q-16 millimetres. The rate of collision under such conditions is responsible for the pressure exerted by the air (or any gas) on a surface immersed in it, or on walls containing the gas. The pressure therefore of any gas depends on its mass density, the number of molecules present and their mean velocity.
The value of R in SI units is 8314 J/(K kmol), which for air is equivalent to 287 J/(kg K). For other gases see Table 4.
Atmospheric air normally contains water vapour, and the total pressure of the air is the sum of the partial pressures of the dry air and the water vapour(follows from Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures). The air is saturated when the partial pressure of the water vapour is equal to the saturation pressure of the water vapour at that temperature. The saturation pressure is dependent only upon the temperature (see also Table 2 and Figure 1).
When air is cooled at constant pressure, the dew point is reached when the partial pressure is equal to the saturation pressure. Any further cooling will then result

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Retrieved Text: of carbon dioxide at room temperature and pressure?
Help on chemistry: atom radii questions, please help?
Chemistry Questions (Atoms & Elements)?
Chemistry - Atom Efficiency Question?
How many moles of an acid need to be dissolved to produce a certain pH?
Help with relationship of volume and pressure with real gases?
Ideal gas law: what is the volume of 17g of helium gas at 298k and pressure of 2atm? He: 400 g/mol?
Find how many mL of acid are required to reach half-equivalence point?

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Retrieved Text: Thermodynamic properties of ideal gases, well approximated by real gases at a pressure of 1 atm, can be computed from molecular and spectroscopic parameters by the methods of statistical mechanics. For monatomic gases, only the molecular weights are needed. For polyatomic molecules, the fundamental vibrational frequencies and rotational constants , and , usually expressed in wavenumbers ( ), are also required. The rotational symmetry number is also needed, as well as the electronic degeneracy for the few molecules with non-singlet electronic ground states, such as and NO.
In this Demonstration, standard molar enthalpies, heat capacities, and entropies for 20 common gas molecules are computed by the methods of statistical thermodynamics. The temperature of each gas can be varied from its boiling temperature to 1000K. The calculated thermodynamic functions are accurate to within 0.1 and 0.5% of the corresponding experimental values. The molecuar weight should rigorously refer to a specific isotopic species but little error is made by using the chemical value . You can also show plots of these thermodynamic functions over the temperature range from the boiling point to 1000K.
Reference: S. M. Blinder, Advanced Physical Chemistry, London: Macmillan, 1969 pp. 438 ff.
S. M. Blinder "Statistical Thermodynamics of Ideal Gases"

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Retrieved Text: How do you decide when to use this equation: pV=nRT?
Use this equation when you are given three of the four following properties of a gas: pressure, volume, number of moles, and temperature.
This equation is the ideal gas law, which describes the properties of an ideal gas. An ideal gas is a simplified model of real gases, allowing us to use simple formulae and calculations.
#P# is the pressure of the gas, usually measured in kPa.
#V# is the volume of the gas, usually measured in L.
#n# is the amount of gas, measured in mol.
#T# is the temperature of the gas, measured in K.
Since #R# is a constant, there are four unknowns in this equation. Thus, to solve for one of the unknowns, we require the other three.
For example, to solve for volume, we would require the values of pressure, amount of gas, and temperature.
The ideal gas law will often be used in combination with other gas laws, which are used to calculate gas properties as gases undergo change. These laws are Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, Gay-Lussac's Law, Avogadro's Law, Dalton's Law, the Law of Combining Volumes, and the Combined Gas Law.

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Retrieved Text: For azeotropic mixtures, is the total vapour pressure at equilibrium equal to the partial pressure of one of the components?
If a balloon full of warm air was placed in a refrigerator, What will happen to the Ballon ?
The respective speed of five molecules are 2, 1.5, 1.6, 1.6 and 1.2 km/s. The most probable speed in km/s will be?
How to calculate the volume or mass of carbon dioxide gas absorbed by a calcium hydroxide solution?
If temperature and volume are same, the pressure of gas obeying van der Waal's equation is smaller than that of an ideal gas"
Can you state the reasons for it. I think " It is smaller because mutual forces of attraction would resist the collision of particle and container".
How to accurately estimate the molar concentration of pure water vapour at 298 K? Can ideal gas law be applied to water vapour to calculate the molar concentration?
What's wrong with this gas law problem?
Why do gases coexist as liquid and vapour?

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Retrieved Text: July 31, 2018 Comments Off on Hose Selection 101: Tips to Select a Right Hose for a Gas Facility specialty gas equipment Rexarc International Inc.
Hoses get used in industrial facilities dealing with different types of gases. These are hollow and flexible tubes, which get used to pack dissolved gases such as acetylene, and atmospheric gases such as oxygen, and argon in cylinders or for conveying them as a part of a process. Facilities working with such gases must understand the potential impacts of hose failure on the people handling them. Mismatch of application and the type of hose is one of the major reasons for the hose failure. Thus, selection of the right type of hose for a typical application becomes a critical element of safety in such facilities. Yet, it is also one of the most overlooked factors. How do you select the right hose for an application? This post discusses a few important factors that play a key role while selecting the hose.
The following factors will help cut the failures occurring due to the wrong selection of hoses.
1. Pressure: This is the most important consideration to make while selecting the hose for your facility. The actual working pressure of the hose should be higher than the greatest working pressure of the application.
a. All Metal Corrugated Hoses: As the name suggests, these hoses have metal corrugated inner core. The core is usually made from Monel or Stainless Steel. The metal hoses help ensure zero permeation, which makes them suitable for stationary gas applications. Corrugated metal

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Retrieved Text: (ii) Which two gases make the bulk of the atmosphere?
(iii) Which gas creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?
(i) Atmosphere is a thin blanket of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the harmful rays of the sun. It consists of several gases in which nitrogen and oxygen occupy the major portion.
(ii) Nirtrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) make the bulk of the atmosphere.
(iii) Carbon dioxide creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.
(iv) Weather is hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.
(vi) The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface is known as air pressure.
(iii) Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is free from clouds?
Answer: (i)—(c), (ii)—(a), (iii)—(b), (iv)—(b), (v)—(b).
(ii) Amount of insolation decreases from equator torwards poles?
Answer: (i) On a humid day the air is full of water vapour. Hence, evaporation is very slow. This is the reason why wet clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day.
(ii) Insolation comes through vertical rays on equator. Thus, it covers up less space but we feel more heat there when it goes up from equator towards poles, the sun rays become slanting. Needless to say that slanting rays come on the earth covering longer distance. Although these slanting rays heat up more space, the degree of hotness is felt less. This is the reason why amount of insolation decreases from equator towards poles.
Question 1. How does carbon dioxide create green house effect?
Answer: Crbon dioxide creates greenhouse effect by trappeing the heat radiated from the earth.
Question 2. What is the significance of

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Retrieved Text: Attempt to answer the multiple choice ConcepTests before watching the screencasts or working with the simulations.
Watch the screencast that describe the phase diagrams and answer the questions within the screencast.
Use the interactive simulation to further understand the behavior of the phase diagrams.
Work through the two quiz interactive simulations to test your understanding by preparing phase diagrams step-by-step.
Try to solve the two example problems before watching the solution in the screencast.
The differences in compositions of liquid and vapor mixtures in equilibrium is the basis for the separation of mixtures by distillation.
This module is intended for Material and Energy Balances, Thermodynamics, and Separations courses.
Given a vapor composition and saturation pressure versus temperature data, determine the dew temperature (at constant pressure) or the dew pressure (at constant temperature).
Use Raoult's law to calculate equilibrium compositions and/or equilibrium pressures for ideal solutions and ideal gases.
Construct a pressure-composition diagram for an ideal mixture given saturation pressures at a given temperature.
Construct a temperature-composition diagram for an idea mixture given Antoine equations at a given pressure.

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Retrieved Text: getcalc.com's Ideal Gas Law Calculator is an online chemical engineering tool to calculate the pressure & volume to estimate the behavior of many gases under different conditions, in both US customary & metric (SI) units.
Ideal Gas Law represents the relationship between pressure, volume & obsolute temperature. It's generally used to estimate the behavior of many gases under different conditions.

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Retrieved Text: kinetic-molecular theory of gases, physical theory that explains the behavior of gases on the basis of the following assumptions: (1) Any gas is composed of a very large number of very tiny particles called molecules; (2) The molecules are very far apart compared to their sizes, so that they can be considered as points; (3) The molecules exert no forces on one another except during rare collisions, and these collisions are perfectly elastic, i.e., they take place within a negligible span of time and in accordance with the laws of mechanics. A gas corresponding to these assumptions is called an ideal gas ; as the temperature of a real gas is lowered, or its pressure is raised, its behavior no longer resembles that of an ideal gas because one or more of the assumptions of the theory is no longer valid. The analysis of the behavior of an ideal gas according to the laws of mechanics leads to the general gas law, or ideal gas law: The product of the pressure and volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, or PV = kT (see gas laws ). Boyle's law, Charles's law, and Gay-Lussac's law, which are special cases of the general gas law, may also be easily derived. The theory further shows that the absolute temperature is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules, thus providing an interpretation of the nature of temperature in general in terms of the detailed structure of matter (see temperature ; Kelvin temperature

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Retrieved Text: A pressure-temperature chart gives information on how the temperature and pressure of a substance are related to one another. Pressure and temperature have a relationship with one another, a relationship referred to as Gay-Lussac’s Law. Gay Lussac’s Law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas has a directly proportional relationship with the temperature.
A closer look at how pressure and temperature are related to one another will help us understand the importance of Gay Lussac’s Law in chemistry and help us learn how to interpret a pressure-temperature chart, like one for r22 PT.
This law was discovered by the French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778 – 1850) who did experiments to quantify the relationship between pressure and temperature. As a concrete example of how this law works, think about how the operation of propane tanks is affected by temperature. If you ever cooked with a propane tank on a barbecue, perhaps you will have noticed that the tank’s pressure gauge registers higher on hot days than it does on cold days. You may have to take the variance in the pressure into consideration when deciding whether or not the tank can last for another cooking session.
As you can see, the pressure increases substantially as the temperature of the aerosol can increases, which is why it is so dangerous to dispose of aerosol cans by burning them.
The Gay-Lussac Law is quite similar to another chemistry law called Charles’ Law. Charles’ law recognizes that there is a powerful relationship between the volume of the gas

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Retrieved Text: Daniel Berthelot () did fundamental research on the conductivity of electrolyte una ecuación de estado que puede ser considerada como la. Daniel Berthelot () did fundamental research on the conductivity of Mejoró la ecuación de estado de van der Waals haciendo el término a/v2. Please, help me to find this ecuacion de berthelot pdf merge. I’ll be really very grateful. the best text message ringtone · sweet little lies lauren conrad pdf to word.
The deviation from ideality can be described by the compressibility factor Z. Dieterici  fell out bertjelot usage in recent years. This equation is known to be reasonably accurate for densities up to about 0. The Wohl equation named after A. To understand the behaviour of real gases, the following must be taken into account: Industrial and Engineering Chemistry: Retrieved from ” https: Where p is the pressure, T is the temperature, R the ideal gas constant, and V m the molar volume.
This page was last edited on 7 Octoberat The Clausius equation named after Rudolf Clausius is a very simple three-parameter equation used to model gases.
Real gases are non-hypothetical gases whose molecules occupy space and have interactions; consequently, they adhere to gas laws. On the other hand, real-gas models have to be used near the condensation point of gases, near critical pointsat very high pressures, to explain the Joule—Thomson effect and in other less usual cases.
Robinson  has the d property being useful in modeling some liquids as well as real gases. Cengel and Michael A. For most applications, such a detailed

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Retrieved Text: UltraPure™ High Flow Purifier Vessels and Component Sets allow for the simple fabrication of Gas Purifier Systems for flows ranging from 30 - 4000 slpm, for most Bulk Gases including Argon, Helium, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Oxygen. The UltraPure™ High Flow Purifier vessels will reduce gaseous impurities (as listed below), to sub-ppb levels.
High pressure purifiers (max 3000 psig) available upon request, ideal for gas bottle filling plants and other similar high pressure applications.
1 - Only with purchase of - H model.
2 - Additional impurities removed from Ar, He & N2 only, using heated getter.
3 - Nitrogen and Methane removed from Hydrogen, Argon/Hydrogen and Nitrogen/Hydrogen, using heated getter.
1 - Lifetime is inversely proportional to the total inlet impurity level and to the average flow. Lifetime for H2O/O2 removal only using getter purifiers is approx. 4 years at the stated flows / inlet gas. Room temperature getter purifiers require periodic regeneration to achieve this total lifetime.
Note: For regeneration and for applications requiring removal of all impurities, an external band heater and TCU electronics assembly is required.

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Retrieved Text: which includes the gas laws postulated by Charles, Boyle and Avogadro. In Eq. (1), is the molar volume (m3/mol), V is the volume (m3), N is the number of moles and is the Universal Gas Constant, J/(mol K).
as the sum of all partial pressures. The Ideal Gas Law can be applied to each component of a gas mixture as if it alone were present.
Typical effects of temperature and pressure on the compressibility factor are shown in Figure 1.
with the reduced properties pr, vr and Tr being the actual pressure, volume and temperature divided by the appropriate critical value. Critical properties are also given below.
The constants in Eqs. (6)-(10) can be found in Tables. They can also be estimated from the critical properties and the knowledge that the critical point is the point of inflection of the isotherms in the pressure-volume diagram.
Two fluids are in corresponding states if they have the same reduced properties pr, vr and Tr Fluids in corresponding states deviate from ideal behavior to the same extent, i.e., have the same Compressibility Factor z.
According to the law of Corresponding States, p-v-T data for all gases can be obtained from a plot of compressibility factor as a function of reduced properties. The most common diagram is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Generalized compressibility plot.
For more information refer to Reid, Prausnitz and Sherwood.
Reid, R., Prausnitz, J. and Sherwood, T. (1977) The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Each type of rock weathers in its own way. Certain types of rock are very resistant to weathering. Igneous rocks tend to weather slowly because they are hard. Water cannot easily penetrate them. Granite is a very stable igneous rock. Other types of rock are easily weathered because they dissolve easily in weak acids. Limestone is a sedimentary rock that dissolves easily. When softer rocks wear away, the more resistant rocks form ridges or hills.


Q: Hard igneous rocks and easily dissolved sedimentary rocks respond very differently to what natural force?

 Choices:

- evaporation

- weathering

- sunlight

- gravity

A:

Target Text: weathering

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Describes how one type of rock can change into another type.
Earth has a dynamic system. Lithosphere floats on a molten mantle. Rocks are created and the re-melted in an ongoing process. There's no sample of rock unchanged since the Earth was formed. Molten magma cools and forms igneous rocks. Tectonic processes uplift the rocks exposing them to weathering process. Igneous rocks are broken down into granular material, that are transported and deposited to form sedimentary rocks (tectonic basins). Sediments buried and subjected to heat and pressure create metamorphic rocks. Heated sufficiently to melt forming magma.
WHAT MAGMA IS CALLED ONCE IT REACHES THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
A type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, Igneous bodies that have crystallized within the crust.
Eruption of magma and ash onto the Earth's surface where they cool to form lava flows and ash deposits., Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed on the surface of earth form lava. They have small or no crystals because they form quickly.
Describes metamorphic rocks that lack distinct layers or bands., Marble & quartzite are what type of metamorphic rock?
Force per surface area where the force is normal to the surface: measured in pascals.
Based on mineral composition and texture. Meta rocks are either foliated or non foliated. Foliated is when the crystals are arranged in bands, and non foliated has grains in random orientations.
sedimentary rock in which older rocks, unless disrupted, are on the bottom, this forms in layers with the oldest layer at the bottom.
Calcite(most common) precipitates out

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: One of the primary effects of plate motion is to put new material from deep in the earth’s mantle onto the surface of the earth, and at the same time, destroy old crust. This creation, modification, and destruction of the surface materials of the earth is called the rock cycle. However, before we begin our discussion of the rock cycle, let’s clarify a very important point: rocks and minerals are not the same thing! A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition or compositional range and a regular internal crystal structure. A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral materials.
The key difference between a rock and a mineral is the ‘regular internal crystal structure’ of a mineral. For example, Quartz is a mineral (SiO2), while Granite is a rock. If you were to look at a quartz crystal at the molecular level, the entire crystal would be made up of identical building blocks (SiO2 molecules). Granite, on the other hand is not homogenous. Therefore, one chunk of a piece of granite, when viewed at the molecular level would appear very different from another chunk viewed at the molecular level because the first chunk might be a quartz crystal, while the second chunk might be another type of crystal.
Rocks are categorized by how they are formed. Rocks that are formed directly from liquid rock, or magma that wells up from deep in the earth are called igneous rocks. Rocks that form at, or just

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are rather wonderful. They cover the earth. They can be found on the playground, in the dirt and in the soil. Rocks can be found on mountains, in caves, under the ocean, in the desert and near volcanoes. Rocks come in all different colors, shapes, sizes and textures. Rocks are made from minerals. The minerals make a rock look and feel rough or smooth, hard or soft, beige or black or brown. Some rocks fit smoothly into the palm of our hands. Some we can skip gaily across the surface of the water. Skip! Skip! Skip! Plop! Some rocks are climbing rocks to help you on your way. Others are stepping stones crossing creeks and rivers. Some rocks have unusual shapes and may have been carved by people who lived before you. If you find a soft, dusty rock, you can use it to write on the sidewalk like chalk. Little pebble rocks can be sifted through your fingers or lined up to spell a message on the ground. You might find a magic rock, shiny and dark or white and sparkly. Some rocks have stripes on them. You can make rock towers! Bigger rocks can be splashing rocks when you toss them in the lake! Rocks across a shallow creek or river become stepping-stones. Rocks covered with moss can give you a nice soft place to sit. If you turn over a rock you may be surprised to find a small living city of creepy, crawly things! Some rocks we can pick up and

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Retrieved Text: The worksheets found on this page help students learn how to identify rocks and minerals. We also look at the rock cycle.
We often forget the importance of rocks and minerals in our daily lives. Rocks form in nature and they are created three different ways. Igneous rock is formed when the Earth’s molten layers (magma) cools and forms a hard rock. Sedimentary rock takes time to form. As the layers of the Earth settle and form sediment, the rock layer forms. Metamorphic rock starts out as one of the other two and undergoes a great deal of heat and pressure. Whenever tectonic plates collide, you will find a bunch of metamorphic rock in its path.
You will find worksheets that teach you how to create crystals, classify rocks, label soil layers, and identify the rock cycle.
Crystals are beautiful and people have long been fascinated by their wide variety of shapes. In this exercise, you will make your own crystal shapes.
One of the most important properties used to identify and classify a mineral is its hardness. The Mohs hardness scale measures a mineral's hardness using a simple scratch test to see what the mineral can scratch and be scratched by.
Minerals can be identified by carefully observing their physical characteristics.
There are three main types of rocks; igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Use these three terms to answer the questions on this page.
Describes brightness of the light reflected from a mineral's surface.
Rocks can change from one type of rock into another due to heat, pressure, and weathering.
Soil and

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Retrieved Text: – You have made a sedimentary rock! You have layers as a result of different types of sediment settling at different times. Epsom salt is made from the dissolved minerals of magnesium and sulfur. This is the "glue" that holds the homemade rock together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways from these different sized sediments. A sedimentary rock is a layered rock that is formed from the compaction, cementation, and the recrystallization of sediments. Compaction is the squeezing together of layers of sediment due to the great weight of overlying layers of rock.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rock Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks.
Like other rocktypes, sedimentary rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. There are two broad groups of sedimentary rocks, clastic (or detrital) sediments which accumulate from fragments of preexisting rocks and minerals, and chemical sediments or precipitates.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks The sediment in an organic sedimentary rock is made of fossils ! The hard parts of animals, such as bones and shells, can become cemented together over time to make rock.
The Meteora is a sedimentary rock formation, composed of sandstone and pebbles. The sedimentary rock was formed 60 million years ago when Earth's movements pushed the seabed upwards. It is loed at 350 km from Athens, Greece.
The name of a sedimentary rock depends on the size (and sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Amber: A fossil created from tree resin. Yellow or brown in color and transparent, sometimes containing ancient trapped insects.
Appalachian Plateau province: The geologic region of far western Virginia containing most of the state’s coal and natural gas. Made of mostly flat layers of sedimentary rocks with deep canyons, such as the one found in the Breaks Interstate Park measuring more than 5 miles long and 1600 feet deep.
Basalt: A dark, very fine-grained igneous rock formed by cooling lava. Basalt is generally found in the Blue Ridge province of Virginia. Small pieces of basalt called cinders can be spread on icy roads to increase traction in the winter.
Bedrock: The solid rock below the soil, gravel, or other material at the Earth’s surface.
Blue Ridge province: The long mountain chain that is a part of the Appalachian Mountains in western Virginia. Made of folded and faulted igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mount Rogers, the highest point in the state, is found in this region.
Clay: An earthy, mud-like sediment composed of very fine particles of minerals. Pliable when moist, but becomes hard when dry or fired. Commonly used to make brick, tile, and pottery. Generally found in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain provinces of Virginia.
Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along defined planes determined by the mineral’s crystal structure. Also, the tendency of a rock to break along parallel, closely-spaced planes.
Coal: A black, combustible rock made of carbon. Formed after decomposed plant matter is subjected to extreme, prolonged pressure without access to air. Commonly used as a heating fuel.

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: GCSE Geography Revision - Made Easy!
All you need to know about Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks!
Our planet's surface is sculpted by rocks. The rocks you see today have all actually come from the Earth's interior. They are classified into 3 groups based on their shared characteristics: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary. Each have very specific characteristics and were formed in very different ways.
Igneous - These rocks were all formed by magma, from the planet's molten interior. When magma erupts it finds a way up through the Earth's crust and surface, and when it reaches it, it cools to form volcanic landforms. Magma can however, cool inside the earth - these are called intrusive rocks. These may take thousands of years to show, but erosion and weathering may expose them at some point. Examples of igneous rock include granite and basalt.
Metamorphic - These rocks were originally one of the other two types of rock. However they have become classified as metamorphic because they have been subjected to such intense heat and pressure that they have transformed into a different type of rock altogether. For example, slate was originally clay, and marble was originally limestone, however both were transformed from intense heat and pressure. Becuase of the pressure and heat the rocks have been created by, it means metamorphic rocks are extremely hard, and are relatively unaffected by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary - These rocks have been formed from sediment material that has settled underneath a large body of water. The sediment is made from other eroded rocks or remnants

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Retrieved Text: The surface of the earth is made up of soil and rock. Most of the part of the earth is made of rock> Rock are also found below the sea as well as in interior part of the earth.
The outer surface of the earth is uneven as there is the presence of high mountains, plateaus and plains. The uneven outer surface is known as topography. The earth surface is always changing. It is believed that nearly 30 million years ago, Nepal and Himalayas were in the womb of Tethys Ocean stretching from the northern part of India to the southern part of Tibet.
The change is sometimes sudden and sometimes over a period. There are two kinds of agents that cause change.
Earthquake and volcano are considered as the internal agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Rivers, Glacier, Winds, Waves are considered as the external agents of change in the surface of the earth.
Give reasons Why igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them? .
Igneous and metamorphic rocks never have fossil on them because they are formed at high temperature where there are no fossils.
Why plutonic rocks have big crystals?
Plutonic rocks have big crystals because it is formed by cooling of magma inside rock.
Why pumice floats on water?
Pumice floats on water because they are porous in nature.
Why silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock?
Silica is a mineral whereas sandstone is a rock because silica is pure substance and sandstone is formed from the minerals.
Minerals are natural solid, crystalline and pure substances found in

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Classifying Sedimentary Rocks - Flow Chart Summary | Geology .Nov 3, 2014 . bit.ly/1tq6s4I For more FREE video tutorials covering Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks and Geology In this video we use a flow chart to summ.flow chart for formation of sedimentry rocks for kids,Sedimentary Rocks Anchor Chart Miller's Science Space - Pinterestformation of sedimentary rock and fossil fuels TEKS Ideas to add: a drill for the oil; evidence of past to fossil; the words: layers, vegetation, organisms; definition/description for . MFW K - R is for Rocks - Teach Junkie: Rocks for Kids - 15 Activities and Ideas - Rock Definition Worksheet .. Science process skills anchor charts!
Sedimentary rocks. There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Formation of sedimentary rocks. A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited.
When a volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth's surface, it is called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin, starting the whole cycle over again! See if you can find sedimentary,.
Types of Rocks - Interesting videos, lessons, quiz games, interactive diagrams, presentations and activities on types of rocks. . Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and hardening of clastic sediments, minerals precipitates and organic matter. Metamorphic rock forms

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Retrieved Text: MINERALS, ROCKS, AND SOILDifferent rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and .. These terms and definitions are available ... Mineralogy4Kids is a website for children. Follow the Rock.definition of sedimentary rock for kids,Geokids Handbook for First Grade Teachers - Stanford Earth5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.Fossils and Rocks - Schoolsmeans, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or by any .. Some common forms of sedimentary rock are sandstone, .. books for children.
9.3 Sedimentary rocks 283. 9.4 Stability and change: . Attempt to classify them as igneous, sedimentary ... spectacular examples of this is the Grand Canyon in.
Lesson #1 - How Do Rocks and Minerals Influence Our Lives? ... and to determine if local rock is classified as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. This will be .. could specify relationship to children's uses or school's uses – all the rocks and minerals visible to the .. Define the difference between a rock and a mineral.
You may want to use sand as an example of sedimentary rocks forming today. Ask students . beach." Children can spend endless hours on the beach, creating.
5 mini-stations on a table with one sedimentary rock (gritty sandstone), one metamorphic rock . You can begin by asking the kids what are rocks made of. How do . The word "metamorphic" comes from the Greek language, which means "to.
means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,

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Retrieved Text: Geology 101 Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers and are only a small portion of the Earth's crust. Photograph by Pichi, Shutterstock .
Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups (along with igneous and metamorphic rocks) and is formed in three main ways—by the deposition of the weathered remains of other rocks (known as clastic sedimentary rocks); by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution.
Sedimentary rock is one of three types of rock found on Earth. The others are called igneous and metamorphic. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are the most common rock types in Earth’s crust.
The sediment (the sand, mud and pebbles) that make up Sedimentary rocks come from other rocks that have been worn down by wind, rain and snow.
rock cycle Geologic materials cycle through various forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth's crust.
Relating to rocks formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, is deposited and becomes tightly compacted. Sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of sediment. See more.
Easy Science for Kids All About Sedimentary Rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rocks usually found near bodies of water. Read learn fun kids science facts.
Shale is the most abundant sedimentary rock. It is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
Intrusive rocks crystallize and harden beneath the Earth's surface in rock formations include plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.
Once the rock has been weakened and

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Retrieved Text: In what great State did Mrs. Scheffer grow up in?
How many children does Mrs. Scheffer have?
Where did Mrs. Scheffer receive an athletic scholarship to swim?
What is University of Toledo? Go Rockets!
If Mrs. Scheffer was not a teacher, name one of the two jobs she would like to do.
What is physical therapy or a mascot for a professional team!
Name 1 of the many vacation spots that Mrs. Scheffer would like to visit soon!
What is Hawaii, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Grand Canyon or Las Vegas!
Name two things that make up soil.
What are two differences between the different sediments that we studied?
What is size, color, texture, or permeability?
Rocks are made up of 1 or more____________.
This is what you call it when rocks break down into sediments.
How would an igneous rock turn into a sedimentary rock?
What is it would have to be weathered, and deposited into layers? Time and pressure would turn the sediments into a sedimentary rock.
T of F All Soil is the same.
Which is more permeable? clay or sand?
What are the 3 categories of rocks?
What is sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous?
Oxidation is this type of weathering.
If Heat and Pressure is added to a sedimentary rock, what type does it become?
Decaying Material with all the Good Nutrients!
Which sediment would be the best on the bottom of a pond, why?
What is clay because it does not allow water to permeate through it as easily?
Which type of rocks tends to have the most layers?
What is sedimentary? Fossils too!
This is what happens when sediments are moved from place to place.
When sediments or rocks

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Retrieved Text: ..... Click the link for more information. . Hornblende, biotite mica, garnet, or graphite commonly form the dark bands. Gneisses result from the metamorphism of many igneous or sedimentary rocks, and are the most common types of rocks found in Precambrian regions. Gneiss is found in New England, the Piedmont, the Adirondacks, and the Rocky Mts. Some gneisses are used as facing stone on buildings.
a metamorphic rock, foliated, rich in feldspar, and containing smaller quantities of such minerals as quartz, bio-tite, muscovite, amphibole, pyroxene, garnet, and sillimanite.
The formation of gneiss is associated with the deep metamorphism of various rocks and sometimes with fusion because of easily fused granite material in these rocks. As a result of the flow of material, certain granites can acquire the features of gneiss. Gneisses are subdivided into orthogneisses and paragneisses. Orthogneisses are formed from igneous rocks and paragneisses from sedimentary rocks. The foliation of gneiss also varies. In some cases it is a remnant of the initial layering of sedimentary rocks, while in other cases it is a remnant of layered intrusions of igneous material. In addition, foliation may be the result of the viscous flow of fused material during metamorphism. Gneiss is very widely distributed, especially in Precambrian rocks. In folded regions there are gneisses that have been formed by changes in younger rocks under the influence of the pressure developed during the folding process. Gneiss is used to make gravel, pavement slabs, and facing materials.
Kuznetsov, E. A. Kratkii kurs petrografii (magmaticheskikh i metamorficheskikh porod). Moscow, 1970.
A variety of rocks

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Retrieved Text: 2. Minerals – an Introduction 14 2.1 Definition of a mineral 14 2.1.1 Polymorphs 15 2.2 Properties of minerals 15 2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16 2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18 2.2.3 Lustre 18 2.2.4 Colour 18 2.2.5 Streak 19 2.2.6 Hardness 19 2.2.7 Tenacity 20 2.2.8 Density 20 2.2.9 Other properties 20 what‘s missing in this equation?
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Turning a challenge

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Retrieved Text: 2018116 · "They want to throw rocks at our military, our military fights back," Trump said in his Nov. 1 remarks.
Kyanite is one of the natural mineral resources in Nigeria, West Africa, it is a bluegreen crystalline mineral which contains aluminium silie and is mostly found in metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rock or aluminiumrich metamorphic pegmatites.
2017819 · The Basement Complex of Nigeria is made up of crystalline (igneous and metamorphic) rocks which are sometimes referred to as hard rocks. The Nigeria basement is part of panAfrican mobile belt and it is loed between Congo and West African cratons.
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2018411 · Igneous rocks are classified by the minerals they contain. The main minerals in igneous rocks are hard, primary ones: feldspar, quartz, amphiboles, and pyroxenes (together called "dark minerals" by geologists), and olivine along with the softer mineral mica.
Rock Hard Cement was established in 2015, with its primary objective centred around building a strong distribution network to supply the Caribbean region with quality cement on a consistent basis.
201823 · sometimes referred to as hard rocks. The Nigeria . basemen t is part of panAfrican mobile belt and it is . loed between Congo and West African cratons. The .
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Retrieved Text: Geology Rocks – The Rock Cycle. With the Geological Society! Weathering. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material. There are three types of weathering, physical, chemical and biological. How is erosion different to weathering? Erosion is the... How does this rock changes over time to form other rocks found in the rock cycle? In this section you will discribe how the rock used to be part of the other rock categories and what changes they had to go through in order to become the rock that they are.
The Rock Cycle is a way to conceptually understand the creation and destruction of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks on and within the crust of …... Model the rock cycle right in the classroom! This activity can be done in two This activity can be done in two different ways – either as an edible version, or an inedible version.
Name: _____ Quiz- Thursday, January 27, 2011 Study Guide Checklist Rock Cycle Diagram (50 points): Be able to correctly label each part of the rock cycle. Be able to correctly label each of the arrows in the rock cycle. Remember-SPELLING COUNTS!!! Rock Cycle Chart Questions (30 points): I will give you 6 out of the 10 study guide questions about your completed Rock Cycle Chart. (5 pts. … how to make an acoustic guitar The rock cycle is the natural process in which rocks transform from one

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Retrieved Text: NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 7 Geography exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth.
All our solutions for Chapter 2 - Inside Our Earth are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 7 Geography will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
(i) The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the core.
(ii) A rock is in effect any natural mass of mineral matter that constitutes the crust of the Earth.
(iii) The three types of rocks are as follows - 'igneous', 'sedimentary' and 'metamorphic'.
(iv) Extrusive rocks have a tendency to be formed when the molten magma from inside Earth turns up on the surface, cools down and sets. At the point when such liquid magma cools down gradually and solidifies within Earth's crust, intrusive rocks are formed.
(v) The change of one kind of rock into another, under specific conditions and in a cyclical way is alluded to as the rock cycle. For instance, igneous rocks, framed as an aftereffect of the cementing of molten magma, may separate into little particles, which might then

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Retrieved Text: Scoria uses in construction industry include Cement manufacture, Construction aggregate, For road aggregate, In landscaping and drainage works. Scoria rock is not yet used in the medical industry. Some types of rocks have exceptional properties and can be used in medical industry.
uses of igneous rocks in construction industry. What are some uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry Igneous rocks may be used to manufacture tiles, countertops and as building ornamentation or in the .
However, some rocks have rare properties. Tuff uses in construction industry include Building houses or walls, Construction aggregate. Tuff rock is not yet used in the medical industry. Some types of rocks have exceptional properties and can be used in medical industry.
Rocks: Igneous. Rocks Unit Chapter 4. STUDY. PLAY. igneous rock is a rock that. forms from magma or lava. igneous rocks are classified by. origin, texture, and composition. this type of igneous rock forms from lava. ... Igneous rocks are mostly used for construction, cleaning, and gardening.
appli ion of stone appli ions of jaw Stone Quarying, ... appli ion igneous rocks in construction industry. Read More. igneous rock in construction industry. 99+ customer review . What are some uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry. Igneous rocks may be used to manufacture tiles, ... Appli Ion Igneous Rocks In Construction Industry.
igneous rock in construction industry - twadsafewater. uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry . Artificial sand for construction. Construction buildings need a lot of sand, but the sand quality requirements also varies, comparing these two, the main

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Retrieved Text: There are three main classes of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. The following is some general information about the different classes of rocks, including their texture, composition, and origin.
Igneous rocks are minerals that have solidified (crystallized) from molten or partly molten material (lava or magma). These rocks are mostly silicate in composition and are formed deep in the Earth. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed by the process of emplacement of magma in pre-existing rock. Extrusive igneous rocks are rocks that have been erupted onto the surface of the earth. They include lava flows and pyroclastic material such as volcanic ash. The eight igneous rock-forming minerals make up over 90% of the earth's crust. Igneous rocks are classified according to texture (size and shape of mineral grains) and composition which leads to an understanding of the environment of formation (genesis).
Bowen's Reaction Series is one of the most powerful models we have for understanding igneous rocks. It can be used to help describe igneous rocks and is an extremely powerful tool for interpreting their origin.
Sedimentary rocks which cover over two-thirds of the Earth's surface, are produced by the transformation of pre-existing rocks by gravity, atmospheric agencies, and living organisms. They are the result of the consolidation of sediments, loose material derived from the mechanical accumulation of fine and coarse fragments of rock (clastic sediments) or from precipitation from solution, with or without intervention by living organisms (organogenetic and chemical deposits).
Of the eight rock-forming minerals in Bowen's Reaction Series, only quartz does not weather. It is released from the

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Retrieved Text: If you are in the market for natural stone flooring or counters for your home, this brief compilation of stone factoids is going to be very helpful. Just a little knowledge, before you narrow in on what’s right for you, may point you in the right direction. You’ve all studied the types of rock the earth renders, but it could be you haven’t had need for that information in a long time. So here is a brief refresher.
SEDIMENTARY – Igneous rocks make up the majority of the earth’s crust and are covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment. It’s this loose sediment that gets compacted and cemented together to give us sedimentary stone. Travertine and limestone fall into this category. Natural, unfilled travertine has tiny holes throughout the surface, indicative of sedimentary formations. Both travertine and limestone are very porous and will require continuing maintenance to keep them looking their best. Keep in mind, because they are so porous they are prone to staining so may not be the best choice for countertop applications. For floor applications, Torrean travertine is less porous and gives a more uniform surface texture.
METAMORPHIC – The metamorphics get their name from “meta” (change) and “morph” (form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable. Extreme temperature and pressure are the catalysts in forming metamorphic rocks and produce stones with exceptional beauty, such as slate, marble and

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Retrieved Text: The Stones of Rome- pictures of granite rocks,limestone rocks,and marble rocks ,Granite is a very hard igneous rock made up of feldspar, ... Rock and Minerals.
dolomitic marble rock picture ... grinding mill equipment. dolomitic marble rock picture Marble Rocks And Minerals 4 U pictures of granite rockslimestone rocksand.
pictures granite rock mining in zimbabwe. granite quarry stone in zimbabwe beltconveyers images mining iro ... pictures of granite rockslimestone rocksand marble rocks .
Download granite stone stock photos. ... Heavy excavator loading granite rock or iron.. ... set stone, rock and pebble element decor isolated for game art.. Vector.
Pictures of Metamorphic Rock Types From ... Like other metamorphic rocks, marble has no fossils and any ... a migmatite can be hard to distinguish from granite.
What is the difference between marble and granite? ... These sedimentary rocks get metamorphosed into marble under intense heat and pressure.
Granite. Granite is an igneous rock which implies that it was formed from molten magma that slowly cooled down over a period of ... Difference between Marble and Granite.

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Retrieved Text: The best known and most commonly seen metamorphic rocks are those produced by Barrovian (also called regional) metamorphism.
Beginning with a shale parent, Barrovian metamorphism produces a sequence of metamorphic rocks that goes through slate, and then through phyllite, schist, and gneiss. It can be hard to imagine at first that all these very different looking rocks can come from the same sedimentary parent, but we know that they do. This demonstrates the hidden truths that lie within the earth, and to the profound changes that earth processes can effect.
But even with gneiss the process is not done, because if the temperature rises even higher the gneiss begins to melt. Such a partially melted rock is a migmatite.
Finally the rock melts completely and we have entered the igneous realm with a magma. When the magma solidifies we now have an igneous rock, in this image, a plagiogranite.
In this transformation from a sedimentary rock (shale) through the various metamorphic rocks, and finally ending with an igneous rock we see one of the fundamental pathways through the rock cycle. It is transformations of this kind that have resulted in all the great diversity of rocks we find on the earth.

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Retrieved Text: Rock melts in a variety of geologic settings in the crust and upper mantle of the Earth depending on the temperature and pressure conditions and on the composition and water content of the rock, but lava represents only a tiny proportion of the magma that forms within the Earth.
The type of igneous rock is also dependent on its composition (the elements that are present). ... most igneous rocks are one of three basic compositions: Felsic igneous rocks contain relatively high amounts of silicon, sodium, aluminum, potassium (Si, Na, Al, and K) and relatively low amounts of iron, magnesium, and calcium (Fe, Mg, Ca).
Chapter 4 Rocks and Minerals. Chapter 4 focuses on Rocks and Minerals, looking at types of rocks. ... Magnetite is a mineral that has a very high iron content. Magnetite has a black or brownish-red color and a black streak. ... A concordant igneous rock body runs parallel to the pre-existing bedrock.
In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.
Lab Procedures. In this lab you will identify the minerals in each rock, determine the igneous composition of the rock, name its texture, take a photograph of it and interpret its origin. To understand and identify igneous rocks, you cannot be shy about addressing the rocks.
An igneous rock that contains vesicles _____. a. is also extrusive ... c. iron oxide . d. clay .

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Retrieved Text: Gem-quality minerals within rocks may be accessible at the earth’s surface or lie buried deep beneath it.
Igneous rocks come out of volcanoes as either lava or ashes. The slower the rock cools the bigger the crystal gets. Gemstones can form when elements like limestone, for example, has been subjected to immense pressure and high temperatures.
Many gemstones form into a kind of igneous rocks called pegmatite.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous rocks changed by heat and pressure from the earth make new rocks with minerals.
When this happens gemstones can grow inside them.
Sedimentary rocks are made by the rock fragments produced by weather.
Sedimentary rocks are usually laid down in layers.
The gemstones are then refined for jewelry. There are gemstones in the sea also, where seawater, for example, helps create amber gems (fossilized tree resin).
Other examples can include opals found in sedimentary rocks or the alluvial mining for sapphire gemstones.
« Women’s Wedding Bands: Feminine Attraction!

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Retrieved Text: Gold in lgneous,Sedimentary, And Metamorphic RocksIgneous rocks contain as little as 0.2 and as much as 73 ppb. (parts per billion) . In metamorphic rocks the range of gold content is from 0.86 to. 22.4 ppb with an.metamorphic rocks have gold,Day 22, Igneous rocks associated with gold and Metamorphic Rocks .As we have seen, igneous or magmatic origin are in the magma, are the first to be formed. The gold deposits of pleasure have their origin in alluvium and these.
Dec 9, 1999 . People are always on the look out for gold and need to learn to . deals with gold veins that are found mainly in metamorphic rocks and.
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme.
derived from the metamorphism of deeper rocks rather than .. Both the A-J and Treadwell deposits have . have important features that are not typical of gold-.
Answer == Gold is an elemental mineral and not considered a rock. Gold could be . What do igneous and metamorphic rock have in common? Both igneous.
models have been proposed for some deposits, e.g. Carlin type. However, . of gold ores in metamorphic rocks, as shown thoroughly by Mârza (1999).
Day 22, Igneous rocks associated with gold and Metamorphic Rocks .
As we have seen, igneous or magmatic origin are in the magma, are the first to be formed. The gold deposits of pleasure have their origin in alluvium and these.
List and Description of Common Heavy Minerals in Sand and Rocks. .

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Retrieved Text: We will all be Rock Stars by the end of this term as in Science we are learning about the three different types of rocks- Sedimentary, Metamorphic, and Igneous. We will be investigating their properties and how they are formed. We will even be replicating the rock cycle using chocolate!
During our Geography lessons, we will explore what you find underground (linking in with Science), learn how volcanoes are formed, explain how volcanoes erupt and have a go at making our own volcano! Puma Class will discover more about earthquakes and how they are measured.
We are also finding out about the Stone age- we will try to recreate some Stone Age art and order some events from this period chronologically.
Don’t forget our exciting trip to the Natural History Museum for some hands on experience with rocks, and a fantastic workshop which also includes chocolate!!
As well as all this excitement, Puma Class is also going to be performing in an Easter Play with the Year 4 children this term. Look out for performance dates closer to the end of term.
Puma Class had a great hands-on science lesson today- replicating the rock cycle with chocolate !! Everyone was very excited and learnt a lot about how sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks are formed.
Click on the link below to look at the photos .

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Skeletal system problems include osteoporosis, bone fractures, and ligament sprains. A diet rick in calcium and vitamin D may reduce the risk of osteoporosis and related bone fractures. Following safe practices may also reduce the risk of fractures as well as sprains.


Q: A diet rich in calcium and what vitamin may reduce the risk of osteoporosis and related bone fractures?

 Choices:

- vitamin d

- niacin

- vitamin A

- vitamin C

A:

Target Text: vitamin d

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Retrieved Text: Osteopenia is a condition where bone mineral density is lower than normal, but not yet severe enough to be classified as osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is also a condition of low bone mineral density but more severe than osteopenia and risk of broken bones or fracture is increased. Primary osteoporosis occurs most often in post-menopausal women. Secondary osteoporosis may occur in anyone of any age as a result of chronic medical problems or secondary to prolonged use of medications, such as prednisone or antacids (proton pump inhibitors/PPI’s) .
What is the natural treatment for Osteopenia/Osteoporosis?
A nutrient-rich diet full of calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamins C and E, B vitamins, proteins and unsaturated fats was associated with a 19% decrease in risk of wrist fractures and a 14% decrease risk of fractures at any site. Source: Complementary Prescriptions Journal, Vol.27, Issue 3, Feb 2013.
Corticosteroid use and high intake of animal proteins and fats are negatively associated with bone loss while adhering to a vegan diet did not have adverse effects on bone loss and fracture. Source: Eur J Clin Nutr, 2011 Aug 3.
● Bone density of the heel significantly improved in the curcumin supplementation group compared with baseline values; bone densities of small finger and jaw also improved significantly. No significant changes in bone density were observed in the control group.
Wu CH, Yang YC, Yao WJ, Lu FH, Wu JS, Chang CJ. Epidemiological evidence of increased bone mineral density in habitual tea drinkers. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162(9):1001-6.
● Epidemiologic study finds habitual tea drinkers had greater lumbar spine bone mineral density compared

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Retrieved Text: Provides calcium and vitamin D needed for the maintenance of normal bone, teeth and muscle function. Supplementing with calcium and vitamin D may help reduce the risk or bone fractures and the risk or progression of osteoporosis. Women of menopausal age are recommended to take a calcium and vitamin D supplement for bone health. Calcium also supports energy metabolism and the actions of digestive enzymes. Calcium supplementation is also recommended for both elderly men and women to help support efficient absorption of nutrients from the diet in later years. Vitamin D, included as a synergistic nutrient, helps to maintain normal blood calcium levels to reduce loss of bone material and also helps to support immune function.

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Retrieved Text: Every year, millions of women are diagnosed with osteoporosis. Bone loss is a natural part of the aging process and tends to speed up after menopause in women.
We know that one in two women over age 50 will suffer an osteoporosis-related fracture at some point in their lives. There are more osteoporosis fractures annually than heart attacks, strokes, and breast cancers combined.
Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake is critical to slowing the rate of bone loss as we age.
The best source of calcium is calcium rich foods such as dairy, green leafy vegetables, salmon, oranges and fortified soymilk, bread and cereal.
Women should get about 1200 mg of calcium per day between diet and supplements. Vitamin D helps your body use the calcium. Adults should get 600 to 1000 IU of vitamin D a day.
Call Garrison Women’s Health in Dover, NH today to make an appointment in our New England Mammography and Bone Density Center to discuss your bone health.
We are happy to talk with you about ways to prevent, diagnose, and treat bone loss.
Checking your bone density utilizing our bone density machine is safe, quick, easy, and painless.
Bone density testing can detect bone loss before a fracture happens, predict your risk for future fractures and help us decide if treatment to correct the bone loss is needed.

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is a common bone disease in the United States. According to the National Osteoporosis Foundation, about 54 million Americans have osteoporosis and low bone mass. The condition occurs when the body makes too little bone or loses too much, leading to low bone density and weak, fragile, or brittle bones. There are no true signs or symptoms of early disease, which is why it is often referred to as a “silent” disease.
Osteoporosis usually does not become evident until a fracture has occurred. Left untreated, osteoporosis can lead to loss of height, back pain, stooped posture, and fractures. In some severe cases, simple actions such as bending or coughing can result in a break. Osteoporosis fractures can compromise quality of life and create other complications, such as hospitalization, immobility, and loss of independence.
While osteoporosis can have serious risks, the good news is that you can take steps to better understand your risk factors and reduce the risk of fractures.
Your health care provider can keep track of your bone health with a special scan—like an X-ray—called a bone density test. It’s a way of seeing how strong and dense your bones are.
Sometimes, DXA tests will indicate that bone density is low, but not low enough for an osteoporosis diagnosis. This condition of having low bone density is called osteopenia, and it means you have a greater risk of developing osteoporosis in the future. People with osteopenia may need to make lifestyle changes or get other treatments to prevent progression of the disease. See a doctor routinely for

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is a condition that causes the bones to become weak and brittle, placing them at a high risk for fracture. In all individuals, bone wears down over time, but is replaced with new bone tissue. As people age, bone loss occurs at a faster rate than new bone is created, resulting in osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is the result of increasing bone loss, and is more common in older people, especially women.
The most serious risk for people with osteoporosis is hip fracture following a fall. Bones affected by osteoporosis are extremely weak and even everyday activities can result in a fracture. Spinal compression fractures are the most common osteoporosis-related injury and can be triggered simply by bending over.
Osteoporosis is more common in people who are of Caucasian or Asian descent. Smoking and heavy alcohol use also may also put people at a higher risk for developing osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is diagnosed after a physical examination and a review of symptoms and a complete medical history. X-rays are taken and a bone density test is administered to check the mineral levels within the bones and determine bone health.
While lost bone cannot be replaced, a treatment plan may be developed to manage symptoms and prevent further weakening. Treatment often includes medication to slow or stop bone loss and reduce the risk of fracture. Medications may include bisphosphonates or hormone therapy with estrogen (ERT) for women. In addition, patients with osteoporosis are advised to eat a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, as well as exercise regularly to increase muscle strength.

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis may be a confusing diagnosis. What does it mean for your daily life? Can you slow the progression down? How can you improve bone health? Does it mean you are doomed to fall and suffer fractured bones? Unfortunately, there are many myths and misunderstandings around osteoporosis. Read on to learn how to separate the myths from the facts.
Facts: Calcium is an important part of bone and overall health. But bone health relies on a variety of essential nutrients such as vitamin K, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and B vitamins. You also need vitamin D for your body to absorb calcium. The statement that low calcium causes osteoporosis is much too simplified to tell the whole story.
Facts: Age is a risk factor for osteoporosis, but not everyone develops it. In the U.S., approximately 55 percent of people over the age of 50 will be diagnosed with osteoporosis, according to the International Osteoporosis Foundation. In addition to age, other risk factors include a family history of osteoporosis, smoking, heavy alcohol use, lack of exercise, certain medical conditions, being small-framed, and eating a diet low in calcium and vitamin D, according to the University of Michigan.
Facts: One in three women and one in five men experience an osteoporosis bone fracture, according to the International Osteoporosis Foundation. Your doctor can work with you to determine your fracture risk and what steps you can take to reduce that risk.
Facts: Osteopenia is when you have low bone mass but not low enough to be considered osteoporosis, according to FamilyDoctor.org. While osteopenia can

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Retrieved Text: Many of my patients 65 and older express their frustration about no longer being able to sit, stand, or move without feeling a sharp pain emanating from their low or mid back.
For some, their pain is so severe that it cripples their ability to remain independent, to work, and to participate in the recreational activities they once enjoyed with such ease.
What is so vexing to them is the lack of any specific injury and they have no history of a “bad” back.
Frequently, they are told that this pain is just due to being old, but commonly this pain is actually caused by a broken bone, or more specifically, a compression fracture. Compression fractures in this patient population are a characteristic finding of osteoporosis.
In this article, you will learn how to build strong bones and strategies to prevent osteoporosis. We’ll also explore how osteoporosis occurs and causes bones to become fragile and break easily.
For those of us not yet diagnosed, the good news is that advanced osteoporosis doesn’t happen overnight. It is years in the making, giving ample time for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. We’ll discuss some ways to prevent osteoporosis and maintain healthy bones.
You or someone you know may have already been been diagnosed with osteoporosis. With this diagnosis probably came fear to add on to your existing physical pain.
But there is good news for you as well – there are many simple and helpful interventions for every stage of the disease process. We’ll talk about some simple treatments for osteoporosis, whether you are newly

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Retrieved Text: Milk and osteoporosis: are dairy products really good for bones?
Dairy products are the best sources of calcium, and calcium is the main mineral in bones.
For this reason, health authorities recommend consuming dairy products every day.
But many people wonder if they really need dairy in their diet.
This evidence-based review examines science.
The idea that adult humans "need" dairy products in their diet does not seem to make much sense.
Humans are the only animal that consumes dairy products after weaning and consumes the milk of another species.
Before the animals were domesticated, milk was probably a rare delicacy reserved only for babies. However, it is not clear to what extent the hunter-gatherers sought the milk of wild animals.
Since milk intake was probably rare among adults during most of human evolution, it is safe to assume that humans were getting all the calcium they needed from other dietary sources (1).
However, although dairy products are not necessary in the human diet, that does not mean that they can not be beneficial. This applies especially to people who do not get much calcium from other dietary sources.
Summary Humans have been consuming dairy products for a relatively short time on an evolutionary scale. They are also the only species that consume milk after weaning or of another species.
Osteoporosis is a progressive disease in which bones deteriorate and lose mass and minerals over time.
The name is very descriptive of the nature of the disease: osteoporosis = porous bones.
It has many different causes and factors that are not related to nutrition, such as exercise and hormones

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Retrieved Text: The formula includes calcium asparto glycinate and vitamin D3 which has been carefully designed to support optimal functioning of a variety of important body tissues, making it both a bone formula and ideal supplement for muscles, nerves, and all connective tissues. This is one of the most convenient forms of supplementing diet with the essential nutrients like – Calcium – which provides nutritive support for healthy bones and teeth in combination with vitamin D3 – to help maximize calcium absorption.
People who have weak and brittle bones, and are prone to frequent fractures may consume these supplements. Also, people who do not consume enough calcium in their diet due to their busy lifestyle should go for these supplements to fulfill the nutritional gap in their diet. The majority of calcium is present in the bones and teeth. This mineral also forms a major part of the muscles, blood and other tissues. Therefore, it is important that you start focus on supplemental calcium at the right age. Women start losing calcium from their body after the age of 25; therefore they are more prone to calcium-related bone disorders, like arthritis and osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is the reduction of bone density. It is a loss of bone mass resulting in fragile bones and increased risk of fractures. Osteoporosis can lead to loss of height, stooped posture, humpback and severe pain. It can affect both men and women; however women are at higher risk, especially after menopause.
Calcium has been shown to have beneficial effects on bone mass at all ages, although the

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is a common bone disorder that causes bones to become thin, weakened, and prone to fracture. Over 10 million Americans are affected by osteoporosis. Women are at higher risk for osteoporosis after menopause due to lower levels of estrogen, a female hormone that helps to maintain bone mass. Women with osteoporosis are at risk to suffer from broken bones which can lead for further medical problems.
Risk factors for osteoporosis include age (>50), female, postmenopausal, family history of osteoporosis, low body weight, previous bone fractures, poor diet, inactive lifestyle, smoking and alcohol. There are also certain medical conditions and medications that increase the risk for osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is detected by a simple x-ray test called a DXA scan, better known as a bone density test. This is a brief x-ray scan that measures the bone density in the hip and spine. A screening DXA scan should be done starting at the age of 65. It may be done earlier if you have certain risk factors including previous fractures, low body weight, smoking, excessive alcohol use, rheumatoid arthritis or are taking steroid medications.
There are numerous treatments for osteoporosis. The most important treatment is preventing it in the first place! The point when you have the greatest amount of bone you will ever have is usually between the ages of 18 and 25 so it is important to build up strong bones early on in life.
A healthy diet rich in calcium and vitamin D is essential to supporting bone health. Additionally, weight bearing exercises promote strong bones. Be sure

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is often called the "silent disease" because it is symptomless. People may not even realize they have osteoporosis until it has advanced to the point where their bones are so weak that a sudden strain, bump, or fall causes a hip to fracture or a vertebra to collapse. The estimated cost of osteoporosis and related fractures is now approximately 14 billion dollars annually.
There are 24 million Americans, 80% of whom are women, who are at risk for osteoporosis—10 million already have the disease and 14 million have low bone mass placing them at increased risk for developing osteoporosis.
“Osteoporosis is a condition in which the infrastructure of the bone becomes thin and weakened,” said Casey Lauf, PT, physical therapist with Atrio Home Care. Once weakened, the bone is at higher risk for fracture even from minimal stresses, like a bump or a fall, which would have little or no effect on strong, healthy bone.
Bones continue to build mass from birth, with peak growth occurring between the ages of twenty and thirty. Actual bone mass loss begins as early as age thirty.
Risk factors for the disease include age, gender, genetics—if other members of your family have osteoporosis, you are more likely to get it—a small frame, various diseases or conditions like hyperparathyroidism and certain medications. Inadequate diet, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking and lack of exercise can all increase bone loss and up your chances of developing osteoporosis.
Bones depend on calcium, other chemicals and certain vitamins to keep them strong.
Bones grow in response to physical stress (exercise) put

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Retrieved Text: Will Osteoporosis Fractures Heal More Slowly Than "Normal" Fractures?
Osteoporosis is a common medical condition where your once growing, strong bones now have low bone density or low bone mass. Low bone mass is determined by a bone density test, family history, diet, and the amount of exercise you get. Not everyone with low bone mass has osteoporosis; but, low bone mass puts you at higher risk of developing the disease, states MedlinePlus. If you do have osteoporosis, your now porous bones are subject to fractures, especially if you are over 50.
If you've broken a bone and you are over the half-century mark, chances are osteoporosis had something to do with it. Worldwide, statistics show that bone fractures caused by osteoporosis happen every 3 seconds. That's nearly 9 million fractures every year. If you are one of those 9 million people, does having the disease cause your fracture to heal more slowly? No--osteoporosis is a causative disease. Your fracture will heal at about the same rate as someone younger without osteoporosis.
Are All Fractures The Same?
Every skeletal system has the same basic make-up. What influences fracture healing is the individual's unique genetics and history. As a rule, bone fractures can take up to three months to heal. However, it can take up to a year to feel healed. Osteoporosis bone fractures are no different. You might think that because your bones are weaker and more porous that the healing process will be longer, with more physical therapy involved. Again, that is not necessarily so. It isn't the osteoporosis

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Retrieved Text: Defined as low bone density and the extreme fragility of bones, osteoporosis is a condition that puts millions of Americans at risk of fractures. What’s alarming is the severity of these brittle bones – those suffering from osteoporosis can break a bone from a minor fall or even something as simple as a cough! Typically the hip, wrist and spine are affected by osteoporosis but any bone is at risk of being fractured.
By the age of 18, girls have already acquired about 85% of adult bone mass. It is extremely important for children and young adults to build strong bones to avoid problems from osteoporosis in the future. A healthy diet and strength training are two of the most important ways to prevent this condition.
As women need up to 1,500 milligrams of calcium every day, calcium-rich foods assist in building and maintaining strong bones. Breakfast is the perfect opportunity to receive much of your daily calcium. Check labels on cereal boxes to be sure they are calcium fortified. Fat-free milk, soy milk, yogurt and calcium-fortified orange juice are all good options as well. Try adding cheese, broccoli, greens and fish such as canned salmon to your lunch and dinner selections. Talk to your doctor about your daily intake of calcium – you may also need to add a supplement to fulfill your body’s needs. In order for your body to absorb calcium, vitamin D needs to be a critical part of your diet. Fish, liver and egg yolks are all good sources of vitamin D. The

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is a characterised by porous and fragile bones that are prone to fractures.
Osteopenia refers to a condition of reduced bone mineral density (BMD) that results in weak bones and increases the risk of osteoporosis.
Most bone fractures are painful. Hips fractures require surgery and most patients require long term nursing care thereafter. Fractures also increase mortality in the elderly.
Spinal fractures can result in back pain, loss of height and hunchback.
– Postmenopausal: Osteoporosis is more common in women after menopause due low levels of hormone estrogen.
How to Prevent & Treat Osteoporosis and Osteopenia?
– Adequate intake of calcium & vitamin D in the diet and from calcium supplements such as Algaecal.
AlgaeCal is a plant source calcium derived from marine algae. It contains high amounts of magnesium, over 70 trace minerals and phytonutrients. Traditional calcium supplements are made from inorganic rock or coral and contain few/none of the bone building ingredients such as trace minerals, vitamin D, magnesium, Vitamin K2 and Strontium.
Calcium alone is not sufficient. In addition to calcium, AlgaeCal contains trace minerals that are necessary to enhance bone health. Unlike minerals found in rock, AlgaeCal plant minerals are highly bioavailable and absorbable. While traditional calcium supplements can only slow bone loss, AlgaeCal has been clinically proven to increase bone density within six months or 1 year.
If you have been diagnosed with osteopenia, osteoporosis or you are at risk of developing osteoporosis, it is recommended that you take AlgaeCal and Strontium for increasing bone density.

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Retrieved Text: Home » Feelgood Health Blog » Osteoporosis - are YOU at risk?
Osteoporosis - are YOU at risk?
Osteoporosis is a condition which cause the bones to lose their strength, become weak and brittle and, most likely to break and fracture. While these fractures can occur in various areas of the body, they commonly affect the hip, wrist and spine. Our bones are constantly being renewed and when old bone is broken down, new bone is produced.
During your youth, your body makes new bone faster than old bone that is broken down – which of course increases your bone mass. By your early 20’s most people reach their peak bone mass but as you age, bone mass is lost much faster. Osteoporosis therefore depends in part on how much bone mass you achieved during your youth. The more bone mass you have acquired, the less likely you will be to develop osteoporosis.
Initially you will not experience any symptoms in the early stages of bone loss. Over time as osteoporosis weakens your bones, you may experience back pain caused by a fracture, gradually lose height, develop a stooped posture or sudden, unexpected fractures.
If left untreated many people experience much suffering and pain from this debilitating condition. Fortunately, it’s not all bad news and osteoporosis is preventable and treatable!
Women are more likely to develop osteoporosis than men as their bones are thinner, lighter and have a longer life span.
As you become older, your risk of osteoporosis increases. Women over 50 years old are more susceptible to osteoporosis.
Both men and women

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis: Can Probiotics Help with Weak, Brittle Bones?
Osteoporosis is a disease in which decreased bone strength causes weak and brittle bones.
Having this bone disease increases the risk of bone fractures. There are many things which influence bone health, including probiotics.
Worldwide, osteoporosis causes more than 8.9 million fractures annually, resulting in an osteoporotic fracture every 3 seconds!
This debilitating bone disease is estimated to affect 200 million women worldwide - approximately one-tenth of women aged 60, one-fifth of women aged 70, two-fifths of women aged 80 and two-thirds of women aged 90.
The combined lifetime risk for hip, forearm and vertebral fractures which require medical intervention is around 40%, equivalent to the risk for cardiovascular disease!!!
But guys, you are not immune to the risks! Worldwide, 1 in 3 women over age 50 will experience osteoporotic fractures, but so will 1 in 5 men aged over 50.
Women, Don't Be a Statistic!
Men, Don't Be a Statistic!
Most people think of osteoporotic-related fractures in the hips but the truth is that most fractures occur in the forearm, then the humerus (upper arm bone), then the hip and then the spine. However, for obvious reasons, hip fractures are most likely to end in disability and premature death.
After sustaining a hip fracture 10-20% of formerly independent-living people require long term nursing care. Hip fractures have reported mortality rates up to 20-24% in the first year after a hip fracture and an increased risk of dying may persist for at least 5 years afterwards. Loss of function and independence among survivors is profound, with 40% unable

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis literally means “porous bones.” A scary fact about osteoporosis is that the disease is usually “silent,” developing over many years but going unnoticed. For many people, osteoporosis causes no obvious symptoms or discomfort (you can’t “feel” your bones weakening) until eventually the person affected experiences a bone fracture.
Your diet plays a critical role in your bone health because it determines if you’re obtaining enough protein and essential vitamins and minerals — especially calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and manganese that all play a role in bone formation.
Osteoporosis is defined as “a bone disease that occurs when the body loses too much bone, makes too little bone, or both.” (2) Osteoporosis is generally seen in women over the age of 50, although younger women and men too can develop this condition. It’s estimated that about one in two women (50 percent) and up to one in four men (25 percent) over the age of 50 will break a bone at some point due to osteoporosis.
When viewed under a microscope, osteoporotic bones visibly contain abnormal tissue structure. Osteoporosis occurs when small holes or weakened areas are formed in the bones that can lead to bone fractures (broken bones), bone pain and sometimes other complications such as a Dowager’s hump (an abnormal outward curvature of the thoracic vertebrae of the upper back, causing the appearance of a hump).
Just how “serious” is osteoporosis in terms of symptoms and long-term consequences? This condition should not be taken lightly, since weak and broken bones can be difficult to treat and cope with.
Bone breaks,

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Retrieved Text: The American diet is turning our bones into powder. The osteoporosis diet information listed below will give you a major head start to prevent bone disease. This page lists various foods that naturally build very powerful bone tissue, and lists what foods actually cause bone loss.
With age, human bone can thin somewhat, but our bone structure is still meant to be able to withstand the rigors of daily living. On this page, we illustrate how to implement an anti osteoporisis diet by eating whole foods in their original, unprocessed form.
Let's start with the basics first. osteo means bone, porosis means porous. The word porous means pores or having holes. With osteoporosis, the bones become thin and porous. Osteoporosis is the gradual thinning of bone mass.
The human body consists of 206 bones. Bone is living tissue that changes constantly. Each and every atom in our bone tissue is being replaced every three months.
Bone tissue is the hardest tissue in the human body. Rib cage bones protect the heart and lungs, and of course the skull cap protects the brain from injury.
Sodas: Phosphorus is added into sodas, which completely throws off our calcium balance. Phosphorus is needed to form bone, but it's added into many processed foods, especially sodas. This creates an imbalance that causes bone to be lost as a result.
Caffeine: Caffeine interferes with calcium absorption and causes the excretion of calcium from the body through the urine.
Sugar: Sugar eats through bone and skin tissue. Sugar is devoid of all nutrients. Because of this, for sugar to

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Retrieved Text: Vitamin Code RAW Calcium is a whole food plant calcium formula with magnesium, vitamin D3 and K2 (MK-7). Vitamin Code RAW Calcium is clean, meaning no synthetic binders or fillers, artificial flavors, sweeteners, colors or additives commonly used in tablets. Whole food means RAW Food-Created Nutrients are blended in a base of 24 fruits and vegetables together with food cofactors and 73+ naturally occurring trace minerals. Plus, Vitamin Code RAW Calcium has 1,600IU of vitamin D3 to help your body utilize calcium efficiently?, and 100mcg of vitamin K2 as MK-7 and magnesium to promote proper absorption of calcium in the bone, where you want it most.?
Supports digestion with live probiotics and enzymes?
Vitamin Code RAW Calcium also reduces osteoporosis risk.??
Vitamin Code RAW Calcium?RAW whole food calcium blended in a base of 24 fruits and vegetables and 73+ naturally occurring trace minerals. Make RAW Calcium an integral part of your daily bone health regimen including a calcium-rich diet and regular exercise.
??Regular exercise and a healthy diet with enough calcium and vitamin D helps you maintain good bone health and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis later in life.

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by the thinning and weakening of the bones, and the risk increases with age. It is especially common for women, even more so for those going through menopause. Bone density can rapidly decrease as estrogen levels decrease, as occurs during menopausal years.
Osteoporosis can be painful and lead to bone fractures, usually in the hips, spine, and wrists. Luckily, there are several alternative treatments to address this condition, whether its caused by hormonal changes, lifestyle choices, dietary choices, or other things.
Calcium is absolutely essential for bone density. If your body is low on calcium, your likelihood of getting osteoporosis increases significantly. To retain calcium in the bones, it's also very important to consume sufficient vitamin D, K, and magnesium, as calcium is not absorbed well without these nutrients.You can find vitamin D in egg yolks, fortified cereals, or in supplemental form. Vitamin K and magnesium are found in dark leafy greens. Calcium can also be found abundantly in dark leafy greens, as well as broccoli, figs, and great northern beans.
Research has shown that a high-fat diet can lead to low calcium levels in cancellous bone, which is the spongy part of the bone. In general, those consuming greater amounts of fat have a lower mineral content in their cancellous bones than those eating a low-fat diet. You can avoid this risk by consuming less red meat and high-fat foods, like fried foods, and replacing them with leafy greens and lean proteins, such as tofu and seitan.
Too much or too little protein can

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Retrieved Text: Apart from the overall health of the body, it is also important to take care of the bone health. Bone health if ignored can lead to some of the bone related problems like arthritis, osteoporosis, bone fractures and other such problems. Deteriorating bone health can be a result of an unhealthy diet, unbalanced diet and no exercise. Apart from adequate exercise, here are a few foods that can help you to improve your bone health.
1. Spinach – Spinach has the ability to provide for 25% of the everyday requirement of calcium. The green vegetable is also rich in fibre, vitamin A and iron. Spinach is good for improving bone health and also helps to keep the condition of anaemia at bay.
2. Eggs – The yolk part of the egg is rich in providing Vitamin D which is good for the bones as it helps in absorbing Calcium. Eggs contain 6% of the vitamin D that is required for the body on an everyday basis. The Vitamin D in the eggs gets easily absorbed in the body.
3. Fish – Fishes like the salmon, tuna or sardines are great that can be included in the diet and is great for bone health. They are rich in Vitamin D and three ounces of fish can fulfill 100% of the everyday requirement of the vitamin. Vitamin D is a great source that helps in absorbing calcium.
4. Dairy products – All the dairy products are rich in calcium. Cheese, yoghurt, milk, butter and clarified butter are great sources of calcium and

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Retrieved Text: When people age – particularly women – there often comes a loss of height and weight, and the development of stooped posture. A bone-thinning disease called osteoporosis (os-tee-oh-pour-osis) often causes these body changes. Osteoporosis causes destruction of bone tissue which leads to loss of bone mass. As a result, bones become brittle and the risk of fracture of the spine, hip, and wrist increases. Spinal fractures are the most common type of fractures due to osteoporosis. Forty percent of all women will have at least one spinal fracture by the time they are 80 years old. These vertebral fractures can permanently alter the shape and strength of the spine.
Most women are likely to feel some effects of osteoporosis in their lifetime, but the good news is that much can be done to reduce and even prevent loss of bone mass and fractures. New treatments for osteoporosis are being discovered each year. You can also actively work to decrease your chances of suffering the effects of osteoporosis. The key is prevention and intervention.
Loss of bone mass begins at around age 30. Although men can be affected by osteoporosis, older women are usually affected – particularly those who are past menopause. Bone loss becomes worse in women after menopause because of the body’s lack of estrogen. When bones lose mass they tend to weaken and become fragile. This increases the risk of fracture under stress or because of a fall, particularly in your spine and hip.
Doctors have identified two types of osteoporosis, primary and secondary. Primary osteoporosis is

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Retrieved Text: Preventing osteoporosis by maintaining a health diet rich in calcium and vitamin D and exercising regularly can help many women avoid the serious effects of osteoporosis. Women who have low bone mineral density or osteoporosis may also benefit from taking hormone replacement therapy or other drug therapies. This section describes treatments for osteoporosis.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is synthetic estrogen and/or progesterone (called progestin). Past research has shown that that has been shown to be effective in treating osteoporosis. However, recent research has found that HRT may not provide these benefits and may pose other risks, including an increased risk of ovarian cancer (with long-term use) and cancer of the uterine lining (in women do not take progestin with estrogen).
HRT is designed to "replace" a woman's depleting hormone levels at menopause. HRT is commonly prescribed to help relieve menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness. HRT is thought to be most effective against osteoporosis if taken during the first five years after menopause begins.
Because of the risks associated with HRT, women should talk with their physicians about whether HRT is an appropriate treatment option for osteoporosis, and may wish to consider alternative treatments.
The drugs, Fosamax (generic name, alendronate) and Actonel (generic name, risedronate sodium), belongs to a group of drugs called bisphosphonates. They are commonly used to prevent and treat osteoporosis in post-menopausal women. Fosamax and Actonel are not estrogens and do not carry the associated risks or benefits of estrogen (see the hormone replacement therapy section above).
Studies show that after three years of use,

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Retrieved Text: Chances are, you know someone who has been sidelined by a fall. Whether that person slipped on the ice, tripped over a rug, or fell while stepping down from a ladder, one thing is for a certain: One simple accident or misstep can cause a serious injury.
Aside from avoiding falls and keeping your home safe, you can take steps now to keep your bones healthy and strong. By taking good care of your bones, if you do fall, you will have a better chance of recovery.
As we age, our bones naturally break down and lose density. Some people then face osteoporosis, a disease that makes bones sponge-like, brittle and more likely to break. The National Osteoporosis Foundation reports about 54 million Americans External Site have low bone density or osteoporosis, and one in four men over age 50 will break a bone as a result. Among women over age 50, one in every two can expect an osteoporosis-related break. The risk of fractures and breaks increases during the icy, snowy days of winter. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), each year, one in every three adults ages 65 or older falls and 2 million are treated in emergency departments for fall-related injuries.
The risk of falling increases with each decade of life. The hip, wrist and spine are especially prone to fractures, and those cracks can lead to long-lasting health issues.
As we age, bones start breaking down more quickly than they grow. Certain populations experience faster bone loss than others, and that puts

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Retrieved Text: According to recent statistics, over 55% of people above the age of 50 have osteoporosis, and about 34 million people have osteopenia (low bone density) or a BMD between -1.0 and -2.5. To fulfill your body’s requirement, calcium is reabsorbed from the bones which makes them weak and increases the risk of osteoporosis.
Stats also reveal that 200 million women worldwide suffer from osteoporosis. One in three women over the age 50 will experience skeletal fragility and you just can’t underestimate the importance of a bone healthy diet. Similarly, eating the wrong food can drain the nutrients out of your bones. In fact, excess intake of salt can speed up bone deterioration.
Linda K. Massey, Ph.D., RD, a professor of human nutrition at Washington State University, Spokane, claimed that the increased salt content in the American diet is one reason calcium requirements are so high.
Strengthening bones is always a good idea, and this is why having a bone-friendly calcium-rich diet from the start is a good practice. The following are some bone building foods you must include in your diet.
We have been told all our lives that milk is a nutrient powerhouse and it is rich in calcium. The daily intake of calcium per day is about 1500 milligrams.
Morning is the best time to give your body a boost of calcium. Consuming milk in the breakfast is one of the best ways to get calcium in your body. You get 300 mg of calcium in a cup of 250 ml of milk. It has many other essential nutrients

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Retrieved Text: How Much Vitamin D for Babies?
Alcoholism, ankylosing spondylitis, anorexia nervosa, anticonvulsant-induced osteomalacia, BMD, bone mineral density, bulimia, cartilage, corticosteroid, Crohn's disease, Cushing's disease, cystic fibrosis, dal photon absorptiometry, DEXA, diuretics, DPA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, eating disorders, estrogen, fracture, gastrectomy, hepatic osteodystrophy, hormonal replacement therapy, HRT, hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, hysterectomy, I.U., International unit, juvenile osteoporosis, Kashin-Beck disease, kyphoplasty, kyphosis, menopause, oophrectomy, osteochondrosis, osteomalacia, osteopenia, osteopenic, osteoporotic, parathyroidectomy, P-DEXA, peak bone loss, peripheral dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, postmenopausal, progestin, QCT, quantitative computer tomography, renal osteodystrophy, selective estrogen receptor modulators, SERMS, skeletal fluorosis, single-energy X-ray absorptiometry, smoking, smoking cessation, SXA, testosterone, ultrasound, vertebroplasty.
Osteoporosis is a disease of the bones that makes them weak and prone to fracture.
Osteoporosis is considered a silent disease, because bone loss itself is gradual and painless. There are usually no symptoms to indicate that a person is developing osteoporosis early in the condition. Bone is living tissue that is in a constant state of formation and resorption. Bone resorption is the gradual loss of bone. As individuals age, formation lessens and after a peak bone mass is achieved, bone mass remains stable (resorption and formation are equal). Osteoclasts are the principal cells responsible for bone resorption.
By their mid-30s, most individuals begin to gradually lose bone strength as the balance between bone resorption and bone formation shifts, so that more bone is lost than can be replaced. As a result, bones become less dense and structurally weaker, called osteopenia. Osteopenia refers to mild bone loss that is not severe enough to be called osteoporosis, but that increases the

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Retrieved Text: Osteoporosis (meaning porous bones) refers to a medical condition in which the bones of an individual become thin and weak. The previous stage is called osteopenia (a precursor to osteoporosis). The bones become fragile and therefore start losing its strength. The medical researchers have reported that women are more prone to getting osteoporosis as compared to that of men, but that does not mean that men are completely immune to this disease. Where there are almost 50% women suffer from osteoporosis by the age of 60, there are about 30% of men who face the problem of osteoporosis.
Well, it has always been said that sooner you start taking care of your health especially bones, the better it is. Osteoporosis is a very common medical condition nowadays and major factors that are responsible for the increased prevalence of this disease is the lifestyle changes which include the living patterns and the diet changes.
Osteoporosis happens when there is an imbalance between new bone formation and old bone resorption. The body may fail to produce enough new bone, or too much old bone may be reabsorbed, or both. If calcium intake is not sufficient or if the body does not absorb enough calcium from the diet, bone production and bone tissue may suffer. Thus, the bones may become porous, resulting in spongy and brittle, prone to fractures.
Other conditions that may lead to osteoporosis include overuse of corticosteroids (Cushing syndrome), thyroid problems, lack of muscle use, bone cancer, certain genetic disorders, use of certain medications, and dietary deficiency of calcium.
Women

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Retrieved Text: This scan assesses bone strength in the hips and spine, two of the main areas at risk from osteoporotic fracture. The scan helps doctors to decide whether treatment is needed, and follow-up scans can be useful in monitoring the condition.
What is osteoporosis? Osteoporosis is a condition where the bones, particularly the spine, wrist and hips, become thinner and more liable to fracture. Bone is a living tissue, made up of collagen fi bres and minerals such as calcium. There is a delicate balance between new bone cells being made and old cells being broken down. After about 45 years, we lose a certain amount of bone material, and the bones can become less strong and dense, and more likely to break. A milder degree of bone loss is known as osteopaenia.
How common is osteoporosis? About one in three Irish women and one in 12 men over 50 years of age are thought to have osteoporosis. Women are more at risk, especially when they lose the protective benefi ts of oestrogen hormone after the menopause.
By age 70 some women have lost 30% of their bone material. You cannot see or feel the bones getting thinner, so many people are diagnosed only when they fracture a bone after a minor injury. Many will slowly develop thinner bones over several years, and may notice loss of height, a stooping posture, or persistent back pain.
be diagnosed? The best way to measure bone density or strength is by a special scan called a DEXA scan. This is a simple procedure and

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Retrieved Text: calcium-deficiency-may-not-be-the-cause-of-osteoporosis The go-to nutrient for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis has historically been calcium.
Bone health requires calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus to maintain strength and promote new cell growth. As people age, one of the unfortunate results is often loss of bone density―especially in women.
The cause of osteoporosis, however, might not be a calcium deficiency but something you might not have considered: scurvy.
The human body doesn’t create vitamin C, which is why it’s referred to as an “essential” vitamin. This one nutrient is vitally important for proper functioning of the immune system and―you guessed it―maintenance of healthy bones.
With a diagnosis of osteoporosis comes calcium supplementation and often a prescription of a bisphosphonate like Actonel, Fosamax, or Reclast. As with all pharmaceuticals, this type of drug can have serious adverse side effects: kidney dysfunction, eye inflammation, esophageal cancer, and chronic pain (1).
Bisphosphonates are effective in preventing further loss of bone mass by inhibiting the re-absorption of bone cells by binding to calcium. They therefore affect the usability and availability of calcium by bones, serving only a temporary solution against bone fracture. Long-term use of these medications is under review and the accumulated evidence suggests use should be limited, if prescribed at all.
The prescription of calcium supplements for people with osteoporosis can do more harm than good, especially when taken with a bisphosphonate. Too much calcium in the body will clump together, lining arteries and organs. We know the result when that happens: heart attack, stroke, and kidney and gallstones.
Hypertension is often treated with a thiazide diuretic to

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Rank: 29
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Retrieved Text: What is the danger of osteoporosis?
Fractures! The most common osteoporotic fractures are of the wrist, spine, shoulder and hip.
Hip fractures have serious risks associated with them, including deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.
Compression fractures and broken bones from osteoporosis can cause significant pain that lasts for several months.
Spinal compression fractures can cause nerve roots to be compressed; your doctor may recommend surgery to stabilize the crushed spinal bones.
Fractures may lead to a lifestyle that includes taking medicines. Over the counter medicines that help with pain from fractures include acetaminophen (like Tylenol) and NSAIDS, which are anti-inflammatories, (like Ibuprofen and Naproxen). Regular use of NSAIDS may mean you have to take another medicine known as a proton pump inhibitor to protect your digestive system. If pain from fractures is extreme, you may need to take prescribed narcotics.
Build strong bones by performing weight-bearing exercise most days for about 30 minutes. Weight bearing exercises include walking, jogging, stair climbing, dancing, weight lifting and aerobics.
Perform resistance exercises 2 or 3 days a week. Resistance exercises include free weights and resistance bands.
Have a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D. Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium. Calcium is found in many foods, including dairy products like milk and yogurt. If you think ‘re not getting enough calcium in your diet, check with your doctor about taking supplements. Brand names with proven reliability are best. Avoid coral calcium as so far there is no scientific proof it is effective against osteoporosis.
Limit alcohol to no more than 2 drinks a day for

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Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Air pollution is harmful to human beings and other living things. About 22 million people die from air pollution each year. Breathing polluted air increases the risk of developing lung diseases such as asthma and lung cancer. Breathing bad air also increases the chances of dying from other diseases. Children are most likely to be affected by air pollution. That’s because their lungs are still developing and growing. Children also take in more air for their size than adults do. Some air pollutants damage the environment as well as the health of living things. The type of damage depends on the pollutant. Air pollution can also harm the environment.


Q: How many people die from air pollution each year?

 Choices:

- 22 million

- 14 million

- 17 million

- 5 million

A:

Target Text: 22 million

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Rank: 0
Score: 34.963886
Retrieved Text: In China, the consequences of air pollution are many and dramatic. In the agricultural sector, for example, crops are affected: 20 million tonnes of rice, wheat, maize and soya are lost each year due to ozone pollution. A total of 1 million people die each year from air pollution (particularly particulate matter) and the economic cost is estimated at 0.66% of GDP.

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Retrieved Text: Can the Effects of Air Pollution Harm Me?
Home ▸ Air Pollution ▸ Can the Effects of Air Pollution Harm Me?
You and your children could be at risk when breathing in polluted air. There are two types of, effects of air pollution, and they are long term, and short-term effects. Just how badly each person is harmed by pollution will depend on the duration of exposure, as well as the amount they were exposed to during that time. These together, are referred to as the total exposure to the pollution. Elderly people, as well as children usually are more harmed by the effects of air pollution, than a healthy adult. It is also dangerous for people with asthma or lung disease to be exposed to air pollution. People know that pollution is harmful and could even kill you, but the benefits we get from activities causing pollution, often outweigh the potential harm, in our minds. It is not until we have felt the effects of air pollution personally that we begin to be concerned with fixing the problem.
The short-term effects of air pollution have probably harmed you already without you realizing it. Some of the short-term effects include irritation to the nose, throat, and eyes. Some more serious effects include things like bronchitis, respiratory infections, and even pneumonia. You might have gotten these problems from air pollution and didn’t even realize it. You probably only think the effects of air pollution include the long term effects like lung cancer, and respiratory disease. So then you might have

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Retrieved Text: A new study found that more than 95 per cent of all people in the world are breathing dangerously polluted air.
Air Pollution means that harmful gases get into the Earth’s atmosphere causing breathing problems and diseases for humans and animals. Millions of people die each year because they breathe in polluted air. Acid rain that poisons plants, chemicals that destroy the atmosphere’s ozone layer, and greenhouse gases that are responsible for Global Warming are other severe effects of air pollution.
There are many reasons for polluted air: Cars, ships and airplanes are the biggest polluters. People cooking over open fires in developing countries, industries that produce goods or burn waste, or farmers that spray pesticides and fertilizers are all to blame for the pollution.
In some cities in China people often can't see further than a few yards because the smog in their town is so thick.
Ask your parents to use their car less, and to turn of the motor when the car is parked. . Use mass transportation, such as a bus, or walk or bike to get to places. Educate others about the dangers of air pollution.

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Retrieved Text: The community is concerned about air pollution. Smog can damage lung and bronchial tissue, cause eye irritation, coughs, headaches and respiratory illness, increase asthma and cause cancers. In New South Wales, 400 people die each year as a result of particulate pollution and around Australia there are up to 1,000 deaths a year from this cause. The Greens (WA) recognise the concerns of the community and are committed to solving the air quality problems.
Perth already has significant air pollution from photochemical smog, haze and other chemicals. As of 1998 carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, photochemical oxidants, sulphur dioxide and particulates have all exceeded national guidelines for the protection of public health.
The two major contributors to air pollution are vehicles and industrial emissions. In particular, cars generate about 90% of carbon monoxide and industry generates the majority of reactive organic compounds, sulphur dioxide and particulates.
The decline in Perth’s air quality has become a major environmental health issue. The Perth community has responded overwhelmingly in favour of a full, integrated approach to bring about an immediate reversal of air quality decline.
The effects of particle exposure on health, including respiratory symptoms, show the smallest particles, particulate matter (PM) 2.5, are the most damaging. Many PM 2.5 particles are produced during coal-fired power generation (Source: William M. Castleden, David Shearman, George Crisp and Philip Finch, ‘The Mining and Burning of Coal: Effects on Health and the Environment.’ MJA 195 (6) 19 September 2011).

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Retrieved Text: Fixing CO2 is a harder problem than fixing soot and air pollution. Carbon dioxide is a gas. It is harder to split the carbon dioxide out of a smokestack than it is to filter out soot and particulates. Carbon dioxide that is already in the atmosphere will stay there for decades or centuries but soot and particulates can come out in weeks.
The short-term pollutants cause half of the warming problem and they are twenty times cheaper to fix. They have lower costs and often cause higher economic and health damage.
Short-lived climate pollutants, such as methane, black carbon, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and tropospheric ozone, have a powerful effect on global temperatures, and many are also damaging air pollutants. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming impact 86 times higher than that of carbon dioxide over a 20-year time horizon. It is also the largest precursor to ground-level ozone, a major component of smog, which can worsen bronchitis and asthma and damage lung tissue. Tropospheric ozone exposure alone is responsible for an estimated one million premature deaths each year.
Methane, Black Carbon (BC), and Ozone (O3) are the most important contributors to current global warming after carbon dioxide (CO2). While HFCs emissions are currently small, they are projected to rise and could be equivalent to 7 to 19% of CO2 emissions by 2050.
BC and co-pollutants make up for the majority of particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) air pollution, one of the leading environmental causes of ill health and premature death. 3.5 and 3.2 million people die prematurely each

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Retrieved Text: Last year a report by Kings College London estimated up to 36,000 people die as a result of air pollution in the UK. Road transport is the biggest contributor to air pollution in Greater Manchester, and this means how we get around, what vehicles we use, and how we use them, directly affect the quality of air we breathe. Research has found connections between air pollution and wider health concerns, including respiratory conditions, dementia, and child development.
In this seminar three speakers shared their perspectives on the history of air pollution, the challenges we face today, and the proposed measures to find a solution.

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Score: 30.197205
Retrieved Text: Indoor air pollution is a term used to characterize the pollution of the air inside our homes, office workplaces and other living spaces. The extent of air pollution outside in urban cities and industrial areas is obvious to all of us.
But most of us are not aware of the dire condition of the air that we breathe inside our homes. In fact, the air inside is supposed to be more harmful to our health than the air outside.
Indoor air pollution has in fact become a pressing issue and has been ranked among the greatest environmental concerns that people are now facing.
Indoor air quality is the air quality inside our living structures. People spend around 90% of their day indoors. So the quality of air that we breathe indoors should be of great concern to us.
The problem of indoor air pollution is significantly more severe in the developing nations than in the developed ones. WHO estimates that almost 3 billion people in the developing world rely on sources such as wood, dung, charcoal, coal and other forms of biomass for cooking their food. This puts them at a higher risk of health problems related to indoor air pollution. Women and children are more affected by this than men.
There can be immediate effects on our health after exposure to bad air for short term. These effects include eye irritation, coughing, fatigue, headaches and dizziness. Short term exposure can also worsen existing respiratory ailments like asthma.
Serious health problems can occur if we are exposed to harmful air pollution for

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Rank: 7
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Retrieved Text: People across the world are subsidising the fossil fuel industry to the tune of R63-trillion a year, according to research released by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) this week. It called this figure “shocking” and called for a change in how the energy form is valued.
In comparison, renewable energy subsidies worldwide were R1.4-trillion this year, it said.
“How large are global energy subsidies?” is one of the first global assessments of both the external costs of fossil fuels and the tax subsidies given to industry.
The fund’s primary finding was: “Post-energy tax subsidies are dramatically higher than estimated — $5.3-trillion by 2015.” These subsidies were “large and pervasive” in both advanced and developing countries, being the equivalent of 18% of some GDPs.
The IMF split its calculation between the subsidies that fossil fuel companies got from governments and the environmental cost of their operations. The former came in the form of tax breaks and, for example, lower cost electricity for operations.
The latter included the costs that are externalised and borne by the environment and people.
These include carbon emissions — which accelerate climate change — and the cost of people going to hospital for chest problems. Most of the costs come from what governments have to spend treating the victims of air pollution, it said.
The worst cost came from coal, it said, with the largest single source being coal-fired power stations in China. These cost $2.3-trillion in externalities each year.
Due to their impact on accelerating climate change, the full cost of subsidies to fossil fuels included $1.3-trillion a year. This

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Rank: 8
Score: 30.006523
Retrieved Text: The most appropriate definition of environmental pollution would be the introduction of different harmful pollutants into certain environment that make this environment unhealthy to live in. The most common pollutants are usually chemicals, garbage, and waste water. Environmental pollution is happening in many parts of the world, especially in form of air and water pollution. The best example for air pollution are some of China's cities, including capital Beijing, and the best example for water pollution is India with its Ganges river pollution problem.
Globally speaking environmental pollution problem is much bigger than we think it is, even in many our cities there are problems with dirty air, or sound pollution from traffic and different other disturbing noises. The most severe environmental pollution is happening in developing countries of the third world because not only to they lack any form of sustainable management but they also lack even the basic sanitation so you can imagine how bad is the environmental condition in these countries.
them in India. This is really no surprise when you look at the data that says that 700 million Indians do not even have access to a proper toilet, whether alone clean water.
Many developed countries have introduced certain laws to not only regulate various types of pollution but also the laws to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. Pollution levels need to be controlled all the time if we want to keep our environment safe and healthy. Without proper pollution control environment soon becomes unhealthy. Preventing introduction of pollutants into some environment is the

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Rank: 9
Score: 29.831099
Retrieved Text: Deseret News' John Hoffmire comes to the support of electric vehicles as vehicles to address a host of problems facing the Salt Lake, Utah urban metro area.
If one were to identify the top problems in the areas 40 miles north and south of Salt Lake City, most people would name air pollution among the top five. Six counties in Utah have been graded “F” in “State of Air 2013,” according to the report issued by the American Lung Association. Throughout many years, for quite a number of days each year, inversion, a phenomenon characterized by haze, exists over valleys in Utah, causing health problems for young and old alike — especially those who are troubled by bronchitis, emphysema and asthma.
The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that more than 150 million people live in places that fall short of the guidelines set up under the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Each year, up to 30,000 premature deaths in the U.S. can be attributed to fine particulate matter, one of the six main air pollutants. Globally, data published by the World Health Organization shows that 2 million people die every year because of degraded air quality.
The largest single source of air pollution in the United States is no doubt transportation, which accounts for nearly 67 percent of the carbon monoxide, 33 percent of the nitrogen oxides and 25 percent of the hydrocarbons in our atmosphere, according to a report written by the EPA.
All of Copenhagen's electric service vehicles have been pulled off its streets until source of accident is

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Rank: 10
Score: 29.827318
Retrieved Text: In 2016 the WHO reported that over 90% of the world’s population lived in areas which exceeded air quality limit. Air pollution has a dramatic impact globally with estimates of over 6.5 million people dying each year directly as a result of air pollution. In Australia alone it is estimated that over 3000 Australians will die prematurely this year as a result of poor air quality. Compounding this problem is that there are many places both in Australia and around the world where there is no air quality monitoring data that is publicly available and accessible. This is partly due to the fact that weather stations are expensive, easily exceeding $2000 for an entry level device. Our team is committed to tackling this problem through the creation of a portable and inexpensive IoT Device which will monitor air quality in real-time and publish the open source data to enable members of the public to be aware of the quality of air they breathe in their local area. This has a number of key benefits. Firstly it can be used to discover areas where air quality needs to be fixed and thereby save people’s lives as well as improve their quality of life. Through providing greater visibility of air quality this may also empower local communities to have a positive influence on public policies aimed at reducing air pollution. In addition, the monitoring data can also be used to benefit people’s lives as the data streamed from our devices can be received by other IoT connected devices

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Rank: 11
Score: 29.821493
Retrieved Text: A new report by UN Environment identifies and proposes 25 clean air measures that can positively impact human health, crop yields, climate change and socio-economic development, as well as contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Implementing these measures could help 1 billion people in Asia to breathe cleaner air by 2030 and reduce global warming by a third of a degree Celsius by 2050.
Approximately 7 million people worldwide die prematurely each year from air pollution related diseases, with about 4 million of these deaths occurring in Asia-Pacific. The reductions in outdoor air pollution from the 25 measures could reduce premature mortality in the region by one third, and help avoid about 2 million premature deaths from indoor air pollution. Moreover, implementing the 25 measures would result in a 20 per cent reduction in carbon dioxide and a 45 per cent reduction in methane emissions, preventing up to a third of a degree Celsius in global warming. Resulting reductions in ground-level ozone would reduce crop losses by 45 per cent for maize, rice, soy and wheat combined.

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Rank: 12
Score: 29.623932
Retrieved Text: Air quality has improved dramatically in rich countries over the past century. Around 1880, when the air was worst in London, it is estimated that 9,000 people died each year from air pollution, about one of every seven deaths. Today, London air is cleaner than it has been since medieval times.
Yet, air pollution is still a huge problem, especially in the developing world. It kills 7 million people each year, or one of every eight deaths globally. In Egypt, for instance, it now kills 53,200 people each year, or one of 10 deaths.
This is not, however, mostly air pollution that we generally think about. The most deadly air pollution comes from inside people’s houses, because 2.8 billion people still use firewood, dung and coal for cooking and keeping warm, breathing polluted air inside their homes every day.
To people who don’t live under these conditions, it is hard to imagine how dirty the indoor air is. The World Health Organization points out that the outdoor air for instance Beijing, Delhi and Karachi is several times more polluted that the outdoor air in Berlin, London and Paris. But the typical indoor air in a developing country dwelling with an open fire is many times more polluted than Beijing, Delhi or Karachi. That is why indoor air pollution kills 4.3 million people each year, making it one of the world’s leading causes of death.
Yet, indoor air pollution is rarely among the big issues the world discusses. In 2000, the world made a number of smart, short promises for 2015

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Retrieved Text: "About 4 million people die prematurely from air pollution each year," says Gieré. "From unsafe water the number is 2 million. Yet we have a United Nations Sustainable Development Goal about water pollution but not one about the air."
"At higher temperatures we saw more tire abrasion, more pollution than at intermediate temperatures," Gieré says. "This was exactly analogous to what two laboratory studies found."
Ninety percent of the dust particles collected from the three sites were traffic-related and the researchers again saw differences between the sites. The slower-moving traffic on the urban road generated fewer particles from brake wear but more from tires; they noted that the tire rubber became encrusted with minerals and other materials from the roads. The highway with more stop-and-go traffic generated more brake particles.

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Retrieved Text: Buckwold and Kitunen, Canadian Income Taxation, 2010-2011 Ed.
Briefly explain the difference, for individuals, between net income for tax purposes and taxable income.
Explain the difference between an allowable capital loss and a net capital loss.
Describe the tax treatment of net capital losses.
Explain how a non-capital loss is created and how it is treated for tax purposes.
Is it always worthwhile to utilize a net capital loss or a non-capital loss as soon as the opportunity arises? Explain.
It is not always desirable to utilize a loss carry-over as soon as possible. The decision to use the loss carry-over must consider both the timing and the amount of the tax savings that will occur. Obviously, the sooner they are used, the sooner after-tax cash flow will be increased.
However, consideration must also be given to the rates of tax that are applicable in the particular year. By forgoing the use of a loss carry-over in a year of relatively low income in order that it can be used in a subsequent year when income is anticipated to be high (and therefore subject to a higher rate of tax) the amount of tax saved will be greater. The decision to delay the use of a loss carry-over must consider both the time value of money as well as the degree of certainty for the anticipated earnings.
Fatalities Now Exceed Traffic Fatalities by 3 to 1”, Bernie Roberts (2002) says that 70,000 people die each year from the effects of air pollution. This outrageous number of people dying is because of human activities that

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Retrieved Text: The Green Party is calling for the UK’s five most polluted cities – which includes Bristol – to ban petrol and diesel cars to improve air quality.
The policy – named ‘breathing cities’ – will aim to encourage councils to create ‘zero emission zones’ which would only be open to electric vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists.
In his opening speech to the party conference in Harrogate, Green co-leader Jonathan Bartley said the group will be lobbying local councils in London, Bristol, Leeds, Oxford, and Sheffield – the five worst polluted cities in the UK – to clean up their air.
It will also put pressure on central government to invest more money and resources into tackling the problem.
It is estimated air pollution contributes to the deaths of 40,000 people in the UK each year, and locally up to 300 people in Bristol die prematurely as a result of poor air quality in the same period.
There are many illnesses associated with air pollution, with nitrogen dioxide – one of the main components of car emissions – linked to lung problems and respiration conditions.
Mr Bartley described pollution as a “silent and invisible killer” and said “authorities have been caught sleeping on the job” when it comes to tackling the problem.
The co-leader went on to say the party wanted to see the five councils introduce “zero emission zones” by 2023, which would prevent access to all but electric vehicles. He is now calling for Bristol to be an example and “lead Britain out of the smoggy air that currently envelops it”.
In an editorial

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Retrieved Text: NEW DELHI (Reuters) - India has some of the worst air pollution in the world and smog levels often spike during its sweltering summers, when smoke-belching diesel generators are used to offset power shortages, as air-conditioners and fans stoke consumption.
But a team of Indian engineers has figured out how to capture some of the generator exhaust and turn it into ink, keeping the emissions from entering the atmosphere.
They say they have created the first-ever device to capture emissions specifically from diesel generators - a welcome invention for a country that has 14 of the world’s 15 most polluted cities, the World Health Organization (WHO) says.
“We are aiming to bring down pollution levels in the major cities by a very significant percentage in a very short span of time,” said Arpit Dhupar, one of three engineers who developed the technology now installed in Gurugram, a satellite city of New Delhi, the capital.
Their device attaches to generators to capture up to 90 percent of soot particles from cooled diesel exhaust. The material can then be sold to ink manufacturers.
Their company, Chakr Innovation, has installed 53 devices in government firms and offices, as well as real estate developers, Dhupar said, saving 1,500 billion liters of air from pollution.
It has collected over 500 kg (1,102 lb) of soot, which has been used to create more than 20,000 liters of ink, he added.
Chakr Innovations is not the first start-up to see cash in diesel exhaust. A competitor called Graviky Labs, based in the southern city of Bangalore, is using similar technology

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Retrieved Text: As humans living in the 21st century, we live in a time of incredible advances, and a time of very pressing social problems. As a species we have made millions of innovations to increase the quality of living. Examples are everywhere. We have learned to live together in numbers that truly boggle the mind, we are a species that can fly in a few hours to destinations that 100 years ago would have taken months to reach, a species where two or more of its kind can routinely and instantaneously communicate in various ways while thousands of kilometers apart, a species that has learned to control or eradicate all manner of diseases from the face of the earth. We have attained a vast amount of information about our planet and beyond. We have created the Anthropocene. A world of our own making. We’ve created magic. At the same time, and due to human factors, we are a species altering our environment in profoundly negative ways, to the point where we are on the brink of extinction.
Even if we don’t believe the situation is that dire, and somehow think we are invincible, we know (or should know) that collectively, our modern lives are contributing to pollution on an unprecedented scale. Amidst the thousands, no millions of technological miracles that surround us, we have managed to damage the earth so badly that every year an estimated 4 million people —mostly children and the elderly living in urban settings— can and do die directly from breathing the toxins we’ve

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Retrieved Text: Although the United States has cut its emissions of smog-forming pollutants by half over the past few decades, smog levels in the Western United States have increased each year. Now, scientists believe that rising emissions in Asia are causing smog in the United States. Asian emissions have tripled over the past decades and are particularly high in China and India. During the spring, storms lift and carry emissions from Asia to the Western United States, causing fog. Listen to learn more about how emissions levels in different parts of the world are changing and how global climate systems move emissions around the Earth and then debate: How can we address global pollution?
Debate: Which is More Important: Development or Preventing Pollution?
New Delhi, India has some of the the most polluted air in the world. Levels of pollution reached hazardous levels many days of the year. For the people of New Delhi, this has meant an increase in health problems such as asthma and other sicknesses. As India’s growth continues, it consumes more energy, which creates pollution. This story illustrates the balance between economic growth and the health threats of pollution produced by all this growth.
Many Chinese citizens did not light fireworks this year to ring in the year of the horse because many parts of China already have toxic air pollution levels. Lighting fireworks during the Chinese New Year is traditionally done to bring good luck. Listen to this story to learn why the Chinese are especially worried about air pollution.

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Retrieved Text: The government has warned two councils of “serious consequences” after they failed to meet the deadline for dealing with air pollution.
In 2015, five local authorities with some of the worst pollution outside London – Derby, Southampton, Leeds, Nottingham and Birmingham – were ordered to produce proposals to tackle air pollution by 15 September.
After it emerged this week that Derby and Southampton were likely to miss the deadline, the environment minister wrote to them saying they must deliver plans to ensure nitrogen dioxide compliance is achieved quickly.
However, Greenpeace said ministers were in no position to “shake their fists” at cash-strapped councils.
The government has lost three court cases over air quality since 2015. Each time its plans to tackle the problem were deemed to be so inadequate as to be unlawful.
The government has also been criticised by campaigners and MPs for its slow response to the issue. ClientEarth, a legal campaign group that successfully sued the government over its clean air proposals, said people in the UK were being forced to breathe “illegally dirty air”.
Its lawyer, Katherine Nield, said air pollution was “a serious national problem which needs national-scale solutions, coordinated by central government”.
In the government’s 2015 air quality plan, the five councils were told to investigate whether establishing clean air zones or alternative measures would best tackle illegal levels of pollution.
At the time, the government was criticised for asking local authorities to accept responsibility for decisions that were likely to be unpopular with motorists.
Chris Poulter, the leader of Derby council, said the local authority acknowledged Coffey’s comments

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Retrieved Text: This post is about the economic impacts of air pollution and is part of a three-post series discussing the different effects of pollution on society. In many ways, the economic effects are very connected to the health ones, and, as will be explained in the third part of the series, these impacts are very connected to the environmental effects of pollution.
The affects of air pollution on the world’s economy and society can be broken down into three major categories: economy of health, economy of production and economy of culture.
Due to the dangerous effects of air pollution on human health, millions of people each year die prematurely or are too sick to work, resulting in a weaker and smaller work force, costing society billions of dollars. In 2012 the World Health Organisation reported that about 7 million people died from air pollution, or one in eight deaths. The World Bank estimates that the costs of these deaths in 2013 were about $225 billion in foregone labor income every year; this number has grown from $163 billion in 13 years, an unbelievable and terrifying growth rate.
Among the extreme effects of premature death and heart attacks, air pollution can also affect people’s IQ and output. Research has shown that air pollution affects the fetus and can result in slightly lower IQ, “enough to hamper school performance and perhaps lifelong learning”.3 This can have huge economic consequences from the loss of innovation and productivity.
Cities with dangerous levels of air pollution also suffer in business because they cannot compete with cleaner

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Retrieved Text: There are many aspects of city life that are stressful. From traffic to noise, urban residents encounter many situations each day that have the potential to raise their blood pressure. Even if you live a calm, meditative municipal life, the very air you breathe is enough to raise your blood pressure, according to a new study. Urban air pollution has been found to “influence the underlying processes, which lead to chronic cardiovascular diseases,” according to Dr. Barbara Hoffman of the University of Duisburg-Essen.
High blood pressure increases the risk for atherosclerosis, a hardening of the arteries, which leads to cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks and strokes. Previous work had shown that daily increases in air pollution can raise blood pressure, but little was known about long-term effects.
“Our results might explain why people who live in more polluted areas are at a higher risk to suffer and die from these diseases,” Hoffman said.
Dr. Hoffman warns, “It is therefore necessary to further our attempts to prevent chronic exposure to high air pollution as much as possible.” Only government intervention will bring about the necessary changes to protect city slicker’s from air pollution. Unfortunately, the US Environmental Protection Agency has failed to protect public health in the past by “disregarding and misrepresenting recommendations from its staff scientists “regarding particulate matter”.

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Retrieved Text: Delhi is one of the largest and fastest growing cities on the planet. Home to over 24 million people, one of the unifying challenges for this huge and diverse population is also one of the most basic necessities for life: clean air. Delhi was recently granted the dubious title of the “World’s Most Polluted City” by the World Health Organization.
Air pollution has major health consequences for those living in heavily polluted areas. High levels of particulates and hazardous gases can increase the risk of heart disease, asthma, bronchitis, cancer, and more. The WHO estimates that there are 7 million premature deaths linked to air pollution every year, and the Union Environment Ministry estimates that 80 people die every day from air pollution in Delhi.
Traditional particulate matter measurement devices use very advanced scales and filters to measure the exact mass of ambient particles below a certain size. As such, these devices are prohibitively expensive (₹1.1 crore or $165,000) and fixed in a single location.
Auto rickshaws are a very popular source of transportation in Delhi. Popularly called “autos”, these vehicles can be found all over Delhi at all times of day and night, making them an ideal place to deploy our sensors. Unlike traditional air quality readings that sample from one location repeatedly, the sensors deployed for this project sample data for air pollution in Delhi directly from traffic jams, markets, and residential neighborhoods all over the city.
We have developed a custom internet-connected device to attach to take pollution readings from autos. Each device contains an airborne particle

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Retrieved Text: Air pollution standards deemed safe by the US government can still shorten and even be fatal to senior citizens, a recent study shows. In fact, hundreds of elderly Americans may die prematurely each year due to the effects of dirty air.
These findings come from a study done by the Harvard Data Science Initiative. A computer prediction analysis correlated fine particle and ozone pollution levels between 2000 and 2012 with death rates. Approximately 93 percent of all Americans who were covered by Medicare at the time, were studied.
The study found a direct association, for every tiny incremental increase in ozone levels, the daily death rate bumped up between roughly 0.5 and 1 percent. The mortality rate increases linearly as air pollution increases. Any level of air pollution, no matter how low, is harmful to human health.
Some groups of seniors are even more vulnerable to such air pollution exposure, with low-income seniors facing a three times higher risk compared to more affluent seniors.
In addition, women showed a 25 percent greater premature death risk following pollution and ozone exposure compared with men. The same was true of nonwhite Americans, relative to their white peers.
What’s more, over the course of the study, the rise in ozone pollution directly correlated to the premature deaths of 7100 hundred senior citizens.

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Retrieved Text: New analysis of air pollution data, produced by UK100, shows that 17.9 million NHS patients in England are registered at a GP practice that exceeds the World Health Organisation annual limit for PM2.5 air pollution.
PM2.5 are minuscule particles invisible to the naked eye that are small enough to pass through the lungs, and enter the bloodstream.
Current legal limits for PM2.5 are twice as high as what the WHO recommends, and it is urgent to adopt and meet WHO’s limit as soon as possible to protect and promote the public’s health.
17.9 million is equivalent to nearly one in three (30%) of all NHS patients registered in England. The data presents the startling impact of air pollution in our towns and cities. UK100 are calling for leadership from central UK Government to tackle the problem with new laws and funding for local authorities to clean up this toxic atmosphere.
18 million is equivalent to the population of London and all the 30 largest towns and cities in England, including everywhere from Leeds and Liverpool, Birmingham and Bristol, Nottingham and Newcastle, Manchester and Milton Keynes, Sheffield and Sunderland, Portsmouth and Plymouth.
The research is being published ahead of a major Clean Air Summit being hosted in London on 14 February to be attended by the London Mayor Sadiq Khan, alongside mayors and council leaders from across England.
They are due to be joined by Environment Secretary Michael Gove MP, Health Secretary Matt Hancock MP, and the Chief Executive of the NHS, Simon Stevens.
“Our toxic air is a national health crisis, contributing to

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Retrieved Text: People wearing smoke masks, children going stir-crazy indoors, families driving hours to find fresh air. Alarming as it is to some, unhealthy air enveloping the San Francisco Bay Area in recent days is all too familiar to millions of people around the world (see global ranking and air pollution map).
In fact, the air quality index (AQI) – a representation of pollutant concentration over a specified period of time – in San Francisco in recent days is on par with some of the most polluted cities in the world, according to Stanford researchers who study the effects of poor air quality.
“I don’t want to minimize how devastating the California fires have been or the current unusual state of air quality in the Bay Area, but these conditions are really the norm for people living in many other parts of the world,” said Nina Brooks, a doctoral candidate in the Emmett Interdisciplinary Program on Environment and Resources (E-IPER) in Stanford’s School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth).
Brooks does field work in Dhaka, Bangladesh, for a Stanford-led project to make brick manufacturing cleaner. While air pollution in Dhaka is high year-round, it spikes dramatically in winter months when coal-burning brick kilns around the city operate. The AQI in Dhaka during the winter, where more than 1,000 brick kilns operate, typically hovers above 150 – a level considered unhealthy for all groups – but often spikes much higher.
Globally, long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution is responsible for 4.2 million deaths, according to the World Health Organization, and 9

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Retrieved Text: EVERYDAY, some 93 percent of the children around the world under the age of 15 years, or about 1.8 billion kids, breathe air that is so polluted, putting their health and development at serious risk.
Tragically, many of them die, says the World Health Organization (WHO).
WHO estimates that in 2016, around 600,000 children died from acute lower respiratory infections caused by polluted air.
A new report of WHO reveals that when pregnant women are exposed to polluted air, they are more likely to give birth prematurely, and have small, low birth-weight children.
Children who have been exposed to high levels of air pollution may be at greater risk for chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease later in life.
WHO says polluted air is poisoning millions of children and ruining their lives.
Newborns and young children are also more susceptible to household air pollution in homes that regularly use polluting fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting.
Air pollution is damaging children’s lung function, even at lower levels of exposures.
Globally, 93 percent of the world’s children under 15 years of age are exposed to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) levels above WHO air quality guidelines, which include the 630 million of children under five years of age, and 1.8 billion of children under 15 years.
In low- and middle-income countries around the world, 98 percent of all children under five years old are exposed to PM2.5 levels above WHO air quality guidelines.
More than 40 percent of the world’s population – which includes one billion children under 15 – is exposed to high levels

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Retrieved Text: For many, people, regions even countries this is already a matter of life or death.
Let me turn first to the science.
If we fail, the Arctic and Antarctic will continue to melt, corals will die, the oceans will rise, more people will die from air pollution, water scarcity will plague a significant proportion of humanity, and the cost of disasters will skyrocket.
But emissions must decline by 45 per cent from 2010 levels by 2030 and be net zero by 2050.
Renewable energy will need to supply half to two-thirds of the world’s primary energy by 2050.
And coal must provide less than 7 per cent of global energy, from current levels of approximately one-third of all energy used worldwide.
Our job here in Katowice is to finalize the Paris Agreement Work Programme -- the rule book for implementation.
I remind all Parties that this is a deadline you set for yourselves.
It is vital you meet it.
What we need is political will and far-sighted leadership.
Meeting the commitments of the Paris Agreement would reduce air pollution – saving more than a million lives each year by 2030.
According to the recent New Climate Economy report, ambitious climate action could yield 65 million jobs and a direct economic gain of $26 trillion dollars compared to business as usual over the next 12 years.
Next year, I am convening a Climate Summit next year to raise ambition and mobilize the necessary resources.
Some might say it is a difficult negotiation. I know it is not easy. It requires a firm political will for compromise. But, for me, what

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Retrieved Text: Projection seems to be growing in popularity as a protest tool, whether it’s due to a lack of legal legislation surrounding its use or its ephemeral nature. We have already seen Holograms for Freedom, the world’s first hologram march in protest of Spain’s new ‘gag’ laws. Now, Chinese company Xiao Zhu is projecting images of suffering children onto toxic smoke as a protest against commercial pollution.
China is thought to have more than 500,000 people die every year from various diseases caused by air pollution. Xiao Zhu, a company selling air purifiers, is highlighting the dangers of this through its Breathe Again ad campaign. The installation is comprised of a series of arresting images of youngsters — crying and coughing — projected ominously onto factory plant pollution, accompanied by the text ‘Clear the air, let the future breathe again’. By directly targeting the biggest culprits of environmental damage and using actual pollution as a medium, the company effectively conveys the message of promoting sustainable businesses and clean air.
How could techniques such as projection be used beyond marketing and awareness campaigns? Perhaps a similar system — projecting onto murky air — be used to for fog warnings?

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Retrieved Text: A landmark study published in medical journal The Lancet has found that while global pediatric asthma prevalence has increased strikingly since the 1950s, several epidemiological studies done in North America, Latin America, Europe, and east Asia reported associations between traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) exposure and new-onset asthma in children, whereas such associations are less clear in adults.
This has resulted in over four million children developing asthma every year as a result of air pollution from traffic, that’s equivalent to 11,000 new cases a day.
Regionally, the index by The Lancet spotted that the largest burden of new asthma cases associated with NO2 exposure per 100000 children per year was estimated for Andean Latin America, and followed by high-income North America and high-income Asia Pacific, whilst the largest percentage of regional pediatric asthma incidence attributable to NO2 pollution was estimated for high-income Asia Pacific, followed by east Asia, high-income North America, southern Latin America, and western Europe.
Breaking down the data, Kuwait had the highest prevalence with 550 new cases recorded per 100,000 children each year. Canada came third with 450 new annual cases. The United States experienced an incidence rate of 300 new asthma cases per 100,000 children.
You can visit the full report here.
Despite good efforts, however, traffic is getting worse in many cities, and urban mobility has become increasingly complex.
According to McKinsey, just between 2010 and 2016, congestion in London rose by 14%, in Los Angeles by 36%, in New York by 30%, and in Beijing and Paris by 9%, multiplying the effects.
The conditions have established that,

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======= Instance Index 48 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

Enzymes are involved in most of the biochemical reactions that take place in organisms. About 4,000 such reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes, but the number may be even higher. Enzymes allow reactions to occur at the rate necessary for life.


Q: What substances serve as catalysts in most of the biochemical reactions that take place in organisms?

 Choices:

- iseotrops

- enzymes

- carbohydrates

- hormones

A:

Target Text: enzymes

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 47.18727
Retrieved Text: Catalyst, in chemistry, any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed. Enzymes are naturally occurring catalysts responsible for many essential biochemical reactions.
Most solid catalysts are metals or the oxides, sulfides, and halides of metallic elements and of the semimetallic elements boron, aluminum, and silicon. Gaseous and liquid catalysts are commonly used in their pure form or in combination with suitable carriers or solvents; solid catalysts are commonly dispersed in other substances known as catalyst supports.

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Retrieved Text: A family of enzymes that occur in all living organisms and are thought to regulate cellular aging, apoptosis, and resistance to stress in more complex eukaryotic organisms.
A substance from which another is formed, especially by metabolic reaction.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a molecule present in all cells that participates in many metabolic reactions.
(Mitochondrion) An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur.
Any substance produced during metabolism.
The sum of the processes by which a particular substance is handled in the living body.
The length of time in one’s life where one is spent in optimal health.
Enzymes are complex proteins that speed biochemical reactions. Enzymes can build up or break down other molecules. The molecules they act on are called substrates. Enzymes are catalysts—chemicals that hasten a chemical reaction without undergoing any change themselves.
A substance that enhances the action of an enzyme. Coenzymes are small molecules. They cannot by themselves catalyze a reaction but they can help enzymes to do so. In technical terms, coenzymes are organic nonprotein molecules that bind with the protein molecule to form the active enzyme.
Adenosine 5′-triphosphate, or ATP, is the principal molecule for storing and transferring energy in cells. It is often referred to as the energy currency of the cell and can be compared to storing money in a bank. ATP can be used to store energy for future reactions or be withdrawn to pay for reactions when energy is required by the cell.

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Retrieved Text: Cells, and therefore organisms, cannot function without enzymes. Enzymes are specialized proteins that act as catalysts to get complex chemical reactions started. All chemical reactions require some energy to start. The energy required to get a reaction going is called its activation energy. Many of the simpler chemical reactions require so little energy that they can occur at relatively low temperatures without any outside influence. When heat is added, the additional heat energy is often enough to get many other reactions going. More complex reactions require some other stimulus, or catalyst to begin. Enzymes act as catalysts for chemical reactions by changing one or more of the reactants, called the substrate, in a way that lowers the activation energy enough for the reaction to begin. Some reactions won’t occur without their specific enzymes. With some others, the enzyme isn’t necessary, but makes it easier. Unlike the reactants, enzymes aren’t consumed during the reaction. An enzyme's action can be helped sometimes by co-factors, and is affected by temperate, pH, and concentrations of itself or substrates. Competitive and non-competitive inhibition regulates enzyme activity to suit physiological needs of a cell.
Enzymes can be grouped into various categories, such as oxidases, transferases, hydrolases, isomerases, polymerase, nucleases and ligases. Each enzyme is named after the substrate it acts on, with the suffix 'ase' added to show that it is an enzyme.
There are approximately 75,000 enzymes thought to exist in the human body, and they all catalyze different reactions in which molecules are either synthesized or broken down. Sometimes, these enzymes are

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Retrieved Text: A substance which catalyzes biochemical processes in living things. The most well-known example is the enzyme .
The acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst.
A substance which speeds up a chemical or biochemical reaction which, without the catalyst, would have occurred anyway but at a much slower rate. The catalyst is never used up in the reaction, so that there is always the same amount at the start and the end of the reaction. Enzyme s are biological catalysts.
protein s that act as catalysts, speeding the rate at which biochemical reactions proceed but not altering the direction or nature of the reactions.
Protein molecules that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions.
An acid with the chemical formula C6H12O7. At room temperature, it is a colorless crystal; it melts at 131� Celsius. It can be made by the oxidation of glucose . It will dissolve in water and alcohol s. It is used in pharmaceuticals and some food products, as a cleanser, and as a catalyst in textile printing.
Any substance or state which suppresses, prevents, or slows down a chemical reaction. The opposite of a catalyst .

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Retrieved Text: BIO-FD&C Co., Ltd. has developed a range of protein products such as growth factors and cytokine for cosmetic materials. The proteins of BIO-FD&C Co. Ltd. are more than 90% pure bioactive proteins that can increase skin cells or accelerate collagen synthesis.
Growth factors / Proteins are high molecular organic substances which are the building blocks of living organisms. Proteins play various important roles: body composition, catalysts for chemical reactions in cells, growth factors that allow cell proliferation, and antibody formation in the immune system.

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Retrieved Text: Biochemistry is the study of the substances found in living organisms and the chemical reactions underlying life processes. Considered one of the molecular sciences, biochemistry is a branch of both chemistry and biology; the prefix “bio-” comes from bios, the Greek word for “life.” The main goal of biochemistry is to understand the structure and behavior of biomolecules. These are the organic (carbon-containing) compounds that make up the various parts of the living cell and carry out the chemical reactions that enable it to grow, maintain and reproduce itself and to use and store energy.
For centuries, scientists believed the organic compounds only could be formed under the influence of the vital force in the bodies of animals and plants. In 1828, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler disproved this long-held belief by synthesizing urea, an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, in the lab. Five years later, French chemist Anselme Payen discovered the first enzyme, diastase (now called amylase), by developing it in the lab. The field of biochemistry bloomed in the 20th century, with major discoveries about the metabolic pathways in cells and the replication of DNA and RNA and with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, spectroscopy and electron microscopy.
Each of our cells is like a tiny city where the usual municipal activities take place. Each cell produces and uses energy, communicates with other cells in various ways, undertakes building projects and removes the trash. The chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are necessary for the

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Rank: 6
Score: 39.840225
Retrieved Text: Research in our lab takes place at the interface between the fields of Organic Synthesis, Bioorganic Chemistry and Catalysis.
The goal of Raj lab is to develop new chemical reactions including catalysts for the synthesis of proteins, peptides and bioconjugates. Most importantly, we are interested in reactions and catalysts that work well in the aqueous medium. The Raj group also seeks chemical methods for synthesis of uniquely structured peptides, mimicking secondary structures, for inhibiting protein-protein interactions implicated in disease states. The unique structure of peptide is responsible for both the stability and biological activities. All of these efforts utilize organic chemistry tools, biochemical techniques and structural characterization.

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Retrieved Text: Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another. They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread. Enzymes are biomolecules that increase the rates of chemical reactions. Almost all enzymes are proteins. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are extremely selective for their substrates and speed up only a few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules. Inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity; activators are molecules that increase activity.
Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water soluble (Vitamin C) or fat soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent such diseases as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death. A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be

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Score: 38.585785
Retrieved Text: A unique set of biochemical reactions occurring in a particular cell defines the identity of that cell among the other cells. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze those biochemical reactions. Both coenzymes and cofactors are small, non-protein substances that play a vital role in the metabolic functions of the cell by helping the enzymes to catalyze the biochemical reactions. They bind to the active site of the enzyme. The main difference between coenzyme and cofactor is that coenzyme is a type of cofactor that loosely binds to the enzyme whereas cofactor sometimes binds tightly to the enzyme.
Any freely diffusing organic molecule that serves as a cofactor with enzymes by aiding the function of the enzyme is known as a coenzyme. Hence, coenzyme is a small, organic, non-protein molecule found in the cell. Coenzymes function as intermediate carriers of electrons, specific atoms or functional groups that are to be transferred during the catalyzing reaction. For example, NAD transfers electrons in coupled oxidation-reduction reactions.
Coenzymes are modified during the reaction and another enzyme is required to restore the coenzyme into its original state. Since coenzymes are chemically changed during the reaction, they are considered as second substrates to the enzyme. Therefore, coenzymes are also called as co-substrates. On the other hand, since coenzymes are regenerated in the body their concentrations should be maintained inside the body. Most of the B vitamins are coenzymes that transfer atoms or groups of atoms between molecules during the synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. These vitamins should be acquired from the diet since they

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Rank: 9
Score: 38.401978
Retrieved Text: Sesquiterpene synthases: Passive catalysts or active players?
Sesquiterpene synthases catalyse the metal dependent turnover of farnesyl diphosphate to generate a class of natural products characterised by an enormous diversity in structure, stereochemistry, biological function and application. It has been proposed that these enzymes take a passive role in the reactions they catalyse and that they serve mostly as stereochemical templates, within which the reactions take place. Here, recent research into the structure and function of sesquiterpene synthases and the mechanisms of the reactions that they catalyse will be reviewed to suggest that these fascinating enzymes play multifaceted active roles in what are arguably the most complex biosynthetic reactions.
Cited 38 times in Web of Science. View in Web of Science.

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Rank: 10
Score: 38.22932
Retrieved Text: Biochemistry is the chemistry of organisms. An organism is anything that is alive, or if not, was once alive (a "dead organism"). What, then, is the condition we call life? We cannot offer a rigid, precise definition, but we do know that living things are characterised by metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Metabolism is the process by which a body introduces into itself ("ingests") various energy‑rich materials from its environment ("food"), and transforms these materials, with the release of energy, into other substances, some of which are retained by the body ("growth" or "repair") and some eliminated. Reproduction is the process by which one body produces another that is like itself in properties, structure, composition, and function, including metabolism and reproduction.
The distinction between an organism and a material is not always clear. A virus consists of particles several hundred angstrom units in length or diameter; these particles can reproduce themselves in a suitable environment but they do not ingest food, or grow, or carry on any other metabolic processes. Are viruses, then, living organisms or are they chemical materials that consist of large molecules capable of replicating themselves under suitable conditions? To include viruses among the living the definition of life must be modified. Most broadly, we may consider anything living if it can bring order out of disorder at the expense of energy and has the capability to preserve accidental variations (called mutations) that may occur in the process.
In an organism, the structure called the cell may be considered to be a biochemical reactor. An organism

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Rank: 11
Score: 37.56322
Retrieved Text: What are enzymes? What is the importance of enzymes for living beings?
Enzymes are proteins that are catalysts of chemical reactions. From Chemistry it is called that catalysts are non-consumable substances that decrease the activation energy essential for a chemical reaction to happen.
Enzymes are highly specific to the reactions they catalyze. They are of essential importance for life because most chemical reactions of the cells and tissues are catalyzed by enzymes. Without enzymatic action those reactions would not happen or would not happen in the needed speed for the biological processes in which they participate.
Draw decanol, plamitic acid (C16:0 fatty acid) and the resulting wax ester generated by a dehydration reaction between both molecules.
What are all teh parts of a simple ciliated columnar epithilial cell?

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Rank: 12
Score: 37.49196
Retrieved Text: Innovative peptides and enzymes are the key to a successful product portfolio in the bio-industry, be it food, crop protection or biofuels – we accompany you in the development of new, effective enzymes for your processes. An example of research and development in this area is the project “PeroxiMar”.
Collagen from marine invertebrates are interesting biomaterials, e.g. for wound healing and orthopedics. With its experienced natural product chemists, marine biologists and process engineers, CRM works as a partner with various universities and institutes in various projects – currently in the Horizon 2020 project “GoJelly”, in order to exploit the potential of marine collagens. We have two patents in this area.
We also offer a peek into our unique “Peptide for Industry” database (PEFI) and deliver peptides in micrograms and mg in just a few weeks at a fair price. Contact us!
More than half of the marketed drugs are due to natural products, although the drug richness of natural organisms has so far only been explored pharmacologically. This applies especiialy to marine organisms.
Therefore, anti-infectives and antitumoral agents from algae are another content focus of natural products research in CRM.
Our “Bio-Exploitation” initiative, in which we specifically search for usable proteins and other natural products, leads us specifically to products that we develop with our partners, e.g. a spin-off of CRM, the oceanBASIS GmbH. We do this with a good mix of “traditional” biology and cutting-edge molecular biology methods. This approach includes current techniques of sequencing and bioinformatics.
Why is the potential of structures and functions in the sea so big for

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Rank: 13
Score: 37.306118
Retrieved Text: Kleiner, Perkins has invested in Siluria.
They exhibit remarkable properties. They never complain. And you can kill off the ones you don't like at the end of the day.
Those are just three of the reasons why genetically modified microorganisms could become some of the most valuable employees in the green revolution. Siluria, a startup that spun out of another startup called Cambrios Technologies, has proposed a way to convert natural gas into chemicals like ethylene with biologically inspired catalysts.
The catalysts, ideally, will reduce the time, energy and cost involved in producing chemicals.
Siluria differs from mainstream chemistry companies in that it derives its catalysts from nature. The company concocts genetically modified organisms -- easily several thousand species a day -- and studies their byproducts. Most of the secretions of microorganisms aren't economically desirable. But a number of them, such as wine, beer, and antibiotics, have gone on to serve as the foundation for multibillion-dollar industries.
Siluria comes out of that heritage, but it wants to take microbiology in a new direction by having microbes come up with inorganic, industrial substances. A good portion of the company's technology derives from the work conducted by Angela Belcher at MIT. Belcher and her team have devised microbes that can help generate battery components, align molecules in industrial processes or help produce semiconductor insulators. Other companies such as Genencor similarly produce enzymes from GMOs that can be used in the production of green rubber.
The downside? This isn't easy. Cambrios started out as a biological chemistry company, but found it was easier to generate

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Rank: 14
Score: 37.23611
Retrieved Text: An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animal organisms. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people.
All kinds of vitamins can be found in plants and animals. One major function of vitamins is as coenzymes in enzymatic catalysis and enzyme system reactions. The class of compounds known as enzymes are biochemical catalysts or reaction activators important in all the chemical reactions that occur on a continual place in the human body. Many enzymes have different kinds of vitamins as a fundamental part of their structure. Some kinds of vitamins also perform other functions and role in addition to their role as coenzymes. The essential vitamin E has the role of an antioxidant in the body, while the vitamin D has a hormone like role. Once they are absorbed into the body, the vitamins are assimilated into the body becoming parts of the cells, part of enzymes and hormones, as well as becoming part of the muscles, the blood and the bones. The length of residence of the vitamins in the body is different for various vitamins. Some types of vitamins are utilized over a long period of time,

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Rank: 15
Score: 36.58911
Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Fermentation mean?
Fermentation is a process by which micro-organisms metabolize sugar and convert it into alcohol, gases or acids. This process takes place in the absence of oxygen and is, therefore, an anaerobic process.
From a Health and Safety perspective, fermentation may produce hazardous circumstances in industries such as food, grain storage, biochemical engineering and the production of biofuels. For example, in biofuel production, OSHA requires the proper venting of gaseous by-products of fermentation, and the proper control of biochemical reactions to prevent explosions, fires and exposure hazards. In grain storage contexts, decaying or fermenting silage can produce gases that present a workplace hazard.

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Score: 36.516537
Retrieved Text: Abstract : Inferring genome-scale metabolic networks in emerging model organisms is challenging because of incomplete biochemical knowledge and incomplete conservation of biochemical pathways during evolution. This limits the possibility to automatically transfer knowledge from well-established model organisms. Therefore, specific bioinformatic tools are necessary to infer new biochemical reactions and new metabolic structures that can be checked experimentally. Using an integrative approach combining both genomic and metabolomic data in the red algal model Chondrus crispus, we show that, even metabolic pathways considered as conserved, like sterol or mycosporine-like amino acids (MAA) synthesis pathways, undergo substantial turnover. This phenomenon, which we formally define as "metabolic pathway drift", is consistent with findings from other areas of evolutionary biology, indicating that a given phenotype can be conserved even if the underlying molecular mechanisms are changing. We present a proof of concept with a new methodological approach to formalize the logical reasoning necessary to infer new reactions and new molecular structures, based on previous biochemical knowledge. We use this approach to infer previously unknown reactions in the sterol and MAA pathways.

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Score: 36.02396
Retrieved Text: All parts of the body (muscles, brain, heart, and liver) need energy to work. This energy comes from the food we eat. It happens due to some sequential biochemical phenomenon known as metabolism.
The endocrine system stimulates reactions of metabolism by releasing hormones like cortisol, glucagon and adrenaline; digestive system provides nutrients; nutrients through blood; respiratory system provides oxygen and excretory system eliminates waste. So metabolism which is the most important function in maintaining life can happen only with perfect coordination of all other systems in the body.
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions occurring in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells to sustain life. These processes allow the living organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories - catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes

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Retrieved Text: This Research Topic will include review and original research papers dealing with the biochemical properties and physiological implications of enzymes that catalyze flavin-based electron bifurcation. Flavin-based electron bifurcation is a fairly recently realized biochemical phenomenon through which endergonic and exergonic oxidation reduction reactions are effectively coupled to yield metabolically favorable reactions with minimal free energy changes. Thus far flavin-based electron bifurcation has been realized to be associated with anaerobic metabolism and nitrogen fixation and implicated to be key in remodeling chemical energy and reductant pools in cells to maximize energy efficiency. Recent work on the biochemistry of enzymes that catalyze flavin-based electron bifurcation reveal new paradigms for oxidation reduction based catalysts including expanding the oxidation reduction range of light independent biochemical processes.
The Research Topic will highlight aspects of the physiological roles and specific reactions catalyzed, evolution, and recent insights into the biochemical and catalytic properties.

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Retrieved Text: Acetaminophen is a fourth type of common OTC painkiller, but it’s not an NSAID. It only relieves pain and fever, whereas NSAIDs reduce swelling, inflammation, and pain. Acetaminophen does not inhibit COX- 1 or COX- 2, but it does inhibit enzymes responsible for the production of other prostaglandins from PGH2 (further down the chemical reactions pathway shown in Fig. 1). While acetaminophen prevents the formation of prostaglandins that cause fever and pain, it doesn’t inhibit the production of prostaglandins that are responsible for swelling and clotting.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by providing a new path that has a lower activation energy.
NSAIDs work by interacting with enzymes, and this is actually how many other drugs work, too. For example, penicillin and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) drug ritonavir work by blocking enzymes.
Without enzymes, virtually all chemical reactions would not occur under the mild conditions present in living organisms or would occur at very slow rates.
Enzymes are located inside and outside a cell, and also within a cell’s membrane. Inside a cell, enzymes enable most chemical reactions to happen, and without enzymes, a cell would be a lifeless bubble.
3) ibuprofen. You could take any of these drugs if you had pain in your body, and that is why they are called painkillers.
Even though you take these drugs for similar effects, these products have different chemical structures. As a result, they relieve different types of pain and cause different side effects in people.
Naproxen and ibuprofen may have side effects that include digestive system irritation and

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Score: 35.384846
Retrieved Text: One of the most important processes in petroleum refining is the catalytic reforming of naphtha feeds, using platinum on alumina catalysts, to yield the high-octane gasoline required in automobiles. Since this process was first introduced by Universal Oil Products in 1949 there have been many attempts to elucidate the mechanisms of the catalytic reactions, and a recent article by S. R. Tennison of the BP Research Centre at Sunbury, Middlesex reviews the current position (Chem. Br., 1981, 17, (11), 536–540). This interesting paper describes the use of advanced surface examination techniques to increase our understanding of the physics and chemistry of the catalyst surfaces, but as the author admits, a number of questions remain unanswered.
Naphtha feeds are distillate fractions consisting of alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics, boiling at 70 to 190°C and with research octane numbers (RON) in the range 20 to 50. Catalytic reforming raises the octane number to between 85 and 95, and the addition of alkyl lead compounds further increases the RON to the 93 to 100 for sale at the pump. The principal upgrading reactions serve to increase the concentrations of iso -alkanes and aromatics, using temperatures of 500 to 525°C and 25 bar pressure. A typical catalyst for this reaction is 0.3 weight per cent platinum supported on alumina and promoted by about 1 weight per cent chlorine, although more recently 0.3 weight per cent of a second metal may also be incorporated. Under such conditions, hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratios of 6:1 are used with a liquid hourly space velocity of 2.
The

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Retrieved Text: Enzymes are proteins that perform the everyday work within a cell. This includes increasing the efficiency of chemical reactions, making energy molecules called ATP, moving components of the cell and other substances, breaking down molecules (catabolism) and building new molecules (anabolism).
Enzymes are catalysts, which means they speed up the rate at which reactants interact to form products in a chemical reaction. To do this, enzymes lower the activation energy required for bonds to break and new bonds to form, making the formation of a product much faster. Without enzymes, these chemical reactions would proceed at a rate that is hundreds to thousands of times slower.
Living organisms store the energy required for daily life in the form of chemical energy. The main form of this chemical energy is adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, which acts like a charged battery. The main enzyme that produces ATP is ATP Synthase, which is part of the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of cells. For every molecule of glucose broken down for energy, ATP Synthase makes 32 to 34 ATP molecules.
Enzymes are the protein machines that perform the day-to-day functions within cells. They deliver packages from one part of the cell to another. They pull chromosomes apart when the cell undergoes mitosis. They leverage the cilia, which are like the oars of a cell, helping cells move themselves or other substances. Common motor proteins include myosins, kinesins and dyneins. These families of motor proteins catalyze the breakage of ATP into ADP (adenosine diphoshphate) to access the energy they need to do

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Retrieved Text: HEIDELBERG, 25 April 2014 - Researchers from the University of Cambridge have published details about how the first organisms on Earth could have become metabolically active. The results, which are reported in the journal Molecular Systems Biology, permit scientists to speculate how primitive cells learned to synthesize their organic components - the molecules that form RNA, lipids and amino acids. The findings also suggest an order for the sequence of events that led to the origin of life.
A reconstruction of Earth's earliest ocean in the laboratory revealed the spontaneous occurrence of the chemical reactions used by modern cells to synthesize many of the crucial organic molecules of metabolism. Previously, it was assumed that these reactions were carried out in modern cells by metabolic enzymes, highly complex molecular machines that came into existence during the evolution of modern organisms.
Almost 4 billion years ago life on Earth began in iron-rich oceans that dominated the surface of the planet. An open question for scientists is when and how cellular metabolism, the network of chemical reactions necessary to produce nucleic acids, amino acids and lipids, the building blocks of life, appeared on the scene.
The observed chemical reactions occurred in the absence of enzymes but were made possible by the chemical molecules found in the Archean sea. Finding a series of reactions that resembles the "core of cellular metabolism" suggests that metabolism predates the origin of life. This implies that, at least initially, metabolism may not have been shaped by evolution but by molecules like RNA formed through the chemical conditions

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Retrieved Text: Synthetic biology is an effective solution to produce valuable and novel products economically (less cost and more yields). In a specific host organism, designing heterologous pathway to produce valuable compounds needs knowing effective foreign reactions to activate. The question is which exogenous reactions are the most effective in that specific host? To know the most suitable foreign reactions to the host, one needs to check all possible routes from many different organisms. However, complex biological systems for different organisms make it a challenge for synthetic biologists. To reduce the complexity, computational methods based on different approaches suggest and rank heterologous pathways. One of the approaches to design heterologous pathways is based on thermodynamic data. Thermodynamic data can explain the transformation of a molecule in a biological system. It has several applications including synthetic biology.
To rationally design a productive heterologous biosynthesis system, it is essential to consider the suitability of foreign reactions for the specific endogenous metabolic infrastructure of a host. We developed a novel method called Metabolic Route Explorer (MRE) which for a given pair of starting and desired compounds in a given chassis organism ranks biosynthesis routes from the perspective of the integration of new reactions into the endogenous metabolic system. For each promising heterologous biosynthesis pathway, MRE suggests actual enzymes for foreign metabolic reactions and generates information on competing endogenous reactions for the consumption of metabolites. These unique, chassis-centered features distinguish MRE from existing pathway design tools and allow synthetic biologists to evaluate the design of their biosynthesis systems from a different angle. By

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Retrieved Text: When seawater enters into the ocean crust, heats and reacts with crustal rock, then rises to the seabed, the columns of emerging fluid and gas is called a hydrothermal vent.
Hydrothermal vents dot the Earth's seabeds in volcanically active areas and in zones where tectonic plates are moving apart.
Marine biologists study the unique chemosynthetic biological communities living around vents. Some hypothesize that hydrothermal vents produced the organic molecules needed for life.
A recent study by chemists at University College London reports that the chemical properties found on the surfaces inside hydrothermal vents are similar to enzymes.
Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that govern chemical reactions in living organisms. Hydrothermal vents would therefore be capable of spontaneously producing carbon-based molecules like methanol and formic acid from the carbon dioxide dissolved in the emerging water.
"There is a lot of speculation that hydrothermal vents could be the location where life on Earth began. There is a lot of CO2 dissolved in the water, which could provide the carbon that the chemistry of living organisms is based on, and there is plenty of energy, because the water is hot and turbulent. What our research proves is that these vents also have the chemical properties that encourage these molecules to recombine into molecules usually associated with living organisms."
Invertebrate tubeworms covering a sulfide chimney called Zooarium.
Earth-Ocean Interactions, NOAA/PMEL Vents Program.
Eruptive Discoveries, by Bill Chadwick, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA, 29 April 2002.
Hydrothermal Venting, NOAA/PMEL Vents Program.
Major known deep-sea hydrothermal vent fields.
Origin of life: Chemistry of

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Retrieved Text: Enzymes are the catalysts of biochemical reactions, ie the chemical reactions occurring in living beings.
They greatly accelerate the speed of these reactions. A reaction that might require months or years to take place on its own occurs in just a few seconds or fractions of a second.
They act in very small quantities. An enzyme molecule converts a few hundred to a few million substrate molecules per minute. They remain intact at the end of the reactions.
Enzymes are specific. Due to their active specificity, they only catalyse one type of reaction. Enzymes are produced by the cells. The vast majority are proteins. Enzymes are numerous. More than 2,500 have already been identified but there are still probably many more yet to be discovered.
Approximately 16% of these enzymes cross the gastrointestinal barrier and are responsible for performing actions that the patient's enzymes cannot. All of these components thus contribute to digestive comfort, fighting intestinal indolence and strengthening the body's defences. Enzy 20 regulates all the metabolisms and stimulates the self-healing mechanisms.
3 times 2 to 3 capsules per day at least one half hour before meals.
Beta D galactosidase galactohydrolase = lactase enzyme, Bromelain extract, Papain extract, Amylase, Protease, Rutin extract, L Tyrosine, Lipase, Cellulase, Vit. E, Vit. B3, Iron gluconate, Vit. B1, Vit. B2, Copper gluconate, Vit. B6, Molybdenum, Selenium, and Vit. D.
Box of 200 vegetal capsules of 400 mg.

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Retrieved Text: Cross-coupling Reaction using Transition Metal Catalysts [C-C Bond Formation] | TCI EUROPE N.V.
Cross-coupling reactions using late transition metal catalysts represented by nickel and palladium metals have been widely used for introducing various functional groups into unsaturated substances such as aromatic rings, alkenes, alkynes and so on. In these reactions, carbon-carbon bond forming reactions can be performed by the combination of electrophilic carbon species of aryl/vinyl halides and organometallic agents of Grignard reagents and organoboron compounds. Also, the use of nucleophilic hetero atoms such as phenols and amines is efficient to form carbon-hetero atom bonds. By the development of these synthetic methods, substitution reactions to sp2 carbon and sp carbon are easily accomplished while it had been difficult to perform these transformations by classical synthetic reactions without using metal catalysts.
Recently, transition metal mediated cross-coupling reactions have been widely used as useful synthetic tools and applied to the synthesis of various functional molecules such as bioactive compounds and biaryls for liquid crystal materials. As a feature of these transformations, it is found that there are many name reactions for each kind of nucleophile used for coupling reactions. And then in 2010, for making a great contribution to develop the metal-based cross-coupling reactions, Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki jointly received the Nobel Prize in chemistry, verifying the usefulness of the transition metal mediated cross-coupling reactions. The following shows the synthetic properties of palladium/nickel catalyzed cross-coupling reactions commonly used with the chemical equations.
The late transition metal catalyzed cross-coupling reactions are collected based on the reaction modes and

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Retrieved Text: CANNAZYM is a high-quality product that speeds up the process of breaking down dead root material and activates beneficial micro-organisms. CANNAZYM also helps plants take up nutrients and increases the resistance against diseases. Enzymes are substances that speed up the reactions in living organisms. For example, enzymes play a vital role in our digestion.

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Retrieved Text: Question: What are some common chemical catalyst and how are they used in an industrial process? What kind of a difference do catalyst make in the overall economics of the industrial process, and what occupational hazards are associated with using the catalyst?
Answer: Interested in catalysts? Let's start here...catalysts impact the overall economics in ways that you probably can't imagine. The usual order of progression is that a chemist finds a way to make a fantastic new chemical in the lab, but it takes hours or days for the reaction to be complete. Unless the reaction can be sped up significantly, no one will ever mass produce the chemical because the cost would be much too high (exceptions to this do exist in specialty chemical that people do not need much of). This is where catalysts come in. Catalysts do one thing..speed up reactions (they do not take place in the reaction itself). Much of the research time for a given chemical is spent on catalysts research. The most tightly guarded industrial secrets are catalysts compositions or recipes. Often times, many companies will be producing the same chemical, but because one company has a better catalyst, they can sell their product at a lower costs and gain more of the market! In short, catalysts often times ARE the economic feasibility of a chemical process. Occupational hazards of catalysts are seldom a large concern for two reasons: 1. The catalysts spend nearly all of their time in chemical reactors (not exposed to workers) and 2. Most catalysts are

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Retrieved Text: A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein’s biological activity.
Cofactors are commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered “helper molecules ” that assist in biochemical transformations.
Some enzymes or enzyme complexes require several cofactors.
Each class of group-transfer reaction is carried out by a particular cofactor, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it.
cofactor: A substance, especially a coenzyme or a metal, that must be present for an enzyme to function.
enzymes: Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for the thousands of chemical interconversions that sustain life. They are highly selective catalysts, greatly accelerating both the rate and specificity of metabolic reactions, from the digestion of food to the synthesis of DNA.
reaction: A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, and can often be described by a chemical equation.
A cofactor is a non- protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein’s biological activity. These proteins are commonly enzymes. Cofactors can be considered “helper molecules” that assist in biochemical transformations.
Cofactor: The succinate dehydrogenase complex showing several cofactors, including flavin, iron-sulfur centers, and heme.
Cofactors are either organic or inorganic. They can also be classified depending on how tightly they bind to an enzyme, with loosely-bound cofactors termed coenzymes

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======= Instance Index 49 =========
Input Text: Answer the following question given this paragraph: 

The metals of group 13 (Al, Ga, In, and Tl) are all reactive. However, passivation occurs as a tough, hard, thin film of the metal oxide forms upon exposure to air. Disruption of this film may counter the passivation, allowing the metal to react. One way to disrupt the film is to expose the passivated metal to mercury. Some of the metal dissolves in the mercury to form an amalgam, which sheds the protective oxide layer to expose the metal to further reaction. The formation of an amalgam allows the metal to react with air and water.


Q: The formation of an amalgam allows the metal to react with what?

 Choices:

- blood and sweat

- air and water

- cloth and plastic

- helium and oxygen

A:

Target Text: air and water

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: De-Mer-Tox 60c by Douglas Laboratories contain several vitamins and other dietary constituents supportive of metabolic processes that may protect against the toxic stress of amalgam filling removal. De-Mer-Tox™ capsules may be a useful dietary supplement for individuals who wish improve their nutritional detoxification systems during the stress of amalgam filling removal.
"Silver" amalgam tooth fillings are known to continuously release highly neurotoxic mercury vapor into the mouth where it is then absorbed into the brain. This mercury release is greatly accentuated during the extensive grinding required for the replacement of old amalgam fillings. There is some evidence that adverse metabolic and behavioral effects may be associated with this mercury exposure from dental amalgam fillings.
Although symptoms of chronic, low level mercury exposure may be relatively non-descript, severe signs of toxicity may appear later in life. Research has shown that chronic inhalation of low levels of mercury vapor can inhibit polymerization of the brain protein tubulin which is essential for the formation and maintenance of neuron microtubular structure.
Mercury can also disassemble these neuronal microtubules. Mercury, a sulfhydryl-reactive metal, can affect a wide variety of metabolic processes. It is not only a prooxidant, but also inhibits antioxidant enzymes and depletes intracellular glutathione. L-glutathione (reduced), a naturally occurring tripeptide of L-cysteine, L-glutamate, and L-glycine, is the essential cosubstrate for two major antioxidant enzymes in the body, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase.
N-acetyl-L-cysteine is a precursor for the sulfur amino acid cysteine, used in the synthesis of glutathione. Dietary sulfur may play an important role in mercury detoxification as studies have shown an

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Retrieved Text: yup, agree. I think this forum suffers from this very much.
The MD I’m talking about made different research papers on the subject back in 01,06 and 07. Also some with candida and IBS. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356731 (nystatin in CRC pts.) and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166126 the IBS study is irrelevant.
It seems like mercury can cross react with yeastproteins, although I don’t know this is possible. But all subjects (see Family Practice 2001) which of whom did not respond to treatment with nystatin and diet, showed to be allergic to mercury.
Many dentists develop yeast allergies after amalgam treatments on many patients. Many patients with yeast allergy vs. candida albicans reports about yeast-allergi-like symptoms when consuming bakers yeast, beer or by getting their teeth done with amalgams.
Laboratories who do MELISA tests (see http://www.melisa.org) often find candida albicans allergy in patients with mercury allergy.
Most pt. with proven candida allergy who do not improve after a test diet (patients make a 14 day trial of eating no sugar, wheat, etc. to see if candida is a problem) show to react to their own amalgam fillings.
Children that are exposed to mold fungi and pollution with heavy metals are more prone to develop asthma, then a child who only is exposed to one of the factors.
These observations can after my opinion not only be explained with that c. albicans methylates mercury (this is also done by many bacteria), that candida yeast reabsorb mercury or that this reobserved heavy metal can be used by yeasts to do damage to the secretory IgA along the mucosa.
Solid research? Not really,

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Retrieved Text: Once you receive amalgam dental crowns, you may think you have to live with the unappealing color and unnatural appearance of those crowns. There is no reason to worry since you can replace an amalgam dental crown, also known as a silver crown, with a more natural-looking crown made with ceramic or composite materials. Not only are amalgam dental crowns less attractive than a tooth-colored crown, but they can also be a hazard to your teeth since no restoration is made to last forever. If you do not want to settle for an amalgam dental crown, we will be happy to go over other options at our office in Chantilly.
A few negative side effects of amalgam crowns include the fact that they can end up hiding deeper damage. Dental crowns that are comprised from amalgam can interfere with X-rays, hiding other damage and decay from dentists. The metal alloy that comprises amalgam crowns may also cause cracks in the teeth due to the amount of space they take up. Silver crowns can also “bleed” into surrounding teeth, creating a gray shade. These issues are not always guaranteed but are definite possibilities.
Some of the benefits of replacing your amalgam dental crowns with a more suitable crown include that you will not have to worry about as many potential problems in the future. A natural-looking, all-ceramic crown can be the perfect replacement for an amalgam crown. These crowns do not take up as much space as an amalgam crown, and they blend in with your natural tooth perfectly.

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Retrieved Text: Don’t Let Your Dental Restoration Stand Out!
June 27, 2015 /in Composite Fillings /by Garon Larsen, D.M.D.
When you come into our office to get a dental restoration, you want to make sure that that restoration is something that will blend in with your rest of your smile. The last thing you want is to draw attention to your smile for dental work that you’ve had done! Things like amalgam fillings and metal crowns make your smile look less natural, and most of our patients prefer something better. That’s why we use tooth-colored fillings and metal-free crowns!
Traditional amalgam fillings leave little black holes in your smile. We prefer to use composite resin in our fillings, because the material will blend in with any tooth color we see! It is also pliable, so we can make the resin fit anywhere in your mouth for a beautiful restoration that will leave you feeling confident!
Crowns made from metal definitely make a statement, though you might not be too happy with what they are saying! Metal crowns can also cause problems for patients with metal allergies. We use non-metal crowns here in the office and see much better results for our patients! Not only do they feel better, but they create a more aesthetic look.
Don’t get dental work that is going to announce itself to the world every time you open your mouth! Instead, rely on us to give you the dental care you need. Our work will blend into your natural smile, leaving you with something to be proud of! Contact

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Retrieved Text: Amalgam vs. Composite Fillings: Which is Better?
When it comes to amalgam vs. composite fillings, there are both benefits and drawbacks. We discuss both to help give you a better understanding.
“You have a cavity.” It’s generally not a sentence that we enjoy hearing from our dentist. However, with the advancements made in dentistry, there are several different options to consider for tooth repair. While traditional silver amalgam fillings used to be the only choice available, today most dental offices also provide composite resin.
Both materials offer certain benefits and drawbacks. Knowing what those are in advance can help you make an educated decision on the type of dental filling you want, should the need for one arise. Although it’s possible to coast through life without ever developing a cavity, there is a pretty good chance you will need a dental filling at some point in your life. It is estimated that around 90 percent of Americans between the ages of 20 and 64 have at least one cavity, with that number increasing to 96 percent for people over the age of 65.
Before diving into the pros and cons of the materials used for dental fillings, let’s discuss what a dental filling is and how it can improve oral health and beauty. Dental fillings are designed to replace decay in tooth enamel and restore a tooth’s appearance, strength, and structure. Although dental enamel is the strongest tissue in your body, it is susceptible to bacteria.
Plaque is a naturally occurring matrix of minerals and bacteria that forms on teeth. As

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Retrieved Text: The patient came to our attention for the replacement of an old amalgam on molar 26. The most common problems when threating old metal fillings are cracks which can develop on the tooth structure, especially on the crowns. Cracks are mainly due to the combination of two factors, the invasive preparation needed before placing an amalgam which weakens the tooth structure and the difference in thermal expansion coefficients between the metal filling and the tooth. When, for instance, a hot food is eaten, the metal filling and the tooth expand at different rates, as a matter of facts the amalgam expands more quickly applying pressure on the tooth. The cyclic application of pressure over the years can lead to the development of cracks and possible cusp fractures once the filling is removed.
The following images show the step-by-step direct composite restoration procedure using myQuickmat Forte kit (Polydentia) in combination of the myTines Small and myTines Large (Polydentia). The myTines Large are a very useful tools when restoring wide cavities even in case of a missing cusp. The semi-rigid structure of the extremities allows the reconstruction of large portion of the tooth without collapsing the matrix into the cavity.
1: Pre-operative view showing the old amalgam and composite restorations to be replaced.
3: Pre-wedging: Wood wedges were cut to better accommodate the ring.
4: Molar 26 after the elimination of the old amalgam and composite restorations. Removal of previous metal filling often leads to wide cavities which requires special tools for the direct composite restoration. For the present case, the extremities

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Retrieved Text: Make your money with other people trash At Scrap Metal Dealer Amalgam where we will pay you cash and give you the advice you need to stay ahead of your competition!
At Scrap Metal Dealers Amalgam we know that being a head in the scrap metal world can be tough without anyone providing advice on where to best go to find the hidden jewels in scrap metal.
At Scrap Metal Dealer Amalgam we help our customers by ensuring that we provide regular advice on where to find the best sources of scrap metal and provide extra assistance when ever needed at really low prices.
At Scrap Metal Dealers Amalgam our scrap metal experts have many years of experience which can be shared with you in order for you to reap the rewards of dealing with scrap metal. Give us a call and let us discuss how we can help you today!

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Retrieved Text: In the past if you had a cavity, your only option was a metal filling. But patients today have a more attractive option: Tooth-colored composite fillings. And the results are so remarkable that many patients wonder if they should proactively replace all their metal fillings with composites.
It’s a choice that patients should make in consultation with their dentist. Cosmetic dentist Clark Damon, who offers a full range of cosmetic and restorative dentistry treatments in Fort Worth, can explain the ins and outs of tooth-colored fillings as well as discuss when replacing metal fillings is appropriate.
In short, the simple answer is replacement is a good option for certain patients. We do not recommend removal unless patients want the sliver out, want it removed for esthetic purposes, if a fracture is present, or if it becomes decayed. However I do not place silver fillings.
Dental Composite restorations have become mainstream since about 1995. Composites are a relatively new choice, but one that has quickly climbed in popularity for a number of reasons. A prime consideration for many patients is appearance. Restorations with composites create a tooth-colored repair that blends in with other teeth, avoiding the harsh and unattractive appearance of metal.
Bond to the tooth and strengthen it.
Require less of the tooth to be removed to place the filling.
Fracture Teeth. I see so many teeth that have amalgam fillings, with cracks all around their teeth. Even small conservative amalgam fillings done on pre-molar teeth can lead to their fracture. Why? when dentist remove the cavity and prepare the tooth for

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Retrieved Text: There are only two reasons why most people replace Metal Fillings (called Amalgams). The most common reason is because the metal has broken down and is no longer a good restoration. The metal may have ragged edges that allow fluid to leak in around it causing further decay, it may be cracked and ready to break, it may have just worn out. If the tooth is to be preserved, the filling must be replaced. If it is quite large (more than one or two surfaces) the treatment of choice is often a crown. Click here to read more about crowns.
The second most common reason metal fillings are replaced is cosmetic.
Used by dentists for more than a century, dental amalgam is the most thoroughly researched and tested restorative material among all those in use. Amalgam is durable, easy to use, highly resistant to wear and relatively inexpensive in comparison to other materials. For those reasons, it remains a valued treatment option for dentists and their patients.
Dental amalgam is a stable alloy made by combining elemental mercury, silver, tin, copper and sometimes other metallic elements. Although dental amalgam continues to be a safe, commonly used restorative material, some concern has been raised because of its mercury content. However, the mercury in amalgam combines with other metals to render it stable and safe for use in filling teeth.
While questions have arisen about the safety of dental amalgam relating to its mercury content, the major U.S. and international scientific and health bodies, including the National Institutes of Health, the U.S.

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Retrieved Text: Cavities can happen to anyone. In years past, everyone could tell when you had a cavity. What gave it away? Perhaps it was that silvery metal blob on your teeth. Well, gone are the days when you have to have amalgam fillings. Instead, at our Waco office, we offer tooth-colored fillings expertly crafted to blend seamlessly with your teeth, so only you and Dr. Cofer will know that you’ve had a cavity. Our team is dedicated to making your experience with us as pleasant and the results as healthy and beautiful as possible.
Amalgam fillings consist of a combination of mercury, silver, tin, and copper. In contrast, tooth-colored fillings are metal free and are composed of composite resin, which includes plastic and fine ceramic particles. As a result, this type of filling is much lighter and more biocompatible, allowing it to remain in place much easier than its amalgam counterpart.
They strengthen your teeth. In order to make sure amalgam fillings stayed in place, more of the tooth structure had to be removed. Composite resin is very flexible and bonds well to teeth, which means that more of your natural tooth can be preserved. It also supports the natural structure of your tooth, restoring its full function and strength.
They do not come out as easily as amalgam. Although amalgam is very durable, tooth-colored fillings can stay adhered to your teeth through normal wear and tear much better than amalgam fillings.
They protect your teeth from hot and cold. Patients often complained about sensitivity to hot and cold with metal

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Retrieved Text: Most patients will find themselves in need of a filling at some point in life. When a tooth is decayed, so long as the decay is not too severe, your dentist can restore it using either metal amalgam (grey) or white (tooth coloured) fillings.
These days, many people opt for white fillings, because they are much less noticeable than amalgam fillings, being matched closely in colour to the natural shade of your teeth. Because they are considered a cosmetic procedure, white fillings are only available to private patients. Amalgam fillings remain available to NHS patients.
White fillings are strong and resilient, and are made from a compound of resin and glass or ceramic materials. They are available in a variety of shades, so your dentist can match them to your natural tooth shade, making them highly discreet. In the past they were considered to be less strong than metal fillings, but modern white fillings are now almost as strong as their amalgam counterparts.
In most cases, white fillings are fitted under local anaesthetic at the same time as decay is removed. If you come to us for an emergency appointment and your tooth shows signs of infection, this will need to be treated first, so you may need a second appointment for your filling. The fillings are fitted using a rubber dam to isolate the affected tooth and to keep the area clean.
How long any filling will last will depend on where it is in your mouth and how your teeth meet together, but with proper care white fillings

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Retrieved Text: CHAPTER3 Metals and Non-metals In Class IX you have learnt about various elements. You have seen that elements can be classified as metals or non-metals on the basis of their properties. • Think of some uses of metals and non-metals in your daily life. • What properties did you think of while categorising elements as metals or non-metals? • How are these properties related to the uses of these elements? Let us look at some of these properties in detail. 3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 3.1.1 Metals The easiest way to start grouping substances is by comparing their physical properties. Let us study this with the help of the following activities. For Activities 3.1 to 3.6, collect the samples of following metals – iron, copper, aluminium, magnesium, sodium, lead, zinc and any other metal that is easily available. Activity 3.1 • Take samples of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium. Note the appearance of each sample. • Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing them with sand paper and note their appearance again. Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called metallic lustre. Activity 3.2 • Take small pieces of iron, copper, aluminium, and magnesium. Try to cut these metals with a sharp knife and note your observations. • Hold a piece of sodium metal with a pair of tongs. CAUTION: Always handle sodium metal with care. Dry it by pressing between the folds of a filter paper. • Put it on a watch-glass and try to cut it with a knife. •

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Retrieved Text: Most patients will require a filling at some point in life. In the past, fillings were made from dark-coloured metal amalgam, which is very strong but also very obvious. Capital Dental is an amalgam-free practice, meaning we only provide natural-looking, tooth-coloured or white fillings.
White fillings are made from composite, tooth-coloured materials. Once upon a time white fillings were considered weaker and less long-lasting than metal amalgam fillings, but the techniques and materials used have advanced greatly in recent years, meaning that white fillings don’t just look natural, they are also very strong and durable.
The life expectancy of any filling depends on where in your mouth it is located, how your teeth come together when you bite, and how well you look after your dental health. However, with prudent dental hygiene our white fillings will last you many years.
White fillings are used to replace decayed areas of your teeth, so you will need to have the decay removed first, under a local anaesthetic. These fillings can also be used to rebuild and reshape worn teeth and teeth with broken edges, and are sometimes used to cover discolouration that can’t be removed by cleaning.
If you need a white filling, your dentist will carefully choose a shade that matches the natural colour of your teeth, so the fillings will blend in seamlessly and unlike amalgam fillings will not be noticeable when you smile.
It is also possible to replace old, worn metal amalgam fillings with more aesthetically pleasing tooth-coloured fillings. If you have metal amalgam fillings, this is something that

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Rank: 13
Score: 24.87828
Retrieved Text: There are a number of problems with metal fillings. To begin with, metal cannot be bonded to teeth. This means that securing a metal filling requires the drilling of a large cavity, which allows the amalgam to be packed deeply into the tooth – a process that further weakens teeth already impacted by decay. What’s more, metal expands and contracts with temperature changes in the mouth and, because it is not bonded, can break or crack teeth, or simply fall out.
In addition, the material used in tooth colored fillings is safe and nontoxic, even when placed under the strain of daily use. And, of course, these fillings fit more naturally into the smile, helping produce optimal cosmetic as well as functional results.

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Rank: 14
Score: 24.812265
Retrieved Text: According to Jupiter cosmetic dentists, there has been quite a bit of controversy about amalgam or silver tooth fillings. As per the results of a survey, over 70% of people in the US were not aware that silver or amalgam fillings contained mercury. In fact, mercury filling removal became quite popular over the past few years.
Mercury is a highly powerful neurotoxin with the ability to cause a range of illnesses such as mental problems, chronic illnesses and autoimmune disease. Amalgam fillings are made up of a combination of metals including, silver, tin, copper and mercury. In some mixtures, small amounts of palladium, indium or zinc are used as well. Nowadays, amalgam fillings are not as commonly used due to the toxicity controversy and due to the wide availability of various tooth colored fillings.
Amalgam contains mercury in order to make the filling mixture pliable to seal the cavity. When mercury is mixed in with the other metals (in powder form), the mixture becomes soft enough to be molded into any tooth. Amalgam hardens rapidly and has the ability to withstand a great deal of wear, tear and force from daily use.
Mercury is a naturally occurring metal in the environment and exposure is inevitable for just about anyone. However, if a person is exposed to high quantities of mercury on a regular basis, the metal can build up in the organs and cause various problems in time. While very low, general exposure does not result in any harm to the body, high levels (such as those encountered by

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Rank: 15
Score: 24.784891
Retrieved Text: Flap's Dentistry Blog: Sweden Bans Mercury - Say Good Bye to Dental Amalgam (SILVER) Filings?
Sweden Bans Mercury - Say Good Bye to Dental Amalgam (SILVER) Filings?
Sweden has instituted a near-total mercury ban on products containing the heavy metal. This includes dental amalgam - the material used for the common silver filings used in dentistry.
How will this affect American Dentistry?
The handwriting is on the wall, despite what the American Dental Association insists.
Dental amalgam has been a relatively inexpensive and long lasting dental material but the environmental risks are well known.
Time to move on to other materials which are tooth colored, safer for dentist, patients and the environment.
Many American private practice dentists have abandoned amalgam years ago. Now, for the rest.
Every other year, since I got out of dental school in 1985, there seems to be a public outcry about the mercury in amalgam, even though the ADA maintains its negligible affects. It has served us well over the years.
It may well have served us well over the years and medicimne along with everything else moves on and we find better treatments. Other than if cost is very imprtant, why have a toxic metal in your mouth when you can have somtheing that is more aesthetically pleasing. At our dental practice in Epping, Essex; we are almost mercury-free and only use it in very rare situations.

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Rank: 16
Score: 24.735466
Retrieved Text: If your teeth are filled with dark, gray metal fillings, you've got more to worry about than your appearance. Metal amalgams can damage teeth. Temperature sensitive, amalgams expand with heat and contract with cold. This movement weakens the tooth wall, leading to fractures and also allows bacteria to enter and cause decay. They contain mercury that may have long-term health effects. Tooth-colored composite fillings are a safer, stronger, more attractive and more enduring alternative to metal. They conservatively restore your teeth to strength and your smile to beauty.
Today's modern white filling materials strengthen teeth unlike the mercury amalgam fillings of years past. These new materials restore teeth to their original look, feel, and beauty. Laugh again with confidence.

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Rank: 17
Score: 24.673092
Retrieved Text: NTK Fabrication is a combination of efforts and experience between Jason Chernowetz and Ryan Terry aimed to provide custom design and metal fabrication services tailored to the individual business or customer at an affordable price and quick turnaround. We are located at 11378 Amalgam Way, Suite F, Rancho Cordova, CA 95670.
Our cost-effective services are made possible by utilizing the most current design and fabrication technology, efficient business practices, and the utilization of a competent, well experienced and hardworking staff. This allows us to service the single individual with the same quality as we serve large businesses.
We currently provide in house design, cutting, and welding, and services for anything from architectural, structural, or decorative steel items, to special equipment and heavy repair. We also offer site repair, welding, and erection. We are your custom metal solution for anything steel, stainless, or aluminum. Our state-of-the-art scalable equipment gives us the ability to process custom metal orders of any size.

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Rank: 18
Score: 24.635397
Retrieved Text: Tooth-colored fillings, white fillings and composite resin fillings are all names for the high-strength, natural-looking fillings that can be placed today instead of silver or gold (also known as amalgam fillings). No matter what the name, Serramonte Dental Group will know just what you're talking about when referring to this natural-looking filling.
Call us at (650) 731-3901 or request an appointment online so we can discuss the benefits of white fillings and how they can help improve your smile.
Serramonte Dental Group specializes in beautiful cosmetic dentistry. Metal fillings are often thought of as an eyesore especially with the front teeth that are visible to everyone when you smile. We are able to remove those old metal fillings and replace them with today's white fillings which are nearly identical in color to the teeth that they are in.
Virtually everyone is a candidate to have metal fillings replaced with natural-looking white fillings. Request an appointment online or call our office directly at (650) 731-3901 to discuss replacing your old metal fillings with white ones.
Metal fillings (also known as amalgam fillings) are very strong and do not wear out as quickly as composite (white) fillings. In situations where a tooth requires a large filling and other treatment options such as porcelain crowns are not desired, a metal filling might be your best treatment option because of the structural qualities of the metals themselves. Composite fillings generally can't withstand the forces exerted on them if they have to cover a very large area. Metal fillings generally cost less than natural-looking fillings,

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Rank: 19
Score: 24.572294
Retrieved Text: For over 100 years, silver amalgam fillings have been the standard of care for filling a cavity. They are commonly known as silver fillings. What you may not realize is that calling them silver fillings is a bit misleading. This is because there is actually more mercury in them than silver. Technically, they should be called silver amalgam fillings. Amalgam is the combination of another metal with mercury.
Many people feel very adamantly that they don’t want mercury used in their mouth. Even though the American Dental Association states that amalgam fillings are safe, people are uncomfortable with them. But dentists do have another option.
Starting in the 1980s there were significant technology breakthroughs with composite filling material, as well as advances in the dental bonding techniques used to place them. Dentists have found that when the composite material is bonded directly to the teeth, they offer many benefits over the old, silver amalgam fillings. Both Dr. Rothwell and Dr. Lenick have embraced this new technology and no longer use silver amalgam to fill cavities.
The composite is bonded directly to the tooth, making it much stronger.
You can expect less post-operative sensitivity.
Less of your natural tooth structure needs to be drilled away.
Composite seals the tooth which helps prevent future tooth decay.
There is absolutely no mercury in the composite material.
When done by an experienced cosmetic dentist, they will blend in beautifully with your natural teeth.
Below you can see a comparison of silver amalgam fillings on the top, with mercury-free, white composite fillings on the bottom.

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Rank: 20
Score: 24.518494
Retrieved Text: Tooth decay, also known as dental caries, is caused by the acid-producing bacteria found in plaque. These acids eat away at the enamel (the outer-most layer of a tooth), leading to the formation of cavities. At Sharokina Eshaghi, DMD, we always try to treat a cavity before it progresses into a more serious complication. If we diagnose you with a cavity during your routine checkup, we will likely treat the tooth with a dental filling. Fillings can also be used to repair cracked, broken, or worn down teeth, specifically with the use of composite resin.
• Composite resin. Composite resin is a soft mixture of glass or quartz filler that is color matched to the existing shade of your enamel. For this reason, composite fillings are ideal for cavities that are visible when you smile. The material also provides good durability and can be used for anterior (front) and posterior (back) teeth. Due to its aesthetic and functional value, composite is the most popular choice for dental fillings.
• Amalgam fillings. Amalgam, or silver fillings, have been used in dentistry for over 150 years. Because they are made from metal, amalgam fillings are extremely resistant to wear and relatively inexpensive. We may recommend amalgam for a large cavity in a posterior tooth due to its durability. However, amalgam fillings have fallen out of favor due to their indiscrete color.
• Gold Fillings. Gold fillings are fabricated in a laboratory and then later cemented into place. Also known as inlays, gold fillings have unmatched durability, lasting well over 20 years.

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Rank: 21
Score: 24.43291
Retrieved Text: When you think about dental treatments, the first thing that usually comes to mind is dental fillings. For more than a century, the “drill and fill” has been the foundation of restorative dentistry; teeth become damaged by bacteria, and fillings do an excellent job of halting decay and restoring the structure and function of the tooth. Despite the basic principle behind fillings being the same as it was 50 years ago, the materials we use today behave more like your natural enamel and cause less damage to the teeth, long-term.
No matter how well you brush and floss your teeth, you mouth will always have bacteria living in it. Some bacteria are beneficial, while others are harmful. When Streptococcus mutans bacteria feed on plaque and food residues, they excrete acids that can leach minerals from your teeth. Tooth enamel is the second hardest naturally occurring substance on earth (second only to diamond), but it is extremely vulnerable to acids. The more you feed mouth bacteria with starches and sugars, the more acids they excrete. Given enough exposure these acids, tooth enamel will dissolve and leave a cavity (hole) in its place.
Once a cavity has formed, there is nothing the body can do to heal or replace the lost enamel. The only way to stop decay from spreading (and protect your tooth) is with a dental filling. Neglect a cavity for too long and you may wind up with a painful toothache that requires endodontic therapy, also known as a root canal.
An x-ray will be taken, to help

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Rank: 22
Score: 24.404598
Retrieved Text: Ionic liquids (ILs) based on trihexyltetradecylphosphonium coupled with either diphenylphosphate or bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide have been shown to react with magnesium alloy surfaces, leading to the formation a surface film that can improve the corrosion resistance of the alloy. The morphology and microstructure of the magnesium surface seems critical in determining the nature of the interphase, with grain boundary phases and intermetallics within the grain, rich in zirconium and zinc, showing almost no interaction with the IL and thereby resulting in a heterogeneous surface film. This has been explained, on the basis of solid-state NMR evidence, as being due to the extremely low reactivity of the native oxide films on the intermetallics (ZrO2 and ZnO) with the IL as compared with the magnesium-rich matrix where a magnesium hydroxide and/or carbonate inorganic surface is likely. Solid-state NMR characterization of the ZE41 alloy surface treated with the IL based on (Tf)2N− indicates that this anion reacts to form a metal fluoride rich surface in addition to an organic component. The diphenylphosphate anion also seems to undergo an additional chemical process on the metal surface, indicating that film formation on the metal is not a simple chemical interaction between the components of the IL and the substrate but may involve electrochemical processes.

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Rank: 23
Score: 24.386843
Retrieved Text: Fillings Should Look Just Like Natural Teeth!
Do you have metal or amalgam fillings that stand out when you smile? Do they taste strange, or have an imperfect fit? Now, you can replace them with fillings made of composite material. Plus, if you need fillings in the future, you can trust that composite fillings will always look completely natural. No one will know that you have visited Belle Meade Family Dentistry – they will just know that you look amazing!
At one point in time, metal-based and amalgam fillings were considered the top of the line when it came to dentistry. However, there were known problems with these types of fillings: they tended not to fit well, they put pressure on the teeth and caused cracks, they often fell out, and they set the stage for metal allergies and adverse reactions.
To move past the limitations of metal and amalgam fillings, dentistry has embraced fillings made with composite materials. The composite securely bonds to the teeth, and can be carefully molded and shaved to feel and appear totally natural. Patients get a terrific fit, and there is very little risk that bacteria will be able to return to the spot of the original decay.
Belle Meade Family Dentistry only uses composite fillings in Nashville, TN, for all patients. Discover the difference for yourself.
Call (615) 653-4555 to schedule your consultation!
Composite fillings have a precise fit.
Composite fillings do not place undue pressure on the teeth, so the teeth are less likely to crack after being filled with composite materials.
Composite fillings do not

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Rank: 24
Score: 24.284647
Retrieved Text: White, or “tooth-colored” fillings are a dramatic improvement over the mercury-based metal fillings of the past. A skilled cosmetic dentist can use resin composite material to custom-shape fillings that match the color of surrounding teeth so closely that they are nearly invisible, eliminating the tell-tale black fillings that plagued many Woodland Hills and Calabasas patients in the past.
Traditional metal fillings are made from an amalgam that consists of roughly 50% mercury, a metal which has proven to be extremely toxic. Over time, the mercury from amalgam or metal fillings may leak into the patient’s body, which some medical professionals believe can lead to birth defects, mental disorders, or neurodegenerative diseases. While the debate on the safety of mercury fillings is ongoing, many dentists have chosen to work entirely with resin or tooth-colored fillings to eliminate any risk.
While tooth-colored fillings cost more than traditional metal amalgam fillings, most Woodland Hills and Calabasas patients find that the cosmetic and structural benefits they provide are well worth the extra cost. Not only do most patients opt to fill cavities with tooth-colored filings, many patients may also opt to replace existing metal fillings with tooth-colored fillings to ensure a more natural look to their smile.
Restore the natural appearance of your teeth with tooth-colored fillings. Get in contact Dr. Solow at his office in the Woodland Hills and Calabasas area to schedule your consultation. Call (818) 999-0104.

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Rank: 25
Score: 24.225832
Retrieved Text: In the past, teeth were filled with a mixture—or amalgam—of different metals. Today that is changing as more natural-looking and metal-free fillings are becoming the preferred approach.
Composites may cost slightly more than the old metal (amalgam) fillings and occasionally are not covered by some insurance plans. However, tooth-colored fillings are now used more often than amalgam or gold fillings, mostly due to cosmetics. In a society focused on a white, bright smile, people tend to want fillings that blend with the natural color of their teeth.

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Rank: 26
Score: 24.158598
Retrieved Text: Having metal in one’s mouth is not a normal situation. We’re not really adapted to it, and many of our body’s natural processes can interact with the metals to create less than ideal conditions. One example of this is the way that the electrolytes in our saliva can create an electric current between different types of metal.
Unfortunately, when these currents are created, one metal will be corroded. It will lose volume and strength. This is what happened with the Statue of Liberty, and almost made it collapse because many of the steel girders supporting it had reduced in cross section by 50% or more.
If you have metal fillings or crowns and you get dental implants, your implant could end up being like those steel girders, with corrosion taking their toll on them.
The fact that different metals together in the presence of an acidic solution make electricity was discovered by Luigi Galvani, so it’s named after him: galvanism. As people studied galvanism, they learned that some metals were more likely to be on the positive end of the electrical current (called noble metals), and others on the more negative end (called base metals). When placed together in solution, noble metals remain strong while base metals lose strength. Researchers arranged all the metals in a galvanic series, from the most noble metals at the top to the most base metals at the bottom.
When you look at the galvanic series, you can see that titanium is very high on the series, but there are several that are higher than

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Rank: 27
Score: 24.09896
Retrieved Text: At Hunter Dental Care, we are always on the lookout for signs of tooth decay. We have some ways that we detect and treat tooth decay and find that the more you understand about the process, the better care you will be able to take of your teeth!
We are always on the lookout for signs of tooth decay when you come in to have your bi-annual cleanings and examinations. When you come in to have your teeth cleaned and examined we will take an X-ray of your mouth, which helps us to see in between and even inside of your teeth. X-rays coupled with a close examination of your teeth can reveal places where the enamel is wearing thin and tooth decay may strike next. If we can find these areas before they turn into cavities, we can let you know where they are and what you can do to stop them. Often, this will result in preventing cavities from ever forming, which is why it’s so important to come in regularly to our office to have your checkup!
You probably know amalgam fillings as “silver” or “metal” fillings. These are silver in color and usually quite large. They are made up of an amalgamation of silver, tin, mercury, and copper. There has recently been some question as to the safety of amalgam fillings because of the presence of mercury in the mixture used to make them. The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) has done several studies on the safety of mercury in amalgam fillings and found

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Rank: 28
Score: 24.093973
Retrieved Text: Restore Damaged Teeth Without Silver Fillings!
If you’re experiencing tooth sensitivity or pain because of tooth decay, you’ve probably heard at your last dental visit that fillings would be necessary. However, you don’t need to settle for the silver fillings that you’re probably already familiar with. Instead, tooth-colored fillings can restore your smile’s appearance just as well as its function! No more dealing with silver sheens or inferior restorative options for damaged teeth.
To start protecting your teeth, contact our office to schedule an appointment. Dr. Gary C. Nawrocki is more than happy to get your smile looking beautiful and prevent fewer instances of annoying tooth sensitivity!
Just like dental bonding, which works to repair teeth with cosmetic chips or cracks, tooth-colored fillings make use of composite resin. This high-quality material is made up of a combination of glass and plastic, allowing it to be perfectly blended to the same shade as your natural teeth. Once this material is bonded into place, you won’t even be able to tell the difference between your natural teeth and the material!
Thanks to additional research on the properties of composite resin, we now know that we don’t need to resort to silver fillings just to obtain the most effective fillings possible. In fact, there are many added benefits of using composite resin other than aesthetic reasons.
Composite resin allows the dentist to maintain more of the tooth’s natural structure. Amalgam fillings typically require removing enamel in order to place, therefore forcing us to sacrifice enamel just to save the entire tooth. Tooth-colored fillings create

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Rank: 29
Score: 24.087807
Retrieved Text: There was a time when mercury fillings were the best solution for restoring teeth with minor surface cavities. While offering many benefits, mercury or amalgam fillings also had shortcomings. Thankfully, for patients requiring fillings today, the days of amalgam fillings are over. Advancements in metal-free, tooth-colored resins have made amalgam fillings a distant memory!
There are many wonderful advantages to metal-free fillings. Lincoln, NE dentist Dr. Louis Olberding offers only metal-free alternatives to his patients. Why only offer metal-free fillings? Our team agrees that composite fillings are a better material compared to traditional amalgam fillings. At our practice, we don’t use materials we wouldn’t put in our own mouths.
They’re aesthetically pleasing and look just like natural teeth!
They form a stronger bond with the teeth, locking out harmful bacteria.
They add greater strength and durability to a weak tooth.
They won’t expand or contract like metal fillings, preventing unnecessary tooth damage.
They are universally preferred by patients!
Why visit Olberding Dental for the placement of non-metal fillings? Because tooth-colored fillings are technique-sensitive. To do a good job and have them last, we spend the time needed to get the job done right.
Let us offer you the strength, functionality, and beauty that metal-free fillings provide. Call us today to schedule your next visit. Whether you’re looking for general, cosmetic, or restorative care, you can count on us to provide service that exceeds your expectations. We will help you get to the root of your oral health problems so you can enjoy better comfort and functionality.

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