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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What if 2 are crossed with recessive traits causes their offspring to have that recessive trait?" and the following answer choices: 
- Crosswalks
 - Swords
 - heterotrophs
 - Organisms
 - coded genes
 - some mammals
 - bullfrogs
 - Paints

Now knowing that crossing two living things with recessive traits causes their offspring to have that recessive trait and an organism is a living thing, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Organisms

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: A man has six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. His wife and their sons have the normal number of digits. If extra digits is a dominant trait, what percentage of the children would be expected to have the extra fingers and toes?
A worm has a genotype of AaBbCcDd. Based upon this information, what are the possible genotypes of the parents?
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disease that is recessive in origin. If a couple, who are both carriers, have three children, what is the probability that all three children are of normal phenotype?
If two parents both are carriers for phenylketonuria, what is the probability that one of their three children will have the disease?
In corn plants, having kernel color (c) is recessive to the gene that inhibits kernel color (C). Color appears when the homozygous condition is present. At a different locus, the dominant allele (P) results in purple kernels, whereas the recessive allele (p) results in red kernels, again when homozygous. If plants heterozygous for both loci are crossed, what will be the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
Tigers have a recessive allele that causes both a cross-eyed condition and an absence of pigmentation in their fur (resulting in white tigers). If two normal-appearing tigers that are heterozygous for both traits are mated, what percentage of the cross-eyed offspring would be white?
Hank and Marci each have a sister who expresses sickle cell anemia. Neither Hank nor Marci nor any of their parents have the disease, and none of them have been tested

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Retrieved Text: The phenotype of an individual is determined by his or her genotype. The genotype is determined by alleles that are received from the individual’s parents (one from Mom and one from Dad). These alleles control if a trait is “dominant” or “recessive”. Additionally, the location of the alleles in the genome determine if a trait is “autosomal” or “X-linked”. Traits are dominant if only one copy of the allele is required for expression of the trait. Traits are recessive if two copies of an allele are required for expression of the trait. X-linked traits are those controlled by an allele that is carried on the X chromosome, while autosomal traits are controlled by alleles located on any chromosome excluding the X or Y. Expression of X-linked traits depends on a number of factors including a dominant versus recessive allele, and the gender of the offspring.
One can determine the likelihood of producing a child with a particular trait using a Punnett square. Assuming two individuals know their genotype for the trait, using a Punnett square allows them to visualize the potential genotypes of their offspring as well as determine the likelihood of trait expression.
While Punnett squares provide information about offspring, pedigrees are diagrams that allow individuals to visualize patterns of inheritance throughout their family history. Pedigrees utilize symbols to denote individuals in a family. Squares represent males, and circles represent females. Shading implies that a particular individual has the trait that is being studied in the pedigree. A diagonal line through an individual means that family member

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Retrieved Text: Gregor Mendel explains the rules of inheritance.
I crossed pure-bred green with pure-bred yellow peas. Since yellow is dominant to green, all of the offspring were yellow. The green phenotype had disappeared. I allowed the yellow pea plants to self- fertilize to see what the second generation would look like. Some of the second generation offspring were green! After performing many experiments, I figured out the basic rules of inheritance and why the green color reappeared. The results of these experiments showed that pea color is controlled by one gene, which has a "green" form and a "yellow" form. Each form is called an allele. If we suppose that a pure-bred green seed plant has two "green" alleles (y) and the pure-bred yellow seed plant has two "yellow" alleles (Y), we can diagram these plants like this. When a pure-bred green plant is crossed with a pure-bred yellow plant, the offspring inherit one allele of the color gene from each parent. Plants with two different alleles of a gene are heterozygous. Since all the heterozygous offspring are yellow, then the yellow allele must be dominant over the recessive green allele. The green allele didn't disappear; its effect is not seen in heterozygotes. Peas are yellow when they have either two yellow alleles . . . . . . or one yellow allele and one green allele. Green peas must have two copies of the recessive green allele. Now, let's see how the genes sort out when we cross two heterozygous plants. When two heterozygous plants are crossed,

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Retrieved Text: Mendelian crosses can not be applied to humans, due to following reasons.
In human, controlled crosses can not be made. i.e. human can not be crossed at will.
They produce a small progeny.
Hence human geneticists often scrutinise family histories called pedigree, in hope that informative matings might have occurred by chance. This process is called pedigree analysis.
Thus pedigree analysis is the process of examining a pedigree to determine the pattern of inheritance for a trait. Pedigrees are often used to determine if a trait is dominant or recessive.
I, II, III, IV indicates generations.
The “founding parents” in this family are the female I-1 and the male I-2 in the first generation at the top.
In this pedigree, the unaffected founding mother, I-1, and affected founding father, I-2, are parents to two affected daughters, II-1 and II-2.
The affected founding daughter II-2 and the unaffected male II-3 who “marries into the family” have two offspring, an unaffected daughter III-1 and affected son, III-2.
Finally, this affected male III-2 and the unaffected female III-3 who “marries in” have an unaffected son, IV-1.
An individual in the pedigree will be affected (express the phenotype associated with a trait) when the individual carries at least one dominant allele of a dominant trait or two recessive alleles of a recessive a trait.
In each problem, the trait in question is rare in the general population. Assume for the purposes of these problems that individuals who marry into the pedigree in the second and third generations are not carriers. This does not apply to the founding parents – either or

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Retrieved Text: After working with hypomelanistics for quite a few years, we believe that there are at least 2 different hypomelanistic forms prevalent in bearded dragons.
Hypomelanistic is defined simply as a "reduction of dark pigment (melanin) when compared to a wild specimen". Hypomelanism is a genetic trait that typically results in a variable reduction of black/brown pigment, usually allowing the underlying colors to become more visual and displaying some pattern loss. Hypomelanistic is thought to be closely related to amelanistic.
We have been working with the recessive form of hypomelanism since 2000. We first purchased our group of Hypo Pastel dragons from Nick Puppa in 2000. Later, we aquired another group of unrelated Hypo Pastels from Cindy Senjanovich around 2001. We purchased 'Leucistic' dragons from Mark Leshock and also animals from Kevin Dunne's line through another breeder. These lines formed our initial stock of recessive hypomelanistic dragons. Since then, we have out-crossed and purchased various unrelated lines to enhance and diversify our collection.
Again, these hypomelanistic dragons look distinctly different right out of the egg. Note the lack of melanin in the babies head on the bottom. These 2 dragons are clutch mates from our HypoPastel/Leucistic X Yellow/Red Desert/HypoPastel line - a Hypomelanistic X Het breeding, resulting in approximately 50% Hypomelanistic and 50% heterozygous offspring.
To figure out what to expect from this cross a Punnett Square is the tool to use.
With the male being hypomelanistic and the female being heterozygous for the hypomelanistic trait your square would look like the following.
Approximately half of the clutch has the potential to hatch

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Retrieved Text: Crazy Cats introduces kids to genetics by exploring inherited traits. Players roll dice to determine the types of genes of their cats and then draw corresponding physical features (body, head, whiskers, superpowers, etc.). If players roll a dominant combination, they must draw whatever trait dictated by the game. However, if they roll a recessive combination, they can draw whatever crazy trait they want! Players earn points for recessive traits, so that the "craziest" cat wins.
We don't have any expert reviews yet for Crazy Cats.
Thanks to this game, my kindergartener knows that it takes two inherited copies of a recessive gene to express that recessive trait. And the best part is that she had fun learning it!
The set-up is simple: over ten rounds, you roll the dice to see whether your cat inherits dominant or recessive traits from its parents. Then, using the included white boards and markers, you draw the traits (round or not-round head, four legs or not four legs, etc.). At the end of the game, whoever has the cat with the most recessive traits wins!
My kids love getting "crazy" with their drawings -- even if you get the dominant trait for eyes and have to draw two of them, nothing says the eyes have to be fastened to the cat's face!
Highly recommended for pre-K through elementary school (and it's fun for the grown-ups too).
This is one of my kids' favorite games. They are 4 and 8, but it's just as fun for me, too. The object of the game is to draw a

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Retrieved Text: This week you will continue to learn about heredity and Mendel’s experiments. As you study this week, think about how we can tie in what Mendel learned to help us better understand how evolution and natural selection work. For instance, one premise of natural selection is that there is variety among a population. In terms of genetics, what accounts for that? Why don’t all organisms of a population look exactly the same? What is a mutation and where do they come into play? Do you think that all mutations are harmful to an organism, or are there beneficial mutations? What would life on Earth look like if mutations did not occur?
One tool that scientists use to determine the genotypes of offspring produced from the gametes of two parents is called a Punnett square. A Punnett square combines all of the male alleles with all of the female alleles. In this lesson’s practice test, you will see some questions in which you will need to make a Punnett square in order to find your answers. We will walk through two of those together here.
Question: Wild type fruit flies have broad, straight wings and pale-colored bodies with dark transverse stripes. Some fruit flies mutant for the wing size trait have vestigial wings, an allele that is recessive to the wild type allele. Ebony body color is recessive to the normal pale, striped body color. Two flies heterozygous for both traits mentioned above are mated. What proportion of their offspring will exhibit the dominant phenotype for both traits? A

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Retrieved Text: A number of human metabolic diseases are inherited as autosomal recessive traits. One of them is Tay-Sachs disease. Children with Tay-Sachs disease appear healthy at birth but become listless and weak at about 6 months of age. Gradually, their physical and neurological conditions worsen, leading to blindness, deafness, and eventually death at 2 to 3 years of age. The disease results from the accumulation of a lipid called GM2 ganglioside in the brain. A normal component of brain cells, GM2 ganglioside is usually broken down by an enzyme called hexosaminidase A, but children with Tay-Sachs disease lack this enzyme. Excessive GM2 gan-glioside accumulates in the brain, causing swelling and, ultimately, neurological symptoms. Heterozygotes have only one normal copy of the hexosaminidase A allele and produce only about half the normal amount of the enzyme, but this amount is enough to ensure that GM2 ganglioside is broken down normally, and heterozygotes are usually healthy.
Autosomal dominant traits appear in both sexes with equal frequency, and both sexes are capable of transmitting these traits to their offspring. Every person with a dominant trait must inherit the allele from at least one parent; autosomal dominant traits therefore do not skip generations (< Figure 6.5). Exceptions to this rule arise when people acquire the trait as a result of a new mutation or when the trait has reduced penetrance.
If an autosomal dominant allele is rare, most people displaying the trait are heterozygous. When one parent is affected and heterozygous and the other parent is unaffected, approximately / of the offspring will

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Retrieved Text: An allele is any one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene occupying a given locus (position) on a chromosome. An example is the gene for blossom color in many species of flower - a single gene controls the color of the petals, but there may be several different versions of the gene. One version might result in red petals, while another might result in white petals.
Some organisms are diploid - that is, they have paired homologous chromosomes in their somatic cells, and thus contain two copies of each gene. An organism in which both copies of the gene are identical - that is, have the same allele - is said to be homozygous for that gene. An organism which has two different alleles of the gene is said to be heterozygous. Often one allele is "dominant" and the other is "recessive" - the "dominant" allele will determine what trait is expressed. For example, in the case of blossom color, if the "red" allele is dominant to the "white" allele, in a heterozygous flower (with one red and one white allele), the petals will be red. The recessive allele will only be expressed in a recessive homozygote.
However, there are exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the phenotype. One exception is incomplete dominance (sometimes called blending inheritance) when alleles blend their traits in the phenotype. An example of this would be seen if, when crossing snapdragons - flowers with codominant "red" and "white" alleles for petal color - the resulting offspring would

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Retrieved Text: Gregor Mendel is currently known as the Father of Modern Genetics. This lesson goes through a brief history of his life, workings as a scientist, and his findings.
Gregor Mendel is known as the Father of Modern Genetics. He is a pretty big name in the science world. However, he did not receive any of this credit while he was alive. We'll come back to this later.
Mendel was born in Austria in 1822. His parents were farmers. When he was young and on the farm, Mendel became very interested in plants, trees, and fruit. He was very good at school and soon found himself away from the farm and into schools and religion. Over his lifetime Mendel became a teacher, priest, and scientist.
Mendel conducted his now-famous experiments from 1856 to 1863 while he was an Augustinian monk in what is now part of the Czech Republic. Here, he was able to tend to the garden at the monastery. His work was published in 1866. However, it was not until the 1900s when three scientists, Erich Tschermak, Hugo de Vries, and Carl Correns, rediscovered Mendel's work and confirmed his findings. It was then that Mendel's experiments changed the world of genetics forever.
Gregor Mendel spent those eight years studying tens of thousands of plants. He mainly studied pea plants because they had distinguished characteristics and they were quick to grow. Mendel would create hybrids from the plants. Hybrids are the blending of two things to make one. An example of a new technology hybrid is an engine that runs

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Retrieved Text: The Curly comes in all sizes and colors and also comes in different coats types. From smooth coat to micro curled you will find all types of curl from soft to coarse and everything in between. In the list of articles linked below we will try to explain these different traits and also discuss inheritance of what we believe the Curly gene to be, a simple dominant gene for hair coat curl.
The North American Curly Horse Registry was formed for the purpose of promoting and Registering the Dominant Gene Curly Horse that has been found in the Americas for over 200 years. As the intent of the ICHO has been one of continuing research to solve the many mysteries of the Curly horse, we have committed ourselves to registering all "curly Horses" as well as creating a division for straight haired horses that are the product of one of two dominant curly parents. This commitment also includes a division for the registration of Recessive Curly haired horses. Our geneticists assure us that the dominant and recessive gene horses are not the same animal. We have created this Division for continuing education in the similarities that do exist in animals with curly coats. These horses will not be identified as North American Curly Horses but as Recessive Curlies in their own division.
Dominant gene.--- one that expresses a trait or characteristic that will be expressed in the offspring even though it is only carried by one of the gene pairs it receives. Heterozygous- carries one curly gene.
Homozygous Dominant

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Retrieved Text: Carrier: An animal having a recessive gene in its genetic make-up. A black animal that has a hidden recessive Dun gene, could be termed a carrier of dun. Sometimes the term carrier is used in co-dominant traits.
Chromosomes: The cell material which acts as the means for transporting genes during cell division.
Codominant: an allele that causes the heterozygous form to appear like an intermediate between the homozygous recessive and the homozygous dominant form. (All three look different from each other.) Example: Short-legged, (heterozygous form) is the intermediate between the Long-legged (homozygous recessive), and Bulldog (homozygous dominant). It may be important to note that recessive, dominant, and co-dominant are clinical terms, i.e. they are based on the outward appearance of the animal.
Dominant: an allele that causes the homozygous dominant form and the heterozygous form to look the same as each other. Example: You cannot tell a homozygous polled or a heterozygous polled animal apart. They are both polled.
Genes: The units or factors of heredity that are responsible for the expression of any characteristic. Genes are tiny segments of protein contained in all cells. They normally occur in pairs and form the bridge of inheritance from one generation to the next.
Genotype: The genetic make-up of an animal. Compare to Phenotype.
Recessive: an allele that affects an animal's appearance only if it's present in the homozygous state. Example: A black animal that is heterozygous for red is still black. The animal has to have two red alleles to appear red. Black is dominant, red is recessive.
Heterozygous: having two different alleles for

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Retrieved Text: Barbara Licht, Ph.D., Mark Licht, Ph.D., Kathy Harper, D.V.M, Ph.D., and Shili Lin, Ph.D.
The purpose of this article is to review what is currently known about the mode of inheritance for canine idiopathic epilepsy. As explained elsewhere in this web site, there are many causes of seizures in dogs (and humans) besides genetic epilepsy. These include, but are not limited to, head injuries, exposure to toxins, infectious diseases affecting the central nervous system, metabolic disorders, tumors, and more. Dogs should only be considered to have idiopathic epilepsy after these other causes of seizures have been ruled out by a thorough diagnostic work-up.
Before we review what is currently known about the inheritance of idiopathic epilepsy, we would like to refer interested readers to Malcolm Willis's book, Genetics of the Dog, 1989 (pages 180-187). Although this book was published 10 years ago, the section on epilepsy in this book still provides a uniquely thoughtful commentary. The studies that have been published since then are consistent with Willis's conclusions.
In discussing the inheritance of idiopathic epilepsy, the first question that must be addressed is whether there is scientific evidence that idiopathic epilepsy is inherited. The answer to this question is "yes." There appear to be at least 25 breeds of dogs that show a significantly higher than average rate of idiopathic epilepsy. While suggestive, this by itself does not constitute strong scientific evidence that idiopathic epilepsy is inherited. However, in addition to these statistics, a number of researchers have conducted pedigree analyses on specific breeds; and these analyses have found

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Retrieved Text: Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To explore these questions, let’s start by focusing on a specific disease, sickle-cell anemia, and how it might affect two infected sisters. Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic condition in which red blood cells, which are normally round, take on a crescent-like shape ([link]). The changed shape of these cells affects how they function: sickle-shaped cells can clog blood vessels and block blood flow, leading to high fever, severe pain, swelling, and tissue damage.
Normal blood cells travel freely through the blood vessels, while sickle-shaped cells form blockages preventing blood flow.
Many people with sickle-cell anemia—and the particular genetic mutation that causes it—die at an early age. While the notion of “survival of the fittest” may suggest that people suffering from this disease have a low survival rate and therefore the disease will become less common, this is not the case. Despite the negative evolutionary effects associated with this genetic mutation, the sickle-cell gene remains relatively common among people of African descent. Why is this? The explanation is illustrated with the following scenario.
Imagine two young women—Luwi and Sena—sisters in rural Zambia, Africa. Luwi carries the gene for sickle-cell anemia; Sena does not carry the gene. Sickle-cell carriers have one copy of the sickle-cell gene

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Retrieved Text: Do you wish to have your mom’s dimples that she obviously passed on to your sister? Do you have your grandmother’s pimple free face and your sister has ever complained of her oily skin? Or does your father have blue eyes, but only your cousin has them in your family and not you? The cause of these varying features is not only because of corresponding genes, but also how they express themselves. Follow the dominant and recessive traits list in this article, and you will know more secrets about genetics.
How do Your Genes Work?
Your DNA is responsible for who you are, how you act and even how you look. It is an instruction manual; only that instructions are in the form of genes. Each gene contains specific information that makes up a part of you. A good example is your hair color, which is determined by a single gene that contains instructions about it. In some cases, a couple of genes have to work together to bring out one trait. Each gene has its own contribution to the characteristic. For example, the color of your eyes is determined by eye color genes. You might have each gene from each parent. Therefore, you have 2 copies of most of the genes you have. In this way, you have 2 copies of your eye color genes. However, not all gene copies are the same. This is the reason why we have variety. Not all gene versions are made equal. There are those that are stronger than others. The

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Retrieved Text: The principles of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses. Genetics: Punnett Squares Practice Packet Bio Honors. Some of the worksheets displayed are Bikini bottom genetics name, Punnett squares answer key, Punnett square work, Punnett square work, Punnett square practice, 1 punnett square practice work name 1 for each, Use your knowledge of genetics to complete this, Genetics work. Students should have 25% and Rr in the upper and lower left boxes and 25% and rr in the upper and lower right boxes of their Punnet square. Two genes located on a single chromosome A. Both F1 generation plants need to have Tt allele combination for the trait controlled by the recessive allele to be produced in one of the F2 generation plants.
Pierce 0 Provide an overview of major areas of classical and modern genetics. To download free chapter 11 introduction to genetics answer key you need to register. This worksheet will take about 20 minutes for most students, I usually give it to them after a short lecture on solving genetics problems. This plant was testcrossed, resulting in the following phenotypes among 1000 progeny plants: 124 wild-type 265 albino 16 brown 83 fuzzy 136 albino, brown, fuzzy 275 brown, fuzzy 24 albino, fuzzy 77 albino, brown a. Using the scan sheet provided, completely fill in the appropriate circle beside the number for each question. Draw a punnett square showing a cross between a homozygous red and a yellow tomato.
Worksheet will open in a new window. For all of the following problems

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Retrieved Text: i Gene flow: Gene flow is one of the factors that can lead to a deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. If one genotype rather than another moves into or out of a population, the genotype frequencies can't be predicted from the allele frequencies.
Suppose that all the individuals with the aa genotype fly away. You're left with a population that consists only of AA and Aa individuals, and you can't predict the frequency of genotypes accurately from the frequency of the alleles. What's important is not just that movement of individuals into or out of the population is occurring, but that this movement is related to the genotypes of the individuals.
i Selection: Imagine that individuals with the aa allele die without reproducing (which would be the case with lethal recessive alleles). In such a case, only AA and Aa individuals would be left in the population. Again, the frequency of genotypes can't be accurately predicted by the frequency of the alleles. A deviation from expectations under Hardy-Weinberg indicates that some evolutionary force is at play.
Inbreeding, which is a special case of nonrandom mating, occurs when individuals mate with relatives. Because related individuals are more likely to have similar genes, they're also more likely to have similar deleterious recessive genes (which is why the offspring of close relatives tend to have reduced fitness). If these individuals mate, chances increase that two individuals with the recessive trait will get together and produce offspring that end up with two copies of the recessive genes and the condition that the recessive

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Retrieved Text: A phenotype is the physical expression of DNA. In contrast, the genotype is the chemical makeup of DNA that causes a particular phenotype. DNA is first transposed into RNA, a slightly different information molecule, which can then be translated into a protein. Phenotypes are caused by the interactions of the many different proteins created by DNA. This process can get incredibly complicated. Even in the lowest lifeforms there are thousands of genes, creating thousands of different proteins. These proteins interact in complex ways with each other and the environment, allowing the organism to obtain energy from nutrients.
In a simple sense, each gene can produce a single protein. This protein can take several different forms, based on the different alleles in the population. Some of these forms will be functional, while other forms will be less functional or not work at all. If a trait is controlled by a single protein, the genotype that the animal receives for that protein will determine if that trait is adaptive or detrimental in the pursuit of reproduction. For instance, people with cystic fibrosis (CF) have a mutation in the gene that produces a protein specific to transporting chlorine molecules across membranes. Because their genotype contains a non-functional mutation, the protein created does not function properly. Thus, they have a non-functional phenotype, causing many health problems.
Melanin is a molecule produced by many animals. It is known as a pigment, or a molecule that gives tissue a dark color. In humans, varying levels of melanin in the hair, eyes, and skin are

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Retrieved Text: →What Is a Polygenic Trait & What Are Some Examples of This?
In order to properly understand the definition of a polygenic trait, also known as a polygenic inheritance, you should probably have a solid foundation of some basic genetics terms so that it all comes together nicely.
The most crucial thing to the understanding of polygenic traits and genetic variance are definitions of traits, phenotypes, and genotypes as well as Mendelian inheritance.
You have probably heard the term “trait” in association with describing someone and this is close to the definition of the term. There are character traits that are associated with behavior and then there are appearance traits that are visible. In the genetics word, the word trait refers to a feature of an organism, such as hair color, eye color, skin color, and height.
This one you probably have not heard as frequently as a trait. The term “phenotype” refers to a collection of an organism’s outward characteristics. The color of the eyes, hair, and skin are all components of the phenotype. In terms of the trait, phenotype refers to the available trait forms. For example, hair color is a trait, while brown, black, blonde, or gray hair are all phenotypes. Speaking even more genetically, an organism’s phenotype is the outward or visible result of the genome. In other words, the collection of phenotypes is the result of the work of a person’s genes, which brings us to the next term, namely genotype.
Just like phenotype, you probably have not heard this one so frequently either. Perhaps you

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Retrieved Text: If you wanted to do an experiment on how a new blood pressure medication affects the risk of stroke. How could you ensure that there was only one difference between the treatment groups, but still have the most meaningful data possible?
Have the volunteers live normally, but use a large sample and randomly assign the treatments.
What does the theory of special creation predict about the geographic relationships of closely related species?
No specific predictions (species are found where they are because God wanted them that way).
Plant cells have 3 types of genomes (nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast) that are inherited independently. From each, we can estimate the relationships among species based on similarities and differences in homologous DNA sequences. If species evolve (share ancestry), what pattern is predicted?
The relationship among plant species will be the same for all 3 genomes.
Under the theory of evolution as formulated by Lamarck, why would the traits of Pacific oysters change in response to ocean acidification?
Individuals in low pH conditions would grow shells more efficiently in response. These changes would be passed on to offspring.
Which of the following experiments would be the best way to test the theory of evolution as formulated by Lamarck?
Keep a population of mice in cold conditions. (In response, the mice will draw their tails up to conserve heat.) Continue for many generations. Measure tail length each generation.
What is a chromosome composed of ?
In corn snakes, red blotches (R) are dominant over black (r). A red-blotched snake is mated to a black blotched snake, and the only offspring is one

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Retrieved Text: Question: How do your cells obtain energy?
Answer: They steal it from your heart and that’s why when you are old you get mean like old ladies because all their heart is stolen and hatred takes over.
The real answer is by cellular respiration and glucose :) Definately not as interesting though!
Another question asked how you could have a blue eyed child of two brown eyed parents.
The student wrote a whole long explanation of how the granparents could have had blue eyes and given the recessive trait to the father and then the child got 2 recessive traits to be blue eyed. And then he wrote: Or the second option is the child could have been adopted!
As if adopted kids don't have biological parents too!

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Retrieved Text: Many of our characteristics are considered to be things we inherit from our parents. For example, we often hear people say that we have our mother’s eyes or our father’s nose. This all boils down to genetics. Our DNA is made up of genes. The differences in people’s traits are due to the variations in our genes. These varying genes are called alleles. There are two types of alleles: the dominant and the recessive. In this article, we’ll discuss the differences between dominant alleles and recessive alleles.
A dominant allele is the type of allele that is expressed when it is present in either or both of the two chromosomes in the pair for a specific gene. In other words, the phenotype associated with the allele manifests the dominant trait whether both chromosomes have the same copies of the dominant allele (homozygous dominant) or if just one chromosome contains the dominant allele (heterozygous dominant).
A recessive allele the type of allele that will only be expressed if both chromosomes contain the same copy of the recessive allele for a particular gene (homozygous recessive). If a recessive allele is inherited together with a dominant allele, only the dominant phenotype will manifest.
The main difference between dominant and recessive alleles is on how they manifest as physical or behavioral traits. They are also written differently in terms of genetic notations.
Alleles are variants of a particular gene. People, as well as most animals and some plants, are diploids, meaning they have paired chromosomes. A particular gene would have a copy on each

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Retrieved Text: A new forum dedicated to the American Bully and APBT. Live, breathe, and talk Bully!
Willis (1989) defines INBREEDING as the mating of animals "more closely related to one another than the average relationship within the breed." From the introductory table we can see that these involve brother/sister or parent/child breeding.
With all the negative connotations associated with inbreeding why discuss it as a viable breeders tool?
It is true inbreeding can create horrific genetic mistakes or it can be the best and fastest way to improve and standardize a line (set traits). IN the first sense it is a useful genetic tool to reveal hidden recessive genetic problems in your line by doubling up on them and making them express themselves (as it were LOL). Note this is a tool used to reveal hidden defects and these defectives should be culled from the breeding pool. In the second sense when your line is heterotrophic for beneficial traits you can do inbreeding to make them homozygous (set the trait). Note it must be a tremendously important trait or preferably numerous traits you are trying to set within your line to consider inbreeding as the best method to set the trait. So here inbreedings are done to verify the superiority of a particular strain or to check for recessive problems. Any weaknesses, faults, deformities, etc. are likely to show up. If a truly superior line or strain has been developed, containing only desirable qualities, these desirable qualities will be seen in the resulting offspring.
The Bully Brigade :: Bully Brigade Forum

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Retrieved Text: The word “expression” can mean different things in different contexts. In molecular biology, “expression” means “transcribed and translated,” or the process of making a protein from the genetic instructions in DNA.
In discussions of phenotypes, sometimes people use the word “expressed” to mean “visible” in the phenotype.
These very different definitions create a lot of confusion about the difference between gene expression and phenotypic appearance, because it can make it sounds like a recessive allele is recessive because it must not be transcribed or translated. This is not the case. Often both the dominant and the recessive alleles are expressed (transcribed and translated), but the behavior of the protein encoded by the dominant allele “masks” or “hides” the behavior of the protein encoded by the recessive allele.
Recognizing this distinction is extremely helpful for understanding the behavior of both Mendelian (single gene, dominant/recessive inheritance) and “non-Mendelian” traits (anything other than single gene, dominant/recessive inheritance).
Incomplete dominance: where heterozygotes have an intermediate phenotype in-between the two homozygous phenotypes. An example is petal color in four-o’clock flowers, where homozygotes are either white or red, and heterozygotes are pink. Each R allele contributes one ‘unit’ of petal color, while each r allele contributes no ‘units’ of petal color. So two R alleles results in a red, one R allele results in pink, and no R alleles results in white.
Co-dominance: where heterozygotes display each phenotype associated with each allele. An example is AB blood type in humans, where the A allele results in one specific type of sugar on a red blood cell, and

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Retrieved Text: Grey is not really a distinct colour trait but rather the combination of all of the non-expressed states of the other colours. This is discussed in "Is Standard Grey a separate colour?"
Other rare colour traits include Sullivan Beige , Rzewski Beige , Wellman Beige , French "Blue" , Busse Charcoal [1961-2], Lester Black , Treadwell Black , etc. Most no longer exist. A historical listing has been compiled by the MCBA . A more complete listing may be found in Alice Kline's Chinchilla Genetics book.
The naming system for Chin colours is becoming rather chaotic, especially among pet Chin breeders and owners. Too often, new names are invented either from the lack of knowledge or for marketing purposes. This merely serves to confuse the Chin community. To some extent we are bound by tradition: For instance, ranchers have always used the term "White Mosaic" to refer to a white Chin with some degree of grey infiltration of the fur [and not the other way round] . However, this leaves such colour mixtures as White and Beige, White and Black Velvet, and White and Ebony in limbo. Terms such as pie-bald, mottled, variegated, etc are being bandied about to address this situation. Currently, the best standard for Chin colour nomenclature is the MCBA. However, one should note that even the MCBA uses the terms "Ebony" and "Charcoal" interchangeably when in fact Charcoals and Ebonies are two distinct colour traits. In conclusion, while seemingly awkward, the useage of the terms "hetero" and "homo" for various colour conditions is the

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Retrieved Text: The principles of Mendelian inheritance were named for and first derived by Gregor Johann Mendel, a nineteenth-century Moravian monk who formulated his ideas after conducting simple hybridisation experiments with pea plants (Pisum sativum) he had planted in the garden of his monastery.BOOK, Henig, Robin Marantz, The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Modern Genetics, Houghton Mifflin, 2009, 978-0-395-97765-1, The article, written by an Austrian monk named Gregor Johann Mendel..., Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants. From these experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. He described these principles in a two-part paper, Versuche Ã¼ber Pflanzen-Hybriden (Experiments on Plant Hybridization), that he read to the Natural History Society of Brno on 8 February and 8 March 1865, and which was published in 1866.See Mendel's paper in English: WEB, Experiments in Plant Hybridization, Gregor Mendel, 1865,weblink Mendel's conclusions were largely ignored by the vast majority. Although they were not completely unknown to biologists of the time, they were not seen as generally applicable, even by Mendel himself, who thought they only applied to certain categories of species or traits. A major block to understanding their significance was the importance attached by 19th-century biologists to the apparent blending of many inherited traits in the overall appearance of the progeny, now known to be due to multi-gene interactions, in contrast to the organ-specific binary characters studied by Mendel. In 1900, however, his work was

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Retrieved Text: 2.4 Which trait is dominant?
The concept of dominance was introduced by Gregor Mendel. Though Mendel, "The Father of Genetics", first used the term in the 1860s, it was not widely known until the early twentieth century. Mendel observed that, for a variety of traits of garden peas having to do with the appearance of seeds, seed pods, and plants, there were two discrete phenotypes, such as round versus wrinkled seeds, yellow versus green seeds, red versus white flowers or tall versus short plants. When bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed (interbred), one and only one of the parental phenotypes showed up in the offspring (green, or round, or red, or tall). However, when these hybrid plants were crossed, the offspring plants showed the two original phenotypes, in a characteristic 3:1 ratio, the more common phenotype being that of the parental hybrid plants. Mendel reasoned that each parent in the first cross was a homozygote for different alleles (one parent AA and the other parent aa), that each contributed one allele to the offspring, with the result that all of these hybrids were heterozygotes (Aa), and that one of the two alleles in the hybrid cross dominated expression of the other: A masked a. The final cross between two heterozygotes (Aa X Aa) would produce AA, Aa, and aa offspring in a 1:2:1 genotype ratio with the first two classes showing the (A) phenotype, and the last showing the (a) phenotype, thereby producing

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Retrieved Text: The Genetics and Heredity chapter of this High School Biology Help and Review course is the simplest way to master human genetics and heredity. This chapter uses simple and fun videos that are about five minutes long, plus lesson quizzes and a chapter exam to ensure students learn about genetics and heredity.
Verify you're ready by completing the genetics and heredity chapter exam.
Be Ready on Test Day: Use the genetics and heredity chapter exam to be prepared.
Get Extra Support: Ask our subject-matter experts any genetics and heredity question. They're here to help!
We view manipulation of genes in our crops and livestock as a recent development. Yet, man has been manipulating the genetic makeup of his food for thousands of years through cultivation and breeding. This lesson will begin to help you understand how genetics works.
What is a dominant phenotype and how will it affect Adrian's flying hamster research? Tune in as he studies homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the phenotypes they produce.
Breaking up is a hard thing to do, but homologous chromosomes always go their separate way. What effect does chromosome segregation have on genetics? We look once more to Adrian's flying hamsters for answers.
Hollywood Squares? No, it's Punnett Squares! Those wacky diagrams are a geneticist's best friend. See how they turn geneticists into soothsayers, predicting the genotypic and phenotypic future.
Understanding how Mendel's law of independent assortment describes inheritance of genes is as easy as flipping a coin. Grab a few coins, cue up the video and see how.
Oh no! Twice the genes and sixteen genotypes -

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Retrieved Text: The Kenyan Sand Boa (Gongylophis colubrinus), also known as the Egyptian legless lizard, Kenyan legless lizard, East African legless lizard, legless lizard is a boa species found in northern Africa.
Found in northern Africa from Egypt as far west as Niger (Aïr), including Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. A single specimen has been reported from Yemen.
They live Predominantly in semi-desert and scrub savannahs and rock outcroppings. Prefers sandy, friable soil.
During the hotter times of the year, they seek refuge beneath stones and in the burrows of small mammals.
Adult specimens are rarely more than 91 cm (3 feet) in length. They are heavily built with small heads, small eyes, and short tails. The colour pattern may consist of a yellow or orange coloration overlaid with dark brown splotches. The belly is white or cream coloured. They are readily available in the pet trade due to their small size, docility and ease of care. In recent years there have been a number of new morphs made available by both commercial and hobby breeders. Some of the more popular morphs available include anerythristic (black and white lacking orange/red simple recessive trait), albino (lacking black pigment simple recessive), snow (double recessive combination of an anery and albino), stripes (normal coloured, anerythristic, albino and snow), hypo/ghost anerythristic KSBs, paradox albinos (simple recessive), paradox snows (double recessive trait). In addition many line bred traits have been accentuated on the above morphs, such as Nuclears (extreme red), High Whites, and Reduced Patterns as examples.
They spend most of their time in shallow burrows

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Retrieved Text: A dominant gene is a segment of DNA information that is used to make chromosomes. Dominant genes are a result of dominant alleles in chromosomes. When an allele is dominant it is expressed in the phenotype over a recessive allele. The phenotype is what chromosome is present in the organism. So a person with a dominant allele for brown hair and a recessive allele for red hair (this combination is identified in genetic notation as "Br") will have brown hair.
A child inherits only half of their DNA information from each parent and in this combination generally display the dominant genes they received. If they inherited only recessive genes for some trait, that is the trait that is displayed. This is why siblings can look very different from one another and why a person with two brown-eyed parents can be born with blue eyes (brown eye gene is dominant, blue eye gene is recessive) if they inherited a recessive blue eye gene from each parent.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what is stimulated by the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone?" and the following answer choices: 
- Leptospirosis
 - the body's largest organ
 - Prolactin release
 - Chemical energy
 - sensory neurons
 - Electrical energy
 - heat produced
 - matter vibrating

Now knowing that tRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone, or TSH and prolactin release is stimulated by TRH, the same hormone that stimulates TSH release, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Prolactin release

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Thyroid Hormone activity is regulated at multiple steps; however, the primary point of regulation is synthesis of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. Here we discuss the basic circuitry which governs release of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland.
Thyroid Hormone release is regulated by an extended version of the circuit that governs Basic Hypothalamic-Pituitary Coordination.
The hypothalamus releases Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH) which acts on the anterior pituitary. It should be pointed out that TRH is also involved in the regulated release of prolactin.
Upon being stimulated by TRH, the anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) which acts directly on the thyroid gland.
Upon being stimulated by TSH the thyroid gland releases thyroid hormones.
Recall from Thyroid Hormone Synthesis that the thyroid gland mostly releases T4 which does not possess much endocrine activity. Target tissues possess the enzyme Iodinase that converts T4 to either T3 or rT3. T3 possesses tremendously more endocrine activity than T4 whereas rT3 does not possess any endocrine activity. Therefore, in reality, the final step of the thyroid hormone regulatory axis can be considered to occur in the actual peripheral target tissues.
TSH has multiple effects on the thyroid gland which increase thyroid hormone synthesis in the short-term and also increase the gland's capacity to make thyroid hormone over the long-term. TSH induces immediate release of thyroid hormone by activating every step involved in Thyroid Hormone Synthesis but most importantly induces endocytosis of peroxidase-processed thyroglobulin. TSH improves long-term capacity of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones by acting as a trophic factor, resulting in

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Retrieved Text: Hormone, thyroid stimulating (TSH): A hormone produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain in response to signals from the hypothalamus gland in the brain.
TSH promotes the growth of the thyroid gland in the neck and stimulates it to produce more thyroid hormones. When there is an excessive amount of thyroid hormones, the pituitary gland stops producing TSH, reducing thyroid hormone production. This mechanism maintains a relatively constant level of thyroid hormones circulating in the blood.
Thyroid stimulating hormone is also known as thyrotropin.

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Retrieved Text: functions. Looking at these functions, it is obvious that thyroid is one of the important parts of the body.
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland tells you when to produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) in your brain. This thermostat is similar to adjusting the heating systems according to room temperature. Patients complaining of low TSH usually have high T3 / T4 hormone levels. Since low TSH levels are often associated with hyperthyroidism (overwork of the thyroid gland) that causes other symptoms, it is important to take TSH to normal and to prevent it from falling again if necessary.
What Does TSH Loss Mean?
Your secretory glands are not producing enough.Your thyroid gland is overworked, producing too much thyroid hormone, which sends a signal to your brain to stop production.Individuals complaining of low levels of TSH and high levels of T3 and T4 (thyroid hormones) have a condition known as hyperthyroidism. However, if an individual suffers from both low TSH levels and low thyroid hormones, this can be due to the weak, diseased or damaged pituitary gland responsible for thyroid production.
The pituitary gland may suffer from severe head injury or, more rarely, from tumor. The pituitary gland produces not only thyroid hormones, but also 8 different hormones. A simple blood test can be used to determine whether the level of hormones produced by the pituitary gland in the body is normal. Alternatively, some patients may be able to see if the pituitary gland is damaged by pulling a brain film to make sure it is not

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts, the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete hormones directly into the blood. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus. It stores and secretes two hormones that are made by a set of neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.
The posterior pituitary releases the hormones oxytocin—which acts on muscles of the uterus—and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on the kidneys. Oxytocin induces contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth and causes mammary glands to eject milk during nursing. ADH acts on the kidneys, increasing water retention and thus decreasing urine volume.
The anterior pituitary produces six different hormones. Growth hormone affects a wide variety of tissues. The correct level of growth hormone production is essential, as too little or too much can have serious detrimental effects. Prolactin stimulates mammary gland growth and milk synthesis. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates production of ova and sperm, and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the ovaries and testes. LH is needed for ovulation and the formation of a corpus luteum in the female menstrual cycle. LH also stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. FSH and LH are referred to as gonadotropins because they stimulate the activities of the gonads. Thyroid-stimulating hormone, stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. Adenocorticotropic hormone influences the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete steroid hormones.
SEER Training Modules: Pituitary and Pineal Glands. Illustration courtesy of the National Cancer Institute, NIH.

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Retrieved Text: Awoniyi C. Awoniyi C Awoniyi, Caleb.Hypothyroidism. In: Freeman BS, Berger JS. Freeman B.S., Berger J.S. Eds. Brian S. Freeman, and Jeffrey S. Berger.eds. Anesthesiology Core Review: Part Two Advanced Exam New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; . http://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1750&sectionid=117321480. Accessed April 19, 2019.
Awoniyi C. Awoniyi C Awoniyi, Caleb.. "Hypothyroidism." Anesthesiology Core Review: Part Two Advanced Exam Freeman BS, Berger JS. Freeman B.S., Berger J.S. Eds. Brian S. Freeman, and Jeffrey S. Berger. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, , http://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1750&sectionid=117321480.
Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone (primary hypothyroidism), or due to inadequate production of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (secondary hypothyroidism). The most common causes of acquired hypothyroidism are Hashimoto thyroiditis, postsurgical or postablative hypothyroidism, drug-induced, and postpartum thyroiditis. Hashimoto thyroiditis is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in adults and can be associated with other autoimmune processes, such as systemic lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, primary adrenal insufficiency, type 1 diabetes mellitus, or Sjogren syndrome.
Thyroid hormone is required for normal functioning of numerous tissues in the body. A normal functioning thyroid gland predominantly secretes thyroxine (T4), which is converted into tri-iodothyronine (T3). The thyroid gland is the only source of thyroid hormone in the body; the process requires iodine and the amino acid thyrosine. Iodine in the bloodstream is taken up by the gland and incorporated into thyroglobulin molecules. The process is controlled by the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted by the pituitary. Inadequate levels of iodine, or TSH, can result in decreased production of thyroid hormones. The hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis plays a key

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Retrieved Text: Your thyroid gland is a small gland, normally weighing less than one ounce, located in the front of the neck. It is made up of two halves, called lobes, that lie along the windpipe (trachea) and are joined together by a narrow band of thyroid tissue, known as the isthmus.
The thyroid is situated just below your "Adams apple" or larynx. During development (inside the womb) the thyroid gland originates in the back of the tongue, but it normally migrates to the front of the neck before birth. Sometimes it fails to migrate properly and is located high in the neck or even in the back of the tongue (lingual thyroid). This is very rare. At other times it may migrate too far and ends up in the chest (this is also rare).
The function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine, found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb iodine. These cells combine iodine and the amino acid tyrosine to make T3 and T4. T3 and T4 are then released into the blood stream and are transported throughout the body where they control metabolism (conversion of oxygen and calories to energy).
Every cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for regulation of their metabolism. The normal thyroid gland produces about 80% T4 and about 20% T3, however, T3 possesses about four times the hormone "strength" as T4.
The thyroid gland is under the control of the pituitary gland,

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism, or an underactive thyroid system, is one of the most underdiagnosed and important conditions in the United States. It has been called the "unsuspected illness" and accounts for a great number of complaints in children, adolescents and adults.
What kinds of complaints characterize an underactive thyroid system? Low energy and fatigue or tiredness, especially in the morning are frequent in these patients. Difficulty losing weight, a sensation of coldness--especially of the hands and feet, depression, slowness of thought processes, headaches, swelling of the face or fluid retention in general, dry coarse skin, brittle nails, chronic constipation, menstrual problems-such as PMS and menstrual irregularities including heavy periods, fertility problems, stiffness of joints, muscular cramps, shortness of breath on exertion and chest pain are some of the symptoms that can be seen in people with underactive thyroid systems. Be aware that a person with a low functioning thyroid doesn't have to have all of these symptoms, he may have only a few.
Where is the thyroid located in the body and what does it do? The thyroid gland consists of two small lobes connected together. It is located in the front of the neck, just below the voice box. The thyroid gland is responsible for the speed of metabolic processes in the body and therefore affects every organ and organ system. It is the metabolic stimulator, analogous to the accelerator of a car. Normal growth requires normal thyroid functioning. When the thyroid is not functioning properly, organs become infiltrated with metabolic wastes and all functions become sluggish.
When the thyroid

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism is a condition resulting from an underactive thyroid gland, which is associated with an undersupply of hormones that control metabolism in the body.
The thyroid gland plays a key role in the endocrine system, which produces the hormones that control bodily functions such as metabolism. If the hormone levels are not within a normal range, this can affect the whole body, causing a wide range of symptoms and health problems.
The thyroid is located at the front of the throat, just above the hollow between the upper ends of the collarbones and below the Adam's apple (the larynx). It has two lobes that sit on either side of the windpipe. It is controlled by the pituitary gland, which sits at the base of the brain and secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
The thyroid hormones circulate throughout the bloodstream, regulating metabolism. The lower the levels of T3 and T4 are, the slower metabolism will be.
Low levels of T3 and T4 in the bloodstream are detected by the pituitary gland, which then secretes more TSH to try to stimulate the thyroid gland to produce more thyroid hormones.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to produce metabolism-regulating hormones T3 and T4.
Hypothyroidism can affect the whole body and the symptoms can vary greatly between people. Symptoms may develop suddenly, or very slowly over years. They may be so slight that they are difficult to notice, or so severe they are life-threatening. In older people, symptoms can be difficult to tell apart from the normal changes that come with ageing.
Because hypothyroidism causes a slowing of

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Retrieved Text: Hormones work on maintaining the homeostasis of the internal environment in the human body through a mechanism called Feed mechanism , similarly , The Thermostat of different domestic makes machines start or stop working at a specific temperature ( It maintains the balance of machine working ) .
Feedback mechanism is a mechanism with which hormones act to achieve the homeostasis in the human body , There are applications showing how hormones maintain the human body homeostasis through the feedback mechanism .
Insulin hormone and glucagon hormone play an important role in homeostasis the level of glucose sugar in the blood .
On increasing the level of glucose sugar in the blood than its normal level , The pancreas responses by secreting insulin hormone which stores glucose sugar that increases in the body in the liver and it stimulates the body cells to absorb glucose from the blood .
On decreasing the level of glucose sugar in the blood than its normal level , The pancreas responses by secreting glucagon hormone which affects the liver to increase the conversion rate of glycogen stored inside it into glucose sugar to increase the level of glucose sugar in the blood until it reaches the normal level .
When the pancreas decreases its secretion of insulin hormone , The level of glucose sugar in the blood increases or the human suffers from diabetes disease .
What is Feedback mechanism to balance thyroxin hormone level in the blood ?
You should know that the thyroid gland and the pituitary gland have an important role in homeostasis the

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Retrieved Text: Thyroid weight gain is basically the effect of the thyroid gland not working properly. It is through this gland that the thyroid hormone is being produced. This hormone acts as the body's counterpart to a car's cruise control. It is the cruise control that allows the car to maintain a constant speed. And just like a car, it is the thyroid gland that keeps the rest of the body working at constant speed.
Normal levels of the thyroid hormone make it possible for the various functions of the body to maintain its normal activity. A decrease in the production of the thyroid hormone and the body's level of activity also decreases. Cells in the body seem to work slower. In so doing, the cells need less energy. But when the amount of energy provided in the body remains at the same level, some of this excess energy is being stored by the body for future use. The body does this by turning the excess energy in calories into fat. This in turn becomes additional weight in the body.
When the thyroid gland produces less of the thyroid hormone, many other things happen to the body. With the cells using lesser energy due to decreased activity, less heat is produced. With less heat, the sweat glands no longer need to keep the skin moist as the body also becomes colder. In this situation, the brain also goes through decreased activity which makes it want to sleep all the time. The same goes with the heart as less activity also

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Retrieved Text: Primary Hypothyroidism – the most common form of hypothyroidism, this condition is characterized by the failure of the thyroid gland to produce sufficient thyroid hormone (mainly as thyroxine (T4) and smaller amounts of tri-iodothyronine (T3)). The most common form of primary hypothyroidism is Hashimoto’s Disease which is an autoimmune disorder.
Secondary Hypothyroidism – typically caused by the failure of the pituitary gland to create enough thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) to in turn stimulate the thyroid into producing adequate amounts of T3 and T4.
Tertiary Hypothyroidism – usually caused by a deficiency in the hypothalamus causing a failure to regulate the pituitary gland through the secretion of thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH).
Traditional [medicine] perspective which most often uses the term “subclinical” defines this type of hypothyroidism as one characterized by elevated TSH levels coupled with normal T4 and T3 levels with minimal or no obvious signs and symptoms of low thyroid function.
Alternative [medicine] perspective has a divergent definition, whereby patients might present with signs and symptoms of low thyroid function without any lab values being “outside the normal range”.
The most important implication of subclinical hypothyroidism is the high likelihood of progression to primary hypothyroidism. The possibility that it is a cardiovascular risk factor has been a subject of debate.

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism refers to an underactive thyroid gland that does not produce enough of the active hormones T3 and T4. This condition can be present at birth or can be acquired any time during childhood or adulthood. Hypothyroidism is very common and occurs in about 1 in 1,250 children. In most cases, the condition is permanent and will require treatment for life.
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the middle of the neck. It is responsible for producing the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. This production is controlled by the pituitary gland in the brain via thyroid stimulating hormone (called TSH). T3 and T4 perform many important actions during childhood, including the maintenance of normal growth and bone development. Thyroid hormone is also important in the regulation of metabolism.
The causes of hypothyroidism can arise from the gland itself or from the pituitary. The thyroid can be damaged by direct antibody attack (autoimmunity), radiation, or surgery. The pituitary gland can be damaged following a severe brain injury or secondary to radiation. Certain medications and substances can interfere with thyroid hormone production. For example, too much or too little iodine in the diet can lead to hypothyroidism. See the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) policy statement, Iodine Deficiency, Pollutant Chemicals, and the Thyroid: New Information on an Old Problem, for more information.
Overall, the most common cause of hypothyroidism in children and teens is direct attack of the thyroid gland from the immune system. This disease is known as autoimmune or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Certain children are at greater risk

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland lies in the pituitary fossa (sella turcica), which is situated in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. It is linked functionally to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The hypothalamus lies in a superior position to the pituitary gland, and the link between the 2 organs is critical for normal pituitary gland function.
The anterior pituitary secretes growth hormone (GH), thyrotrophin or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), corticotrophin or adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH), and prolactin. The posterior lobe secretes arginine vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin.
JMC declares that he has no competing interests.
Dr Joe M. Chehade would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Senan Sultan, a previous contributor to this monograph. SS declares that he has no competing interests.

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Retrieved Text: TSH is a hormone that controls thyroid gland activity.
It’s typically used as a marker of thyroid health, but what are normal TSH levels?
This article explores what your levels should be and how it relates to hypothyroidism.
Hypothyroidism: What is TSH Level?
TSH is a hormone that controls thyroid function. It stands for Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.
It is actually produced by the brain’s pituitary gland, but stimulates production of the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) in the thyroid gland.
The amount and balance of these hormones affects almost every physiological process in the body, particular your body’s metabolism (1).
Summary: TSH is a pituitary hormone that stimulates or inhibits the production of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
The release of TSH is first stimulated by a hormone called TRH.
Once the thyroid stimulating hormone makes its way to your thyroid, levels are largely dictated by the amount of T3 and T4 in your blood.
When T3 and T4 levels are low, the body produces more TSH to stimulate the thyroid. But when T3 and T4 levels are high, the body produces less (2).
Summary: Current levels of thyroid hormone in the blood significantly dictates your levels, although there are other factors that influence it too.
Due to the symbiotic nature they have with thyroid hormones, TSH levels in the blood can theoretically be a good marker of thyroid health.
This TSH levels chart presents a simplified version of what different readings can indicate.
Those with Graves’ disease (an overactive thyroid) have high low TSH and subsequent high thyroid hormone levels. Hashimoto’s disease (underactive thyroid) is the opposite.
Summary:

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Retrieved Text: Hyperthyroidism is a highly active thyroid gland. Hyperthyroidism is measured by the level of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) which is a hormone that is released from the pituitary gland.
Hyperthyroid symptoms are usually opposite of hypothyroidism. Fast heart rate, inner trembling, insomnia…all are part of hyperthyroid function.
In this video I outline the major causes of hyperthyroidism and how other organ and glandular metabolism influences the thyroid gland.
You should remember that any thyroid problem is affected by TSH output, iodine that is used in making thyroid hormones, pituitary stimulation of thyroid hormones. Thyroidism symptoms spread the ranges of many health related problems. Please consider alternative medicine approaches in the managment of any metabolic problems.

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Retrieved Text: chart for tsh levels | Diabetes Inc.
Charts for tsh levels – buzzle, Thyroid stimulating hormone, or tsh, is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the pituitary gland, and is responsible for maintaining the appropriate levels of thyroid.
Knowing your tsh levels: tsh range charts – thyroid, Buzzle offers a chart that measures normal tsh values at various ages. the chart has two columns: "age" and "tsh reference range." the tsh reference ranges are.
Tsh levels – thyroid disorders – medhelp, Thank you for responding and the encouragement.i just thought that 26.233 was off the charts.now i see that happens more often than i thought..
What is a normal tsh level? | ehow, What is a normal tsh level?. a tsh level measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone in the blood. this hormone, which is made in the pituitary.
High tsh levels during first trimester – the bump, I’ve had hypothyroidism for many years, but my doctor didn’t test my tsh levels until i was 10 weeks pregnant..

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Retrieved Text: A thyroidectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid gland.
The thyroid, located at the base of your neck, makes a hormone that is sent into your bloodstream. The thyroid gland makes this hormone from iodine. Iodine is absorbed from the foods we eat.
The thyroid hormone controls the speed of your metabolism. The pituitary gland (located in your brain) controls how much thyroid hormone to make. It does this by making thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH tells the thyroid gland to make more or less thyroid hormone.
An under-active thyroid is called hypothyroidism. The thyroid produces less thyroxine. This makes the pituitary gland send more TSH into the bloodstream to get the thyroid gland to make more hormone.
An over-active thyroid is called hyperthyroidism. The thyroid gland makes too much thyroid hormone. The pituitary gland decreases the amount of TSH in the blood.
Thyroid nodules can be either solid or cystic (fluid filled). Most of the time, your thyroid works normally if you have nodules. Most nodules are not cancerous. However, your doctor might take a sample of the cells in the nodule. This is called a fine needle aspiration. This sample will be examined to make sure there are no cancer cells.
This is an enlargement of the thyroid gland. You might feel swelling or enlargement in the neck. It can become larger because your thyroid is trying to make more thyroid hormone. Also, in hyperthyroidism, the cells grow faster, which causes the thyroid to grow and make more thyroid hormone than the body needs.
Surgery might

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Retrieved Text: The thyroid is a soft, butterfly-shaped gland that lies wrapped around the windpipe below the Adam's apple. Its job is to secrete thyroid hormones that help regulate metabolism - in other words, the many chemical processes that keep our bodies ticking over.
The thyroid gland manufactures two essential hormones – thyroxine (also referred to as T4) and triiodothyronine (also referred to as T3). In normal health most T3 circulating in the blood stream has been converted from T4. Both T4 and T3 have the same action on cells of the body but T3 is more potent. T4 mostly functions as a reserve for T3. Together these two similar hormones are called thyroid hormone.
Thyroid hormone regulates the metabolic rate of almost all the cells of the body, and influences the health of the heart, brain and bones. It is also needed for normal development of the brain in children and for normal reproductive functioning.
In Australia there are about 60,000 new cases of thyroid disease each year. Some people have a problem with how the gland functions: it may produce too much or too little thyroid hormone. Others have problems with the structure of the gland itself, where it becomes enlarged, lumpy, and/or inflamed.
When the gland is healthy, it releases as much thyroid hormone as we need to keep our metabolism on an even keel. It knows just how much to release because of the feedback loop between a gland in the base of the brain, called the pituitary, and the thyroid itself. To function normally, the pituitary also

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Retrieved Text: A pituitary adenoma is generally a benign, slow-growing tumor that occurs in the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is a small, bean-shaped structure that lies at the base of the brain. It has a central role in the regulation of hormones that affect the body such as Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Growth hormone (GH), Prolactin, and Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
If the patient has a large hormone-inactive or hormone-producing tumor, it may compress surrounding brain structures due to its size. Large pituitary tumors may compress the pituitary gland contributing to pituitary failure, which can lead to sexual dysfunction, inadequate body cortisol levels, and hypothyroidism. Other possible presentations relating to compression of brain structures include visual loss, headache, the “stalk effect”, and pituitary apoplexy. The “stalk effect” is due to the compression of the pituitary stalk, the structure connecting the brain to the pituitary gland, which leads to a mild elevation in the hormone prolactin. Higher levels of prolactin in females can contribute to irregular menstrual cycles. Pituitary apoplexy presents with an abrupt headache and visual loss. It can occur in two different situations. The pituitary adenoma can bleed internally causing a sudden increase in size or the tumor can outgrow its blood supply and the dead tissue will swell.
Pituitary adenomas can be diagnosed based on endocrine function testing, imaging, and visual field testing. Often times, visual problems may be the only symptom present. Optometrists and ophthalmologists should seriously consider the possibility of a pituitary tumor when the patient presents with an unexplained loss of visual field (especially peripheral vision),

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Retrieved Text: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH is produced in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus, which monitors and regulates thyrotropin (TSH) levels.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, also called thyrotropin, is secreted by the pituitary gland. TSH directly affects the process of iodine trapping and thyroid hormone production. When thyroxine (T4) levels drop even slightly, the pituitary gland goes into action to pump up secretion of TSH so that it can stimulate T4 production. When T4 levels fall, TSH levels increase.
Thyroxine (T4). T4 is the key hormone produced in the thyroid gland. Low levels of T4 produce hypothyroidism, and high levels produce hyperthyroidism.
Triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroxine (T4) converts to triiodothyronine (T3), which is a more biologically active hormone. Only about 20% of T3 is actually formed in the thyroid gland. The rest is manufactured from circulating T4 in tissues outside the thyroid, such as the liver and kidney. Once T4 and T3 are in circulation, they typically bind to substances called thyroid hormone transport proteins. After having their effect in various parts of the baby, the thyroid hormones are later inactivated and the iodine is recycled to form new thyroxine.
Hashimoto thyroiditis. This is an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks its own thyroid cells.
Overtreatment of hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid).
An enlargement of the thyroid gland, called a goiter, is almost always present and may appear as a cyst-like or fibrous growth in the neck. Hashimoto thyroiditis is permanent and requires lifelong treatment. Both genetic and environmental factors appear to play a role in its development.The other main

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Retrieved Text: The thyroid gland affects virtually every organ system in the body. It is responsible for regulating cerebral function, body temperature, and metabolism. Increased thyroid hormones cause an increase in metabolism, energy, sense of well-being, and decrease brain fog. Production of thyroid hormones starts with the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which is released from the pituitary gland. It responds to the thyroid gland in order to produce two types of thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). T3 is the active form of thyroid hormone; whereas, T4 is the inactive. T4 must be converted to T3 in order to be active. The thyroid gland secretes about 97% of the inactive T4 hormone, and only about 7% of the active T3 hormone. Thyroid disorders can still occur when these levels are normal; therefore, that is why additional tests are needed to properly diagnose thyroid dysfunction.
Many people suffer from hypothyroidism, a condition in which the body doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone. Left untreated, hypothyroidism can lead to numerous health concerns including: obesity, joint pain, heart disease, neurological deficits, fatigue, and infertility. Appropriate and accurate thyroid function tests can easily help diagnosis thyroid problems. Because TSH levels can appear normal in hypothyroidism, T3 and T4 levels need to be tested in order to accurately determine thyroid function. Natural thyroid replacement hormone is designed to provide the body with a combination of both T3 and T4. However, synthetic thyroid replacement hormone only provides the body with the inactive T4 form which still has to be converted in the body to the

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Retrieved Text: It can be difficult to wrap your head around how the different hormones TSH, T4, and T3 function. The TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) is a pituitary hormone. This stands for thyroid stimulating hormone. It is a signal that comes from the pituitary gland to tell the thyroid that there is not enough active thyroid hormone in the cells and that it needs to kick some more thyroid hormone out. The T4 (thyroxin) is the thyroid storage hormone. The body in a perfect state of health has to convert the T4 hormone into the active thyroid hormone T3 (triiodothyronine). The cells of the body receive this active T3 hormone through receptors.
One way I like to look at it is to correlate it to a light switch, a light fixture, and actual lighting that you have in front of your face to see an object. The light switch is the TSH. The light fixture is the T4. The light in front of you is the T3. When looking at thyroid function by means of a TSH test, you are merely looking at the light switch to see if it is turned in the on position. When you measure the storage thyroid hormone T4 (Free T4 test), you are looking at the light fixture to make sure there is a light bulb in there. When you measure the active thyroid hormone (Free T3 test), you are assessing whether or not you have light to see by. If you don’t have enough light to see by, that would be referred

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Retrieved Text: This test is vital to detect thyroid disorders and monitor the patient during the treatment of the hypo or hyperthyroidism. It measures the level of Thyroid Simulating Hormone (TSH) in the blood. The pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain, secrets TSH. In addition it functions by stimulating the thyroid gland to secrete its hormones. The thyroid gland, located beneath the larynx, is the internal thermostat of the body that regulates temperature by secreting T4- Thyroxine and T3- Triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones control the speed of energy utilization. Testing for the levels of thyroid hormone T4 is recommended with this test.

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism is a word very familiar to everyone these days. There seems to be an increase in the cases of Hypothyroidism detected. It has now become a prevalent medical condition, easily treatable with medicines and therapies. About 12% of the population experiences thyroid disorders and women are 8 times more likely to be diagnosed with thyroid disorder than men.
The Thyroid gland is a small butterfly-shaped gland situated at the base of the throat. It is responsible for the release of the thyroid hormone. The thyroid hormone is one of the major hormones secreted in the body as it is responsible for the metabolism and growth and repair of the body and also maintains the energy levels as a result. Hypothyroidism or also known as an underactive thyroid is a state where the thyroid gland fails to produce the necessary amount of the thyroid hormone required to maintain the homeostasis in the body.
Hypothyroidism is caused due to many conditions like a faulty lifestyle caused by bad dietary habits and sedentary life; an autoimmune condition called Hashimoto thyroiditis, tumor in the pituitary gland causing secondary hypothyroid, complete or partial removal of the thyroid gland and hereditary factors.
A decrease in the thyroid levels in the body causes several symptoms, the key signs being unexplained weight gain, feeling of fatigue and lethargy, increased hair fall, constipation, mood swings and depression and dry skin.
Hypothyroidism is diagnosed mainly by testing blood for Thyroid stimulating hormone, T3 and T4 levels.
The Ayurvedic line of treatment involves stimulating the metabolism and the medo dhatvagni. The

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Retrieved Text: Understand the results of the TSH and free T4 tests used to monitor the functioning of the thyroid gland.
The two major thyroid (or thyroid) changes, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, are diagnosed laboratorially through blood collection to measure blood levels of basically two hormones, called free T4 and TSH.
What are TSH, T3 and T4.
Normal values ​​of free T4 and TSH.
Meaning of a high TSH.
Meaning of a low TSH.
Very succinctly, hypothyroidism is the disease caused by the insufficient production of thyroid hormones, whereas hyperthyroidism is the disease caused by the overproduction of thyroid hormones. Both diseases can be diagnosed through the measurement of thyroid hormones circulating in the blood. However, to understand what stands for acronyms like TSH, T3 and free T4, one must first understand how the thyroid works.
The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck. The thyroid picks up the iodine consumed in food and joins it to an amino acid called tyrosine to create two hormones, known as triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
T3 and T4 synthesized by the thyroid are released into the bloodstream, where they act in all the cells of our body, regulating their metabolism, that is, dictating how cells will transform oxygen, glucose and calories into energy. When the thyroid produces too much T3 and T4, our metabolism accelerates. When the thyroid produces too little T3 and T4, our metabolism slows down.
In general, of the total hormones produced by the thyroid, 80% are T4 and 20% are T3. Despite being produced in less quantity, T3 is a hormone

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Retrieved Text: Hi. I take thyroxine. Does my TSH reflect levels of T4/T3 in my blood or levels of T3 in the cells of my body.
Neither you should ask for your free T4 to be tested and your free T3. Thyroxine is a T4 drug and can convert to T3. In my experience as a patient my body didn’t convert the thyroxin to t3 so I was put on cytomel/liothyronine a t3 hormone. What is your diagnosis and have they check your feritin, vitamins D3, B12 and folate?
Levothyroxine and liothyronine are thyroid hormone replacements and are synthetic hormones, therefore not a drug in the full sense of the word.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain, when it receives signals that the thyroid hormone is not producing enough T4 and (some) T3. So it doesn't reflect the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood or cells. People who have their thyroid gland removed have suppressed levels of TSH because, obviously, there is nothing to stimulate. TSH ranges are set for healthy people, so are not good indicators if you have thyroid disease. How you feel, plus getting Free T4 and Free T3 tested are much better guages.
where does the TSH get its signals from if it doesn't link back to the body (organs, blood, cells, etc.
It gets feedback messages from the thyroid gland. Here is a link to a page describing the 'feedback loop'.
Have to disagree here... my thyroid was removed 35 years ago and I still have TSH like everybody else, as it

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Retrieved Text: At present, medical practice is activea trend is developing to study the functions of hormones. The use of hormonal therapy at the present stage has made it possible to apply it not only as a substitution therapy, but also as a separate medication that promotes rapid and effective recovery. As medicines, hormonal preparations are used practically in all fields of medicine, among them the most actively uses these pharmaceutical preparations dermatology.
Thyrotropic hormone provides control andregulation of the synthesis of hormones by the thyroid gland. TTG norm in children is primarily determined by age. Thus, in newborns, the level of the hormone varies from 1.1 to 17 in terms of international units. In the age group younger than 2.5-3 months, thyroid-stimulating hormone levels range from 0.6 to 10. In children up to a year, the upper limit is reduced to 7 units. Why do newborns have such a high level of hormones? First of all, this is due to the fact that the development of the nervous system of children requires a high level of thyroid hormones. In the process of completing the formation of the nervous system, the level of the latter gradually decreases. It is necessary to control the level of hormonal changes in children, since if the thyroid does not decrease - this will indicate an inborn hypothyroidism. If there is no treatment for this disease, mental retardation may develop.
What is the TTG norm for?
Knowledge of normal hormone levelsit is necessary to assess the state of the human endocrine system. Thus, exceeding the thyroid-stimulating

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism is a medical condition characterized by the inability of the thyroid gland to meet the body’s requirements of thyroid hormones. It basically means having an underactive thyroid gland. Because of the deep implications hormonal imbalances have on our health in general, disorders affecting the endocrine system such hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism require immediate medical attention.
What is the thyroid gland, where is it located and what does it look like? The thyroid is a small hormone-producing organ of the endocrine system, located in the anterior part of the throat, in front of the larynx and trachea. It is made of two lobes connected by a portion of tissue in the middle and looks like a butterfly. Differences in the appearance of the organ may arise, with a small portion of the population having a third lobe. The thyroid gland may vary in size from person to person and weighs about 25 g in an average adult. Women have been shown to have a slightly bigger thyroid than men.
What does the thyroid gland do? The thyroid is an endocrine organ, meaning an organ that secretes hormones. But unlike other hormone-producing sources in our body, it secretes hormones directly into our bloodstream (just like the pancreas, the adrenal glands, the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus or the parathyroid glands). What are the functions of the thyroid gland? What the thyroid does is produce hormones that regulate metabolism, cardiovascular activity and sleep, support normal growth and development and reproductive system health and impact cognition.
1) Iodine deficiency. Our thyroid works on iodine.

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Retrieved Text: Hypothyroidism is when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones to meet the needs of the body. The thyroid is underactive.
The opposite is hyperthyroidism, where the thyroid produces too much thyroid hormone. However, the link between hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism is complex, and one can lead to the other, in certain circumstances.
Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, or the way the body uses energy. If thyroxine levels are low, many of the body's functions slow down.
About 4.6 percent of the population aged 12 years and above in the United States has hypothyroidism.
The thyroid gland is found in the front of the neck below the larynx, or voice box, and has two lobes, one on each side of the windpipe.
It is an endocrine gland, made up of special cells that make hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that relay information to the organs and tissues of the body, controlling processes such as metabolism, growth, and mood.
The production of thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is made by the pituitary gland.
This, in turn, is regulated by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. TSH ensures that enough thyroid hormones are made to meet the needs of the body.
Here are some key points about hypothyroidism. More detail and supporting information is in the main article.
The thyroid gland produces two thyroid hormones, TS3 and TS4.
These hormones regulate the body's metabolism.
The most common cause of hypothyroidism in the U.S. is Hashimoto's disease.
Symptoms of hypothyroidism include fatigue, cold intolerance, and joint and muscle pain.
Hypothyroidism refers to the underproduction of hormones in

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of our brains. It is commonly referred to as the “master gland” of the human body, as it releases a variety of hormones that circulate our system and aid in maintaining our internal homeostasis. Moreover, the pituitary gland is also the “master” or dominant gland controlling the activity of other glands. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and storing an assortment of important hormones that we will discuss in more detail.
The main function of the pituitary gland lies in its ability to make hormones that retain many of our bodily functions. The front (anterior) and back (posterior) lobes are the primary secretory glands. These glands are innervated by the nervous system. The pituitary gland also responds to signals within the extracellular fluid, such as the amount of dissolved solvent or other hormones.
By responding to these signals and releasing the appropriate hormones, the pituitary gland plays a large role in coordinating many aspects of the body including metabolism, digestion, excretion, and many other factors. The pituitary gland releases at least 8 different hormones, which are responses to different stimulations of the gland. The pituitary gland is one of the most active glands within the endocrine system.
The image below is an illustration of the pituitary gland as it is situated near the base of the human brain. The depiction shows its relative size.
The pituitary gland lies roughly in the center of the human skull. It rests below the hypothalamus of

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What occurs when gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote?" and the following answer choices: 
- permineralization
 - rapid expansion
 - competition
 - fertilization
 - photosynthesis
 - chromosomes
 - mutation
 - Leptospirosis

Now knowing that fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid zygote and sperm and eggs are cells known as gametes, choose the best answer.

Target Text: fertilization

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Young to old. A life cycle?
Not in the biological sense. Life cycles describe the amount of DNA present at a specific stage or time in the life of an organism. Is there a haploid or diploid amount of DNA? That is the key question.
Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are represented in Figure below and described following sections.
Life cycles can vary in sexually reproducing organisms. Three types of sexual life cycles are shown here. Do you see how they differ? The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates diploid stages.
The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases, known as alternation of generations. In plants, the life cycle alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte. Spore forming cells in the diploid sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores, a haploid reproductive cell. Spores can develop into an adult without fusing with another cell.

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Retrieved Text: Download "Rhizarians. Forams. Radiolarians. Cercozoans"
14 Figure 29.3 Exploring Derived Traits of Plants Charophyte algae lack the key traits of plants described in this figure: alternation of generations; multicellular, dependent embryos; walled spores produced in sporangia; multicellular gametangia; and apical meristems. This suggests that these traits were absent in the ancestor common to plants and charophytes but instead evolved as derived traits of plants. Not every plant exhibits all of these traits; certain lineages of plants have lost some traits over time. Alternation of Generations The life cycles of all plants alternate between two generations of distinct multicellular organisms: gametophytes and sporophytes. As shown in the diagram below (using a fern as an example), each generation gives rise to the other, a process that is called alternation of generations. This type of reproductive cycle evolved in various groups of algae but does not occur in the charophytes, the algae most closely related to plants. Take care not to confuse the alternation of generations in plants with the haploid and diploid stages in the life cycles of other sexually reproducing organisms (see Figure 13.6). Alternation of generations is distinguished by the fact that the life cycle Mitosis n Alternation of generations: five generalized steps 5 The spores develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes. n MEIOSIS 1 The gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Gametophyte (n) Spore includes both multicellular haploid organisms and multicellular diploid organisms. The multicellular haploid gametophyte ( gamete-producing plant ) is named for its production by mitosis of haploid gametes eggs and sperm that fuse during

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Retrieved Text: (Solved) The union of gametes produces a zygote.
The union of gametes produces a zygote.
Solved If gametes were diploid like somatic cells, how many chromosomes would the zygote contain?

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Retrieved Text: Individual organisms come and go, but, to a certain extent, organisms transcend time through producing offspring. Reproduction in animals occurs in two primary ways: through sexual reproduction and through asexual reproduction.
Now let's take a look at sexual reproduction.
In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population.
In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis.
The gametes are haploid (containing only one set of chromosomes) while the zygote is diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes).
In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is nonmotile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.
There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place.
The first is external (the eggs are fertilized outside of the body); the second is internal (the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract).
For example, many animals have estrous cycles that occur during certain parts of the year so that offspring can typically be born under favorable conditions. Humans however, do not undergo estrous cycles but menstrual cycles.

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Retrieved Text: A cell or nucleus that may participate in sexual fusion to form a *zygote. It is normally haploid and thus on fusion of two gametes a diploid zygote is formed. In virtually all plants (exceptions are those with a *diplontic life cycle ) meiosis is separated from *gametogenesis by the development of a somatic gametophyte generation (see alternation of generations ). In the primitive algae and fungi the gametes are often naked and *isogamous. In more advanced forms there is a trend through *anisogamy to *oogamy and specialization of the gametes, so that they become better protected and less dependent on water for survival and dispersal. See also sexual reproduction.

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Retrieved Text: Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the

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Retrieved Text: die „Reduktionsteilung“ beginnt im Diplonten mit einer eigenartigen Zelle [...], deren Nachkommen, die „Haploten“ [...] auf die ursprüngliche Chromosomenzahl herabgesetzt sind, und wiederum ein einfaches Lebewesen, den „Haplonten“ [...] durch neue Zellenteilungen erzeugen.
From this organism [the haplont] arise the gametes by ordinary mitosis; and by their union is produced the zygote from which arises a diploid, asexual spore-producing diplont (in plants the sporophyte), thus completing the life-cycle.
1: The diploid stage of a life cycle; diplophase, 2: An organism having a life cycle in which the direct products of meiosis act as gametes; only the gametes of diplonts are haploid; cf. haplont.

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Retrieved Text: Distinguish, differentiate, compare and explain what is the main difference between Gametogenesis from Embryogenesis. Comparison and Differences.
1. Gametogenesis is the formation of male and female gametes. Embryogenesis is the formation of an embryo from the zygote.
2. In Gametogenesis, gametes are the haploid cells. In Embryogenesis, an embryo is a diploid cell.
3. Both mitotic & meiotic cell division take place in Gametogenesis. Only mitotic division occur in Embryogenesis.

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Retrieved Text: Human development begins at fertilization when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual... The zygote divides many times and becomes progressively transformed into a multi-cellular human being.
Last week I watched CNN reporter Chris Cuomo and Marco Rubio have this discussion over the matter of abortion and the meaning of "human life."
RUBIO: No, science has decided when it is human life.
CUOMO: Science has not decided it’s at conception.
RUBIO: No, let me correct you. Science has—absolutely it has.
At this point Cuomo made me want to jump through the flat screen of my TV and slap some scientific sense into him!
The conceptus (fertilized egg) is alive. It is a living thing.
It is not a daisy life or a fish life or a mosquito life or a rhinocerous life. It is a human conceptus, AKA human life.
Just as frog life begins in the frog egg, so does human life begin in the fertilized egg in a mother's womb.
Cuomo accused Rubio of "oversimplifying," and that he was answering the question based on his faith, not science."
Cuomo: "We'll have scientists on the show all morning who will say we cannot say it is definitely human life at conception. It's more faith than science."
Rubio: "They can't say it's human life? What would it become then? A cat? I can tell you that every single one of us started at that same stage, that it can't become anything other than a human

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Retrieved Text: which has (Answer 5) number of chromosomes.
One of each pair of chromosomes are passed to gamete.
When 2 gametes fuse, diploid cell is formed.

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Retrieved Text: (flowering plants) A class of vascular plants, all characteristically bearing seeds within enclosing car-pellary structures. The sporophyte is the dominant generation and is either herbaceous or woody, the woody habit being considered more primitive. The reproductive axis and its associated, often brightly coloured, sepals and petals, is called a flower. The gametophyte is reduced to the female embryo sac and the male pollen grain. The pollen does not germinate directly on the ovule, as in the *Gymnospermae , but on a specialized extension of the carpel, the stigma. The male gametes, unlike certain gym-nosperm gametes, are never flagellate. Double fertilization to form a zygote and a diploid endosperm nucleus is characteristic.
Secondary vascular tissue is usually but not always present. The xylem contains vessels, except in certain primitive woody forms, and the phloem has distinct companion cells associated with the sieve tube elements. Angiosperms are the most advanced, most abundant, and most widely distributed vascular plants. The group contains some 250 000 species and is subdivided, on the basis of the number of cotyledons in the embryo, into the *Monocotyledonae and the *Dicotyledonae . Beyond these groups further subdivision into superorders and orders is based mainly on the structure of the flower and especially on the form, number, and arrangement of the stamens and carpels. Different classifications recognize various numbers of orders and the names and contents of these often differ widely between various authorities.
From fossil pollen evidence it would seem the angiosperms appeared at the beginning of the Cretaceous. They had replaced the gymnosperms as the

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Retrieved Text: Spirogyra is one of the commonest and large genus with about 300 species growing as free-floating masses in stagnant or slowly moving waters (streams). Some species, e. g., Spirogyra adnata are attached to the substratum through a basal rhizoidal cell. The masses of plants are slimy to touch because the filaments are surrounded by pectic sheaths which when come in contact water forms mucilage, therefore it is known as water-silk or pond-scum. The spirogyra grows abundantly in spring.
Spirogyra is unbranched with cylindrical cells connected end to end in long green Filaments. The individual cell is cylindrical, much longer than broad. In free-floating species, there is no distinction between the basal and distal ends, whereas in attached forms the lowermost cell develops a rhizoidal outgrowth called holdfast which helps in attachment.
Each has a well-developed cell wall. The cell wall has two layers the outer wall is composed of cellulose while the inner wall is of pectin.
The cytoplasm forms a thin lining between the cell wall and the large vacuole. Electron microscope studies show that mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, dictyosomes and other cytoplasmic inclusions are also present in the cell. The chromosomes vary from species to species from 5-24.
Each cell has a prominent nucleus in the center, suspended by the thin strands of cytoplasm from the inner part of the cell wall.
Chloroplasts are embedded in the peripheral Cytoplasm and their numbers are variable (as few as one). The chloroplasts are ribbon shaped and spirally resulting in the prominent and characteristic green spiral on each filament chloroplast contains several pyrenoids,

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Retrieved Text: Algaes are difficult to define. Some classify the group as all eukaryotic photosynthesizing microorganisms. This definition includes the Euglenoid and Dinoflagellates groups, both of which are known to be more closely related to other groups of non-photosynthesizing protozoa than to other algae. For this reason, those two groups are sometimes classified as protozoa rather than algae. In this discussion, we will group euglenoids and dinoflagellates with the algae so that we may compare their photosynthetic characteristics. Keep in mind that this inclusion does not imply close relation to other algae.
Another difficulty in classifying algae is determining whether they are protists, plants, or whether they merit their own kingdom. Different classification systems answer this question in different ways, with some even splitting the group between the kingdoms Protista and Plantae. Here we have grouped algae with protozoa and slime molds in Protista because mthe majority of algae are unicellular, and even the multicellular algae are structurally simple compared to true plants.
Within the classification of algae, individual species are divided into five groups, based on characteristics such as type of chlorophyll molecule used in photosynthesis and type of reproductive cycle. The structure of the chloroplast is also used, for a very important reason. According to the endosymbiotic theory of chloroplast evolution, proposed by Lynn Margulis of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, chloroplasts may have evolved when small photosynthesizing cells were engulfed, but not digested, by larger cells. Instead, the two types of cells developed a symbiotic relationship, with the photoautotroph living inside the larger cell. The number of

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Retrieved Text: Asexually reproducing organism can cope with a changing environment only through relatively rare spontaneous mutations that prove to be beneficial.
This process does not allow any variation in their population, though it is opposite in the case of sexual reproduction, which accepts variations in their population.
These offsprings are parents again give rise to new one.
No fertilization occurs during asexual reproduction. And due to which sexual reproduction is considered as the most fundamental aspect of evolution. These offspring are usually referred to as clones . Time is taken to complete Multiplication is very rapid and in lesser time. Starfish Regenerating its Legs Agamogenesis Any form of reproduction which does not involve male gametes is known as agamogenesis.
What is asexual reproduction? Types of asexual reproduction There are several different types of asexual reproduction but the most common ones include binary fission, budding, fragmentation and spores.
The number of offspring may vary from two to many and are genetically similar in asexual reproduction whereas the number of offspring produced are less in number comparatively which are genetically different from their parents.
There are specialized organs present in male and female gametes for sexual reproduction in plant and animals. If it continues to grow normally it can eventually become a baby. This combination of gametes is named treatment.
Both of these forms of reproduction occur in plants, fungi and animals however the specific form of reproduction will depend on the species . Puffballs Emitting Spores Sexual Reproduction of Plants Bryophytes like liverworts, mosses, and hornworts consist of motile sperms with flagella.
Fertilization takes place in

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Retrieved Text: Mitosis is the process of cell division that enables organisms to maintain cell populations and grow. All chromosomes duplicate themselves prior to cell division, followed by partitioning of these exact copies into daughter cells. In the image to the right, two sets of chromosomes are going through mitosis.
In contrast, meiosis is a two-part cell division process which results in reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) with one-half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
In males, the process results in four equal gametes with one chromosome each (sperm cells—not shown). In females, each ovum is produced by two chromosome divisions, called the first and second meitic divisions, and the parent cell's cytoplasm and organelles end up in one gamete.
When a haploid sperm cell fertilizes a haploid ovum, a diploid zygote is formed, with one set of chromosomes donated from each parent.

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Retrieved Text: Why don’t cyanobacteria and bacteria reproduce by mitosis?
Damaged cells of an organism are usually ___ by mitosis.
All the chromosomes in a diploid cell are paired.
How many chromosomes are produced by the first division during meiosis?
Which statement(s) correspond(s) correctly to a mutation?
The kind of cell division associated with an increase in size and weight of an organism is called ___.
Gametes have ___ the chromosome number of the parent cell.
Chromosomes are attached to the ___ during the metaphase of mitosis.
The spindle apparatus disintegrates during the ___ of mitosis.
-Plant cells divide by means of a cell plate.
How does mitosis in animal cells differ from mitosis in higher plant cells?
Occasionally asexual reproduction can cause undesirable proliferation of an organism.
Nearly all plants can be reproduced asexually.
The new plant produced by the technique of layering must remain attached to the stem of the original plant.
A successful scion will produce the product of the rootstock with greater quality.
The technique of asexual reproduction most commonly used in the production of fruit trees is ___.
The vigor of a rootstock is usually ___ than that of the root system produced by the scion.
Asexual reproduction is most common in plants growing in ___ climates.
An elongated, horizontal stem that grows at the surface of the ground or just below it is called a rhizome.
Animals have more mechanisms for asexual reproduction than plants.
The stock is inserted into the scion during grafting.
The most commonly used method of asexual reproduction used in gardening is the cutting.
Root cuttings are more commonly used than stem cuttings.
A ___ is a plant structure with enlarged

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Retrieved Text: Zygote Games is based in Western Massachusetts. Our mission is to produce high-quality, fun-to-play games that also educate players about scientific facts and concepts.
The company began with a simple observation. According to a study by a trio of British zoologists in Science magazine, by age 8, kids in developed countries can recognize more Pokemon animals than real ones. We want to change that by creating games which are fun and challenging, but which are also based on real science.
We did some market research and were startled by the low quality of most science and nature games. The majority of them were either Trivial Pursuit knockoffs teaching kids to memorize science trivia, or versions of traditional playing-card games like Old Maid or Go Fish with dinosaurs or wildebeests on the cards. In several cases, the "science facts" in the games were oversimplified or just plain wrong.
Our games are original and entertaining, and incorporate scientific principles into the actual rules of the game. In our first release, BONE WARS, the game simulates the process of creating a scientific hypothesis and testing it against new data. But that aside. . . you're having too much fun stealing bones, exposing hoaxes, and generally conniving and backstabbing!
Zygote Games was formed by the combination of three individuals (aka the gametes--a gamete is a haploid cell; they fuse together to form a zygote).
Diane A. Kelly is Chief Science Officer of Zygote Games. Diane has a Ph.D. in Zoology from Duke University, and vets the scientific chops of our games. She wears many hats

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Retrieved Text: Selection can also work at the gene level. When a diploid individual (one that has two copies of its genome) produces haploid gametes (sperm cells or eggs, which have only one copy of the genome), each parental gene has a 50-50 chance of ending up in the gamete population — usually. Sometimes, though, for reasons that are poorly understood, one gene is better than another at making it into the gametes. This phenomenon is selection at the gene level, or meiotic drive.
Meiotic drive occurs when a particular gene has better than a 50 percent chance of making it into the gamete pool and from there to the offspring. Although on its face, selection at the gene level seems to be at odds with how you expect evolution to work, by taking a closer look at meiotic drive, you can see that the same evolutionary forces are at play.

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Retrieved Text: Like all plants Toxicodendron diversilobum exhibits an alternation of generations. This means that during the life cycle of the plant it alternates between a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation and a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation. Since the Pacific poison oak is in the phylum Angiosperm it has a dominant sporophyte generation which means that the gametophyte generation will be more dependent on the sporophyte generation.
The first part of the angiosperm life cycle takes place in the flower of the plant. Here in the anther the microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis which produces haploid microspores. Each microspore undergoes one division of mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Together they form an immature pollen grain. The generative cells then go through a second mitotic division which produces two sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule one megaspore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore. Three die off and one remains. The remaining megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions and generates an 8 nucleate embryo sac also known as a megagametophyte.
Next pollination occurs. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma where a pollen tube grows down into the style. Eventually it grows down into the ovary through the micropyle. One sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg which creates a diploid zygote, and the other sperm fuses with the central cell of the egg to form the endospore.
Now that the embryo has formed it grows inside the embryo sac. The ovule creates a protective seed coat around the embryo and embryo sac. Then the seed is dropped from fruit

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Retrieved Text: Internal fertilization is the process when the syngamy (union of male and female gamete) occurs inside the female body after insemination using copulation. In contrast, External fertilization is the syngamy outside the female body, that is in the outer environment especially in water bodies.
Internal fertilization is followed by mammals, birds, while external fertilization is supported by mostly aquatic animals and few amphibians.
We all are aware of the word fertilization, which defines the union of sperm (male gamete) and egg nucleus (female gamete) to produce diploid cell or zygote, which further develops or grow into the young ones of their generation. Internal and External fertilization are the two types of fertilization, which takes place among various groups of animals, and with this content, we will be discussing the diverse features of them.
Meaning The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place inside the body of the female, is called as internal fertilization. The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place in the external environment (in water bodies) and so-called as external fertilization.
Gametes released Less number of gametes (sperms) are released, which gets deposited inside the female body. Numerous gametes (sperms and egg) are released into the environment. These gametes are of male as well as of female.
Process involves Only male gametes are released or discharged into the female genital tract. Both male and female release or discharge their gametes in their external surrounding.
Further process of development (syngamy) occurs inside the body only. Further process of development

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Retrieved Text: Plants either reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on the type of plant. In sexual reproduction, two germ cells, or gametes, fuse to create the beginning of a genetically unique offspring. In asexual reproduction, a plant cell splits in two to create a genetically identical offspring.
During sexual reproduction, a male gamete needs to fertilize a female gamete. Depending on the plant, this is accomplished in a variety of ways. In flowering plants, the male and female gametes are located on different parts of the same flower. The sperm, located in the pollen grains, fall on the carpel of the flower, where the female gametes are located. This process occurs because of wind pollination or insect pollination that transports the pollen grains to the female gametes. As a result of this pollination, a fruit is created, which contains the seeds of offspring. In mosses, sexual reproduction can only occur if the male and female plant gametes combine directly. Conifers have two different cones: a male and a female cone. The male cone gives off pollen that the female cone catches.
Asexual reproduction occurs either through vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Vegetative reproduction occurs when a plant's shoots, roots and, sometimes, leaves fall onto moist dirt and take root. In apomixis, unfertilized plant seeds are used to create more offspring. Although asexual reproduction among plants occurs, sexual reproduction is far more common in most plant species.

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Retrieved Text: This sqadia.com short video clip is brief explanation of Zygote by Ms. Sidra Afzal.
The capacitated sperm can freely penetrate through the corona radiata to reach the zone pellucida by the movements of its tail. When the head of sperm meets zona pellucida, the acrosome releases digestive enzymes, which cause lysis of zona pellucida and plasma membrane around the head of the sperm.
The head and tail of sperm enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte. The sperms move forward to come in close contact with the female pronucleus. Its nucleus becomes swollen and forms the male pronucleus. The male and female pronuclei lose their cell membrane and chromosomes of two nuclei mix together to form diploid. The ootid becomes a zygote.

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Retrieved Text: Gametes are specialised haploid cells that are used to combine and when they do they combine to form a new diploid cell. That process of combination is called fertilization.
Now, you are hopefully familiar with sperm and egg, the two most common kinds of gametes that you've heard of. Where sperm they're small specialized for quick delivery of the DNA to the other cell, the other kind of gamete which is called the egg. Eggs are large. Why are they so large? It allows them to accumulate or store up large amounts of resources to provide for their newly developed diploid cell which will eventually become some new offspring like you and I became came from a single fertalized egg.
We take a look over here we can see in this scale, this thing that looks almost like a planet, that's the egg and you can see how much larger the egg is in size comparison to the sperm. Now if they were both the same size, they would be called isogametes.
We take a look at an isogamete. Every isogamete looks like the other. Now how are iso- how are sperm and egg made different? That happens during the process of either spermatogenesis or oogenesis.
Here we see a generic description of meiosis. The process of making gametes where here we have a cell that has let's suppose four chromosomes. Ultimately it can create four haploid cells. So this is a diploid cell. See it has pairs of homologous chromosomes. These are individual haploid cells, no more do they

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Retrieved Text: Life is made up of many special events, one of them is fertilization. It ‘a phenomenon of sexual reproduction, in which two gametes from different species bind to bring the formation of a new cell, which later take the name of the zygote.
There are several cases of fertilization: there is the inner one, in which the male gametes are released directly into the female apparatus, and the external one which is that fertilization which mostly takes place in water, in which the individual releases the gametes so that the another individual may collect them in opportune moments. Finally there is the assisted reproduction in which the union of gametes occur via artificial. But what are the stages of fertilization? Firstly million sperm reach the fallopian Faloppio, which are later attracted the oocyte, but only one of them manages to penetrate the egg, and then finally to fertilize the zygote. As a result of this process is followed by others, such as the development of the embryo, placenta and fetus.
The placenta begins to develop at conception.
It is therefore a vital organ to the fetus, with which it is in close relation. The main task of the placenta to the fetus is to ensure the necessary nutrients for proper development.
The fetus is nothing but the product of “mutations” that the embryo undergoes from the third month. Life is made up of many events, processes unknown to us, we begin to know them without dwelling on what’s appearance.
Previous articleWHAT TIME IS IT?

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Retrieved Text: Three Vaccinium sections are represented in the Florida native flora. Batodendron (diploid V. arboreum), and Polycodium (diploid V. stamineum), each have one species in Florida, and Cyanococcus has seven. In Cyanococcus, diploid V. darrowii and tetraploid V. myrsinites are low-growing, rhizomatous evergreen species, adapted to frequently-burned forests. Diploid and tetraploid V. fuscatum are highbush species adapted to swampy areas with moist, organic soils. Diploid V. elliottii is a tall, deciduous, crown-forming species with small leaves, a very short style, and small berries. It is adapted to riverbanks and sandy uplands in north Florida. The hexaploid species (one or more depending on taxonomic philosophy), include the vigorous, polymorphic rabbiteye blueberry (V. virgatum). Another hexaploid, with shorter stature, more rhizomatous habit, and small, black fruit, I separate as V. amoenum. Rabbiteyes appear to have evolved and spread independently from several distinct points of origin in the southeastern United States. Tetraploid V. fuscatum occurs from Gainesville north in the northern peninsula. Of all the Florida blueberries, it most nearly resembles the highbush cultivars, with which it crosses readily. Clones of cultivar quality can be selected from seedlings of the first backcross. Diploid V. fuscatum grows as far south as Lake Okeechobee. It resembles the tetraploid but has smaller leaves, flowers, and berries, and plants from south Florida are nearly evergreen. Diploid V. fuscatum makes vigorous hybrids with tetraploid highbush, but only a few, because of the ploidy difference. V. elliottii is very hard to cross with highbush cultivars, apparently making very few unreduced gametes. Its tetraploid hybrids with highbush

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: Which cartoon shows the correct way for the chromosomes to line up at the metaphase plate during mitosis?
What would happen if one chromosome failed to have microtubules from both poles attach?
One daughter cell would not have a copy of that chromosome.
Diatoms are protists that have rigid glass walls. Based on this you can conclude that they carry out cytokinesis similarly to ______________.
What would happen if a cell were unable to properly condense its chromosomes during prophase?
The chromosomal DNA would be subjected to shearing forces, fragmenting the chromosome.
What would happen if cytokinesis occurred before telophase was completed?
A cell that has just exited the G1 phase of the cell cycle (and will eventually go on to divide) will next enter ___________________.
Chromosomes condense and begin to be visible during _____________.
A number of chemical treatments cause microtubules to fall apart. Colchicine (mitonic inhibitor) is one such drug. What would happen if a dividing cell was treated with colchicine?
What would happen to a cell if it went directly from prophase to anaphase (i.e., it failed to undergo metaphase)?
The daughter cells would probably not get equal numbers of chromosomes.
A chimpanzee bone marrow cell, in prophase of mitosis, contains 48 chromosomes. How many chromatids does it contain?
When do homologous chromosomes pair?
Starting with one cell, how many daughter cells will be formed when meiosis is complete?
Sperm cells and ova can be classified as ______________ cells.
How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are found in human males?
The cellular process by which gametes are formed from specialized nonreproductive cells is ________ .
Crossing over occurs during which stage

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Retrieved Text: myxomycophyta - Slime moulds. Group (Division) of very simple organisms with both plant and animal characteristics. Taxonomic position uncertain; in past have been grouped with fungi (in Myxomycetes) and with Protozoa (in Mycetozoa). In the vegetative condition members of the largest group (Class Myxomycetes) consist of naked, multinucleate masses of protoplasm known as plasmodia. These show amoeboid movement and ingest food (animal characteristics). They reproduce by spores, shown in some genera to have cellulose walls, formed within sporangia (a plant characteristic). Meiosis is presumed to occur before spore formation. The spores germinate to form one or more myxamoebae, or biflagellate swarm cells which may either behave as gametes and copulate in pairs soon after their formation, or may first lose their flagella, undergo a series of divisions and then copulate. Growth of the zygote results in formation of a plasmodium. Plasmodia may also be formed by coalescence of many zygotes or small plas-modia. Widely distributed, occurring under damp conditions on decaying vegetable matter. One of the commonest species, Fuligo septica (flowers of tan), forms yellow plasmodia up to eight inches in diameter and frequently occurs on tanner's bark. The group includes Acrasiales and Labyrinthulales.

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Retrieved Text: In recent years assisted reproductive technology (ART) has offered hope to those struggling with infertility in South Africa. Sperm, oocytes, and embryos can now be frozen at various stages of development, allowing for safer and more successful ART treatments as well as allowing for the cryopreservation of gametes and embryos for fertility preservation.
In addition, the length of time that embryos and gametes can be stored in a cryopreserved state has increased. Thus allowing for couples to keep trying for longer and longer periods. However, it has also had some unintended consequences. One of these unintended consequences relates to the fate of embryos or gametes that may be “surplus” or left over after couples finish their treatment or where something happens to the patients and they are no longer able to provide their informed consent.
As couples and individuals embark on the journey of assisted reproduction, with the hope of becoming parents, there are questions that these patients and couple’s might not ask or even consider – What will happen to my embryos or gametes in the unfortunate event of a divorce, separation or the death of my spouse? If I have frozen embryos or gametes can my spouse or partner use them after my death? Who is the owner of our embryos or gametes in the event of our divorce, separation or my death or that of my spouse? What becomes of our embryos or gametes on completion of ART treatment or if we take the decision to discontinue ART treatment? What happens to our embryos or

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Retrieved Text: Rescan, Lenormand and Roze (2016) recently published new models on the evolution of life cycles in The American Naturalist.
Most animals and protists have diploid life cycles in which the haploid stage is reduced to a single-celled gamete.
Other organisms, such as charophytes and dinoflagellates, have a haploid life cycle in which the diploid phase is reduced to the zygote and meiosis occurs before any mitotic development.
There’s a third type of life cycle, that regular TME readers may have stumbled across with my posts: haploid-diploidy in which somatic development occurs in both haploid and diploid stages. In seed plants, the haploid stage is rather limited, but in fungi, mosses and macroalgae, the haploid stage is much more important.
[Due to the difference in duration of one phase and the corresponding limits to selection], the problem of the evolution of life cycles (i.e., the relative degrees of development of the haploid and diploid phases) is often recast in terms of the opportunity of selection within each phase.
One model suggests diploids may benefit from the masking of deleterious mutations. But, this assumes deleterious mutations have the same effect in both haploids and homozygous diploids. Recent transcriptomic studies in haploid-diploid species, such as Coelho et al. (2007), have demonstrated some genes are only expressed in one policy and mutations in these genes would have no effect in the other stage as they are not expressed.
Moreover, these genetic models cannot explain the evolutionary stability of haploid-diploid life cycles without considering additional mechanisms, such as ecological niche differentiation (Hughes and Otto 1999).
the interplay between

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "In photosynthesis, plants convert solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water into what?" and the following answer choices: 
- Organic compounds
 - water
 - leaves
 - chlorofluorocarbons
 - carbohydrates
 - solar power
 - peachleaf willow
 - chemical messengers

Now knowing that photosynthesis means producers convert from carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy into carbohydrates for themselves and fish are the consumers, and plants are the producers, choose the best answer.

Target Text: carbohydrates

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: Sorry plants, but you just got shown up.
Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have discovered how to harness solar power to turn carbon dioxide into fuel. That’s exactly what plants do every day with photosynthesis, but this newly discovered process does the job even better than nature does.
“It is possible to take sunlight, CO2, and water, and in an artificial system make hydrocarbons with an efficiency that’s greater than that of photosynthesis,” Joel Ager, lead author of the study, tells Inverse. Hydrocarbons are just any molecules made of hydrogen and carbon, and their ability to store energy has made them the main energy source for the planet.
If the system can break out of the lab, it could help fuel the world without relying on high-polluting and globally warming fossil fuels like oil and gas. And there’s plenty of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide around — indeed, far more of the latter these days than there should be.
As the researchers detail Wednesday in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, the researchers used a photovoltaic solar cell to split carbon dioxide in water, producing the desired hydrocarbon fuel molecules like ethanol, as well as oxygen-based molecules.
This is the first time scientists have managed to go straight from carbon dioxide to a finished, basically ready-to-use fuel, without having to do any more costly chemical manipulation. Improvements in the solar cell technology powering the experiment also let the researchers convert the energy at levels plants could only imagine.
A drawing of how the solar-powered fuel system works to convert C02 using

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Retrieved Text: Eddie Temistokle, Toshiba America, Inc.
Among Mother Nature’s many wonders, Toshiba researchers focused on photosynthesis -- a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation). In other words, plants are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. Learning from this system, Toshiba researchers created a novel way to convert carbon dioxide into ethylene glycol. The ethylene glycol generated by this artificial photosynthesis system is a valuable and versatile industrial raw material that can be used in the manufacture of PET bottles, polyester fibers and resins!
Toshiba Develops World's Highest Efficiency Artificial Photosynthesis Technology for Generation of Fuel and Feedstock from Carbon Dioxide.

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Retrieved Text: Plants capture and store solar energy through photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, living plants convert carbon dioxide in the air into sugar molecules they use for food. In the process of making their own food, plants also provide the oxygen we need to breathe. Thus, plants provide the energy and air required by most life forms on Earth. Plant productivity also plays a major role in the global carbon cycle by absorbing some of the carbon dioxide released when people burn coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. The carbon plants absorb becomes part of leaves, roots, stalks or tree trunks, and ultimately, the soil.
The maps above show one way to monitor the carbon “metabolism” of Earth’s vegetation. They show net primary productivity, which is how much carbon dioxide vegetation takes in during photosynthesis minus how much carbon dioxide the plants release during respiration (metabolizing sugars and starches for energy). The data come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. Values range from near 0 grams of carbon per square meter per day (tan) to 6.5 grams per square meter per day (dark green). A negative value means decomposition or respiration overpowered carbon absorption; more carbon was released to the atmosphere than the plants took in.
In mid-latitudes, productivity is obviously tied to seasonal change, with productivity peaking in each hemisphere’s summer. The boreal forests of Canada and Russia experience high productivity in June and July and then a slow decline through fall and winter. Year-round, tropical forests in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: This science experiment works because plants are able to convert light into energy. A plant takes in water and carbon dioxide through their roots and leaves, which is needed to form glucose, a sugar that living organisms break down to produce energy. Using energy from the sun, plants rearrange water and carbon dioxide to form sugar. This process whereby light is converted into food, is called ‘photosynthesis’.

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Definition of a C4 Pathway?
The C4 pathway is a method plants use to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into a chemical compound containing four carbons. About.com explains that plans that utilize this pathway usually originate in subtropical areas. Examples include maize, sugarcane, sorghum, millet and papyrus. These plants commonly grow at latitudes below 45 degrees, in the tropics.
While photosynthesis normally takes place in the leaves of plants, in those plants using the C4 pathway, it takes place in a special leaf structure, the Kranz anatomy, which includes vascular bundles surrounded by sheath cells. Once the fixation of carbon dioxide completes, transforming it into the four-carbon compound through tehmesophyll cells, the plant transports it to the sheath cells where ribosco, the enzyme necessary for photosynthesis, is stored. This process prevents exposing the enzyme to oxygen and conserves energy for the plant.
Reference.com says that C4 photosynthesis gives plants an advantage over those using the classic C3 type of photosynthesis in drought conditions as well as in locations where carbon dioxide and nitrogen are limited. In C3 plants, as much as 97 percent of the water is lost due to transpiration. C4 plants make up approximately 5 percent of the world's biomass yet fix 30 percent of terrestrial carbon.

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Retrieved Text: Plants have oxygen-producing capabilities. In the process of photosynthesis, plants and some species of bacteria possess the ability to use the energy from the sun to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals present in the environment into organic material that is essential for plant growth. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.
To create an ideal tank environment where plants and the fish population can thrive well, there must be a light source of sufficient intensity which will be the source of energy for photosynthesis to take place. There should also be a continuous supply of carbon dioxide when the tank is lit as well as a reliable supply of other essential nutrients needed by plants for photosynthesis to occur.

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: 3 What Enzymes Does Mercury Inhibit?
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that plants and algae use to convert light energy, water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In the light reactions, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy and harnesses it to create the high-energy molecules ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon in the Calvin cycle.
In the chloroplasts of plant cells there are a series of enzymes and other proteins called photosystems I and II. Some of these proteins hold chlorophyll molecules and, when chlorophyll is struck by a photo of light, an electron becomes energized and water molecules bind. An enzyme in photosystem II splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The energized electron is then passed along through another enzyme called the cytochrome b6-f complex, which in turn pumps positively charged hydrogen molecules across a membrane to create a store of potential energy. An enzyme called ATP synthase uses that potential energy to synthesize a molecule called ATP, which is the most common energy currency for cells, and which is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain a second light-capturing mechanism called photosystem I, which acts similarly to photosystem II, except that the end result is a molecule called NADPH instead of ATP. Photosystem I is connected to photosystem II by a small protein called plastocyanin, which donates electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis comes from the Greek words "light" and "putting together." During photosynthesis, plants absorb light energy and use it to make molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the building block for plants in much the same way as DNA is for humans.
Researchers have shown that plants subjected to certain shades of colour rather than the entire spectrum have varying degrees of growth.
Light travels in waves but also as little energy packets called photons. A photon of light contains the entire visible spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Plants absorb red, orange, yellow, blue, indigo and violet wavelengths of light but reflect green. When wavelengths of light are absorbed, they are no longer available for eyes to see, which is why plants look green.
Pigments absorb light. The pigment chlorophyll, found in green plants, absorbs violet, blue and red wavelengths. Carotenoids absorb red, orange and yellow wavelengths, while phycobilins absorb red and blue wavelengths.
During the process of photosynthesis, pigments absorb light and convert it to energy. The energy, along with carbon dioxide and water, is used to make sugar. This sugar molecule bonds with the adenine, a colourless crystalline substance, and three phosphate groups to form the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Carbon dioxide exists in the air just like oxygen. It's true that plants use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen as a waste product. During photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide plus six molecules of water plus the light energy yields a molecule of sugar and six molecules of oxygen. The carbon dioxide is

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of sugars. In a process driven by light energy, glucose molecules are constructed from water and carbon dioxide, and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The glucose molecules provide organisms with two crucial resources: Energy and fixed-organic-carbon.
Photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, and some bacteria, play a key ecological role. They introduce chemical energy and fixed carbon into ecosystems by using light to synthesize sugars. Since these organisms produce their own food-that is, fix their own carbon-using light energy, they are called photoautotrophs.
And can be translated as six water molecules plus six carbon dioxide molecules yields one molecule of sugar and six oxygen molecules.
It is one of the most important reactions on the planet because it is the source of nearly all of the world’s oxygen. Hydrogen which is produced when the water is split could potentially be a green and unlimited source of renewable energy.
The apparent incompatibility between the increasing energy demand, environmental awareness, and the excessive consumption of finite fossil fuels has spurred incessant research endeavors in seeking renewable and green energy resources to maintain the sustainability of our society. Solar energy, as an inexhaustible clean energy source that powers all the life on the Earth, is considered to be the most exploitable one. The conversion and utilization of solar energy for chemical fuel production and environmental remediation through artificial photocatalysis has been recognized to be an ideal scheme to address the worldwide energy and environmental concerns. Essentially, there

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a process used by plants in which energy from sunlight is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into molecules needed for growth. This chapter explains Photosynthesis in detail.
Explained: Photophosphorylation, Chemiosmotic theory for ATP synthesis, How the proton gradient created?, PMF & Energy utilization, ATPase - F0 & F1 parts, Importance of proton gradient, How ATP generated?

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide makes up less than one half of one percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. However, it plays an important role in temperature regulation. Carbon dioxide is transparent to short-wave solar radiation, but not to long-wave infrared radiation. When energy rises from the ground, carbon dioxide traps infrared radiation and prevents some of it from leaving the atmosphere. This causes the Earth’s surface to become warmer.
Sedimentary rocks often contain carbon. When tectonic plates collide, and one plate subducts beneath another, the rocks in the bottom plate are crushed. They recombine to form new minerals, releasing carbon dioxide. When a volcano erupts, it ejects this carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
All organic matter is made of carbon, and carbon is released whenever living things die and decay.
When they are alive, living creatures constantly release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
This is part of a cyclical process. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and, using energy from the sun, combine carbon dioxide and water to create sugar and oxygen. This process is known as photosynthesis.
Plants and animals use these plant sugars for energy. To do this, they break the sugars down, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Plants can use some of this carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis again.
Human activity is a very important source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. People have been causing carbon dioxide levels to increase since Neolithic times, when we developed agriculture and began clearing forests to make room for crops. By burning trees or chopping them down and allowing them to decay, we released

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Retrieved Text: The main end products of respiration are CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water, which are used as the starting material for Photosynthesis, and photosynthesis converts them into glucose and O2 (oxygen).
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all energy rich carbon compounds used by all organisms; it is responsible for the continual supply of atmospheric O2 (oxygen), without which all the aerobic organisms, that use oxygen would not exist.
Green plants, algae, some unicellular green flagellates and 2 bacteria groups are the only organisms that photosynthesize. Each year they release half of all the O2 (oxygen) in the atmosphere.
Plants use CO2 (carbon dioxide) when they produce O2 (oxygen). CO2 is converted to O2 during photosynthesis. At the same time, animals through their respiration process use this O2 from their metabolism and replace it with CO2, which is then used by plants to begin the cycle again.
Photosynthesis is a solar powered process. SUNLIGHT is a key component of the process.
Light is a form of ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY. When light meets matter, it can be reflected, transmitted or ABSORBED.
PIGMENT absorbs light. Plant pigment, CHLOROPHYLL (the main light-absorbing molecule of green plants), is a pigment that absorbs LIGHT ENERGY.
Chlorophyll is found in specialized structures called CHLOROPLAST; they give plants their green color. Each chloroplast contains all the chlorophyll and enzymes needed to complete the complex chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll participates directly in LIGHT REACTIONS.
The site of photosynthesis is typically the leaf of green plants. Each cell has about 30 to 40 chloroplast.
The large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants allows it

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Retrieved Text: Plants make their own food by catching sunlight with their leaves. Scientists try to simulate the same process of photosynthesis to generate clean energy. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. They are popular and are becoming more efficient, but they are not nearly as good as live plants in converting sunlight into usable energy.
Solar panels are pretty useless when there is little light, and it is quite difficult to store electricity from solar cells in such a way that not too many seeps away. Many countries are switching to cleaner forms of energy to combat global warming, and scientists are looking for a more stable form of artificial photosynthesis that is comparable to that of plants.
It seems that there is now a lot of progress. American researchers report a technique in which a special catalyst is used to - in theory - make a more stable version of artificial photosynthesis possible.
Artificial photosynthesis involves more than just collecting sunlight. Just like plants, the artificial form should be able to make energy from sunlight, but also have to be able to store that energy. Most attempts have been made with catalysts of several atoms that have not lasted too long.
The American researchers have now made a catalyst that consists of two atoms of the element iridium. That catalyst should continue to work for a long time. Their technology could store the solar energy in chemical compounds, just like natural photosynthesis. In this way the technique could be a solution to the big problem of solar panels, namely that

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Retrieved Text: Why Is Ethanol Called a Renewable Resource?
Ethanol, derived from plant material, is a renewable energy source because the production and combustion of ethanol completes a cycle. The amounts of carbon dioxide and water that plants use are returned back to the atmosphere when ethanol, made from plant starch or cellulose, is combusted. Ethanol is considered a "green" fuel because it is nontoxic and reduces air pollution. The 13.3 billion gallons of ethanol that were produced in the United States in 2013 reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 38 million metric tons, equivalent to removing 8 million vehicles from the road, according to the Renewable Fuels Association.
Ethanol is generated from glucose that is derived from plant material. Glucose can be obtained from plant starch or cellulose. In the United States, most of the ethanol is derived from the starch in corn kernels. Other countries may use other plants. For example, Brazil uses sugarcane to make ethanol. Although it is relatively easy to produce ethanol from corn starch, growing large amounts of corn for energy production may cause shortages in corn food production. Nonfood plants, such as wheat straw or switch grass, contain cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose molecules. Ethanol obtained from cellulose requires pretreatment of plant material to soften it and make the cellulose more susceptible to hydrolysis, which is the breakdown of the cellulose polymer.
The production of ethanol from plant material and ethanol's subsequent combustion form a complete cycle. Glucose within plants is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis, a process that uses

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Plants and algae are nature’s biological solar panels. By capturing light energy from the sun and converting it into dense energy molecules, through the process of photosynthesis, these organisms support most of life on our planet.
Photosynthesis is a complex system of processes consisting of hundreds of component parts that work together at the cellular level. The two major processes of photosynthesis are the so-called light-dependent and dark reactions.
In the first, photosynthetic organisms trap and process ‘raw’ sunlight energy that cannot be consumed by living things. The dark reactions use that light energy to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into compounds that can be used for consumption.
Decades of research have taught us a lot about the photosynthetic components, but scientists still don’t have a full picture of how photosynthesis works as a whole.
Part of the difficulty lies in the fact that most research has focused on organisms grown under static laboratory conditions, instead of observing how the photosynthetic components respond dynamically to natural living conditions.
Photosynthetic processes occur on time scales ranging from sub-millisecond photochemical reactions to the seasonality of leaf deterioration and renewal over time.
Spatial scales are also vast, spanning from molecules to whole leaves. It is therefore difficult to study photosynthesis within one lab or a single discipline, as the process spans a range of physical, biochemical, and structural areas of scientific expertise.
A holistic view of the construction and operation of the biological solar panel, starting from sunlight capture and drilling down to how carbon molecules are partitioned for various functions.
The MSU-DOE

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis (English pronunciation: /foʊtoʊˈsɪnθəsɪs/; from the Greek φώτο- [photo-], "light," and σύνθεσις [synthesis], "putting together", "composition") is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. In addition to maintaining normal levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, photosynthesis is the source of energy for nearly all life on earth, either directly, through primary production, or indirectly, as the ultimate source of the energy in their food, the exceptions being chemoautotrophs that live in rocks or around deep sea hydrothermal vents. The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization. As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all, photosynthetic organisms convert around 100–115 petagrams of carbon into biomass per year.
Although photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. Some

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: Even the best human-engineered solar cell is essentially a clunky dial-up modem compared to the sleek high-speed efficiency of the humble leaf. After all, plants have had about a billion years to perfect the process of photosynthesis, which uses energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (used by the plant as fuel) and oxygen (used by all of us).
"If you shine light on a man-made solar cell, only about 10 percent of that light can be turned into electricity," says Gary Hastings, a biophysicist in Georgia State's Department of Physics & Astronomy. "In plants, nearly all of the light absorbed will be turned into chemical energy. The question is, how do plants get to that level of efficiency?"
Hastings grew up surrounded by green in the lush countryside near Edinburgh, Scotland, and today his research is focused primarily on unraveling the minute details of photosynthesis.
One factor that makes photosynthesis so efficient is that it occurs at incredibly high speeds. During the process, sunlight hits a light-trapping pigment—chlorophyll—that energizes an electron, causing it to fly across the cell's membrane in mere billionths of a second. The electron makes its journey via a series of specially located pigments, which evolution has finely tuned to create what is essentially a one-way path. Meanwhile, in artificial solar systems, the electron can easily bounce back across the membrane, losing its energy and rendering the whole process much less efficient.
Hastings uses infrared spectroscopy, which analyzes how infrared light interacts with matter, to better understand this and other complex

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Retrieved Text: (NaturalNews) Through the process of photosynthesis, plants convert the energy of the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and minerals and water from the earth into atomic bonds that are solid enough for teeth to sink into. We can consume these forms of energy directly, by eating plant foods, or indirectly, by eating animals that have eaten these plant foods.
The process, by which food gets broken down in the body and by which the energy released from the atomic bonds, is called digestion.

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Retrieved Text: For the last 25 years, scientists have been able to monitor the "greenness" of trees from space and use that as a tool for evaluating plant health. The problem is that greenness isn't a good indicator for stresses—such as drought—because some trees (think pines) continue to be a lovely green until they're dead. Researchers are thus turning to a new indictor: The way plants glow.
It turns out that a signature of photosynthesis is something known as "solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence." During photosynthesis, while the plant is converting sunlight into chemical energy, its chlorophyll is absorbing some of the incoming radiation. Some of that incoming radiation is re-emitted at a longer wavelength, which manifests as fluorescence.
This phenomenon was first observed from space via the Japanese Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) starting in 2009. In July of this year, however, NASA will launch its own satellite called the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2). The instruments on board the OCO-2 will be taking precise measurements of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in addition to peeping large-scale plant fluorescence. The upshot? The OCO-2 can record observations a very speedy 24 times per second. Compare that to the observations made only once every four seconds by the GOSAT, and we're looking at almost a 100-fold increase in data density. Pretty impressive.
So why haven't we always been doing this? It turns out that fluorescent light is pretty hard to see when there's a ton of ambient sunlight blasting back at you. To counter this, these satellites use spectrometers—which can look at a selected, very

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Most pituitary hormones control other glands that secrete hormones into the what" and the following answer choices: 
- brain
 - humans
 - epidermal
 - bloodstream
 - nerves
 - layers of fat
 - alveoli
 - liver

Now knowing that most pituitary hormones control other endocrine glands and endocrine organs are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, choose the best answer.

Target Text: bloodstream

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Retrieved Text: Grab my FREE ebook to learn how lifestyle choices can balance your hormones and help with perimenopause and menopause. Click the image below to start the download.
Menopause is where you transition from the child-bearing years into permanent infertility. Although that sounds somewhat daunting, it is a natural progression. It brings on new beginnings that aren’t negative as the term seems to imply in our society today. More on this topic later.
Back to the more complex things I mentioned at the beginning. Menopause has stages which are subtle and can be different from woman to woman. Perimenopause defined as “around” menopause, is a stage. Menopausal symptoms usually begin at this point. Symptoms usually include changes in the menstrual cycle. You may know what I’m talking about. For instance, you go a month without your period or you may have period back-to-back.
This stage can start at any time, but is most common in your 40’s. Premature or early menopause is the cessation of menses (your period) before to age 40. This early menopause is a little uncommon but not worrisome because everyone is unique.
Many women wonder “When am I done with menopause?” The answer is that it is different for everyone. Some women experience minor symptoms for a short time and others experience symptoms into their 80’s and beyond.
It is interesting, many women think that hot flashes are the only symptoms of menopause. If they do not experience these hellfire moments they feel somehow lucky. They’ve escaped the horrible things that their girlfriends are talking about. But, these

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Retrieved Text: The keystone of acupuncture and Oriental medicine has always been awakening the body’s natural intelligence to heal itself and restore balance to the system of energy pathways (called “meridians”) that crisscross the body. If the meridians within your body have become depleted you can suffer from tiredness, infertility, weight gain, depression, digestive problems, hair loss, arthritis, and feeling chilled no matter the temperature.The endocrine system is responsible for hormonal functions in the body and produces thirty distinct hormones each of which has a very specific job to do. This system controls your physical growth, mood, hormone output, reproduction, mental functionality, and immune system. When not working properly you become more susceptible to disease and your ability to fight off infection is weakened. Endocrine glands and their functioning impacts every area of your health.
Adrenals – Adrenal glands regulate the body’s response to stress and are made of two parts, each of which secretes a separate set of hormones. The outer part produces corticosteroid hormones that regulate the balance of salt and water, stress response, metabolism, immune function, and sexual development and function. The inner part secretes adrenaline hormones that increase blood pressure and heart rate in response to stress. Over time chronic elevated stress levels can lead to weight gain, decreased resistance to infections, fatigue, muscle aches and low blood sugar.
Pancreas – The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon-two hormones that work together to supply the body’s cells with a constant supply of energy in the form of glucose.
Pineal – The pineal gland is also known as the

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts, the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete hormones directly into the blood. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus. It stores and secretes two hormones that are made by a set of neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.
The posterior pituitary releases the hormones oxytocin—which acts on muscles of the uterus—and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on the kidneys. Oxytocin induces contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth and causes mammary glands to eject milk during nursing. ADH acts on the kidneys, increasing water retention and thus decreasing urine volume.
The anterior pituitary produces six different hormones. Growth hormone affects a wide variety of tissues. The correct level of growth hormone production is essential, as too little or too much can have serious detrimental effects. Prolactin stimulates mammary gland growth and milk synthesis. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates production of ova and sperm, and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the ovaries and testes. LH is needed for ovulation and the formation of a corpus luteum in the female menstrual cycle. LH also stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. FSH and LH are referred to as gonadotropins because they stimulate the activities of the gonads. Thyroid-stimulating hormone, stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. Adenocorticotropic hormone influences the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete steroid hormones.
SEER Training Modules: Pituitary and Pineal Glands. Illustration courtesy of the National Cancer Institute, NIH.

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Retrieved Text: Metaglossary.com - Definitions for "gland"
An organ for secreting something to be used in, or eliminated from, the body; as, the sebaceous glands of the skin; the salivary glands of the mouth.
An organ or part which resembles a secreting, or true, gland, as the ductless, lymphatic, pineal, and pituitary glands, the functions of which are very imperfectly known.
A special organ of plants, usually minute and globular, which often secretes some kind of resinous, gummy, or aromatic product.
An organ producing a secretion.
a structure which contains or secretes a sticky, shiny, or oily substance.
Latin glans = an acorn, adjective - glandular; a secreting organ.
a cell or group of cells which secrete substances.
Glande Drüse, f Glándula On the tepals usually at the base, are found glands which secrete a generally sweet substance which attracts insects and thus aid in the pollination of the flowers.
Collection of cells that produces secretions or excretions of a specialized character.
Organ of the body that processes chemical substances in the blood to produce other chemical substances for use in the body or for elimination from the body. A gland may have ducts for pouring its secretions into other parts of the body, or it may be ductless and pour secretions into the bloodstream. The prostate is a ducted gland.
A secreting cell, or group of cells.
n. (L. glands, acorn) a secreting part or appendage.
An organ or group of cells that produces and secretes one or more substances.
a group of cells that secrete a substance for use in the body (eg, pituitary gland).
Glands are organs that secrete hormones.

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Retrieved Text: The endocrine system is the name given to the network of endocrine glands which secrete hormones as a result of activity in the Autonomic Nervous System, ANS.
Hormones are the body's chemical messengers and, because these endocrine glands are ductless, the hormones are released directly into the bloodstream, where they are taken around the body to the various organs with which they are associated. This process requires a few seconds to take place and tends to be concerned with long term changes such as body growth during childhood, which is brought about by the Pituitary Gland in the brain.
Other important glands are the adrenal glands which are to be found just above both kidneys. These glands produce adrenalin during emergencies and stress, producing the fight/flight syndrome for instance.

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Retrieved Text: The hormones of the pituitary gland help regulate the functions of other endocrine glands.
The pituitary gland has two parts—the anterior lobe and posterior lobe—that have two very separate functions.
The hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary to release or inhibit pituitary hormone production.
The pituitary gland is often dubbed the “master gland” because its hormones control other parts of the endocrine system, namely the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. However, the pituitary doesn’t entirely run the show.
In some cases, the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to stimulate or inhibit hormone production. Essentially, the pituitary acts after the hypothalamus prompts it.
The pituitary gland is only about 1/3 of an inch in diameter (that’s about as large as a pea) and located at the base of the brain.
Since their functions are so intertwined, it’s no surprise that the hypothalamus and pituitary are located near each other. They’re actually connected by the pituitary stalk, or more technically, the infundibulum.
The pituitary glands are made of the anterior lobe and posterior lobe. The anterior lobe produces and releases hormones. The posterior lobe does not produce hormones per se—this is done by nerve cells in the hypothalamus—but it does release them into the circulation.
The hormones of the pituitary gland send signals to other endocrine glands to stimulate or inhibit their own hormone production. For example, the anterior pituitary lobe will release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to stimulate cortisol production in the adrenal glands when you’re stressed.
The anterior lobe releases hormones upon receiving releasing or inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. These hypothalamic hormones tell

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Retrieved Text: The endocrine system refers to a collection of glands in the body. They secrete hormones into the circulatory system and control many of the body's functions. Two examples of these glands are the hypothalamus and pituitary glands. These glands, like others in the human body’s endocrine system, are finely tuned instruments governed by a precise clockwork. When the glands don’t work properly, one result can be central precocious puberty (CPP). CPP is puberty that occurs earlier than would normally be expected.
If you think your child has CPP, please contact your child's healthcare professional.

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Retrieved Text: The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that secrete those hormones directly into the circulatory system to regulate the function of distant target organs, and the feedback loops which modulate hormone …... The adrenal glands are two, triangle-shaped endocrine glands. One sits on top of each kidney. They form part of the body’s hormonal system. They produce several hormones that are involved in controlling your blood pressure, metabolism and your body’s response to stress.
Endocrine glands release . into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other parts of the body. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other parts of the body. The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work, metabolism , and reproduction.... Endocrine Glands: Now coming to the endocrine glands, as stated these glands produce hormones which are directly released into the blood stream. They do not have any ducts which connect them to the surface of the body. Below mentioned are the glands which form the Endocrine Glands and their functions in detail.
Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells, make hormones. The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas. In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and women produce them in their ovaries.... Endocrine-like glands and secretions. In addition to the well-defined hormones, other substances, which are found in blood and in tissues and are of uncertain function, may be concerned in various ways

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Retrieved Text: To learn more about how hormone dysfunction may be preventing you from achieving better health, or to arrange an adrenal hormone function test or an extensive thyroid test and personalized online consultation, contact michael@planetnaturopath.com.... If the adrenal glands are not working well, they can make too many or too few hormones. Adrenal gland hormones help control fluid and salt levels in the body for healthy blood volume and blood pressure. They also help the body react to stress and change. Adrenal masses can cause hormone levels to grow too high and result in high blood pressure.
Owing to the theanine, tea can be a better fit for later in the day or to assist with mental energy.� (source: The Adrenal Reset Diet, pages 115-116) I�ve found that I do much better with caffeine if I mix it with gelatin and a healthy fat, like this . how to make a patty melt burger Helpful, trusted answers from doctors: Dr. Kern on how to improve pituitary gland function: What is the cause of your addison's? If the adrenals have failed, then the pituitary may be working fine, but the pituitary acth cannot stimulate a dead adrenal. If the pituitary is the cause of the addison's, then other hormones may also be affected. Best to discuss with your endocrinologist.
Each adrenal gland is composed of two distinct parts: the outer part called the adrenal cortex and the inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal glands secrete different hormones which act as 'chemical messengers'. These hormones travel in the bloodstream and act on

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Retrieved Text: Endocrinology is a medical specialty that focuses on the health of the glands in your body and the hormones they secrete. Your endocrine system can affect every aspect of your health. Your glands make hormones and release them into your bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, these hormones travel to the organs of your body to help them function. Your endocrine system includes the thyroid, adrenal glands (located on the kidneys), pituitary gland (located in the brain), pancreas and other vital organs. As a JenCare patient, your Primary Care Physician (PCP) can help monitor many endocrine system issues, such as diabetes, thyroid disorders and more. They may also refer you to an endocrinologist if your health concerns require it. JenCare PCPs work closely with endocrinologists to coordinate your personal care plan and manage conditions such as diabetes and thyroid issues.

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Retrieved Text: 3 What are Exocrine Glands?
4 What are Endocrine Glands?
While growing up when a kid approaches towards the puberty, the changes in the body can be clearly noticed. In males, facial hair develops, the voice gets deeper, and the shoulders get broader, on the other hand, symptoms like the growth of breasts and onset of the monthly menstrual cycle are observed in the females stepping towards their puberty. This change coming in the body comes due to the specific secretions made by the glands in an individual. Glands are the specialized organs or collection of cells that releases chemicals known as hormones. Mainly there are two types of glands; endocrine glands and exocrine glands. The endocrine glands are the type of glands that are ductless and release hormones into the blood or the tissues nearby the targeted area, whereas the exocrine glands are the type of glands that carries hormones in the ducts and releases it outside the body or on the external environment.
Definition The exocrine glands are the type of glands that carries hormones in the ducts and releases it outside the body or on the external environment. The endocrine glands are the type of glands that are ductless and releases hormones in the bloodstream.
Effect Rapid effect. Takes time.
Duration of Effect Short duration effect. Long duration effect.
Examples Salivary, sweat, and digestive are some examples of exocrine glands. Pineal gland, pituitary gland, and parathyroid gland are the some of the examples of endocrine glands.
Exocrine glands are the specialized type of glands, which are associated with having ducts.

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of our brains. It is commonly referred to as the “master gland” of the human body, as it releases a variety of hormones that circulate our system and aid in maintaining our internal homeostasis. Moreover, the pituitary gland is also the “master” or dominant gland controlling the activity of other glands. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and storing an assortment of important hormones that we will discuss in more detail.
The main function of the pituitary gland lies in its ability to make hormones that retain many of our bodily functions. The front (anterior) and back (posterior) lobes are the primary secretory glands. These glands are innervated by the nervous system. The pituitary gland also responds to signals within the extracellular fluid, such as the amount of dissolved solvent or other hormones.
By responding to these signals and releasing the appropriate hormones, the pituitary gland plays a large role in coordinating many aspects of the body including metabolism, digestion, excretion, and many other factors. The pituitary gland releases at least 8 different hormones, which are responses to different stimulations of the gland. The pituitary gland is one of the most active glands within the endocrine system.
The image below is an illustration of the pituitary gland as it is situated near the base of the human brain. The depiction shows its relative size.
The pituitary gland lies roughly in the center of the human skull. It rests below the hypothalamus of

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Retrieved Text: DIRECTIONS: Take 1-2 twice a day in between meals.
INGREDIENTS: Extracts of suma, siberian ginseng/eleuthero, schizandra, saw palmetto, ginkgo, stinging nettle, dandelion, wild yam, cistanche. Powders of vitex nirgundi, aswagandha, kelp, maca, licorice, mucuna.
All hormonal glands in the glandular system are connected to different chakras. The proper functioning of the glandular system is the key to vibrant health, for the hormones released by these glands control everything in the body, mind and spirit. Never underestimate how important this system is, this is where the abstraction of Qi interacts with the biochemistry of nature.
THIS FORMULA FOCUSES ON THE PITUITARY GLAND AND ALSO SUPPORTS THE THYROID, THYMUS AND ADRENALS.
The decline of the endocrine system and it’s failure to successfully secrete key hormones is directly connected to aging and the degeneration of the body in general.
The main culprits that cause this system trouble are; acidity, toxicity, physical trauma and malnourishment. The combination of acidity and toxicity can damage the glands themselves and disrupt proper hormonal communication.
This formula focuses on the pituitary gland and also supports the thyroid, thymus and adrenals. For women, irregular menses, excessive bleeding and/or congested transverse colon, often indicate that the pituitary is not working well. In children, stunted growth is a good indicator of a troubled pituitary.
The use of herbs to bring your pituitary system back into balance and maintain it’s optimal functionality, will bene t your overall health.
To benefit your system further it is a good idea to detox the gut, kidneys, liver and lymph uid. Use our COLON CLEANSE, KIDNEY CLEANSE, LIVER AND BLOOD

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Retrieved Text: Definition: Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into instastial spaces and then absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland , pituitary gland , pancreas , ovaries , teste s, thyroid gland , parathyroid glands , hypothalamus and adrenal glands.
See : congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Nonclassic virilizing syndrome is more common than simple virilizing syndrome.
Simple virilizing syndrome is easier to detect in females (clitoral hypertrophy) than males.

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Retrieved Text: Living Stream Whole Pituitary Glandular raw material is collected from bovine animals that are born and raised in Argentina. All raw materials were derived from animals that passed ante and post-mortem veterinary inspection and were found fit for human consumption. The cattle from which the glands are derived, are free range and fed only with natural grass. The product is manufactured in a certified Kosher gelatin capsule.
Glandulars used in proper doses have not been found to be harmful to the body.
The pituitary gland is considered the "Master Gland" and the most important part of the endocrine system and has the responsibility of directing other organs and endocrine glands to suppress or secrete hormones.
There is a relationship between the Hypothalmus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axsis. This HPA axsis, regulates temperature, digestion, immune system, mood, sexuality, energy useage and response to stress. Deficient Pituitary gland function can result from damage to either the Pituitary or the Hypothalmus.

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Retrieved Text: Are you aware that you experience sensations because of a small portion of your brain called the hypothalamus? The hypothalamus recognizes the different stimuli coming from the various parts of the body. Only when the hypothalamus recognizes them do we feel sexual pleasure, rage, fear, and other emotions. This is why when we are unconscious, we fail to feel any of these sensations.
The hypothalamus, with its small nuclei and with the help of the funnel-like infundibulum, is responsible in controlling the secretion of several hormones which perform important physiological functions in the body. Here are major hormones secreted by the hypothalamus.
CRF is responsible for the secretion of the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone or ACTH which, in turn, is responsible for the control of secretion of cortisol in the adrenal cortex. This cascade reaction only occurs when all of the endocrine organs are functioning normally.
GHRF is responsible in the control and release of Growth Hormone or GH in the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone is responsible for the growth and development of all cells and tissues in the body.
GnRF controls the release and secretion of gonadal hormones produced by the female and male gonads or reproductive organs. Without GnHRF, the secondary female and male sexual characteristics will not develop fully.
TRF stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH. TSH, in turn, is responsible for controlling the secretion of the thyroid hormones in the thyroid glands. The thyroid hormones; namely, thyroxine, T4 or triiodothyronine, and T3 are the major metabolic hormones of the body. They help metabolize major

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Retrieved Text: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (also known as "ACTH") is a pituitary hormone. A hormone is a chemical produced by a gland. The pituitary gland, located below the brain, secretes (releases) several hormones that control other glands which regulate growth and metabolism. ACTH's principal function is to stimulate the cortex (outer layer) of the adrenal glands (located near the kidneys) to secrete a group of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoid hormones control the body's use of sugar and also help regulate biological functions during stressful moments.
The properties of ACTH were first investigated in the 1930s. In 1933 research groups headed by Canadian biochemist James Collip, American biologist Herbert Evans (1881-1971), and Argentine physiologist Bemardo Houssay (1887-1971) used pituitary extracts to stimulate the adrenal cortex (the center of the adrenal glands). American biochemist Choh Hao Li was one of several scientists who isolated ACTH in 1943 and synthesized it in 1963.
Today, ACTH is often prescribed to reduce inflammation (tenderness and swelling caused by infection, injury, or illness) and relieve pain. This use of ACTH was first studied by American medical researchers Philip Hench (1896-1965) and Edward Kendall (1886-1972), who were looking for an effective treatment for arthritis. During World War II (1939-1945) Hench headed the first program to mass-produce ACTH for medical use. In 1948 and 1949 Hench and another colleague were the first researchers to use ACTH successfully in arthritic patients. Hench and Kendall received the 1950 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for their achievement.
ACTH is commonly used to reduce inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis (a disabling inflammation of

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Retrieved Text: The endocrine seestem refers tae the collection o glands o an organism that secrete hormones directly intae the circulatory seestem tae be carried towards distant target organs. The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract an adrenal glands.
This page wis last eeditit on 21 November 2015, at 16:31.

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Retrieved Text: Hyperpituitarism is defined to mean too much of one, or perhaps two, of the hormones from the adenohypophysis. This may be due either to autonomous over-production (i.e., from a primary adenoma in this gland [microadenoma, macroadenoma] – cancer of the adenohypophysis is very rare Cancer 79: 804, 1997, J. Neurosurg. 96: 352, 2002), from excess production of hypophyseal stimulating factors or underproduction of inhibiting factors, or loss of inhibition following the destruction of other endocrine glands.
Pituitary disease, like other endocrine disease, is fairly common, and is generally treatable if it is discovered. The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), produces ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, GH, and prolactin. If the input from the hypothalamus is interrupted, the adenohypophysis makes more prolactin and less of the other hormones.
The presenting clinical symptoms are due exclusively to overproduction of those hormones normally secreted. The characteristic syndromes are related to the type of hormone secreted. Prolactinomas produce amenorrhoea / galactorrhoea in women and impotence / gynecomastia in men; ACTH secreting tumors produce Cushing’s syndrome; growth hormone secreting tumors produce gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults.
Diagnosis is usually made by MRI since the CAT scans are of poorer resolution. Most patients will be treated with drugs, surgery or radiation.
Pituitary adenomas cause most cases of Cushing’s syndrome. They are non-cancerous tumors of the pituitary gland which secrete increased amounts of ACTH. Most patients have a single adenoma. This form of the syndrome, known as “Cushing’s disease,” affects women five times more frequently than men.
Occurs when the male breast is enlarged. The size can vary from

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Retrieved Text: The pituitary gland consists of two separate glands: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.
The purpose of this paper is to detail the role of the pituitary gland in the regulation of other hormones in the body. In your essay, provide a brief overview of the anatomy of the pituitary gland.
Describe the hormones that are released from each gland; explain what triggers the release of hormones; identify characteristics that they have in common; and classify which hormones are considered tropic hormones.
Summarize your information by explaining why the pituitary gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland,” and in what sense this may be misleading and incorrect.
Your cohesive and well-organized essay should be at least 1-2 pages in length, double spaced.
Include at least one scholarly reference in addition to the course textbook. The CSU-Global Library is a good place to find these references.
Include a title page and a references page.
Follow the CSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA.
The pituitary gland, which is also referred to as hypophysis, is a pea-sized endocrine gland weighing approximately 0.5 grams that are located below the hypothalamus gland, which synthesizes and/or secretes hormones that help regulate blood pressure, growth, metabolism, among other functions. It is surrounded by a bony cavity referred to as the sella turcica. Notably, the gland has two lobes which produce hormones, namely the posterior and anterior lobes. The posterior lobe that is also known as the neurohypophysis, while the anterior lobe is also known as adenohypophysis. The anterior pituitary lobe synthesizes various hormones in its different cell types.

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Retrieved Text: First you will have to familiarize yourselves with the endocrine system. You will do this by answering the question in the first part of this webquest. You will have to create a document that you answer the questions. To do this copy the questions and insert them into a Word document.
1. What is the name of the chemical messengers that the body uses in the endocrine system?
2. What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands? Give an example of each.
3. What are three organs that produce hormones that are not considered major endocrine glands?
4. Which part of the endocrine system is called the “master gland” and where is it located?
5. Why is this called the “master gland”?
6. How does the Pituitary Gland coordinate control of the other glands?
7. Describe the locations of Thyroid and Parathyroid glands.
8. How do the thyroid glands effect metabolism?
9. Where are the Adrenal Glands? Describe the way different parts work.
10. What are the male and female gonads? What hormones do each produce?
11. What hormones does the pancreas produce?
12. How do hormones get their messages to cells? Be sure to include the role of the hormone, cells that receive the message, transport of the hormones and body regulation.
13. Name and describe any two endocrine disorders. Include treatment of these diseases.

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Retrieved Text: Pituitary gland: The main endocrine gland. It is a small structure in the head. It is called the master gland because it produces hormones that control other glands and many body functions including growth. The pituitary consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary.
The anterior pituitary is the front portion of the pituitary. Hormones secreted by it influence growth, sexual development, skin pigmentation, thyroid function, and adrenocortical function. These influences are exerted through the effects of pituitary hormones on other endocrine glands except for growth hormone which acts directly on cells.
The posterior pituitary is the back portion of the pituitary. It secretes the hormone oxytocin which increases uterine contractions and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which increases reabsorption of water by the tubules of the kidney. Underproduction of ADH results in a disorder called diabetes insipidus characterized by inability to concentrate the urine and, consequently, excess urination leading potentially to dehydration. The urine is "insipid" (overly dilute).

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Retrieved Text: Ductless glands, producing hormones that travel through the bloodstream to target cells where they affect metabolism. See exocrine glands.
n. glándulas endocrinas, glándulas que segregan hormonas directamente en la corriente sanguínea (gónadas, pituitaria y suprarrenales).
The endocrine glands, also called 'ductless' glands, secrete their substance directly into the blood rather than through a duct.
According to ayurveda research and modern texts, 'Ashwagandha' herb is known for its rejuvenating properties that helps in maintaining a healthy balance between the nervous system, endocrine glands and immune system thus, reducing the harmful effects of long-term stress on our body.
The creation of the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of gastrointestinal diseases and endocrine glands in the SMS.
Such a treatment, however, leads to chronic iron overload affecting the endocrine glands (Abdulzahra et al.
The glands that release substances directly into the bloodstream are called ductless or endocrine glands (Figure 1).
This review describes aspects of pre conception management related to various endocrine glands.
Stress starts in the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, where a series of interactions between endocrine glands in the brain and&nbsp;the kidneys take place.
These cells are present in the endocrine glands and throughout the body.
Endocrinology deals with the study of the endocrine system, including the biochemical and physiological functions of the hormones, cells, and tissues of the endocrine glands.
Muscat, Jan 18 (ONA) Professor Nicolas Woodhouse from Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) received Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Award for excellence service from the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Gulf branch in recognition of his outstanding contribution in the field of diabetes and endocrine glands.
They take care of many

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Retrieved Text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) is a hereditary condition, where an individual may have developed tumors in one or more endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are the glands that secrete hormone into the blood directly rather than secreting into a duct. Tumors can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). The glands that are commonly affected include pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pancreas.
The major types of MEN syndromes are MEN type I and MEN type II.
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type I – It is caused by a defect in the gene coding for the protein menin, which is located on chromosome 11. The tumor commonly affects the parathyroid, pancreas, and pituitary glands. The common symptoms include abdominal pain, black stools, headache, burning sensation in upper abdomen, loss of appetite, weakness, loss of muscle coordination, and nausea and vomiting. The tumor can be diagnosed by tests such as abdominal CT and MRI scan, blood tests, and parathyroid biopsy.
Multiple Endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type II – It is caused by a defect in the RET gene. It commonly causes medullary carcinoma in the thyroid gland. Pheochromocytoma (adrenal gland tumor) may be seen in nearly half of the patients and some patients may also have hyperplasia of parathyroid gland.
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type II is subdivided into three types, MEN IIa, MEN IIb, and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC). The MEN type IIa is most commonly occurring subtype where medullary carcinoma occurs in early stages of adulthood, some of the individuals develop pheochromocytoma and some develop hyperparathyroidism. In MEN type IIb the medullary carcinoma occurs

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Retrieved Text: Addison's Disease is an uncommon disease, caused by partial or complete failure of the outer layer of the adrenal glands (the adrenal cortex).
The adrenal gland produces hormones that control many body functions. In Addison's disease, there is a chronic deficiency of cortisol, aldosterone and adrenal androgens (hormones made in the adrenal glands). When the body is deficient in these hormones, the result can be high levels of potassium and low levels of salt, causing an electrolyte imbalance in the body.
Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormone cortisol, and in some cases, the hormone aldosterone. For this reason, the disease is sometimes called chronic adrenal insufficiency (or hypocortisolism).
Cortisol is normally produced by the adrenal glands, just above the kidneys. It belongs to a class of hormones called glucocorticoids, which affect almost every organ and tissue in the body. Scientists think that cortisol has possibly hundreds of effects in the body.
Cortisol's most important job is to help the body respond to stress. Among its other vital tasks, cortisol helps maintain blood pressure and cardiovascular function, slow the immune system's inflammatory response, balance the effect of insulin in breaking down sugar for energy and regulate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Because cortisol is so vital to health, the amount of cortisol produced by the adrenals is precisely balanced.
Like many other hormones, cortisol is regulated by the brain's hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, a bean-sized organ at the base of the brain. One of the pituitary's main functions is to secrete

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Retrieved Text: The Department of Endocrinology at Dr.Kamakshi Memorial Hospital offers specialized care for the patients with endocrines disease. The hospital is equipped with state-of-the-art medical and surgical facilities in providing the high quality of health care.
Endocrinology is the study of hormones (chemical messengers) secreted by endocrine glands, which circulate in the blood to critically regulate many aspects of the body's function. Most of the glands are in the control of master gland called pituitary gland. Disease occurs when these glands imbalances their respective hormones.
Our endocrinologists have a very large experience in the management of all endocrine diseases from thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pituitary diseases to diabetes. They are also expertise using the cutting-edge technologies in the diagnosis and management of chronic fatigue syndrome and its endocrine reactions.
The most common cause of pituitary gland is pituitary gland tumour.

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Retrieved Text: All endocrine structures develops from epithelia or nervous tissues, or from both. It is noteworthy that some structures described here have other important functions, e.g., kidney, gonads, pancreas.
The Hypothalami are paired thickenings in the thalamencephalon and thus nervous in origin. They control most of the endocrine structure, acting through the pituitary and autonomic systems. Groups of cells produce neurosecretions; droplets produced in cells traverse the axons into the pars nervosa, to be stored and later released into the blood. Other neurosecretions (releasing factors) pass in the blood of the hypothalamo – hypophyseal portal system into the pars anterior where they stimulate production of other hormones. Two hormones plus a number of releasing factors are produced. Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus during birth, and promotes secretion of milk during suckling. Vasopressin causes a rise in blood – pressure by contraction of arterioles, and is also anti – diuretic, favoring resorption of water and Na+ ions from the renal tubules. Specific releasing factors affect the secretion of all hormones produced in the pars anterior and pars intermedia.
The Pituitary Body is an endocrine structure that lies beneath the thalamencephalon. It is formed by fusion of a hollow down – growth from the brain, the infundibulum, with a dorsal invagination from the stomodaeum, the hypophysis, and is thus nervous and epithelial in origin. The infundibulum becomes the pars nervosa; the endocrine parts of the hypophysis are the pars anterior and pars intermedia. The former secrets six hormones. Somatotropin (STH or growth hormone) stimulates rate of protein synthesis, excess producing

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Retrieved Text: Nelson’s syndrome is the term used to describe an enlargement of an adrenocorticotropic hormone-producing tumour in the pituitary gland, following surgical removal of both adrenal glands in a patient with Cushing’s disease. The syndrome is the name given to the effects of the enlarging tumour in the pituitary gland. The tumour produces an excess of a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone, which is involved in the production of other steroid hormones (such as cortisol). Large tumours can sometimes also invade areas around the pituitary gland, which may cause a reduction in levels of other hormones, visual problems or it may affect nerves and blood vessels. It can also cause an increase in skin pigmentation, so patients may look as if they have a suntan.
Nelson’s syndrome results from a reduction in feedback of steroid hormones and is a consequence of removal of the adrenal glands (an adrenalectomy). In healthy individuals, the pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal glands to produce steroid hormones (such as cortisol) through production of a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone. These steroid hormones then act on the pituitary gland to stop it producing more adrenocorticotropic hormone. This feedback system means that levels of the hormones are kept within the normal range. In patients who have had an adrenalectomy, this negative feedback system does not work and the pituitary tumour may expand and produce more adrenocorticotropic hormone.
What are the signs and symptoms of Nelson’s syndrome?
The signs and symptoms of Nelson’s syndrome result from the enlarged tumour and the increased adrenocorticotropic hormone production. The enlarged tumour compresses the

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Retrieved Text: To generate and release (a substance) from a cell or a gland: secrete hormones.
1. To conceal in a hiding place; cache: "He secreted valuables away in cupboards and beneath the mattress" (Michael Crummey). See Synonyms at hide1.
2. To steal secretly; filch.
to discharge, generate, or release by secretion.
to place out of sight; hide.
To produce and discharge a substance, especially from the cells of specialized glands. For example, the endocrine glands secrete hormones.
Verb 1. secrete - generate and separate from cells or bodily fluids; "secrete digestive juices"; "release a hormone into the blood stream"
water - secrete or form water, as tears or saliva; "My mouth watered at the prospect of a good dinner"; "His eyes watered"
2. secrete - place out of sight; keep secret; "The money was secreted from his children"
verb give off, emit, emanate, exude, extrude, extravasate (Medical) The sweat glands secrete water.
verb hide, conceal, stash (informal), cover, screen, secure, bury, harbour, disguise, veil, shroud, stow, cache, stash away (informal) She secreted the gun in the kitchen cabinet.
bury, cache, conceal, ensconce, hide, occult.
Then give up to us the seditious papers which you secrete in your house.
His men were continually stealing away thither, with whatever beaver skins they could secrete or lay their hands on.
The robin used to secrete himself in a bush and watch this anxiously, his head tilted first on one side and then on the other.
It bears the creature which secretes it without its adhering to it.
This study is a step towards discovering how "stand-in" cells can secrete insulin in the body," said Helge Raeder

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Retrieved Text: Scope of syllabus: Correct location and shape of the gland in the human body and the hormones they secrete (Pancreas-insulin, glucagon; thyroid-thyroxin). Effects of hypo-secretion and hyper-secretion of hormones, tropic hormones, feedback mechanism (brief idea).
1) Introduction: Differences between nervous and endocrine control; and nervous and endocrine glands.
3) Characteristics of hormones: Differences between hormones and enzymes.
8) Adrenal Glands (Location and structure): a) Hormones of adrenal cortex b) Hormones of adrenal medulla c) Effects of hypo-secretion of adrenal hormones d) effects of hyper-secretion of adrenal hormones.
18) BTT(Beyond the text): Extra Info.

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======= Instance Index 6990 =========
Input Text: You are presented with the question "What is when water vapor moves from plants and falls to the earth's surface as rain and snow?" and the following answer choices: 
- transpiration
 - Condensation
 - evaporation
 - Heat energy
 - Wet weather
 - colder weather
 - Physical weathering
 - local weather

Now knowing that transpiration is when water vapor moves from plants into the atmosphere and water vapor in the atmosphere condenses, then falls to the earth's surface as rain and snow, choose the best answer.

Target Text: transpiration

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The water cycle is a continuous cycle of how water returns back to earth. The water cycle never ends and you could be using the same water that dinosaurs used millions of years ago. Water falls as precipitation. There are 4 types of precipitation; rain, snow, sleet and hail. The sun powers the water cycle. The sun heats up the water from rivers, lakes, and oceans and the water evaporates and turns into water vapor. The water vapor (gas) travels up into the atmosphere. As the atmosphere gets colder the water vapor turns back into water droplets as condensation. These water droplets form clouds and are powered by the wind. When the clouds get too heavy the water droplets fall as precipitation. The water falls as rain, snow, sleet or hail. When the water hits the earth it becomes runoff (water that runs down hills and mountains; water that moves on top of the earth's surface) or groundwater (water that gets absorbed by the ground and runs underneath the earth's surface) Both runoff and groundwater are similar because the water runs (moves) toward rivers and oceans.

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Retrieved Text: Condensation in the atmosphere is visible as clouds.
This Science quiz is called 'The Water Cycle 1' and it has been written by teachers to help you if you are studying the subject at middle school. Playing educational quizzes is a fabulous way to learn if you are in the 6th, 7th or 8th grade - aged 11 to 14.
Only 3% of the Earth's water is fresh, and most of that is in the form of ice! Luckily, the tiny percentage of water suitable for drinking and keeping plants and animals alive is continuously recycled in a series of processes known as the water cycle. Through evaporation, water in the sea rises as vapor into the sky. Condensation then causes droplets to form and these become clouds. Rain (precipitation) falls from the clouds and onto the ground. Here the water runs downhill until it reaches a river. It then flows along the river and into the sea, where the whole process starts again.
When a kettle is boiling, it produces visible steam. What does this steam contain?
Plants draw water out of the ground and release water vapor into the atmosphere. What is this process known as?
What do we call water that is in the form of a gas?
Water on the surface of roads and sidewalks disappears over time. What has happened to the water?
What stage of the water cycle directly follows water's condensation in the atmosphere?
Precipitation follows condensation - and the whole water cycle begins again!
What happens to water vapor when it cools?
What do we call water that

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Retrieved Text: Hydrologic cycle is the phrase used to describe the continuous circulation of water as it falls from the atmosphere to Earth's surface in the form of precipitation, circulates over and through Earth's surface, then evaporates back to the atmosphere in the form of water vapor to begin the cycle again. The scientific field concerned with the hydrologic cycle, the physical and chemical properties of bodies of water, and the interaction between the waters and other parts of the environment is known as hydrology.
The total amount of water contained in the planet's oceans, lakes, rivers, ice caps, groundwater, and atmosphere is a fixed, global quantity. This amount is about 500 quintillion gallons (1,900 quintillion liters). Scientists believe this total amount has not changed in the last three billion years. Therefore, the hydrologic cycle is said to be constant throughout time.
Oceans cover three-quarters of Earth's surface, but contain over 97 percent of all the water on the planet. About 2 percent of the remaining water is frozen in ice caps and glaciers. Less than 1 percent is found underground, in lakes, in rivers, in ponds, and in the atmosphere.
Solar energy causes natural evaporation of water on Earth. Of all the water that evaporates into the atmosphere as water vapor, 84 percent comes from oceans, while 16 percent comes from land. Once in the atmosphere, depending on variations in temperature, water vapor eventually condenses as rain or snow. Of this precipitation, 77 percent falls on oceans, while 23 percent falls on land.
water wells to provide freshwater. It is estimated

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Retrieved Text: A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air.
A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.
On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers. It also exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible as clouds and fog.
The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.
Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls to Earth in the form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water cycle.
Catch a wave, and you're sitting on top of the hydrosphere.
Some scientists believe a hydrosphere exists on Europa, a moon of Jupiter, that consists of a frozen outer layer and a giant, liquid ocean underneath it.
icy part of the Earth's waterincluding icebergs, glaciers, and ice caps.
all the Earth's water in the ground, on the surface, and in the air.
largest planet in the solar system, the fifth planet from the Sun.
a hole drilled in the Earth to obtain a liquid or gaseous substance.

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Retrieved Text: CLIMATE AND wEATHER are not synonymous. Weather is the condition that prevails at a given moment and may change within days or even hours. At moments of meteorological fluidity, weather can change in minutes. Weather is variable, whereas climate is constant under ordinary circumstances. This is so because climate is the average of weather over long durations. Climate may change rapidly, as it did at the end of the Cretaceous era, but the circumstances that change climate rapidly are unusual. When climate changes rapidly Earth is in crisis. At the end of the Cretaceous, for example, a gigantic meteor impacted Earth, ejecting a huge cloud of debris and dust and touching off widespread forest fires. The debris, dust, and ash from this catastrophe blocked out sunlight, cooling Earth. These are not ordinary circumstances and most of the time, climate holds steady.
Climate arises from the interaction of several factors: latitude, proximity to oceans or mountains, altitude, radiation from the Sun, ocean currents, wind, continental drift, the greenhouse effect, volcanic activity, radioactivity of Earth's core, photosynthesis, transpiration, eccentricity of Earth's orbit around the sun, the tilt of Earth's axis, rainfall, and the reflection of sunlight from clouds, snow, and ice. Earth has many climates, ranging from desert to lush rainforest. Temperature and rainfall vary widely by locale. Near the equator, the range of temperatures is small and rainfall abundant. Away from the equator, temperatures and rainfall vary considerably. Humans have adapted to many climates. In contrast, many other animals are adapted to a single climate, and change threatens

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Retrieved Text: The 5 Types of Precipitation lesson plans and MatchCard compare rain, snow, hail, freezing rain, and sleet.
This is MatchCard #2 of the Weather Unit Study. Find more information on MatchCard Science below.
Objective: Identify the five types of precipitation.
Water particles in the clouds may become too heavy to remain in the air, and are pulled to the earth's surface by gravity as precipitation.
With this MatchCard, precipitation experiments will be done to investigate the five different types of precipitation: rain, snow, hail, freezing rain, sleet.
In weather, precipitation is water falling to the ground from the atmosphere. The water can be in a liquid, solid, or semi-solid form.
In chemistry, a precipitate is a substance that forms out of another substance - usually a solid that precipitates out of a liquid. In weather, the precipitate is the liquid or solid particles that come from the air in the atmosphere.
In our usual day to day language, we simple refer to it as rain or snow. But there are other types of precipitation as well. These lesson plans focus on five kinds of precipitation.
Before looking at the illustration in the MatchCard, examine the shape of water drops. Have them drop slowly from the faucet or a water dropper. Let the students draw the shape.
Buy or make a rain gauge for these precipitation experiments. (See below for the link to the page with our instructions to make a rain gauge.) Measure the amount of precipitation that falls in the next rain storm in your area.
Snow is frozen water vapor. It contains a mixture

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Retrieved Text: The layer of gases that surrounds our planet is called the atmosphere. The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases. Water vapor and tiny particles of dust, smoke and other chemicals are also found in the atmosphere.
The Earth is unique because it has an atmosphere that can support life. Oxygen and gases in the air are necessary for survival. The atmosphere also traps the sun’s energy to maintain moderate temperatures and forms a protective layer from the sun’s radiation.
The force that atmospheric gases exert on a surface is called air pressure, or atmospheric pressure. This pressure is highest near sea level because gravity pulls the air molecules close to the Earth’s surface. As the altitude increases, the air pressure decreases.
Humans add pollutants into the atmosphere every day. Natural sources of air pollution include volcanic ash, pollen and wildfire smoke. Air pollutants can travel great distances and impact environments around the globe.
The condition of the atmosphere at a specific time in a specific place is known as the weather. The weather includes and is affected by temperature, wind, water and air pressure.
Weather is driven by the energy from the sun. Energy reaches the Earth as electromagnetic radiation. Molecules in the atmosphere and on the Earth absorb this radiation and begin to vibrate, creating heat energy.
Global winds are created by the differences in temperature and air pressure between the poles and the equator. The curved direction of these winds is caused by the Earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect.
The water cycle

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Retrieved Text: albedo A measure of the amount of sunlight an object reflects.
atoll A coral island encircling a lagoon.
carbon dioxide (CO2) A greenhouse gas chemically composed of carbon and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is produced by the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal. It is also exhaled by human beings and inhaled by plants. Burning plants also releases carbon dioxide.
continental climates Climates that are relatively cold in winter and hot in summer; usually found at the interiors of continents.
El Niño A periodic oceanic warming, which can have major effects on weather.
feedback loop A process in which one condition creates other conditions that reinforce the first.
glacier A mass of ice that year-round is located on and moves over land.
global warming The increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface and oceans. Global warming has been occurring since the mid-twentieth century, and it is expected to continue because of the greenhouse effect.
greenhouse effect The heating of the surface of the earth due to the presence of gases that trap energy from the sun.
greenhouse gases Substances that contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor are all greenhouse gases.
groundwater Water located underneath the ground, either in porous soil or in spaces in rock.
Hurricane Katrina The 2005 storm that devastated the city of New Orleans.
hydroelectric power Electrical power generated by dams.
hydrologic cycle The circulation of water from the earth's surface as a solid or liquid to the air as water vapor and back to the earth as precipitation.
hydropower Power derived from the motion

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Retrieved Text: The water, or hydrologic, cycle describes the pilgrimage of water as water molecules make their way from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back again, in some cases to below the surface. This gigantic system, powered by energy from the Sun, is a continuous exchange of moisture between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land.
Studies have revealed that evaporation—the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas—from oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) provides nearly 90% of the moisture in our atmosphere. Most of the remaining 10% found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration. Plants take in water through their roots, then release it through small pores on the underside of their leaves. In addition, a very small portion of water vapor enters the atmosphere through sublimation, the process by which water changes directly from a solid (ice or snow) to a gas. The gradual shrinking of snow banks in cases when the temperature remains below freezing results from sublimation.
Together, evaporation, transpiration, and sublimation, plus volcanic emissions, account for almost all the water vapor in the atmosphere that isn’t inserted through human activities. While evaporation from the oceans is the primary vehicle for driving the surface-to-atmosphere portion of the hydrologic cycle, transpiration is also significant. For example, a cornfield 1 acre in size can transpire as much as 4,000 gallons of water every day.
After the water enters the lower atmosphere, rising air currents carry it upward, often high into the atmosphere, where the air is

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Retrieved Text: Bill Nye the Science Guy is no drip – he’s just talking about the water cycle.
About 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, and almost all of that water has been around since the Earth formed billions and billions of years ago. That means a glass of water you drink today could be water that a dinosaur once sipped. Water is constantly recycled on Earth as rain, snow, sleet and hail. It makes its way in and out of oceans, lakes, streams, hail, and glaciers. Scientists call the recycling of water the water cycle (not that bad, huh?).
There are four parts to the water cycle. Evaporation happens when lakes, oceans, rivers, and streams are heated by the sun. Liquid water evaporates into a gas called “water vapor”. When water vapor cools enough to become a liquid, we say it “condenses”. Condensation happens when water vapor cools into tiny droplets to make clouds. Precipitation is when water from the clouds falls to Earth as rain, sleet, hail, or snow. And, collection happens when the rain, hail, snow, or sleet gathers back into oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, and glaciers. The water cycle goes around and around, all the time, all over the world.
In this show, Bill Nye really quenches your thirst for science.
Most of the water in the world is the same water that was here when the Earth was formed.
Water moves around the Earth in a water cycle.
The water cycle has four parts, evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.
The most intense rainfall we’ve ever seen happened

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Retrieved Text: هل تبحث عن موضوع أو مقالة باللغة الانجليزية, هذه المقالة سوف تفي بالغرض لأنها تحتوي على الكثير من الجمل الانجليزية المفيدة والمعلومات المهمة عن موضوع دورة الماء water cycle, إن كنت تحتاج مقالة باللغة الانجليزية فهذه مقالة انجليزية منهجية وصحيحة وكتبها ناطقون أصليون للغة الانجليزية, سوف تستفيد كذلك من قراءة هذا الموضوع في تعلم الكثير من العبارات الانجليزية المفيدة.
The Water Cycle (also known as the hydrologic cycle) is the journey water takes as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again.
The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the Earth's surface (oceans, lakes, etc.). Plants also lose water to the air (this is called transpiration). The water vapor eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds. When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation (rain, sleet, or snow) is triggered, and water returns to the land (or sea). Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of the underground water is trapped between rock or clay layers; this is called groundwater. But most of the water flows downhill as runoff (above ground or underground), eventually returning to the seas as slightly salty water.

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Retrieved Text: Today’s Reno Gazette Journal had a front page article about Truckee Meadows Water Authority (TMWA) proclaiming that the Summer Water-use Savings Paid Off! We did good! Groundwater made quite a difference this year.
The water cycle is the continuous process water goes through on earth shown in the diagram below. Surface water, primarily from oceans or other freshwater storage, undergoes “evaporation” into the atmosphere. Along with evaporation is “transpiration” (or evapotranpiration), where water vapor is also released from plants and animals. Also, “sublimation” occurs when frozen water vaporizes without first melting. All this water vapor is stored in the atmosphere until finally undergoing condensation when the air becomes sufficiently saturated, forms into droplets, and falls to the ground by way of “precipitation” in rain, snow, etc. Frozen precipitation is generally stored until it seasonally melts and joins other liquid water in streams, rivers, and other surface runoff as it makes its way back to the oceans or other freshwater storage areas. A portion of this surface runoff also sinks into underground aquifers, or groundwater, that also is eventually released into the oceans. The cycle then begins all over again. A printable PDF (11×17) of the USGS Water Cycle poster below can be found here.
This entry was posted in ArrowCreek 411, ArrowCreek411, Conserving Water, TMWA, Truckee Meadows Water Authority and tagged ArrowCreek, ArrowCreek 411, ArrowCreek411, Conserving Water, Reduce Water Use, Reno Water Usage, TMWA, Truckee Meadows Water Authority, Water Conservation. Bookmark the permalink.

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Retrieved Text: On Earth the force that drives winds is heat from the Sun. On Mars the same logic holds true. But the two planets have atmospheres that differ greatly. The Martian atmosphere is about 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and has traces of oxygen, carbon monoxide, water, methane, and other gases, along with a lot of dust.
Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1.0% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. It also averages about 1% water vapor.
Scientists have begun to study the weather and circulation of winds on Mars, but much remains to be discovered. Overall, global patterns appear simpler and more repeatable than what happens on Earth. But the apparent simplicity may be due mostly to scientific ignorance coming from a lack of data, especially at smaller scales such as a few kilometers or miles in size.
A great deal of research remains to be done to fully understand the global patterns on Mars. Besides differences in atmospheric composition, Earth and Mars also differ in surface materials. For example, Earth's surface is largely ocean, which provides a ready source of heat and water vapor for the air. Open water is completely lacking on Mars, and the atmosphere has only traces of water vapor.
As water on Earth cycles through its various forms — oceans, lakes, clouds, vapor, rain, snow, ice — it carries a lot of energy through the atmosphere. Thus we can experience large and devastating storms. Yet having only a trace of water vapor, the Martian atmosphere carries much less

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Retrieved Text: For the first time the term the average molecular mass of the air I encountered in "Problems in General Chemistry" by Nikolai L. Glinka.
Average molecular mass of the air is understood as a weighted average of molecular and atomic weights of all gases of the air. For simplicity, an average molecular mass of air is calculated taking into account only nitrogen and oxygen as gases, of which the air consists. The average molecular weight of air taking into account the oxygen and nitrogen only is 29 grams in the volume of one mole of oxygen and nitrogen, i.e. 22.4 liters of a mixture of gases of oxygen and nitrogen with the same composition as in the air at normal conditions. What you can use average molar mass of air for? You can imagine a balloon filled with water vapor, and immediately state that the molar mass of water is 18 grams, which means that water vapor will move through the air upwards through the Earth's atmosphere, where because of lower temperature it will condense forming clouds.
In the Earth's atmosphere, water vapor of heavy water will condense lower above ground because of the difference of 2 grams between molecular mass between normal and heavy water. The isotopic separation between heavy and normal water will occur in clouds.
From the comparison of the molar mass of ordinary water H2O and heavy water D2O and HDO it shows that when it starts to rain, the first rain drops will be drops of heavy water rain from low clouds. Try to

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Retrieved Text: 2. absolute stability - Air with a lapse rate less than the wet adiabatic rate.
3. adiabatic temperature change - Cooling or warming of air caused when air is allowed to expand or is compressed, not because heat is added or subtracted.
4. advection fog - A fog formed when warm, moist air is blown over a cool surface.
5. Bergeron process - A theory that relates the formation of precipitation to supercooled clouds, freezing nuclei, and the different saturation levels of ice and liquid water.
7. cirrus - One of three basic cloud forms: also one of the three high cloud types. They are thin, delicate ice-crystal clouds often appearing as veil-like patches or thin, wispy fibers.
8. cloud - A form of condensation best described as a dense concentration of suspended water droplets or tiny ice crystals.
9. cloud of vertical development - A cloud that has its base in the low-height range but extends upward into the middle or high altitude.
10. collision-coalescence process - A theory of raindrop formation in warm clouds (above 0o C) in which large cloud droplets (giants) collide and join together with smaller droplets to form a raindrop. Opposite electrical charges may bind the cloud droplets together.
11. condensation - The change of state from a gas to a liquid.
12. condensation nuclei - Tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces on which water vapor condenses.
13. conditional instability - Moist air with a lapse rate between the dry and wet adiabatic rates.
15. cumulus - One of three basic cloud forms; also the name given one

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Retrieved Text: For we can thank President Gerald Ford for the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. It was the first piece of legislation to provide comprehensive regulatory framework for overseeing the nations drinking water supply in the United States. The law has proven instrumental in settling standards to ensure that the US population can access safe drinking water.
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for use or consumption. The end use of this treated water may be for human consumption, industrial water supply, irrigation, River flow maintenance, recreation or many other uses. Wastewater treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from waste water or sewage for disposal to the natural environment. Early water treatment methods still used today include sand filtration and chlorination.
The earth has been recycling water for 4 billion years. The water cycle has no beginning or end it is continuous. The sun heats up the water from the oceans, lakes and rivers. The water changes into water vapor by the process of evaporation. Plants also lose water in the form of water vapor from their leaves into the air by the process of transpiration. Water collects of water vapor in the sky and makes clouds. When the water in the clouds gets cold it becomes liquid again in a process called condensation. Then the water falls from the sky as rain, snow, sleet or hail called precipitation. The water sinks into the surface and collects into lakes, oceans and rivers. It

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Retrieved Text: An aerial shell that surrounds the Earth and rotates with it, called the atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere - a mixture of many gases, which hung in a state of contained solid and liquid particles: dust, ashes and soot. Ground layer of air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases.
The limits of the atmosphere is difficult to establish precisely. Lower boundary is the surface, but keep in mind that air penetrates into all cracks and pores of rocks. The upper limit is about 3000 km altitude, but the air is so thin that talk about a solid shell is no longer available. The atmosphere is composed of five layers. In the lower layers - the troposphere concentrated 90% of the total weight of the air and almost all water vapor. It formed the clouds and precipitation falls. The upper limit of the troposphere on the height of 8 km in polar latitudes and 18 miles - near the equator. Above the troposphere - stratosphere, which extends to 50 km above the earth's surface. In the stratosphere, air has a much lower density compared to the troposphere. Here is the ozone layer that protects Earth from the harmful effects of space radiation. Mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere is the upper layers of the atmosphere with a very thin air and significant fluctuations in temperature. In the troposphere temperature decreases by 0.6 degrees every 100 m rise up. In the stratosphere is the reverse process, the temperature rises by 1-2 degrees with each kilometer. In the mesosphere the

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Retrieved Text: The water cycle moves Earth's water around.
Sometimes through the air. Sometimes through the ground.
Some places have rain. Some places get snow.
So where does your water come from and where does it go?
The energy from the Sun keeps the cycle in motion.
Moving water into the air, to the ground, to the ocean.
Weather is short-term, you're talking about days.
Is climate long-term and different in other ways?
If you could find out where your water is found.
How much of it is in the air and on or in the ground.
Decided whether your water is mostly liquid, solid or gas.
Would that help you know your climate, at last?
Some places have lakes. Some places have streams.
Some places have almost no water, it seems.
Some places have damp air. Some places, air that is dry.
Not much water in a desert. Can you tell me why?
When it comes to water, places are dry or they're wet.
And some places change with the seasons, you bet.
To talk about climate without water would be tough.
Knowing the temperatures, now would that be enough?
In places where it never rains and it never snows.
Water hides deep in the ground or even in rivers flows.
Now think about where you live and your daily weather.
Do you get rain and need to have an umbrella or a sweater?
If you think about the water that falls from your sky.
What form it takes, how much comes down, and the reasons why.
You get no snow, no fog, no rain or maybe you get too much.
Is it your elevation, your location, the time of year and such?
Water words

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Retrieved Text: Snow is formed high in the clouds from water vapor, which is water in the form of gas. If a cloud is cold enough, the water vapor freezes to form ice crystals. At temperatures between about −40 °F (−40 °C) and 32 °F (0 °C), water vapor crystallizes around bits of dust in the cloud. At lower temperatures, water vapor freezes directly into ice crystals.
The ice crystals can stay up in the clouds. Or, if they are heavy enough, they can fall to the ground. As they fall they can clump together with other ice crystals to form snowflakes. One snowflake can contain as many as 100 ice crystals. But some single ice crystals fall as snow, too.
The way that ice crystals join together gives every snowflake a unique design. Even so, most snowflakes have six points or six sides. They form seven basic shapes: stars, needles, dendrites (having branches), plates, columns, columns capped with plates, and irregular (damaged). What shape a snowflake takes depends on the temperature and the amount of moisture in the cloud.
Snow falls in many places that get cold weather, mainly during winter. At the North and South poles, snow covers Earth year-round. Near the Equator, snow falls only in the highest mountain regions.
Snow greatly affects climates and living things. A cover of snow on the ground helps to keep the air cold. This happens because snow reflects, or bounces back, most of the Sun’s heat. However, a snow cover can also protect small plants from the effects of severe cold. When

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Retrieved Text: The existence of a snowflake is a journey — like your life, which is a journey, too.
It starts in a cloud. Clouds carry drops of water vapor. Clouds also contain tiny particles of dust. Drops of the water vapor cling to the dust particles. When conditions are cold enough, the water freezes into crystals and a snowflake is born. Crystals can attach in many different ways to make infinite patterns — "infinite" means more numbers than anyone could ever count. The temperature, what the cloud is like and other factors influence how the snowflake grows. So it is probably true that no two snowflakes are alike. Each one is unique — like you are unique from everyone else who has ever lived. Each snowflake has a journey ahead of it: some parts of the journey are common to all snowflakes, some parts are unique.
The next part of the journey is the same for every snowflake: it falls to the earth. But where it falls can vary. The snowflake may fall on a warm sidewalk and melt into water right away. It may fall on cooler grass and stick. I like it when a snowflake falls gently on my eyelashes. Do you? The snowflake may even fall on top of other snowflakes, making piles of snow you can use to build snow kids.
Eventually, though, all snowflakes take the same journey of melting into water. Some water is soaked into the ground and nourishes plants, flowers and even vegetables, like tomatoes. Some water runs in gullies to rivers,

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Retrieved Text: Because of permanent evaporation the atmosphere gets water in form of water vapour. As a result of cooling the air under the dew point temperature the water vapor is transformed into water drops or ice particles by means of condensation and sublimation. Clouds or fog near the earth surface are formed.
Precipitation is formed when the hydrometeore, hanging as clouds or fog in the air, are not longer supported by the upward air current. Then It is falling down to the earth (falling precipitation like rain, snow and hail) or deposited on the earth surface (deposited precipitation like white frost or white dew).
The fallen precipitation on the earth surface is mainly registrated as the height of precipitation in millimeters [mm]. This unit gives the height of water level on the earth surface provided the water doesn’t evaporate, or flow or seep away. Every millimeter of the height of precipitation is equal to an amount of 1 litre water per m² of earth surface. If the precipitation falls in solid form (e.g. as snow) the height of precipitation is determined by the molten precipitation.
The measurement of precipitation is simply done by collecting the precipitation. The rain gauge should stand free. No obstacles like buildings, trees or walls should be too near. The horizontal distance to such obstacles should at least be equal to the height of the obstacle. The precipitation that falls through the horizontal collecting area one meter above ground is collected in a can. For the measurement the content of the can is filled into a

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Retrieved Text: It’s a gas in the atmosphere. There is very little of it in the air. Water vapor is only 1 to 4% of the atmosphere, but without it we would have no clouds, rain, or snow. Water vapor is one of the greenhouse gases, which help to trap the earth's heat.

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Retrieved Text: Parts of the California wildfires are so hot that they're helping form aptly named pyrocumulus clouds.
In some parts of California, wildfires are getting so hot, they're forming clouds commonly associated with volcanoes.
Pyrocumulus clouds had been spotted before the most recent wildfires but weren't formally recognized until early 2017, when the World Meteorological Organization updated its cloud atlas for the first time in 30 years.
Pyrocumulus clouds start forming like any other cumulus cloud: The sun heats Earth's surface, which pushes columns of warm air above denser, cooler air. This warm air eventually cools off and condenses into a cloud.
But a wildfire can make the process even more spectacular. Burnt plants release water into the atmosphere. The rising water vapor and warm air condense around particles of smoke from the fire.
If pyrocumulus clouds collect enough water, they can even produce rain that could fall on the same wildfires that created them. But firefighters aren't expecting help this time. Right now, California is historically dry.

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Retrieved Text: Delores Jean Brooks - Percy Lavon Julian H. S.
Delores Jean Brooks            Percy Lavon Julian H. S.
1. To introduce and model the concept of the water cycle.
processes of evaporation and condensation.
recovered through the process of evaporation.
bottle, warm water, ice cubes.
aluminum pan and 4 teaspoons of salt.
distribute (state, save for later observation).
Activity 2. Fill aluminum pan with crushed ice, add salt, stir slightly.
Fill clear plastic 2 liter bottle with 1/2 liter warm water.
water until all water is evaporated.  Observe.
possible reason, high humidity? not enough time lapsed???
Activity 2. Did snow (frost) appear on outsides and bottoms of pan?
Did water vapor rise and form on the sides of plastic bottle?
in the kettle or flask?
What was formed in the clear glass?
is evaporated from our earth's surface.
and again to the earth's surface.
of removing the salt from sea (ocean) water.
Harper & Row, U.S.A., 1971.
Fiarotta, Sterling Company, Inc., New York, 1996.

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Retrieved Text: Air is mostly gas, but it also holds lots of tiny particles. These particles, like dust and pollen, are called aerosols and are picked up when the wind blows. But the air can also carry soot, smoke, and other particles from car exhaust and power plants. These are major contributors to air pollution.
People, other animals, plants…they all need to breathe! Respiration consists in taking in oxygen from the air and expelling carbon dioxide (or the opposite in the case of plants!). Through this process all animals and plants get the energy they need to grow and live life!
There’s life on…air! We aspect to see living organisms in soil or in water, but they can also be found hanging out in the air. These are called bio-aerosols and are microbial organisms that can travel through the air, via breeze or just a sneeze!
Air helps water move between its states (solid, liquid, gaseous) in a process called the water cycle.
When heated by the sun, water evaporates into the air and becomes water vapor. As temperatures drop, water vapor condenses, forming clouds. Clouds return water to the ground in the form of rain, sleet or snow and they move, transporting water far from where it originated.
As light as air…that is not always the case! Actually, air pressure pushes down on Earth’s surface.
At the sea level, air pressure is quite high…you can feel the whole atmosphere pushing down. On the other side, up on the mountains the air pressure is low because there is less atmosphere pushing down on you.

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Retrieved Text: Global ecology is the study of the interactions among the Earth's ecosystems, land, atmosphere and oceans. Global ecology is very important because it is used to understand large scale interactions and how they influence the behavior of the entire planet, including the earth's responses to future changes.
There are four types of global ecosystem.
to support the life. It filters sunlight that reach on the earth surface affects climate and it is a reservoir of several elements essential for life. Smith (1974) studied the zones of atmosphere.
Mesosphere, 4. Heterosphere and 5. Exosphere.
1. Troposphere: It is the lowest region of atmosphere which hangs at 8 km over the earth at the poles and nearly 18 km over the earth at the equator. This zone, subject to differential heating temperature, inversion and conversion currents is called troposphere. Temperature drops rapidly from 30° to -70°C in the zone. Troposphere is the region o fstrong air movements and cloud formation. Man along with other living organisms lives in the troposphere.
dissociation. The ozonosphere absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation from the sun and saves the earth away from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation.
4. Heterosphere: It is the 4thlayer of the atmosphere. In heterosphere, oxygen and nitric oxide occur in ionized state and their ionization is caused by the ultraviolet radiation. The lowest sub-region of heterosphere is called thermosphere. It is 400 km away from the earth and contains mixture of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (02) in the proportion of 1:1. Further, in this zone the temperature decreases as the distance from sun increases.
5. Exosphere:

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Retrieved Text: Freshwater has almost no salt in it.
Ponds and lakes are filled with fresh water.
Rivers and streams are moving water.
A glacier is a frozen river of ice.
Plants and animals live in or near freshwater.
About three quarters of the earth's surface is covered with water.
The water biome is divided into freshwater (water with little or no salt in it) in ponds, rivers, streams and marine, or salt water (ocean biome).
A pond is a shallow hole where water collects. Plants generally grow around the edges of the pond, and often right across the whole pond. The temperature of the water is similar at the surface and at the bottom of the pond. The bottom is generally covered with mud. There are usually no waves. In places where winters are very cold, the whole pond can freeze solid.
Some ponds are seasonal, and only fill at certain times of the year when there is rain.
A lake is bigger than a pond, sometimes thousands of square metres. Plants can only grow along the shoreline because the water is too deep away from the edges. Some lakes are so big that there are waves.
In summer, the temperature of the water in a lake is not the same: the top part of the water gets more of the sun's heat and is warm (about 19-25ºC), the middle layer is cooler because it gets less of the sunlight (aobut 8-19ºC) , and the bottom layer, which does not get any sunlight, is quite cold (about 4-8ºC).
In a lake, more creatures live in the warmer layer

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Retrieved Text: How it works: Plants release water vapor through their leaves during photosynthesis, and in the rainforest that process actually creates "low-level clouds." A bonus effect: the rain from those clouds warms the atmosphere, causing wind patterns to shift and pulling more moisture in from the ocean.
How they did it: Using a NASA satellite that studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere, the team led by Rong Fu, a climate scientist at UCLA, found that water vapor over the Amazon was too high in the isotope deuterium to come from the ocean, and must instead come from plants.
Why it matters: It's interesting that trees can play an active role in causing rainfall , but as Science points out, in this context it could mean that deforestation actually causes droughts.

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Retrieved Text: Below, you can report your event in three steps, starting with the type and the location of the report. After submission, the reports will be added directly to the database as a "non-verified" report. However, we reserve the right to delete or modify data without notice.
To update or correct an event that was submitted earlier on, please re-submit the event and make clear in the "contact information" text box that this report should replace an event that was submitted earlier on. You may also send the correction per e-mail to eswd(at)essl.org (without the brackets).
Firstly, please select the type of event.
Choose the name of nearest town, place, or village.
A vortex not associated with a convective storm, typically between a few metres to a few tens of metres in diameter, extending upward from the earth's surface but not reaching any cloud. It is rendered visible by material lifted off the earth's surface (land devils) or by water droplets (water devils). Lesser whirlwinds result from temperature differences between the surface and the air above. Whirls in the lee of objects (e.g. buildings) are not considered a 'lesser whirlwind' here.
A vortex occurring along a gust front of a convective storm that is visible by material that is lifted off the earth's surface. It is typically a few metres to a few tens of metres in diameter and extends upward from the earth's surface but is not connected with a cloud. In case of uncertainty whether a gustnado really occurred, do not select gustnado. If it is certain that either a

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Retrieved Text: Water in the Earth system is influencing all aspects of life on Earth. Pathways, storage, transfers and transformations have an effect on the global climate and human welfare. Within this interactive 4 scientists talk about some of the complex aspects of the water cycle.
To use this interactive, move your mouse or finger over any of the labelled boxes and click to obtain more information.
There is always water in the atmosphere – it’s like the superhighway that moves water around the globe – but that’s only 0.001% of the Earth’s total water.
Almost 70% of the Earth’s freshwater is stored in ice caps, glaciers and permanent snow. Most of this is in Antarctica – the Greenland ice cap contains just 10% of the total global ice mass.
Snowfall that’s converted to ice in glaciers may run off through melting, but it can also transform directly from a solid (ice) to a gas (water vapour) – this is called sublimation.
All forms of water that fall from the air to the Earth’s surface are called precipitation. Whether it is snow, rain, sleet or hail depends on the temperature of the air that the water falls through.
When you look at the soil, it’s not like concrete with no holes or anything like that, it is continuously reworked by animals that live in the soil, by the plant roots, by drying and wetting up, or freezing and thawing, it sort of breaks the soil up, so the water can get into that soil through pores at the surface.
A spring discharges groundwater on the

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Endoplasmic reticulum are what attached to structures in the cytoplasm where proteins are made?" and the following answer choices: 
- recycling
 - allow growth
 - membranes
 - organ
 - layers of fat
 - more abundant
 - epidermal
 - Most plants

Now knowing that ribosomes are structures in the cytoplasm where proteins are made and endoplasmic reticulum are membranes attached to ribosomes, choose the best answer.

Target Text: membranes

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Respiration occurs in every cell of your body. To understand respiration you maty need to find out more about cells and how they work. Do you know what the major organelles of the cell are called, and what each of these structures does?
Click on the labels around the cell if you want to find out more!
When you look inside a cell you see many different structures called organelles. Each organelle has a function of its own, allowing the cell to live and work within our bodies.
The cell membrane packages up the cell and all its organelles. Water, energy, and nutrients enter the cell, and waste material leaves the cell through the cell membrane.
The cytoplasm of a cell is not really an organelle - it is the fluid the organelles are bathed in. It contains proteins, sugars and other substances that help the cell function properly.
Vacuoles are storage areas. They are surrounded by membranes and filled with liquid or solid material. Vacuoles are much bigger in plant cells.
The golgi body (or the golgi apparatus) makes some of the chemicals produced within the cell. It also collects and packages chemicals for transport to different parts of the cell.
Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down cell material (if these enzymes were not contained within lysosomes, they would eat away the cell). When organelles have 'died' they are surrounded by the lysosome and broken down by the enzymes.
There are thousands of ribosomes inside a cell. They are found in the cytoplasm, in mitochondria and they make endoplasmic reticulum rough. Ribosomes make

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Retrieved Text: Plant cell structure is not included in all health science subjects (e.g. all courses in anatomy & physiology) but is is an important part of general biology. Basic cell biology is included in UK A-Level Biology and equivalent courses. It is also useful general knowledge for anyone working in life sciences. This page helps with the task: With the help of a diagram describe the structure of a plant cell.
Note: The diagram above is a general plant cell - so not a particular part of any specific plant. The labels in pink are links to pages of further information about the part of the plant cell indicated. The structures are not necessarily drawn to scale but in enough detail to aid recognition and to help students re-draw this diagram by hand to include in study notes or homework.
The structure of plant cells has similarities and differences compared with the structure of animal cells. The following table lists the parts of plant cells shown in the diagram above with brief notes about each of the structures types of organelles in plant cells.
Plant cells have cell walls - as compared with animal cells which do not have cell walls, and prokaryotic cells (bacteria) which do have cell walls but they are of a different construction than those of plant cells.
The main functions of plant cell walls are mechanical. Plant cell walls form part of a transport system called the apoplast system via which water and some solutes can pass through plant tissue via apoplastic pathways (along / through

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Retrieved Text: The outermembrane of the cell. Regulates the transport of certain materials into and out of the cell.
Liquid substance of the cytoplasm which acts like a cushion for organelles.
Support and framework for cells. Made up of microfilament, intermediate filament and microtubules.
Surrounded by its own membrane. Contains celluar DNA/genetic info.
Two lipid bi-layers that surround nuclear contents. Has pores that permit and regulate passage of materials between cytoplasm and nucleus.
Dark staining granule found within the nucleus. It is involved with the synthesis of ribosomal RNA.
Thread like material within the nucleus that packages DNA.
A series of channels associated with storage, synthesis, and the transport of substances within the cell.
Contains ribosomes and synthesizes proteins.
Does NOT contain ribosomes; Synthesizes lipids.
Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or as free bodies. Sites of protein synthesis.
Powerhouses of the cell. Sites of the production of ATP (energy) in the cell.
Synthesizes, packages, and secretes cellular products out of the cell.
Small sac-like structures that contain powerful digestive enzymes. Digests macromolecules, microorganisms, and old or damaged organelles.
Large storage site in a cell surrounded by a membrane which may contain water or other materials. has many different functions.
Small storage site. Involved in transportation of materials into and out of the cell. Also transports proteins from the RER to the Golgi Apparatus.
Provides cellular support, transport, and maintains cell shape. Microtubles form spindle during mitosis.
Small sac-like structures that contain oxidative enzymes. Detoxifies hydrogen peroxide, alcohol, and other harmful substances.
The 3 parts of most cells that can be viewed by a light microscope.
A very powerful microscope that can be used to view organelles within

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Retrieved Text: The endoplasmic reticulum or ER is an organelle found in all eukaryotic cells that is an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles and cisternae. The lacey membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam in 1945. These structures are responsible for several specialized functions: Protein translation, folding, and transport of proteins to be used in the cell membrane (e.g., transmembrane receptors and other integral membrane proteins), or to be secreted (exocytosed) from the cell (e.g., digestive enzymes); sequestration of calcium; and production and storage of glycogen, steroids, and other macromolecules. The endoplasmic reticulum is part of the endomembrane system. The basic structure and composition of the ER membrane is similar to the plasma membrane.
The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive membrane network of cisternae (sac-like structures) held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane encloses a space, the cisternal space (or lumen), from the cytosol. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum vary greatly depending on the exact type of endoplasmic reticulum and the type of cell in which it resides. The three varieties are called rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). But it should be noted that these ribosomes are not resident of the endoplasmic reticulum initially. The ribosomes only bind to the ER once it begins to synthesize a protein destined for sorting. The free ribosome begins producing the polypeptide until

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Retrieved Text: Schematic showing the cytoplasm, with major components of a typical animal cell. (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (6) Golgi apparatus (7) cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytosol (12) lysosome (13) centriole.
Cytoplasm is a gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus that is kept separate from the cytoplasm by a double membrane layer.
The cytoplasm has three major elements; the cytosol, organelles and inclusions. The cytosol is the gooey, semi-transparent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. The cytoplasm holds organelles and protects them, such as the vacuole, endoplasmic recticulum, etc. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell and is composed of water, salts and organic molecules. The cytoskeleton, various proteins, ribosomes and enzymes that are necessary for the cell to catalyze reactions are also found throughout the cytosol. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.
The cytoplasm is the site where most cellular activities are done. The functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of the cell. The cytosol has enzymes that take molecules and break them down , so that the individual organelles can use them as they need to. The cytosol also contains the cytoskeleton which gives the cell its shape and can help in the movement of the cell.
Alberts, Bruce et al. (2003). Essential Cell Biology, 2nd ed., Garland Science, 2003, ISBN 081533480X.
Human Anatomy & Physiology, seventh edition By; Elain N

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Retrieved Text: Organisms are composed of cells, and these cells have specific structures within in them that allow them to carry out their functions. These structures are called Organelles. The fine detail of the cell (which may be revealed by an electron microscope) is called the cell's ultrastructure. Organelles perform different functions within a cell, and this is called the Division of Labour.
The Nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. It contains a dense structure called the Nucleolus and is surrounded by the Nuclear Envelope, a structure composed of two membranes, seperated by fluid, which contain a number of nuclear pores that can allow relatively large molecules through. The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell's genetic material. The Nucleolus creates Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosomes, which then travel out of the nucleus, through the nuclear pores, to the cytoplasm where they are involced in Protein Synthesis.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is found near the Nucleas and is made up of a number of flattened sacs called Cisternae, which are continuous with the Nuclear Envelope. The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is called so because it has a lot of Ribosomes on its outer surface. The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum however, does not have Ribosomes. The Rough transports proteins that are synthesised in the Ribosomes, and the Smooth synthesises Lipids.
The Golgi Apparatus is a stack of membrane bound flattened sacs, and are responsible for the modification of proteins received from the ER. These proteins are then transported in vesicles around the cell.
Lysosomes are membrane bound spherical sacs which contain digestive enzymes used

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Retrieved Text: CELL is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organism and anything less than a complete cell has no independent existence.
In 1665, Robert Hooke observed a thin section of cork under a compound microscope, noticed a honey-comb like compartments. He coined the term “Cell”.
In 1674, Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and describe the living cell.
Later, in 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the root cells of orchids.
The invention of the microscope & its improvement leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of the cell.
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden found that all the plant cells have essentially similar structure and have a cell wall.
In 1839, Theodore Schwann studied different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells. On the basis of this Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals & plants are composed of cells & products of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory, however, didn’t explain as to how new cells were formed.
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow first explained that the cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
All living organisms are composed of cells and cell products.
CELL MEMBRANE – It is the outermost (in the animal cell including human cell) and inner to the cell wall (in

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Retrieved Text: We have already discussed in detail the differences between plant cell and animal cells. Now let us see how these two cell types are similar.
1. Both plant cell and animal cell is Eukaryotic (with true nucleus or genetic material surrounded by a membrane).
3. Both plant cell and animal cell possess a well defined nucleus and cytoplasm, where genetic material DNA is surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
4. Most of the organelles like nucleus, mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum etc are present in both plant cell and animal cell.
5. In both plants and animals cells, DNA is double stranded and complexed with histone proteins and proteins are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

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Retrieved Text: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi complex, Endosomes, Lysosomes, and Vacuoles.
The organelles of the endomembrane system are part of a dynamic, integrated network in which materials are shuttled back and forth from one part of the cell to another.
Materials are shuttled between organelles mostly in small, membrane-bounded transport vesicles that bud from a donor membrane compartment Transport vesicles move through the cytoplasm in a directed manner on tracks formed by cytoskeleton When they reach their destination, the vesicles fuse with the membrane of the acceptor compartment.
1. Constitutive secretion, secreation in a continual manner.
Endocrine cells that release hormones, Release of digestive enzymes Release of neurotransmitters.
Vesicles-oval membrane bound vacuolar structures having diameter of 25-500m Often seen isolated in the cytoplasm.
Two types of ER share many of the same proteins and engage in certain common activities, such as the synthesis of certain lipids and cholesterol.
The rough ER is the starting point of the biosynthetic pathway It is the site of synthesis of the proteins, carbohydrate chains, and phospholipids that journey through the membranous compartments of the cell.
The covalent addition of sugars to the secretary proteins During this process a single species of oligosaccharide is transferred to proteins in the ER.
Also called agranular ER Ribosomes are absent on the surface of ER Seen in cells which are involved in lipids and glycogen metabolism Muscle cells are also rich in SER here it is known as sarcoplasmic reticulam In pigmented retinal cells SER is called myeloid bodies.
Contains enzymes for the synthesis of cholesterol and bile acids. Synthesis of steroid

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Retrieved Text: Home FAQs Does my protein have disulfide bonds?
FAQ: Does my protein have disulfide bonds?
All known eukaryotic ad prokaryotic cytoplasm contain reductases which participate in reducing disulfide bonds. Thus, proteins are oxidized to form disulfide bonds only in certain extra-cytoplasmic compartments such as the periplasmic space in gram negative prokaryotes or endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes. Exceptions to this may occur in certain thermophilic archaea such as Crenarchaea and few thermophilic bacteria (e.g. Aquifex and Thermotoga). There are websites such as Phobius or SignalP that can be used to predict whether a protein is in the oxidizing periplasm or endoplasmic reticulum. One can get an idea of the importance of cysteines in a protein of interest by analyzing how conserved the cysteine residues are in close homologs.

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Retrieved Text: Scaffolding protein that is part of a multiprotein signaling complex. Promotes phosphorylation of Raf family members and activation of downstream MAP kinases. Promotes activation of MAPK1 and/or MAPK3, both in response to EGF and to cAMP. Does not have kinase activity by itself. Interacts with HSP90AA1/HSP90, YWHAE/14-3-3, CDC37, MAP2K1/MEK-1 and MAP2K2/MEK-2 (PubMed:10409742). Interacts with MARK3, PPP2R1A and PPP2CA. Also interacts with RAF and MAPK/ERK, in a Ras-dependent manner. The binding of 14-3-3 proteins to phosphorylated KSR prevents the membrane localization (By similarity). Interacts with isoform 1 of VRK2 (PubMed:20679487). Interacts with AKAP13 and BRAF (PubMed:21102438). Identified in a complex with AKAP13, MAP2K1 and BRAF.
UniProt: KSR1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cell membrane, cell projection, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum membrane, membrane, ruffle membrane.
GO terms: KSR1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum, endoplasmic reticulum membrane, membrane, protein-containing complex, ruffle membrane.

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Retrieved Text: Our natural world also utilizes the principle of form following function, especially in cell biology, and this will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells ( [link]). Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have: 1) a membrane-bound nucleus; 2) numerous membrane-bound organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and others; and 3) several, rod-shaped chromosomes. Because a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is often said to have a “true nucleus.” The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions.
Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane ( [link]), a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group. The plasma membrane controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell. Wastes (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the plasma membrane.
The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular = microvillus); ( [link]). Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of form following function.
The cytoplasm is the entire region of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope (a structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the

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Retrieved Text: Cylindrical structure supporting the cell and allowing organelles and substances inside the cell to move about.
Rod-shaped structure supporting the cell and giving it its shape.
Organelle containing enzymes that neutralize the cell’s toxic substances.
Mass of very fine filaments of DNA, the genetic material of the cell; it is compressed into chromosomes during cell division.
Organelle, free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, producing proteins essential to the constitution and functioning of living beings.
Organelle formed of walls to which the ribosomes are attached.
Small spheroid organ containing enzymes that break down food, spent cell components and other harmful substances that have been absorbed.
Envelope formed of two layers surrounding the nucleus and pierced with small holes, which allow exchanges between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Structure consisting of small rods that play a major role in cell division. Each cell usually contains two.

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Retrieved Text: Acts as a co-chaperone of HSP90AA1 (PubMed:29127155). Activates the ATPase activity of HSP90AA1 leading to increase in its chaperone activity (PubMed:29127155). Competes with the inhibitory co-chaperone FNIP1 for binding to HSP90AA1, thereby providing a reciprocal regulatory mechanism for chaperoning of client proteins (PubMed:27353360). Competes with the inhibitory co-chaperone TSC1 for binding to HSP90AA1, thereby providing a reciprocal regulatory mechanism for chaperoning of client proteins (PubMed:29127155). Interacts with HSPCA/HSP90 (PubMed:12504007, PubMed:12604615). Interacts (phosphorylated on Tyr-223) with HSP90AA1; the interaction activates HSP90AA1 ATPase activity (PubMed:27353360, PubMed:29127155). Interacts with HSP90AB1 (By similarity). Interacts with GCH1 (PubMed:16696853). Interacts with SRPK1 (PubMed:19240134). Interacts with FLCN (PubMed:27353360).
UniProt: AHSA1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cytoplasm, cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum.
GO terms: AHSA1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum, extracellular exosome.

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Retrieved Text: Tired of Endless Searching? Find Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure on DealsNow.
Start studying Endoplasmic Reticulum. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.
Does the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum create steroids? One of the primary functions of the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is to produce and move lipids, an essential component of a cell's outer membrane, and steroids.
The ribosomes are located on the cytosolic side of the endoplasmic reticulum, which is also called the ER. The presence of these ribosomes on the outer layer of the RER distinguishes it from smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which is known as the SER. In addition to producing proteins, the RER plays an essential role in many other functions.
Unformatted text preview: 1 Quizlet 2 Main function of Cytosol Are the nuclear envelope and ER double membraned? Chloroplasts Endoplasmic reticulum ER Endosomes Golgi apparatus Golgi, lysosomes, endosomes, and nuclear membrane proteins and lipids are from where? How do cytosolic proteins enter the mitochondria and chloroplasts?

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Retrieved Text: Probable catalytic subunit of a GTPase activating protein that has specificity for Rab3 subfamily (RAB3A, RAB3B, RAB3C and RAB3D). Rab3 proteins are involved in regulated exocytosis of neurotransmitters and hormones. Specifically converts active Rab3-GTP to the inactive form Rab3-GDP. Required for normal eye and brain development. May participate in neurodevelopmental processes such as proliferation, migration and differentiation before synapse formation, and non-synaptic vesicular release of neurotransmitters. The Rab3 GTPase-activating complex is a heterodimer composed of RAB3GAP and RAB3-GAP150. The Rab3 GTPase-activating complex interacts with DMXL2 (By similarity). Interacts with LMAN1 (PubMed:22337587).
UniProt: RAB3GAP1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cytoplasm.
GO terms: RAB3GAP1 is active in the following subcellular-locations: cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum membrane, endoplasmic reticulum tubular network, extracellular exosome, Golgi apparatus, lipid droplet, postsynapse, protein-containing complex.

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Retrieved Text: The first and perhaps biggest decision that comes with any plant cell model project is what materials you prefer to use. If you want to make an edible plant cell model, you can choose any combination of cake, crispy rice treats, gelatin, fondant, candy or ice cream. Of course, it is important to consider how you plan to store this type of model since it could melt, mold or attract insects. Nonedible options include felt, folded paper, plastic foam, pipe cleaners and clay. It is important not to mix edible components with nonedible materials.
It is simplest to make the basic form of the plant cell first, including the cell wall, cell membrane and cytoplasm. The cell wall is an impermeable layer that surrounds the outside of the cell, giving it protection and support. It should have tiny openings or pores throughout called plasmodesmata. Nestled just inside the cell wall is a second permeable layer called the cell membrane. The nonorganelle space inside the cell is cytoplasm, which is mostly water.
If you are using something moldable like clay or fondant, make a large square to represent cytoplasm and roll two long snakes around the outer edge of the cytoplasm to represent the cell wall and cell membrane. Remember that the cell wall is the layer on the outside.
Now you are ready to construct organelles and set them inside your plant cell model. First, you should mold a nucleus, which is the control center of the plant cell and contains its DNA. These usually look like medium-sized round

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Retrieved Text: Plant cells like animal cells are eukaryotic, i.e. they contain membrane bound nuclei and cell organelles. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in having certain distinctive structures - cell wall, vacuoles, plasmodesmata and plastids. On the contrary, plant cells lack centrioles and intermediate filaments, which are present in animal cells. Despite these, plant and animal cells share several similarities in structure, parts and their roles.
Plant cells are classified into three types, based on the structure and function, viz. parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. The parenchyma cells are living, thin-walled and undergo repeated cell division for growth of the plant. They are mostly present in the leaf epidermis, stem pith, root and fruit pulp. Mature collenchyma cells are living, and provide stretchable support to the plant. Lastly, sclerenchyma cells (e.g. fiber cells) are hard, non-living and give mechanical support to plants. Now, let us see the different parts of a plant cell with their significant roles.
Cell wall is the outermost tough and rigid layer, which comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and at other times, lignin. As expected, it remains connected with the cell walls of other cells. The prime functions of cell wall are protection, giving structural support and helping in the filter mechanism.
Cell membrane, also called plasma membrane, is present inside the cell wall and surrounds the cytoplasm. It connects the intracellular components (organelles and cytoplasm) with the extracellular environment, and helps in protection and transportation. The cell membrane is permeable to specific substances only.
Plasmodesma (plural plasmodesmata) is a small opening, which connects plant cells with

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Retrieved Text: The Ribosomes Are small corpuscles that are responsible for the synthesis of proteins. They are parts of the cell found in large quantities and therefore abundant in those membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, where ergatoplasma forms. Its shape is oblong (longer than wide) and its size is 250 x 150 ångström (equivalent to about 20 or 30 nanometers in diameter).
Looking at the microscope, the ribosomes are shaped like dark grains, both in the endoplasmic reticulum, in the nuclear membrane and in the cytosol. This is indisputable proof of their high number, which can rise (per cell) to several million. The cytoplasmic corpuscles form a component that is constant in the matrix of the cell, which is close to this endoplasmic reticulum and more specifically in the excretory cells in which granular masses are formed.
Therefore, it can be said that ribosomes are never in a state of isolation, but always tend to concentrate, to form very dense accumulations of granules that not in vain cover the rough endoplasmic reticulum (the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, Is free of these corpuscles). However, ribosomes may also wander in the cytoplasm or may be associated with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. This means that ribosomes make up a complex in the cell structure.
This complex is mainly characterized by being ribonucleoproteic, ie, ribosomes are composed of a ribonucleotide that is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and proteins that, in equal parts, are accompanied by minimal amounts of lipids (organic compounds that have Fatty acids, for example cholesterol).
Ribosomes, in themselves, are

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Retrieved Text: We describe the vitellogenesis and oogenesis of Crepidostomum metoecus from Salmo trutta collected in Corsica. This is the first study conducted in the Allocreadiidae family. The maturation of C. metoecus vitellocytes comprises four different stages depending on organelle content. The follicular vitellarium is surrounded by a basal lamina. Vitellocytes are randomly distributed into the vitellarium, although fully mature vitellocytes are found in the center of the follicle. During maturation, the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio decreases, whereas synthetic activity increases. Fully mature vitellocytes are filled with β-glycogen particles and shell globule clusters. Compared to other trematodes studied, C. metoecus possesses a large amount of nutritive reserves for the developing embryo and high quantities of material for the developing shell. Oocyte maturation takes place in four stages: oogonia, primary oocytes, developing oocytes, and mature oocytes. Developing oocytes enter the zygotene-pachytene stage of the first meiotic division recognizable by the presence of synaptonemal complexes in the nucleoplasm. The low protein composition of mature oocytes associated with the large nutrient content of vitellocytes of C. metoecus enables us to consider that oocytes do not take part of the nutrition of the future embryo of the miracidium. A cytochemical test (Thiéry method) allowed us to detect the presence of polysaccharides and glycogen during maturation of these two cell types.
Nous décrivons la vitellogenèse de Crepidostomum metoecus (de Salmo trutta récolté en Corse). Cette étude est la première menée dans la famille Allocreadiidae. La maturation des vitellocytes de C. metoecus comprend quatre stades différents, en fonction des organites qu’ils contiennent. Le vitellarium folliculaire est entouré

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Retrieved Text: 1: Cell Theory: The Three Principles | 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. New cells arise only from cells that already exist. | Cell Theory: The theory that cells form the fundamental, structural and functional units of all living organisms.
3: Theodore Schwann found that plants and animals were made up of cells and that the cells were their own living organism. Matthias Schlieden found that the nucleus and cell development were related. He also found that plant cells work two lives: one being it's own and one helping the plant. Robert Hooke originated the term cell by observing a tree and naming the holes cellulae. Rudolf Virchow found that all cells originate from an already existing cell. He found that cells reproduce by division.
4: Prokaryotic | Prokaryotes tend to be smaller in size with no nuclear membrane or nucleoli. it's chromosome arrangement in a single circular chromosome with no histones. It usually has a cell wall that is very chemically complex with no cytoskeleton.
5: Eukaryotic | Eukaryotes are larger in size with a true nucleus. it's chromosome arrangement is multiple linear chromosomes with histones. If it has a cell wall then it is chemically simple with a cytoskeleton.
6: Plant Cells | Plant cells are different from animal cells. The are shaped rectangularly with a cell wall that surrounds the cell membrane. Chloroplast allows plant cells to make their own food. It has one large vacuole that takes up 90% of the cells

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Retrieved Text: Mitosis is the part of a cell reproduction cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also genetically identical to the original parent nucleus.
In addition to the presence of nuclei, eukaryotic cells are distinguished by an endomembrane system that includes the plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. These subcellular components work together to modify, tag, package, and transport proteins and lipids. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) with its attached ribosomes is the site of protein synthesis and modification. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids including phospholipids and cholesterol, and steroid hormones; engages in the detoxification of medications and poisons; and stores calcium ions. Lysosomes digest macromolecules, recycle worn-out organelles, and destroy pathogens. Just like your body uses different organs that work together, cells use these organelles interact to perform specific functions. For example, proteins that are synthesized in the RER then travel to the Golgi apparatus for modification and packaging for either storage or transport. If these proteins are hydrolytic enzymes, they can be stored in lysosomes. Mitochondria produce the energy needed for these processes. This functional flow through several organelles, a process which is dependent on energy produced by yet another organelle, serves as a hallmark illustration of the cell’s complex, interconnected dependence on its organelles.
A substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur is a catalyst, and the special molecules that catalyze biochemical reactions are called enzymes. Almost all enzymes are proteins, made up of chains of amino acids, and they perform the critical task of

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Retrieved Text: They are found in leaves and carry out photosynthesis and cellular respiration, along with other metabolic processes. With specialized organelles doing specific jobs, the accomplishments of a cell are really quite impressive. Label the axon, dendrites, cell body, nucleus, Schwann's cells, and nodes of Ranvier. It contains the genetic material i. The water rushes into the cell through osmosis. Cells communicate with one another and are responsible for transmitting information from one generation of cells to another.
It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. Vesicles; are much smaller than vacuoles and function in transport within and to the outside of the cell. This page has worksheets, articles, and activities to use when teaching students about the human body. More complex tracheids with valve-like perforations called characterise the gymnosperms. Ribosomes are the producers of our factory-like cell.
Individual cell parts can be colored, if desired, as part of the labeling process. The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules found throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. The composition of the plant cell wall differentiates it from the cell walls of other organisms. Chloroplasts of Green Algae Protista and Plants descendants of some Green Algae are thought to have originated by endosymbiosis of a prokaryotic alga similar to living Prochloron Prochlorobacteria. Like a suitcase is tagged for a destination, the vesicles are now marked for their future location within the cell before they are dispatched. Centrioles form the tail, which moves the sperm toward the ovum. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made.
Sugars produced by photosynthesis in chloroplasts

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Retrieved Text: On www.antibodies-online.com are 82 Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein 44 (ERP44) Antibodies from 20 different suppliers available. Additionally we are shipping Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein 44 Proteins (16) and Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein 44 Kits (2) and many more products for this protein. A total of 108 Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein 44 products are currently listed.

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Retrieved Text: Hi y'all! So, I noticed while I was reading up and watching videos from the Amoeba Sisters (LOVE), Crash Course (LIKE), etc., that I had to go back and reread/re-watch crucial parts of the cell over and over again to really DRILL IT IN. I can't tell you how many times I had to go back and figure out what the hey a lysosome even is! I'll try to make it easier on you guys, because I had to do "Learn" on Quizlet to figure it out... Anyway, let's get going!
+ A eukaryotic cell has a nucleus that can contain DNA.
+ A eukaryotic cell has membrane-bound organelles.
+ A eukaryotic cell has a cell membrane & cytoskeleton.
The cell membrane: I made a whole blog about it, but basic outline, it has a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail, and it acts as the gatekeeper to the cell.
The cytoplasm: It is the clear gel that surrounds the whole interior of the cell. It is sort of like the bubble wrap that wraps your whole Amazon order in bubbly "peace-of-mind-ful" comfort.
The cytoskeleton: It's only job is to make sure that the all-important cells don't exit the membrane into the environment around it, eventually causing cellular destruction! Mwa-ha-ha-ha-ha! Ahem. Yeah, so, without it, we're toast.
The mitochondria: These oblong organelles are the battery pack of the whole thing! If the cell were a city, these mitochondria would be the power lines. The purpose of the mitochondria is to make ATP, the money of the cell. See, Cell City here even has

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are spheroid or ellipsoid particles about 15 x 25 nm in diameter, consisting of rRNA and protein. They are formed by two subunits. Single ribosomes are inactive. When linked into polyribosomes (polysomes), they read and translate from mRNA a message transcripted from nuclear DNA and synthesize peptides or proteins from amino acids according to this genetic instruction (Fig. 1). In electron micrographs, ribosomes should be strictly differentiated from glycogen beta-particles of nearly the same diameter (15 - 30 nm) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1: Ribosomes synthesize proteins (red) according to instruction translated from mRNA (yellow).
Polyribosomes either lie free, releasing new peptides into the cytoplasm, or are attached to the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum (rough, granular e.r.), releasing new peptides into its cisternal or tubular lumen (Weiss 1988).
The synapse is constructed from receptors, ion channels, adhesion molecules, second messenger systems (e.g., protein kinase C which triggers a variety of protein phosphorylations, protein kinase II which participates in Ca2+ signaling in tandem with calmodulin and inositol 1,4,5-trisphophate which mobilizes Ca2+ from stores such as smooth endoplasmic reticulum), and cytoskeletal and associated proteins (such as actin, myosin, tubulin, MAP2, etc.). Most of these components are highly specialized proteins. They are not transported into thousands of synaptic sites from the neuronal soma but particular mRNA molecules are differentially distributed via selective intracellular transport from the nucleus to the postsynaptic microdomains. Here they form the machinery which allows a local synthesis of specific synaptic proteins (Steward and Banker 1992). Subsynaptic regions are thus typical representatives of proteosynthesis independent of neuronal soma.
Polyribosomes are

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Retrieved Text: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi system has been studied using biochemical, genetic, electron and light microscopic techniques leading to an understanding of many aspects of trafficking from the ER to the Golgi apparatus (Murshid and Presley 2004). This includes some of the signals and mechanisms for selective retention and retrieval of ER resident proteins and export of cargo proteins. Proteins that leave the ER emerge in 'export complexes' or ER 'exit sites' and accumulate in pleiomorphic transport carriers referred to as VTCs or intermediate compartments. These structures then transit from the ER to the Golgi apparatus along microtubules using the dynein/dynactin motor and fuse with the cis cisterna of the Golgi apparatus. Many proteins (including vSNAREs, ERGIC53/p58 and the KDEL receptor) must cycle back to the ER from pre-Golgi intermediates or the Golgi. Murshid and Presley 2004 considered a model suggesting that this cycling occurs via 50-nm COPI-coated vesicles and in vivo evidence that suggests that retrograde trafficking may occur via tubular structures. Intracellular membrane transport involves the coordinated engagement of a series of organelles and molecular machineries that ensure that proteins are delivered to their correct cellular locations.
Due to its central position in the secretory pathway and to the large amounts of signaling molecules associated with it, the Golgi complex plays a role in this regulation. The generation of autonomous signaling by the Golgi complex in response to the arrival of cargo from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) allows that cargo moving from the ER to the Golgi activates a series of signaling pathways. This regulatory mechanism

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Retrieved Text: Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are small channels that directly connect the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing living bridges between cells. Similar to the gap junctions found in animal cells, the plasmodesmata, which penetrate both the primary and secondary cell walls (see Figure 1), allow certain molecules to pass directly from one cell to another and are important in cellular communication.
The plasmodesmata is structured in an entirely different configuration than the animal cell gap junction because of the thick cell wall. Due to the presence of plasmodesmata, plant cells can be considered to form a synctium, or multinucleate mass with cytoplasmic continuity. Accordingly, the tiny channels have caused a significant amount of debate among scientists regarding cell theory, some suggesting that the cells of higher plants are not really cells at all since they are not physically separated or structurally independent from one another.
Somewhat cylindrical in shape, plasmodesmata are lined with the plasma membrane so all connected cells are united through essentially one continuous cell membrane. A majority of plasmodesmata also contain a narrow tube-like structure called the desmotubule, which is derived from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the connected cells. The desmotubule does not completely fill the plasmodesma and, consequently, a ring of shared cytoplasm is located between it and the inner surface of the membrane-lined channel. Plasmodesmata typically form during cell division when parts of the endoplasmic reticulum of the parent cell get trapped in the new cell wall that is produced to create daughter cells. Thousands of plasmodesmata may be formed

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Retrieved Text: 2) All cells carry out life activities (require energy, grow, have a limited size). Function - Organelles are found here and substances like salts may be dissolved in the cytoplasm. 3. There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER. BIO Lab: Cell Organelles Computer Lab. All cells, whether they are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have some common features. which may be used to pull two cells in close contact, and perhaps to facilitate the transfer of genetic material. Every cell in your body contains organelles (structures that have specific functions). The nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts are all organelles. Within cells, organelles tend to cluster close to where they do their job. For instance, the TEM showed that mitochondria contained two membranes and.
All cells, whether they are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have some common features that consists of a fluid portion called the cytosol and the organelles and other. Like our cells, bacteria cells have DNA and a plasma membrane. But bacteria There are two basic types of cells, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. They do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Most organelles are common to both animal and plant cells. However, plant cells also have features that animal cells do not have: a cell wall, a large central vacuole, Between these two layers is the intermembrane space.
You can do all this because you are made of cells — tiny units of life that are like There are two main types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. All cells have membranes (the building), DNA

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Retrieved Text: This lecture introduces how information is transferred from stable stored information (DNA) converted to an intermediate (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA) of variable stability, exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where mRNA is then translated into Protein. This is gene expression, the products of this process are used either within the cell, exported (exocytosis) or used to replace worn out components.
We will study this topic at the level of the cellular components and organelles involved in the process: ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles (transport and secretory). Now watch the movie in this introduction.
Please note this lecture will now be combined with endocytosis cytosine lecture.
MH - note that archive content listed above will not match exactly current lecture structure but has been selected as having similar content.
Below are some example historical research finding related to exocytosis from the JCB Archive.
1955 Ribosomes, or the particles of Palade George Palade identifies particulate components of the cytoplasm, known initially as the particles of Palade and later as ribosomes.
1956 Microsomes are the in vitro ER George Palade and Philip Siekevitz unite the fields of microscopy and fractionation in this work. They conclude that Albert Claude’s biochemical fraction called microsomes are the in vitro version of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) — a cytological feature first noted by Keith Porter.
1958 A pathway for secretion Radioactive proteins are followed after their synthesis as they progress towards their secretory fate; this allows the definition of not only trafficking pathways but of the organelles that lie along that pathway.
1966 Excess secretory products fuse with lysosomes Robert

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what are passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels?" and the following answer choices: 
- calories
 - Light
 - atmosphere
 - DNA
 - heat
 - fossil fuels
 - animals
 - photons

Now knowing that energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels and calories are units of energy, choose the best answer.

Target Text: calories

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Why are pyramids important in ecology?
The classic example of a pyramid is shown here. But the pyramid structure can also represent the decrease in a measured substance from the lowest level on up. In ecology, pyramids model the use of energy from the producers through the ecosystem.
The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The different trophic levels are defined in the Table below. Examples are also given in the table. All food chains and webs have at least two or three trophic levels. Generally, there are a maximum of four trophic levels.
Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are primary consumers when they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary consumers when they eat salmon.
Energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels. However, generally only about 10 percent of the energy at one level is available to the next level. This is represented by the ecological pyramid in Figure below. What happens to the other 90 percent of energy? It is used for metabolic processes or given off to the environment as heat. This loss of energy explains why there are rarely more than four trophic levels in a food chain or web. Sometimes there may be a fifth trophic level, but usually there’s not enough energy left to support any additional levels.
Ecological Pyramid. This pyramid shows how energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher trophic levels. Assume

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Retrieved Text: How do you calculate the osmolarity of seawater?
Ernest Z. · Kate M.
You add up the molarities of the constituent ions.
Thus, if you consider just the #"NaCl"#, the osmolarity of seawater is about 1000 mOsmol/L.
If you include the magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sulfate ions, the osmolarity is closer to 1200 mOsmol/L.
What is a trophic level, and what is the 10% rule?
What is an energy pyramid?
What is the 10% rule used in an energy pyramid?
Why do food chains rarely have more than four trophic levels?
Why should we eat from the lower part of the food chain?
What are the food web and food pyramids in the biome taiga?

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Retrieved Text: An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment. There are two parts: the entire complex of organisms, or biome, living in harmony and the habitat in which the biome exists.
Ecosystems occur at a range of different scales. Micro-habits are ecosystems that are found in small, specific locations e.g. under a stone, beneath a leaf etc. Habitats are specific locations that have conditions which the community has adapted e.g. hedgerow, pond. Zones are areas within a biome. An example of this would be one of the four layers of the rainforest. A biome is a large scale ecosystem which extends across continents. Each has its own flora and fauna. Examples include the tropical rainforest, hot desert and tundra.
The main driving force in terms of energy in all ecosystems is the sun. It provides the heat that warms up plants, animals and their abiotic environment. It also drives the water cycle and other important flows. The sun is also essential in providing energy for photosynthesis.
Once food has been used to build a plant (producer) it becomes available for other organisms to consume (consumers). These organisms become available to other organisms. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, take the remains of dead plants and animals, along with secreted waste, and converts them back to CO2 and nutrients. This flow of energy through plants and animals then back to the soil is known as a food chain.
Figure 1. below shows the flow of energy in a typical food chain. It is estimated

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Retrieved Text: Flow of energy declines as it passes from lower to higher trophiclevel.
Assertion: In a food chain members of successive higher levels are fewer innumber.
Reason: Number of organisms at any trophic level depends upon the availability of organisms which serve as food at the lowerlevel.

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Retrieved Text: The Energy Flow is Basic Function of the Ecosystem in the Environment. As it’s the study of the trophic level interaction in an Ecosystem which gives energy flow to the Ecosystem.
While the Energy Flows from Producers to the Subsequent Trophic Level Which Means Always from Producers to the Carnivores.
The Ecosystem is Related to the other Organism feeding Mechanism or Trophic Level. A Food Chain Starts with Producers to the End with Top Carnivores. Small Herbivores Are Consumers of the Vegetable and Convert them to them into the Animal Matter.
Those Consumers Which Start Their Food Chain by Utilizing the Plant Part as their Food or Food Chain Begins with Green Plants at their Base and the Primary Consumers is Herbivore. In Ecosystem there are Some Phytoplankton is eaten by the zoo Planktons which is Eaten by the Fish or by Pelicans.
A Food Chain Which Starts from Soil or Dead Organism of Decaying Animals and Plant Bodies to the Micro-Organisms ten to the Feeding Organism Called Detrivores and to other Predators.
So the Difference Between the two Chains is the Source of the Energy and First Level of the Consumers. So the Two Food Chains Are Linked with Each Other.
A collection of the Food Chain is Known as the Food Web. As the Same Food Resource is Part of More than One chain. If any of the intermediate Food Chain Removed from the System, the Succeeding Links of the Chain Will Be Affected Largely.
For Example – Grasses may Serve Food for Rabbit and Grasshopper or goat or Cow.
An Ecological

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Retrieved Text: food-chain - Chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which energy is transferred. Each link in the chain feeds on and obtains energy from the one preceding it and in turn is eaten by and provides energy for, the one following it. The number of links is usually three or four. At the beginning of the chain are green plants, and organisms whose food is obtained from green plants through the same number of links are described as belonging to the same trophic or energy level. Thus green plants occupy level one (T1), the producer level. All other levels are consumer levels. T2, herbivores, are primary consumers, T3 and T4, smaller and larger carnivores, respectively, are secondary consumers. At each trophic level much of the energy obtained is lost in respiration and thus fewer organisms can be supported at the succeeding one. Bacteria, fungi and some protozoa are consumers that operate in decomposition at all levels. All the food chains in a community make up the food-cycle or food-web.

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Retrieved Text: NEET question - With the help of a flow chart , show the phenomenon of biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain.
With the help of a flow chart , show the phenomenon of biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain.
Biomagnification is increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic levels. Toxic substances cannot be metabolised or excreted , so they got accumulated in the body of an organism. Through food chain these substances are passed to the next trophic level.
For example, DDT and mercury . The concentration of DDT is increased at successive trophic levels e.g., if there is DDT of about 0.003 ppb (parts per billion) in water, it can ultimately reach 25 ppm in fish-eating birds through biomagnification.
High concentration of DDT in birds interferes with calcium metabolism which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking. This will result in decline in bird population.

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Retrieved Text: Biotic factors would include the availability of food organisms and the presence of conspecifics, competitors, predators, and parasites. Synthetic ammonia is a key component of artificial fertilizers.
Covers questions concerning state formation, nationalism, social movements, globalization, political culture and participation, and civil society. These polymers have a dual role as supplies of energy as well as building blocks; the part that functions as energy supply results in the production of nutrients and carbon dioxide, water, and heat.
Locally made products are preferred over those shipped from a distance or made locally through mass production both of which transfer capital to outside sources.
A bioregion can be determined initially by use of climatology, physiography, animal and plant geography, natural history and other descriptive natural sciences.
Chain Reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place.
Food chains food web ecological pyramids or Reoccur is something that will happen again and come into being and be a reality. Sensitivity to it plays a role in milk allergies, Asperger's Syndrome, and Autism. Something unfortunate or hard to bear.
The final boundaries of a bioregion, however, are best described by the people who have lived within it, through human recognition of the realities of living-in-place The Baldwin Effect fills in a gap in how natural selection is thought to work by explaining how learnings normally invisible to it become innate.
Note that the total number of organisms found in any one level decreases as one goes up the pyramid. Abrasiveness also seems to be the one quality currently

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Retrieved Text: What is ecology? The scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, or surroundings.
What does the biosphere contain? Necessary things, such as land, water, and air, or atmosphere.
Why do ecologists ask questions about events and organisms that range in complexity from an individual to the biosphere? To understand the relationships within biosphere.
Ecosystem (Second highest level of organization) A collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment.
Why might an ecologist set up an artificial environment in a laboratory? To imitate and manipulate conditions that organisms would encounter.
Why are many ecological phenomena difficult to study? They occur over long periods of time or on such large spatial scales that they are difficult to study.
Why do ecologists make models? To gain insight into complex phenomena such as the effects of global warming on ecosystems.
What is at the core of every organism's interaction with the environment? The organism's need for energy to power life's processes.
What source of energy to organisms use if they don't use the sun's energy? Energy stored in inorganic chemical compounds.
What are autotrophs? Plants, some algae, and certain bacteria that capture energy from the sunlight or chemicals and use that energy to produce food.
Why are autotrophs also called producers? They make their own food.
What do autotrophs do during photosynthesis? They harness solar energy.
What is chemosynthesis? When organisms use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.
Where do bacteria that carry out chemosynthesis live? Very remote places on Earth such as volcanic vents on the deep-ocean floor

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Retrieved Text: The effects of herbivore immigration rates and nutrient enrichment on the dynamics of grazing insect larvae, benthic microalgae, and filamentous macroalgae recovering from low local densities in an open stream are studied. It hypothesized that macroalgae should benefit more strongly than microalgae from increasing nutrient levels and decreasing grazer immigration rates, because both conditions increase macroalgal chances to grow in to a size refuge from herbivory.
Author: Diehl, Sebastian, Roll, Sandra K., Cooper, Scott D.
The effects of nutrient enrichment and tropic structure in a microbial food web consisting of mixed bacteria, two bacterviorous ciliates and an omnivorous ciliate feeding on both trophic levels are experimentally investigated. All possible food webs including one or more of the ciliate species and cross-classified them with four levels of enrichment of the bacterial medium are assembled.
The complexity of trophic interactions is manipulated by using simple laboratory food webs and complex field food webs in enclosures in Lake Erken. It is concluded that the higher food web complexity through the presence of pelagic primary producers influences the direction and strength of trophic and stoichiometric interactions.

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Retrieved Text: Question 1: What are the three types of food web classifications?
Connectedness webs: emphasize feeding relationships, based on observations of who ingests what. Who eats who?
Energy flow webs: weight interaction strengths by flux of energy, require measures of food and energy consumed, and generally show dominance of a small number of species. Who gets energy from what?
Functional webs: emphasize influence of individual species on the growth rate of other species. Revealed by removal experiments and may not correspond to energy flux. This tries to explain how the rest of the web is influenced by a single species by estimating effects of removal or insertion of a single species.
Question 2: What is the difference between top down and bottom up theories of the trophic cascades?
Bottom Up: nutrients or plants control relative abundance of upper trophic levels. Plants or nutrients are the limiting factor in trophic level interactions.
Top Down: Predators control the population of next trophic level down.
Question 3: Considering a top down trophic cascade, how might sea otters indirectly affect the abundance of kelp forests?
Sea otters feed on sea urchins who in turn feed on kelp. When there are healthy populations of sea otters, kelp forests are more prominent because sea otters control the population of sea urchins. The top down trophic cascade described here, the sea otter depresses the trophic level it feeds on, indirectly increasing the biomass of the next lower trophic level below it (kelp).
Question 4: What is Disturbance?
An unpredictable event that varies in magnitude and frequency. Can create a trigger for some species to

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Retrieved Text: The biodiversity of ecosystems worldwide is changing because of species loss due to human-caused extinctions and species gain through intentional and accidental introductions. Here we show that the combined effect of these two processes is altering the trophic structure of food webs in coastal marine systems. This is because most extinctions (∼70%) occur at high trophic levels (top predators and other carnivores), while most invasions are by species from lower trophic levels (70% macroplanktivores, deposit feeders, and detritivores). These opposing changes thus alter the shape of marine food webs from a trophic pyramid capped by a diverse array of predators and consumers to a shorter, squatter configuration dominated by filter feeders and scavengers. The consequences of the simultaneous loss of diversity at top trophic levels and gain at lower trophic levels is largely unknown. However, current research suggests that a better understanding of how such simultaneous changes in diversity can impact ecosystem function will be required to manage coastal ecosystems and forecast future changes.
Copyright: © 2007 Byrnes et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Funding and other support for this study was provided by the UC Davis IGERT on Biological Invasions (NSF-DGE No. 0114432) and the National Science Foundation Biological Oceanography program (OCE 03-17778 to JJS).
The biodiversity of ecosystems around the world is being altered by species loss due to extinction from human activities  and gain through

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Retrieved Text: General Ecology - Welcome to The Frog Pad!
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them. Ecology also provides information about the benefits of ecosystems and how we can use Earth's resources in ways that leave the environment healthy for future generations.
Ecologists study interactions at multiple levels. Some ecologists focus on how individual organisms respond to their environment. Other ecologists are more interested in how organisms of the same species interact with each other in populations. Still others spend their days examining how whole populations interact with other populations in a community. And, at a higher level, some ecologists focus on the big picture, studying the interactions between all of the living and nonliving elements in a given area, or ecosystem.
Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources.
A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem. Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move through the ecosystem. All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.
Organisms in food webs are grouped into categories called trophic levels. Roughly speaking, these levels are divided into producers (first trophic level), consumers, and decomposers (last trophic level).
Producers make up the first trophic level. Producers, also known as autotrophs, make their own food

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Retrieved Text: Chapter #5- Guided Reading! - AP Environmental Science!
1: Define: Community EffectIs when species in an ecosystem affect another species indirectly.
Sea otters are considered a keystone species in an ecosystem because they affect both Sea urchins and kelp. Sea Otters reduce the number of sea urchins, the less sea urchins the less damage there is to the kelp.
3: Why were Sea Otters endangered and how did their numbers rebound?
The Sea otters where endangered because they have the finest furs in the world and they would eat abalone which is a prized seafood for us humans, during the 18th and 19th century. But they bounded back due to legal protection by the U.S. government.
Is an ecosystem that has 2 major parts non living and living. Non living is the physical-chemical environment that includes the atmosphere, water,etc. While the living part is that is called ecological community, is the set of species that interact within the ecosystem.
2: What two main processes must occur to maintain an ecosystem?
A cycling of chemical elements and a flow of energy. They are necessary for all life, but no single species can carry out all the necessary chemical cycling and energy flow alone.
1: What is the difference between a food chain and a food web?
A food chain are the compounds from creature to creature, while the the food web has more linkage than the food chain.
Consists of all organisms in an food web that are the same number of feeding levles away from the orignial energy source.
Autotrophs are the self eaters such as plants.

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Retrieved Text: Sensors provide computer systems with a window to the outside world. Activity recognition "sees" what is in the window to predict the locations, trajectories, actions, goals and plans of humans and objects. Building an activity recognition system requires a full range of interaction from statistical inference on lower level sensor data to symbolic AI at higher levels, where prediction results and acquired knowledge are passed up each level to form a knowledge food chain. In this talk, I will give an overview of activity recognition and explore its relation to other fields, including planning and knowledge acquisition, machine learning and Web search. I will also describe its applications in assistive technologies, security monitoring and mobile commerce.

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Retrieved Text: The accumulation of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in various tissues of a living organism: the bioaccumulation of mercury in fish.
The accumulation of chemicals or nutrients in a living organism against an inorganic background (e.g., the external environment), which is due to a high partition coefficient and resistance to degradation by the bioaccumulating organism.
the process of concentration of chemical contaminents in animal tissues as they move higher up the food chain e.g. pesticides and heavy metals stored in fatty tissues are passed on from one predator to a higher predator, the resulting concentrations being increasingly harmful and most so to the top predators.
process producing an increase in the concentration of chemicals (usually toxins) in the tissues of organisms with each increase in the trophic level in the food chain. Examples include chlorinated hydrocarbons which reach their greatest concentrations in predatory birds and pelicans, and ciguatera in which the toxins are concentrated in large predatory fish such as gropers, barracudas and mackerel.

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Retrieved Text: A series of organisms interrelated in their feeding habits, the smallest getting fed upon by a larger one, which in turn feeds a nevertheless bigger one. Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the dependence of the organisms at a provided level on the organisms at decrease level. Plotting the power will constantly give a accurate pyramid mainly because it is impossible to generate new power so a trophic level will always be smaller sized than the one beneath it. Just after we played the game, I study to them from a Delta Science Module book on Food Chains and Food Webs which explains how energy is transferred.
Producer organisms (normally green plants) kind the base of the pyramid, with succeeding levels above representing the unique trophic levels (respective position of the organisms inside ecological food chains). For my class, it is a assessment of a concept learned in third grade and a excellent introduction to the a lot more complicated meals internet. We had been able to see uncomplicated chains very first, then function our way up to complete chains – total with decomposers.
An energy pyramid is usually upright as the total quantity of power readily available for utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the reduce levels. A meals chain ought to be very straightforward, one thing you have been studying given that main school but now we’ll take it to the subsequent level. Similarly, all living issues get energy from their food so that they can move and develop. There

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Retrieved Text: Few studies have examined lakes or wide swaths of ocean areas, leaving critical data gaps in how plastic pollution affects wildlife and moves across food webs.
Although it seems like volumes have been written recently about the ubiquitous plastic pollution in the world’s waterways, a new report finds major gaps in where we’ve looked and what we know.
Few, if any, studies have been done in critical regions like the waters off populous coastal Asia, according to the research overview published online today in the journal Environmental Reviews. The paper also shows that most of the focus has been on oceans, with food web impacts in lakes and other freshwater ecosystems largely unknown.
Little is known about how up to 12.7 million metric tons of plastics entering the ocean every year move through aquatic food webs.
Plastics pollution is currently “a hot topic,” said lead author Jennifer Provencher, head of the Wildlife Health Unit for the Canadian Wildlife Service’s Wildlife Management and Regulatory Affairs Division, based in Gatineau, Quebec. But despite a spate of recent studies, relatively little is known about how up to 12.7 million metric tons of plastics entering the ocean every year—and unknown amounts making their way into streams, rivers, and lakes—move through aquatic food webs.
In an effort to compile current knowledge and identify key research needs, Provencher and colleagues reviewed 160 recent field studies that reported plastic ingestion by animals. They found that most of the research so far has been concentrated in the same few geographic regions, ecosystems, and species.
The review included academic papers published

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Retrieved Text: Ten Percent Law: Ten percent law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by Lindeman (1942). According to this law, during the transfer of energy from organic food from one trophic level to the next, only about ten percent of the of energy from organic matter is stored as flesh. The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete digestion by higher trophic levels. The ten percent law suggests or implies that exactly 90% of the energy is lost in the transfer at each trophic level, and that only 10% is passed on as useable biological energy. That implied preciseness is misleading, however, and is one of the reasons that many scientists discount the concept, even label it a myth. Instead, it should be considered a rule of thumb, a teaching device, or perhaps best, a mnemonic device that serves as a reminder of the striking inefficiencies of natural systems.

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Retrieved Text: What is bio concentration of pesticides?
Bio concentration of pesticides means accumulation of pesticides in the living organisms like plants, men and animals.
Pesticides are poisonous chemical substances which are sprayed over crops to protect them from pests i.e. small harmful animals and diseases. These chemical pesticides mix up with the soil and water. From soil and water, these pesticides are absorbed by the growing plants along with water and other minerals.
When herbivorous animals eat plant food then these poisonous chemical pesticides go into their bodies through the food chain. Similarly when the carnivorous eat herbivores then the pesticides get transferred to their bodies. Human beings eat plant food as well as herbivores. So the pesticides present in plant food and herbivores also get transferred to the man’s body through food. In this way the pesticides enter the food chain at the producer level i.e. plant level and in the process of transfer of food through trophic levels, these harmful chemicals get concentrated at each trophic level. This is called bio concentration of pesticides.

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Retrieved Text: Doing further harm to our understanding, he (Michael Pollan in “Omnivore’s Dilemma”) does not accurately report our connections and our relationships to ecosystems through food choices. He writes, “The Omnivore’s Dilemma is about the three principal food chains that sustain us today: the industrial, the organic, and the hunter-gatherer.” Though sharing some similarities with food chains, the first two are at best methods of production with the third being methods of acquiring food. Claiming that hunter-gatherers are a food chain instead of a method of procuring food is an idea I hope readers will see as obviously misapplied.
When Pollan applies an ecological term like food chains to organic and industrial methods of food production, he is comparing plots of land under agriculture to nonagricultural food chains that occur inecosystems. In botanical agriculture, one can plant and harvest rice by hand (nonindustrial), then use pesticides and herbicides, and thereby not be organic. Those are aspects of production. They are not food chains. A cropped field is a very narrow view of the larger biological world. Food chains describe the interconnectedness of food energy flowing through species but farms are not the same as the ecosystems they are embedded within.
Here we continue with a description of what food chains are—a far cry from what Michael Pollan is telling you.Food chains describe the procession of species, one consuming another. They are complex biological relationships that never leave ecosystems. If a lion eats you, then you are part of her food chain, as iswhat you ate. When a sea lion

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Retrieved Text: © 2014 Hertz et al.
In aquatic systems, the ratio of predator mass to prey mass (PPMR) is an important constraint on food web structure, and has been correlated with environmental stability. One common approach of estimating PPMR uses nitrogen stable isotopes (δ15N) as an indicator of trophic position, under the assumption that the discrimination between diet and tissue is constant with increasing diet δ15N (an additive approach). However, recent studies have shown that this assumption may not be valid, and that there is a negative trend between the δ15N of the diet and the discrimination value (a scaled approach). We estimated PPMR for a simulated food web using the traditional additive approach and improved scaled approach, before testing our predictions with isotope samples from a North Sea food web. Our simulations show that the additive approach gives incorrect estimates of PPMR, and these biases are reflected in North Sea PPMR estimates. The extent of the bias is dependent on the baseline δ15N and trophic level sampled, with the greatest differences for samples with low baseline δ15N sampled at lower trophic levels. The scaled approach allows for the comparison of PPMR across varying δ15N baselines and trophic levels, and will refine estimates of PPMR.
This preprint is the original submission of a recently accepted article in Marine Ecology Progress Series. We will update this preprint with the revised version once the article is published online.
Eric Hertz conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, wrote the paper, prepared figures and/or tables, reviewed drafts of the

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Retrieved Text: The characteristic structure of an ecosystem is obtained by the systematic physical organisation of the abiotic and biotic components of that particular ecosystem.
'The amount of organic matter or biomass produced by an individual organism, population, community or ecosystem during a given period of time is called productivity'.
Energy is the capacity to do work. Solar energy is transformed into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, and is stored in plant tissue and then transformed into mechanical and heat forms during metabolic activities.
The storage and expenditure of energy in an ecosystem is in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics (basic laws of thermodynamics).
Food chain is a series of groups of organisms called trophic levels, in which, there is repeated eating and eaten by so as to transfer food energy.
There is repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller one and is eaten by the larger one. Thus, it involves a nutritive interaction between the biotic components of an ecosystem.
Grazing food chain is generally seen in ecosystems such as grassland, pond or lake where a substantial part of the net primary production is grazed on by herbivores (cattle and rodents). Usually upto 50% of the NPP is grazed on by these animals in their respective ecosystems and the remaining 50% goes to the decomposer organisms as dead organic matter. Thus, in these ecosystems, the food chain is herbivore based.
These are directly dependent upon solar radiations as the primary source of energy and the producers (green plants) synthesize their plant biomass by the process of photosynthesis. Producers form

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Retrieved Text: Which of the following adaptations is/are found in the mangrove plants?
Turn their leaves to reduce exposure to the sunlight.
Mangroves can restrict the opening of their stomata. Allows the mangrove to preserve fresh water, vital to survive in a saline environment.
– The pneumatophores allow the plant to breath, however also change in size to stop the intake of salt from the water.
– Accumulation/ storage—in some mangroves, salt accumulates in selected parts of the plant, for example in some leaves, until it reaches a certain concentration. That part of the plant is then shed.
– Excretion— salt glands on the surface of their leaves, which release salt.
Which of the following are responsible for land degradation?
Itai-itai disease was the name given to the mass cadmium poisoning of Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting around 1912. Cadmium poisoning can also cause softening of the bones and kidney failure.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan, in 1956.
Which of the following pyramids can be both upright and inverted?
A “pyramid of numbers” shows graphically the population of each level in a food chain. Often, there are more producers than consumers, however, it can also be seen in many ecosystems that there are more primary consumers than producers.
A “pyramid of biomass” shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an energy community at a particular time. It is a graphical representation of biomass present in unit area in different tropic levels.

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Retrieved Text: The purpose of this course is to provide junior- and senior-level students with a background in biological oceanography and biogeochemistry of ocean systems. The format of the course is based on the relative abundance and biomass of marine organisms. Because unicellular organisms comprise the majority of living carbon in the ocean, and are essential to both elemental cycles and ecosystem function, the course will focus on bacteria, viruses, and phytoplankton in the ocean, and their roles in marine food webs. The course will also cover higher trophic levels (plants through cetaceans), especially their interactions with lower trophic levels in both food webs and as pathogens. Finally, the course will address nutrient and microbial pollution in context of a changing climate. This course will equip students with foundations for further courses in ocean sciences and environmental dynamics.
Prerequisites/Corequisites Prerequisite: introductory biology for majors; BIOEE 1610 or permission of instructor.

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Retrieved Text: Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution currently is responsible for most of the water quality impairments in the United States. NPS pollution occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation runs over land or through the ground and picks up pollutants such as nutrients, road salt, and sediments. These pollutants are then deposited into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters or introduced into ground water, resulting in ecological impairments to aquatic ecosystems. NPS pollution is widespread and associated with numerous activities, including agriculture, forestry, grazing, septic systems, recreational boating, urban runoff, and construction. It is critical that we understand how NPS pollution impacts aquatic ecosystems. In this study, scientists at Grand Valley State University's Annis Water Resources Institute are conducting an experimental investigation that simulates NPS-contributing events in the lower Muskegon River watershed. This project is aimed at better understanding the impacts of NPS pollution on lower trophic levels, which form the base of the food web that ultimately supports the fisheries in this region. A unique aspect of this research is the comparison of how the different trophic levels (i.e., bacteria, algae, and macroinvertebrates) respond to NPS pollution among different habitats (river, wetland, and lake) and during different seasons. This multi-habitat approach will give us new insight on how NPS pollution impacts different biological communities living in different environments and how these impacts change seasonally.

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Retrieved Text: For most animals, there are few things as important as reproduction and the survival of their offspring. Likewise, selecting safe nesting sites is an important matter for birds, as it is directly related to the survival of their eggs and chicks, and it would be logical for birds to choose nest sites with a reduced rate of exposure to predators. It may therefore surprise you to know that the nest survival rates of the black-chinned hummingbird, also known as the Archilochus alexandri, are higher when nests are built closer to the nests of the northern goshawk, the Accipiter gentilis, or to those of Cooper’s hawk, the Accipiter cooperii. At first glance, this makes no sense; after all, hawks are one of the most formidable predators in the avian world, and hummingbirds would hardly be expected to come into their proximity, much less become their neighbors. However, predator-prey relationships are rarely so simple, and when a mesopredator — a predator at the middle level of the food chain — is involved, the presence of a hawk may in fact prove to be beneficial for hummingbirds and their nests.
In this case, the Mexican jay, the Aphelocoma wollweberi, is the mesopredator, and while Mexican jays are known to devour hummingbird eggs and chicks, they are also preyed upon by other predators such as hawks. Hummingbirds, however, are too small to serve as a food source for hawks, and face no risk of predation from them. Hawks swoop down from perches in horizontal or descending chases to hunt, meaning that

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Retrieved Text: BIOMAGNIFICATION - Phytoplankton absorb PCBs passing the chemical to zooplankton, to herring, then salmon and seals (not shown) and finally to large cetaceans that eat fish and marine mammals.
Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or humans. The substances become concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted.
An anchovy eats zoo-plankton that have tiny amounts of mercury that the zoo-plankton has picked up from the water throughout the anchovies lifespan. A tuna eats many of these anchovies over its life, accumulating the mercury in each of those anchovies into its body. If the mercury stunts the growth of the anchovies, that tuna is required to eat more little fish to stay alive. Because there are more little fish being eaten, the mercury content is magnified.
CARRIER - This is just a small sample of the plastic packaging that you will find in retails stores all over the world (and some fishing rope). A good proportion of this packaging - around 8 millions tons a year, will end up in our oceans, in the gut of the fish we eat, in the stomachs of seabirds and in

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Retrieved Text: Using the Bay of Biscay and Celtic Sea area as a case study, we showed how stock-assessments and trophic models can be useful and complementary tools to quantify the fishing impacts on the whole food web and to draw related diagnoses at the scale of marine ecosystems. First, an integrated synthesis of the status and trends in fish stocks, derived from ICES assessments, was consolidated at the ecosystem level. Then, using the well-known Ecopath and Ecosim and the more recently developed EcoTroph approach, we built advice-oriented ecosystem models structured around the stocks assessed by ICES. We especially analysed trends over the last three decades and investigated the potential ecosystem effects of the recent decrease observed in the overall fishing pressure. The Celtic/Biscay ecosystem appeared heavily fished during the 1980–2015 period. Some stocks would have started to recover recently, but changes in species composition seem to lead to more rapid and less efficient transfers within the food web. This could explain why the biomass of intermediate and high trophic levels increased at lower rates than anticipated from the decrease in the fishing pressure. We conclude that, in the frame of the Ecosystem approach to fisheries management, trophic models are key tools to expand stock assessment results at the scale of the whole ecosystem, and to reveal changes occurring in the global parameters of the trophic functioning of ecosystems.

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Retrieved Text: This week's In The News addresses recent findings (published in the October 16, 1998 issue of Science) that killer whale predation on sea otters in the North Pacific has "created an ecological chain reaction in nearshore ecosystems." Such ecological chain reactions refer to the disruption of the complex balance between predator and prey species. Killer whales, which traditionally fed on the (now scarce) Steller sea lions and harbor seals, have recently shifted their diet to sea otters. The resulting decline in sea otters has, in turn, led to an increase in sea urchins (sea otter prey), which in turn have deforested many kelp (seaweed) beds in the nearshore marine community. Although killer whales are playing a critical role in the current disruption, this chain of interactions "was probably initiated by anthropogenic changes in the offshore oceanic ecosystem" -- namely, the region's burgeoning fisheries, higher ocean temperatures, and the depletion of baleen whales. Similar "trophic cascades" have been well documented for lakes and in other systems (e.g. Snow Geese in the Arctic), but this research provides a new example of a disrupted food web that may reach a wider audience -- as it involves several highly charismatic vertebrates. The nine resources above describe the recent scientific findings, provide background information on food webs, and offer several resources for understanding ecological (trophic) chain reactions.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Photosynthesis is when what converts from carbon dioxide, water and solar energy into carbohydrates?" and the following answer choices: 
- plants
 - reproduction
 - fish
 - making
 - cells
 - Light
 - mitosis
 - photons

Now knowing that photosynthesis means producers convert from carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy into carbohydrates for themselves and green plants are producers , choose the best answer.

Target Text: plants

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: The main end products of respiration are CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water, which are used as the starting material for Photosynthesis, and photosynthesis converts them into glucose and O2 (oxygen).
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all energy rich carbon compounds used by all organisms; it is responsible for the continual supply of atmospheric O2 (oxygen), without which all the aerobic organisms, that use oxygen would not exist.
Green plants, algae, some unicellular green flagellates and 2 bacteria groups are the only organisms that photosynthesize. Each year they release half of all the O2 (oxygen) in the atmosphere.
Plants use CO2 (carbon dioxide) when they produce O2 (oxygen). CO2 is converted to O2 during photosynthesis. At the same time, animals through their respiration process use this O2 from their metabolism and replace it with CO2, which is then used by plants to begin the cycle again.
Photosynthesis is a solar powered process. SUNLIGHT is a key component of the process.
Light is a form of ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY. When light meets matter, it can be reflected, transmitted or ABSORBED.
PIGMENT absorbs light. Plant pigment, CHLOROPHYLL (the main light-absorbing molecule of green plants), is a pigment that absorbs LIGHT ENERGY.
Chlorophyll is found in specialized structures called CHLOROPLAST; they give plants their green color. Each chloroplast contains all the chlorophyll and enzymes needed to complete the complex chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll participates directly in LIGHT REACTIONS.
The site of photosynthesis is typically the leaf of green plants. Each cell has about 30 to 40 chloroplast.
The large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants allows it

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to renewable energy, biomass energy is one of the oldest types. Biomass energy uses organic materials such as plants and animal waste that is available readily. It is a very renewable and unique form of energy, thanks to the process by which it is made.
To make biomass energy, a few simple things are needed. These things include solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Biomass energy is mostly sourced from plants. My friend who is an Austin locksmith really is passionate about this topic.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants manufactured biomass energy. This is done when energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll then converted to carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. As the carbohydrates burn, the carbon dioxide and water are converted back and release energy into the atmosphere from the sun.
Trees are another source of biomass energy, working much the same way as other plants. Many times, this process is done by the conventional processes of burning wood as fuel. This can also be done through trimming and thinning of trees, though, as well as through operations such as park management and tree surgery. We can obtain biomass fuel from almost any type of tree that is considered a category of Virgin would, meaning it hasn’t been used for any other purpose. You can also specifically grow energy crops that can be used to obtain biomass fuel directly.
There are many reasons why you should consider using biomass as an energy source. Of course, the most obvious reason is because it is renewable. There

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide makes up less than one half of one percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. However, it plays an important role in temperature regulation. Carbon dioxide is transparent to short-wave solar radiation, but not to long-wave infrared radiation. When energy rises from the ground, carbon dioxide traps infrared radiation and prevents some of it from leaving the atmosphere. This causes the Earth’s surface to become warmer.
Sedimentary rocks often contain carbon. When tectonic plates collide, and one plate subducts beneath another, the rocks in the bottom plate are crushed. They recombine to form new minerals, releasing carbon dioxide. When a volcano erupts, it ejects this carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
All organic matter is made of carbon, and carbon is released whenever living things die and decay.
When they are alive, living creatures constantly release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
This is part of a cyclical process. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and, using energy from the sun, combine carbon dioxide and water to create sugar and oxygen. This process is known as photosynthesis.
Plants and animals use these plant sugars for energy. To do this, they break the sugars down, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Plants can use some of this carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis again.
Human activity is a very important source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. People have been causing carbon dioxide levels to increase since Neolithic times, when we developed agriculture and began clearing forests to make room for crops. By burning trees or chopping them down and allowing them to decay, we released

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis (English pronunciation: /foʊtoʊˈsɪnθəsɪs/; from the Greek φώτο- [photo-], "light," and σύνθεσις [synthesis], "putting together", "composition") is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. In addition to maintaining normal levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, photosynthesis is the source of energy for nearly all life on earth, either directly, through primary production, or indirectly, as the ultimate source of the energy in their food, the exceptions being chemoautotrophs that live in rocks or around deep sea hydrothermal vents. The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization. As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all, photosynthetic organisms convert around 100–115 petagrams of carbon into biomass per year.
Although photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. Some

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Retrieved Text: Sorry plants, but you just got shown up.
Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have discovered how to harness solar power to turn carbon dioxide into fuel. That’s exactly what plants do every day with photosynthesis, but this newly discovered process does the job even better than nature does.
“It is possible to take sunlight, CO2, and water, and in an artificial system make hydrocarbons with an efficiency that’s greater than that of photosynthesis,” Joel Ager, lead author of the study, tells Inverse. Hydrocarbons are just any molecules made of hydrogen and carbon, and their ability to store energy has made them the main energy source for the planet.
If the system can break out of the lab, it could help fuel the world without relying on high-polluting and globally warming fossil fuels like oil and gas. And there’s plenty of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide around — indeed, far more of the latter these days than there should be.
As the researchers detail Wednesday in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, the researchers used a photovoltaic solar cell to split carbon dioxide in water, producing the desired hydrocarbon fuel molecules like ethanol, as well as oxygen-based molecules.
This is the first time scientists have managed to go straight from carbon dioxide to a finished, basically ready-to-use fuel, without having to do any more costly chemical manipulation. Improvements in the solar cell technology powering the experiment also let the researchers convert the energy at levels plants could only imagine.
A drawing of how the solar-powered fuel system works to convert C02 using

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Retrieved Text: Carl Bernacchi's primary employer is the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the the United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA). He has funding from the USDA ARS and from Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that is engineering crops to photosynthesize more efficiently to sustainably increase worldwide food productivity with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR), and the U.K. Government’s Department for International Development (DFID).
Ivan Baxter works for the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and has received funding from the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, The USDA-ARS and Cotton Inc.
Researchers around the world are trying to figure out ways to feed a growing population, which is estimated to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050. But as humanity struggles to increase crop yield, might nutritional quality of crops suffer?
The process that allows plants to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air into stored sugars and fats – carbohydrates – that ultimately lead to growth is called photosynthesis. These carbohydrates end up in what farmers harvest. Plants also absorb minerals from the soil, which are critical for them to survive. These minerals also end up in the food farmers harvest. Therefore, plants are critical to human health both in terms of calories from carbohydrates and minerals in our diets.
For several decades, studies have consistently revealed that higher carbon dioxide levels produce higher yields of most crops. However, there are very few real-world, field experiments on major crops that examine the impact

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Retrieved Text: cures.cflogy - bestwritepaperessay Resources and Information.
❶According to Cheong Xin Chan and Debashish Bhattacharya of Rutgers University Nature Education, , the double-membraned plastids in plants and algae are referred to as primary plastids, while the multiple-membraned variety found in plankton are called secondary plastids.
What makes us successful? Photosynthesis homework help is successful because we cater to needs and wants of our students first. There problem is major and we try our level best to teach them simplified ways to solve them.
Many students feel nervous to deal with assignments alone. But our expert team members sit with you discuss materials and try to know what weak points and strong points one has.
So, if you are interested, register with us now and enjoy our services! Enter your keyword Search. Home Photosynthesis Homework Help. The process of photosynthesis is very simple and each and every organism performs this in different actions: The first process starts when energy is transferred through system of antenna chlorophyll.
It takes about femtosecond to picosecond. Second step starts when there is transferring of proper electrons in reactions of phototchemicals. It takes about picosecond to nanosecond. The reactions of plant photosynthesis are divided into those that require the presence of sunlight and those that do not. Both types of reactions take place in chloroplasts: Light-dependent reactions also called light reactions: When a photon of light hits the reaction center, a pigment molecule such as chlorophyll releases an electron.
As a result, oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Light-independent reactions also called dark reactions: During this process carbon dioxide

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Retrieved Text: All organisms require a continuous supply of energy in order to stay alive. This energy can be obtained by the absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis, the absorption of chemical potential energy from large molecules or obtained by certain chemical reactions, which can be carried out by some specialised bacteria. Almost all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, either directly or indirectly. The process of photosynthesis is vital since it supplies organisms with both an energy supply and useful carbon compounds. Photosynthesis supplies humans with the food they use as an energy source, the oxygen we need to release the energy from this food source, and a huge variety of useful products such as wood, coal and natural gas.
The light-independent stage uses the ATP and NADP made during the first stage to convert carbon dioxide into simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can then be transformed into a large number of other organic molecules.
Investigating Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis.
How plants have adapted or become acclimatised to shade.

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of sugars. In a process driven by light energy, glucose molecules are constructed from water and carbon dioxide, and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The glucose molecules provide organisms with two crucial resources: Energy and fixed-organic-carbon.
Photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, and some bacteria, play a key ecological role. They introduce chemical energy and fixed carbon into ecosystems by using light to synthesize sugars. Since these organisms produce their own food-that is, fix their own carbon-using light energy, they are called photoautotrophs.
And can be translated as six water molecules plus six carbon dioxide molecules yields one molecule of sugar and six oxygen molecules.
It is one of the most important reactions on the planet because it is the source of nearly all of the world’s oxygen. Hydrogen which is produced when the water is split could potentially be a green and unlimited source of renewable energy.
The apparent incompatibility between the increasing energy demand, environmental awareness, and the excessive consumption of finite fossil fuels has spurred incessant research endeavors in seeking renewable and green energy resources to maintain the sustainability of our society. Solar energy, as an inexhaustible clean energy source that powers all the life on the Earth, is considered to be the most exploitable one. The conversion and utilization of solar energy for chemical fuel production and environmental remediation through artificial photocatalysis has been recognized to be an ideal scheme to address the worldwide energy and environmental concerns. Essentially, there

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Retrieved Text: Plants capture and store solar energy through photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, living plants convert carbon dioxide in the air into sugar molecules they use for food. In the process of making their own food, plants also provide the oxygen we need to breathe. Thus, plants provide the energy and air required by most life forms on Earth. Plant productivity also plays a major role in the global carbon cycle by absorbing some of the carbon dioxide released when people burn coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. The carbon plants absorb becomes part of leaves, roots, stalks or tree trunks, and ultimately, the soil.
The maps above show one way to monitor the carbon “metabolism” of Earth’s vegetation. They show net primary productivity, which is how much carbon dioxide vegetation takes in during photosynthesis minus how much carbon dioxide the plants release during respiration (metabolizing sugars and starches for energy). The data come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. Values range from near 0 grams of carbon per square meter per day (tan) to 6.5 grams per square meter per day (dark green). A negative value means decomposition or respiration overpowered carbon absorption; more carbon was released to the atmosphere than the plants took in.
In mid-latitudes, productivity is obviously tied to seasonal change, with productivity peaking in each hemisphere’s summer. The boreal forests of Canada and Russia experience high productivity in June and July and then a slow decline through fall and winter. Year-round, tropical forests in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: A photosystem, showing the absorption of a photon by a pigment molecule and the transfer of this energy to the reaction centre. InRenger expressed the idea of internal changes of water molecules into typical oxides in different S-states during water splitting.
There is simply not enough sunlight to warrant the amount of energy spent in growing the leaves. These organisms make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun.
Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen. At the RC is a pair of P chlorophyll molecules. Vascular bundle — these are tissues that form part of the transport system of the plant.
There is also much room for error in calculating such enormous processes. Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport water, dissolved minerals and food to and from the leaves. The leaves are made up of very small cells.
During these reactions light energy is converted to chemical energy.
These different types of pigment absorb light of different wavelengths. This is an excellent introduction to the subject at an undergraduate level.
It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. And chlorophyll is found in all plants because it is the molecule that absorbs the light that is used to make sugar.
In these light-independent or dark reactions, carbon is broken away from carbon dioxide and combined with hydrogen via the Calvin cycle to create carbohydrates. Numerous research projects are focusing on achieving this with a variety of plant species. The energy that

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Retrieved Text: 3 What Enzymes Does Mercury Inhibit?
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that plants and algae use to convert light energy, water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In the light reactions, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy and harnesses it to create the high-energy molecules ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon in the Calvin cycle.
In the chloroplasts of plant cells there are a series of enzymes and other proteins called photosystems I and II. Some of these proteins hold chlorophyll molecules and, when chlorophyll is struck by a photo of light, an electron becomes energized and water molecules bind. An enzyme in photosystem II splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The energized electron is then passed along through another enzyme called the cytochrome b6-f complex, which in turn pumps positively charged hydrogen molecules across a membrane to create a store of potential energy. An enzyme called ATP synthase uses that potential energy to synthesize a molecule called ATP, which is the most common energy currency for cells, and which is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain a second light-capturing mechanism called photosystem I, which acts similarly to photosystem II, except that the end result is a molecule called NADPH instead of ATP. Photosystem I is connected to photosystem II by a small protein called plastocyanin, which donates electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what are formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock and dissolving limestone?" and the following answer choices: 
- aqueous solution
 - barrel-shaped
 - Calcium carbonate
 - Greenhouse gasses
 - hidden caves
 - a solute
 - swamp vegetation
 - a hydraulic system

Now knowing that acavern is formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock and dissolving limestone and caverns Secrets are hidden in caves, choose the best answer.

Target Text: hidden caves

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Karst is a type of land surface that is formed over limestone, dolomite, or gypsum by dissolving or dissolution, and is characterized by closed depressions or sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage system. From the Slavic word Kras- meaning “bleak waterless place”.-source Glossary of Geology, 1974, American Geological Institute.
Karst development in Ohio is fairly widespread throughout the western half of the state. However, detailed karst hydrogeologic (groundwater) studies of the region have been seriously lacking. Recent studies by Tintera (1980), Tintera & Forsyth (1980), Kihn (1988) and Miller (2001) identified various karst features and have greatly increased our knowledge of the geology of the area and the groundwater system, which underlies it.
Landforms, which develop as a result of rock being dissolved (dissolution), such a as limestone, dolomite, marble, gypsum, and salt are collectively known as karst. The distinct features of a karst landscape include sinkholes, caves, large springs, dry valleys and shrinking steams. These systems are characterized by the gravity flow of weak carbon dioxide (CO2) charged groundwater percolating through fractures and openings that enlarge as the bedrock dissolves. Surface water, i.e. rain or snowmelt, drains rapidly into the subsurface system recharging it. Consequently, within the recharge area, there are no significant surface systems developed.
Our original karst area begins south and west of the caverns and extends northward to Sandusky Bay. The undulating or rolling topography of small hills and depressions is the surface expression of the subsurface condition. Although masked by glacial till from Pleistocene Ice Age, the karst landscape remains the predominate landform in this

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Retrieved Text: Natural Tunnel State Park offers glimpses into both historic and prehistoric periods. The tunnel itself formed as the result of groundwater containing carbonic acid seeping through and dissolving massive limestone deposits to create a cave that grew to 850 feet in length and 100 feet in height with the assistance of some blasting. Fossils can be seen along the bed of Stock Creek, which traverses the tunnel, as well as on the tunnel walls. Former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan called Natural Tunnel the Eighth Wonder of the World, and visitors have been flocking here for more than 100 years. Because of its location in the shadow of the Cumberland Gap, through which the country’s earliest settlers crossed on their westward passage, it should come as little surprise that Daniel Boone is thought to have been one of the first Europeans to view this natural wonder. But it was not written about until Col. Stephen Long did so in the March 1832 Monthly American Journal of Geology and Natural Science. Final blasting was done to open both ends of the tunnel to allow for the South Atlantic and Ohio Railroad to lay down tracks and pass through, and coal trains continue to do so.
One of Virginia's best trails, Natural Tunnel State Park is located near Duffield, VA. Trails' printable online topo maps offer shaded and un-shaded reliefs, and aerial photos too. Use topographic maps to find elevation, print high resolution maps, save a PNG, or just learn the topography around Natural Tunnel State Park. You

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Retrieved Text: Below the ground in Florida lies a layer of porous limestone or dolostone known as the Floridan Aquifer. This aquifer is the primary source of Florida's drinking water. It is one of the largest aquifers in the United States, extending across Florida and through parts of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. Above and below the aquifer are other layers of gravel, sand, clay, dolomite, or limestone.
In some places, the Floridan Aquifer's limestone layers are thousands of feet thick; in others, the layers are thin. Some places these limestones are far below the ground surface, and some places they are the ground surface. Water is able to flow through the limestone's many interconnected holes and empty spaces. The result is a unique and complex terrain that scientists call "karst" topography – land whose shape is influenced by the dissolving of underground limestone layers.
Where the water table (the groundwater/air interface underground) lies within this porous limestone, we have dry caves. Below the water table, we have cave diving. By definition, a cave is "an underground chamber, typically of natural origin, that can be entered by humans", so these chambers become our caves. But how exactly did they get here?
The Florida Peninsula is a limestone plateau formed many millions of years ago when the area was a warm, shallow sea. During the Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago [mya] – present), millions of years of deposits from small sea creatures make up the limestone, which is several thousand feet thick. Below that lies the Paleozoic and Mesozoic basement rocks

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Retrieved Text: Geologists study the history of our planet by examining the rock layers that make up the Earth's crust. Sedimentary rocks (those formed from the weathered remains of other rocks) are one type of rock that makes up the Earth's crust. One kind of sedimentary rock is limestone. It constitutes 10% of all sedimentary rocks, and occurs as striking outcrops, which often contain openings to caves. Although caves Woccur in several types of material (limestone, dolostone, granite, sandstone, ice, lava), the majority of caves are found in limestone. Our study of the geology of caves will take you through where caves occur in the United States, the major ways that caves form (through the action of carbonic acid and by sulfuric acid dissolution), and how they are decorated with cave formations (speleothems).

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Retrieved Text: Millions of years ago, the Yucatan peninsula was below sea level and formed the bed of a shallow ocean. Fish shellfish and coral thrived in this environment, and when they died their bones and shells fell to the sea floor. The calcium from these formed a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sludge. As the depth of this layer of sludge thickened, the increasing pressure solidified the calcium carbonate into a porous limestone rock.
During subsequent ice ages the sea level fell and the peninsula was exposed, forming dry land covered in heavy vegetation. Rain falling on the land would percolate through the decaying vegetation and the porous limestone, and then flow horizontally to the sea.
The rainwater dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and produced by decaying vegetation, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). This carbonic acid solution dissolved the limestone, sometimes creating vertical shafts from the surface, and sometimes creating horizontal passages towards the ocean. Most of the horizontal cave development is believed to have happened close to the water level.

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Retrieved Text: freezing and thawing cycles break up rocks by water seeping into cracks, freezing and expanding, cracking the rocks further, and then melting.
roots from trees can grow deep in cracks, become bigger and eventually crack rocks.
acids found in the environment can react with certain rocks.
carbon dioxide mixed with water can create carbonic acid which dissolves limestone, dolomite, and marble.
plant roots produce acid or substances that makes acid when mixed with water.
a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and air that supports the growth of plant life.
the original rock from which the soil is formed. It has a large influence on the nature of soil it produces.
the topography (surface features) influences soil formation. Soil has little chance of developing on steep slopes.
the weather can control speed of soil formation (if rocks weather quickly, then soil can form quickly) and amount of organic material in the soil (dry areas have less life, so soils have less organic material).
dark colored organic material in soil that comes from the decomposition of plants and animals. Holds water and provides nutrients.
different soils take different amounts of time to form. Soil that takes a long time to be made could be eroded away or disturbed, slowing the process of making it.
Gravel (stone) - about 2 millimeters or bigger. Doesn't retain water.
i. Loam soil - contains about equal concentrations of sand, silt, and clay (usually about 40,40,20% respectively). It is usually gritty and moist.

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Retrieved Text: The precise erosional forms which the karst takes depends on many variables. The mechanical structure and chemical composition of the rock, the local climate and temperature range, and the amount of vegetation and rainfall a region has all determine how fast a carbonate landscape erodes. Karst along a seaside is quite different than that inland, and tropical karst does not resemble karst in temperate or sub-Arctic zones. Landforms in zones with earthquake activity are quite different than that in quiet zones, or places where mountain-building have turned the layers of carbonate rock on edge. Some karst is formed as a result of sulfuric acid welling up from below instead of carbonic acid percolating down from above. Some places in the American West are a mix of the two processes.
A spring is a natural resurgence of groundwater, usually along a hillside or from a valley floor.
A cave is an airfilled underground void, large enough to be examined in some way by man.
A sinkhole or sink is a collapsed portion of bedrock above a void. Sinks may be a sheer vertical opening into a cave, or a shallow depression of many acres.
A losing stream is one with a bed with allows water to flow directly into the groundwater system. There are many chert bottomed losing streams in the Ozarks.
A natural bridge or tunnel is a void beneath still standing bedrock, usually of short extent, and allowing human passage from one end to the other, at least part of the time. A natural bridge is somewhat shorter than a

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Retrieved Text: Weathering creates underground caves and passages in limestone in addition to depressions and other unusual dips and grooves on the surface. Karst is landscape formed from the weathering of limestone.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock created from the remains of dead sea creatures and is predominately made up of calcium carbonate. Many horizontal and vertical cracks run through limestone. These cracks allow water to pass easily through the rock. Water acts as an acid when it contacts calcium carbonate, dissolving the limestone. The dissolved calcium carbonate may drip into underground caves hollowed out from the action of weathering. Sometimes, the calcium carbonate evaporates as it drips from the cave ceiling creating stalactites. If the calcium carbonate drips and evaporates on the ground it creates stumps called stalagmites. Occasionally other unusual features develop from the dripping and evaporation of calcium carbonate such as curtains or columns.
Complex underground passageways develop as limestone weathers. Water flow through these passageways creates immense underground networks of rivers and streams. These water flows are accessed by humans and used as aquifers for water storage and extraction. Many places depend upon limestone aquifers for their water supply. Care must be taken with using limestone aquifers since pollutants as well as rain can easily pass through the limestone.

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Retrieved Text: It’s old, complex, and filled with more boxwork than is found in all other caves on Earth put together. Any one of these qualities would make Wind Cave unique. Together they make it a world-class cave. And each component is essential to understanding how the cave formed.
A warm shallow sea covered the area about 350 million years ago. Fragments of seashells, made of calcium carbonate, built up over time on the seafloor and eventually became limestone. Bodies of gypsum, made of calcium sulfate, also formed during this time when arid conditions caused seawater to evaporate and the minerals to crystallize. The gypsum formed irregular shaped masses within the limestone. The resulting rock is known as the Madison Limestone formation, or locally as the Pahasapa (Black Hills) Limestone.
The gypsum masses were unstable. They grew and shrank as they absorbed and expelled water. This pressure fractured the gypsum and surrounding limestone. Like thick toothpaste, some gypsum squeezed into these cracks and crystallized in place. Later, water rich in carbonate ions converted all of the gypsum to calcite, or calcium carbonate. This set the stage for the cave and boxwork to form.
The oceans receded allowing fresh water into the region. This naturally acidic freshwater reacted with the bodies of gypsum. They were converted to calcite, creating sulfuric or sulfurous acid as a byproduct. These acids dissolved the surrounding limestone to form the first cave passageways approximately 320 million years ago.
After the first period of cave formation, seas again advanced over this area. About 300 million years ago, layers of

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Retrieved Text: Material Availability This science fair project requires that you own or can borrow safety equipment, such as a hardhat and sturdy shoes, to wear in the cave.
Safety In this science fair project you will be visiting caves. Please exercise caution when working in caves because the ground can be slippery. Always stay on prescribed paths. Adult supervision is required. When exploring in caves, always take an adult. Let the authorities in charge of the cave system know about your project and that you will be working in the cave.
Caves have been used for much more than just exploring throughout Earth's history. Caves have been used for shelter, for religious purposes, and for burial sites. They were even used for food storage, before refrigeration, because they are cool and have constant high humidity. But how are caves formed? What causes those fantastic formations in caves? How do cave formations change as you go deeper in the cave? Get ready for an adventure as you visit a local cave and learn more in this science fair project!
To learn more about speleology, and to count the number of speleothems versus distance into a cave.
Science Buddies Staff. "Speleology: Counting Formations in a Local Cave." Science Buddies, 27 Jan. 2018, https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Geo_p039/geology/speleology-cave-formations. Accessed 25 Apr. 2019.
What do you think about when you hear the word cave? Do you think about a large, dark, scary place like Batman's Batcave? Caves are actually places of geological wonder and they are a variety of sizes. A cave is defined as an underground void large enough

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Retrieved Text: The next deepest occurrence is in the extreme northwest part of the state, where limestone occurs down no further than about 4,000 feet. Limestone is absent altogether in the St. Francois Mountains area in southeast Missouri, occurring neither at the surface nor in the subsurface.
Yellowstone's Geologic Significance. Yellowstone continues today as a natural geologic laboratory of active Earth processes. One of the most geologically dynamic areas on Earth due to a shallow source of magma and resulting volcanic activity.
1 As dramatic as the process of weathering sounds, it does not happen overnight. In fact, some instances of mechanical and chemical weathering may take hundreds of years. An example would be the dissolving of limestone through carbonation. Limestone dissolves at an average rate of about one-twentieth of a centimeter every 100 years.
The degree of chemical weathering depends on the type of rock for example limestone is more readily chemically weathered than granite. Other factors such as temperature also play a role as the chemical reactions occur more quickly in areas of high temperatures. Acid rain is also a contributor to chemical weathering.
Home>define the processes occuring in limestone areas> British Hydrogeology - a brief history - Groundwater in Depth Groundwater in Depth British Hydrogeology - a brief history. by John Mather, Emeritus Professor of Geology, University of London.
A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes potholes. Frost Wedging Diagram [click here to see the diagram and copy it (including the labels) into your notes] o Abrasion--physical wearing down of rocks as they rub or bounce against each

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Retrieved Text: On yer bike, limestone cycle!
References to limestone in school curricula date back to at least 1925, when one researcher in the US despaired that half of their students could not name the mineral in the rock. It seems students found limestone boring back then, too.
Limestone probably boarded the science curriculum gravy train by helping to debunk the phlogiston myth. Joseph Black performed the same thermal decomposition that we inflict on our own students, helping to establish that gases have mass.
The misconception that gases are massless persists even now, so maybe what I’m really railing against is the dumbing down of textbooks, which are increasingly free of such historical facts and could usefully place more focus on misconceptions.
Exactly what chemical concepts does limestone so uniquely demonstrate? It undergoes thermal decomposition, but so do cracked alkanes, which students also have to learn about. Other than that, there is just limestone’s cyclical reactions.
Why not focus on calcium carbonate in more engaging environments? Studies have predicted that coral reefs will disappear within a century. Our students may not have visited the Great Barrier Reef, but they have all seen Finding Nemo. Carbonic acid formed from dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the coral, distressingly producing yet more carbon dioxide. But interrelated equilibria will ultimately enable nascent crustaceans to form new seashells from the dissolved ruins of their ancestors.
Now there’s an engaging cycle.
But when it comes down to it, the limestone cycle doesn’t demonstrate anything that some other process could not do so more engagingly. It's time to give this stultifying sedimentary

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Retrieved Text: Caves begin to form when rainwater seeps into soil where it absorbs a small amount of carbon dioxide. Water mixed with carbon dioxide forms a weak carbonic acid solution that is able to dissolve rock (particularly dolomite or limestone). Water flow creates and enlarges underground passages, until finally the water surfaces at a spring. As the flow of water continues to erode deeper into the surface, the openings left behind become caves.
The limestone and dolomite bedrock of the Ozarks´ mountains, where Marvel Cave is located, contains the mineral calcite. Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide found in the soil and air to form a weak acid solution called carbonic acid. As with the cave atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released from the solution, which causes small deposits of crystallized calcite. This crystallized calcite forms stalactites. Growth rates of stalactites can vary greatly but the average is one inch per 25 to 100 years. As this process is driven by rainwater, increased rainwater will increase the rate at which stalactites form.

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Retrieved Text: Manufacturer and supplier of industrial minerals and chemicals. Rock Phosphate, Zeolite, Soapstone, China Clay, Calcium Carbonate, Dolomite, etc.
. 800dia X1000width Heavy Calcium Carbonate Roller Mill Supplier Roller Mill Grinding Fluting Roller Tee Mill Junagadh Roller Conveyor . or rock dust. Crushers .
Belt conveyor mainly is formed by belt . calcite, dolomite, barite, talc calcium, carbonate. The frame equipe with belt roller ,carrying roller and so .
Calcium Carbonate powders can cause many problems in conveying systems. Flexicon's product line of advanced flow promotion conveyors, high-flow hoppers.
Calcium Carbonate Powder Processing Machin Clirikcalcium carbonate powder processing machine Raymond mill,Raymond roller . conveyor designed for Calcium carbonate .
Carbonate Crusher Calcium - aidacreations. How To Crush Calcium Carbonate - - Rock Crusher … is a manufacturer of construction and mining equipments in .
Carbonate,Define Carbonate at Dictionary. Carbonate definition, a salt or ester of carbonic acid. See more. . Limestone is a carbonate rock.
Limestone is defined by these two criteria: it is a sedimentary rock (1) and it is composed of calcium carbonate (2). There are other rocks that are composed of .
>> Belt Conveyor >> BWZ Heavy Duty . Limestone / Calcium Carbonate; Rock Salt; Silicon. . Manganese 300tph rock crusher(roller mill calcium carbonate plant) .
LUM Ultrafine Vertical Roller . craigs list wanted used hand rock crusher; used rubber conveyor . As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock.
The present invention relates to a method for separating mineral impurities from calcium carbonate-containing rocks by . of a conveyor belt and an X-ray . roller .
Belt Conveyor Sedimentary Rock Everyday Life Grinding

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Retrieved Text: Dolomite and Diopside glass slabs like this can be found everywhere Limestone (Dolomite) deposits have been covered through time and then uncovered later.
The Limestone is buried. Then weight, heat and salts chemically create the secondary layers along fissures. Then further weight and heating/cooling fractures the stone. Water soaks through Decomposing Vegetation to create Carbonic Acid. The Carbonic Acid then eats at the underlying softer limestone where the fractures happen to be in the layer of harder Diopside Glass creating these type of common examples.
Slabs like this can be found all over the world in areas where Limestone Caverns have been formed. It just happens to be a coincidence that the markings resemble the map of the area.
Why is it difficult to date the engravings? Isn’t there patina in them? If no patina exists, then I would deem it a fake because no engraving could exist in a stone that is exposed to the elements or buried without accumulating debris. As for dating the seashell, that is useless in dating the engraving as whenever engraved the stone could have picked it up anywhere.
This object should be considered in context with the many other anomalous objects found in the Urals.
As for the age given of 120 million years, until Uniformitarians get around to factoring catastrophic events into their stratigraphy dating models, the numbers they use should be considered more as common placemarks than as actual spans of time.
If your god exist's he/she/it cannot be very loving and merciful and perfect with all the pain and suffering in this

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Retrieved Text: Karst topography is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer or layers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground drainages, and in some cases there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern Missouri and northern Arkansas in the United States, are underlain by thousands of caves.
The karst hills of the Burren on the west coast of Ireland.
Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages—for example, yanrong in Chinese and tsingy in Malagasy—a notable exception being English (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on karst, the German name for Kras, a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has Paleoeuropean origin (karra, meaning stone) and in antiquity it was called carusardius in Latin. The Slovenian form grast is attested since 1177, and the Croatian kras since 1230.
Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić's publication Das Karstphänomen (1893), based on his studies in the Dinaric Kras region, established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of dolines, "the diagnostic karst landforms." The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name kras, Germanicized as "karst," is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behavior of karst aquifers

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Retrieved Text: This booklet deals an perception into the worldwide prevalence, geomorphology, evolution, weathering and erosion of coastal cliffs and bluffs. Stabilization and protection of cliffs are taken care of intimately. Mitigation of cliff risks and maintenance of scenic positive factors and websites of clinical value calls for potent coastal cliff administration which can simply be in line with thorough wisdom of the actual procedures at paintings.
We are living in a 'risk society' the place the id, distribution and administration of hazards, from new expertise, environmental elements or different resources are the most important to our person and social life. within the Social Contours of danger, Volumes I and II, of the world's best and such a lot influential analysts of the social dimensions of threat assemble their most crucial contributions to this primary and wide-ranging box.
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Advent to method Geomorphology presents an integrative method of the method dynamics and the foundation of landforms via the modern methods excited about their evolution. the writer highlights the actual and chemical legislation governing the task of the earth-surface tactics in particular environmental tension stipulations, places ahead competing hypotheses at the evolution of landforms, and discusses the bases of inner geologic procedures for the reason of the tectogenic positive factors of the earth.
The upper layers of the Gault clay then become a soft wet slurry

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Retrieved Text: Caving in Belize has exploded in popularity in recent years, but among the small world of cave explorers the country has been world-renowned for decades. The Maya Mountains uplifted a large area of limestone beds that have subsequently eroded into a huge network of Belize caves, many with rivers coursing through them. Belize hiking and caving exploratory excursions in the 1970’s and 80’s discovered the second largest underground room in the world in the Chiquibul system in the western part of the mountains, putting Belize on the map for extraordinary caves.
Much of Belize’s inland topography is composed of ‘karst’ geology, which features deeply eroded limestone mountains. Karst geography is typically honeycombed with caves. Belize is famous among cave explorers, who have mapped innumerable underground caverns throughout the country. Belize contains the second largest underground chamber in the world, over 1/4 mile long!
Mayan religious beliefs state that most of their important deities resided in the underworld, for which caves were the gateway. Therefore, the Mayans held all caves sacred, and performed religious ceremonies in nearly every cave they found. Each Belize cave contains treasures from these ancient ceremonies. The thick rainforest cloaking the geology of Belize makes it difficult to find undiscovered openings, and new discoveries are made every year.
Slickrock Adventures offers a Che Chem Ha one-day tour for groups of 8 minimum, with a maximum of 14; read more about that below. We also offer a one-day Belize cave kayaking adventure, please inquire.
Many of the large caves in Belize are well known and easily accessible, but

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Retrieved Text: This has been an amazing past few days! After a quick visit to Maní to see a traditional Mexican Sunday mass, we were off to La Reserva Biocultural de Kaxil Kiuic (pronounced “Kashil Kooeek“). “Kax” in Mayan means forest and “Kiuic” means a place to come together.
The inside of the church in Maní during Sunday mass.
Click to see a traditional Sunday Mass in Maní.
Kaxil Kiuic is a nonprofit private reserve created in 2002 by Millsaps College run by Dr. James Callahan. According to its mission statement, its purpose is to “conserve through research and education.” The reserve encompasses 4,500 acres of tropical dry forest and data is collected regarding the forest’s ecology and capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, a very important attribute to fight against climate change. According to the latest experiments, Kaxil Kiuic’s forest stores about 215,000 tons of carbon in the above-ground biomass and in the soil.
Kaxil Kiuic has a nursery to grow produce-bearing plants and provide them to more than 400 Mayan farmers and 5 private property owners in 5 counties in the region. The plants help to provide support for production in agriculture and biodiversity in the Yucatán.
Kaxil Kiuic is important for its biodiversity: 247 bird, 14 amphibian, 52 reptile, and 63 mammal species call Kaxil Kiuic their home. 29.2% of the birds present in the Yucatán Peninsula and 14.3% of birds in Mexico live in Kaxil Kiuic. Also, five of the six large feline species endemic to Mexico, including jaguars, live in Kaxil Kiuic.
Kaxil Kiuic is also an archaeological site, where

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Retrieved Text: where time seems to stand still, and all that’s left is nature’s pristine beauty. In the last wild forest of Europe purity reigns. The Carpathian Mountains of Romania are a range of majestic mountains stretching 1,000 miles across Central Europe, unspoiled by civilization, untouched by agriculture and industry.
The geology of the AQUA Carpatica sparkling water is a testimony to a rich history of transformation that has taken place below the Earth’s surface, going back millennia. The underground journey of the water traverses layers of Neogene-period volcanic rocks, absorbing carbonic acid, and eventually through dolomite -- a limestone rock which contains Calcium and Magnesium, a strata from 1 billion years ago (Proterozoic eon). The carbonic acid dissolves valuable Calcium and Magnesium from the almost insoluble dolomite and a perfect water is created. It has been established that the underground path of the sparkling water (Paltinis Spring) is around 40 years long, during which natural filtration and enrichment with CO2 take place -- giving AQUA Carpatica its distinctive sparkle and taste. The spring is located deep in the forest, far away from any human activity.
Nose-to-tail #nosetotail dishes are complex and flavorful with sometimes surprising textures. With this pork nose dish I would prefer a High Minerality content water with natural carbonation. AQUA Carpatica would be a perfect example of such a water.
The brand was honored with many prestigious awards: Grand Prix Expo for bottled water in China (2013), the Grand Effie in Romania (2015), Fibra Awards' Campaign of the Year (2016), the prestigious Cannes Lions (2016), and the

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Retrieved Text: Large areas of freshwater marl prairie border the deeper sloughs of the Everglades. These relatively short-hydroperiod marshes are typified by a diverse assemblage of low-growing vegetation. A complex mixture of algae, bacteria, microbes, and detritus that is attached to submerged surfaces, periphyton serves as an important food source for invertebrates, tadpoles, and some fish. Periphyton is conspicuous and is the basis for the marl soils present. The marl allows slow seepage of the water but not rapid drainage. Though the sawgrass is not as tall and the water is not as deep, freshwater marl prairies look a lot like freshwater sloughs.
The acidity of rainwater increases as it infiltrates plant tissue, debris, and soils. Over thousands of years, the water is capable of dissolving solution holes into the limestone bedrock.
Marl prairie occurs on thin, calcitic soil that has accumulated over limestone bedrock. In places, the bedrock may be exposed as jagged, foot-tall projections called pinnacle rock, or it may be dissolved below the surface of the ground into solution holes. Most precipitation is of relatively neutral pH, but it becomes increasingly acidic as it infiltrates live plant tissue, decaying plant debris, and soils before seeping into the ground. The acidic water dissolves the carbonate rock along cracks and fractures in the bedrock. Over thousands of years, dissolution within pore spaces and along fractures creates increasingly larger voids.

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Retrieved Text: Rock. Katarína Bavoľárová Gymnázium sv. Tomáša Akvinského 2.B. ...obsah. Rock Rock and Roll Hard rock 1) formovanie 2) 70. a 90. roky Three Days Grace - od histórie - albumy Anketa Organizačný diagram Použitá literatúra. Rock.
What is a Rock? -. a rock is a: naturally formed, consolidated material, composed of grains of one or more minerals. some rocks. types of common rocks. there are three types of common rocks: igneous rock sedimentary rock metamorphic rock.
Salt from Rock Salt -. what is this?. where does it come from?. what does it contain?. can you describe it?. salt from rock salt. salt from rock salt. ionic compound. salt. rock salt. filtration. soluble. dissolving. halite.
The Dome of the Rock -. the dome of the rock is a shrine built over a large stone in the center of jerusalem. this holy rock is known as the foundation stone.
Rock identification -. liz larosa http://www.middleschoolscience.com 2009. what type of rock is this? where or how is it formed?. marble. metamorphic non-foliated calcium carbonate metamorphism of limestone. what type of rock is this?

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Retrieved Text: use. Lime softening is best suited to groundwater sources, which have relatively stable water quality. The combination of variable source water quality and the complexity of the chemistry of lime softening may make lime softening too complex for small systems that use surface water sources.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because .
The pisolitc limestone near the surface of the High Plains in western Kansas is such a bed. This dense limestone has a distinctive structure and can be recognized by its pinkish color, banded appearance and concentric areas. It was formed after the close of the Tertiary, when the climate was drier than it is now.
stone slurry is a semi-liquid substance consisting of particles originated from sawing and polishing processes. These wastes were studied by many researchers for its use in several industrial applications such as cement, concrete mortar, ceramics, composite materials, lime, bricks manufacturing and others that showed positive results and benefits.
Lagoons are one of the most popular methods for wastewater treatment around the world they are also among the simplest and least expensive. Lagoon systems use natural and energy-efficient processes to provide low-cost wastewater treatment for many homes and rural communities in the U.S.
Accessory minerals include chert, pyrite, and gypsum, with gypsum becoming more abundant with depth. Although the uppermost part of the Avon Park Forma­tion varies between lime­stone and dolostone, dolostone predominates deeper within the unit, especially toward the south.
Graymont is committed to achieving industry leadership in sustainability

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Retrieved Text: Coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool SLOWLY DEEP in the Earth.
Molten rock INSIDE the earth.
Molten rock ON Earth's surface.
Extrusive igneous rock that cools SO FAST that NO crystals are formed. It looks like "black glass".
Extrusive igneous rock with holes due to escaping gas.
When a mineral changes from a solid to a liquid at a particular temperature. .
When the liquid rocks/minerals are able to cool off and turn into solid rocks. This is a process in the formation of Igneous Rocks.
Small pieces of rock or shells produced by weathering.
Rocks made of sediments cemented together. Usually formed under water. Examples are sandstone (medium-grain) and conglomerate (coarse).
Made from remains of once living things. Examples: limestone made from shells, coal from swamp plants, etc.
Formed from the evaporation of water that leaves minerals behind. Occurs along the coasts of oceans and large salt lakes.
When land is pushed to a higher elevation due to natural processes such as mountain building & plate tectonics. This brings deep rocks to surface where they can be weathered.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by processes, such as dissolving due acid rain, rusting/oxidation, etc.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by forces, such as waves, ice wedging, freeze-thaw, etc.
Movement and removal of surface materials to a new location. Movement may be caused by wind, moving water, gravity (landslide), etc.
"Laying down" or "settling out" of sediments after being moved by erosion. Usually happens at the bottom of a body of water.
When sediments become covered beneath layers of other sediments.
Process that transforms sediments

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Retrieved Text: Traditional lime mortars carbonate ‘within’ as well as on the surface.
This is calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate but also as un-burnt material in the lime. The reaction series that is critical to the performance of historic lime mortars is carbonation, and not the hydration of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates.
To understand this, it is necessary to understand the chemistry of carbonation, and this is more complicated than generally thought.
The first reaction is that of CO2 + H2O to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid). Reactivity increases in the presence of acidity in rainwater. It is this carbonic acid that reacts with lime on the surface of mortar to produce calcium carbonate.
The depth of this surface reaction depends on many factors including time, permeability of mortar, and relative humidity.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2(aq).
As long as sufficient CO2 is available to stabilise the bicarbonate in solution which is likely to occur in the long term, calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate, or as unconverted, partially converted, or reconverted material, will in turn dissolve in the carbonic acid to produce calcium bicarbonate. This bicarbonate will in turn react with lime to form calcium carbonate.

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Retrieved Text: In the Mojave National Preserve, carbonate sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic and Paleozoic age (consisting of limestone and dolostone) crop out throughout the Clark Mountains, the Mescal Mountains, in the northern Ivanpah Range, in the central portion of Providence Mountains, and elsewhere. Carbonate rocks originally form from limey sediments consisting of the calcareous skeletal remains of algae and invertebrate shell material or precipitates directly from agitated, warm seawater (as on a shallow continental shelf in a warm climate). Most ancient limestones formed from planktonic algae, but in late Paleozoic time coralline reefs became significant producers of carbonate sediments. Limestone consists dominantly of the mineral Calcite-CaCO3, whereas dolostone consists dominantly of the mineral dolomite-CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite is typically a secondary mineral replacement of original calcite material. Ancient carbonate rocks like those in the Mojave region tend to be enriched in dolomite. Below are examples of common fossiliferous carbonate rocks of Paleozoic age from the Mojave region.
Oncolites (algal limestone balls) float in a carbonate-mud matrix in the Cambrian-age Chambless Formation. This easy-to-recognize oncolite-bearing limestone formation crops out in many areas throughout the Mojave National Preserve region. These nearly spheroidal oncolites formed by algae and/or cyanobacterial growth in shallow warm marine waters of a carbonate platform environment.
A boulder of a fossiliferous limestone displays stromatoporoids and corals of early Devonian age (Sultan Formation). Boulders like this one are not uncommon in alluvial fans downstream from the Paleozoic age sedimentary rock belt exposed in the Providence Range.
An expansive Joshua-tree forest covers a pediment surface (along Cima Road). In the distance, steeply dipping and

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Retrieved Text: Limestone, quicklime and slaked lime are all used to neutralise excess acidity - which may be caused by acid rain - in lakes and in soils. Limestone is used as a building material, and to purify iron in blast furnaces. It's also used in the manufacture of glass, and of cement (one of the components of concrete).
List Of Limestone Uses - snmarketing.
Indiana Limestone - Wikipedia. Indiana limestone is part of a high-end market. It is mostly used on the exterior of homes and commercial buildings.
Where is Limestone found - .
list of all texas limestone quarries – Grinding .
1)limestone is used on skyscrapers to coat the outer blocks to protect them. 2) lime stone can be used for water treatment. 3) limestone can be used for acid gas .
Students use the information in the 'Uses Posters&' to create a table on the uses of limestone. The students then peer assess each others tables.
21/12/2012· What are the uses of limestone – The Q&A wiki. Limestone Uses: Used as aggregate or base for roads and foundations. Used in the purification of molten glass.
Limestone is a grey rock that is made of calcite. This piece of limestone (to the left) came from Portland Bill on the English South coast. .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks - Cochise .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks Cochise College Geology Home Page ... project out of the limestone as the limestone is slowly dissolved by rainwater.
list of limestone uses - .
list of uses for limestone - .
Limestone landscapes and their uses - Royal .
Limestone landscapes and their uses

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Around the world, people use quicklime to balance the pH of their fish tanks. Could governments do something similar to correct the pH of our acidifying oceans?
It’s not as crazy as it sounds. For the past decade would-be geoengineers have been searching for practical ways of adding limestone to the world’s waters to stave off acidification before it kills too many corals and shellfish. Now Greg Rau of the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of California, Santa Cruz, says that, paradoxically, carbon dioxide captured from the flue gas of power stations could do the trick. Combined with limestone, it produces an alkaline that could then be dumped into the sea to counter acidification.
Others are intrigued by the solution, but caution that it should be used only as a last resort.
Rau pumped seawater and CO2 gas over limestone particles. As it would in the oceans, the CO2 formed carbonic acid in the seawater, and the acid then reacted with the limestone to produce calcium bicarbonate. This removed up to 97 per cent of the CO2 pumped into the tube – and left behind a highly alkaline mixture.
Preliminary, unpublished, studies in Rau’s laboratory suggest that dumping concentrated alkaline into the ocean would not harm organisms in the immediate vicinity of the dump site. For example, adding half the amount of calcium bicarbonate that is found in natural seawater does not affect the growth of hydroid invertebrates – and can boost it.
Rather than attempting to neutralise all the world’s oceans, Ken Caldeira of the Carnegie Institution of

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Retrieved Text: Red Rock Canyon, Nevada is formed from bright red and pink Navajo Sandstone formed from sand dunes during the Jurassic Period. Layering is visible apparent.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups: clastic, biologic and chemical. When sediments consolidate into a cohesive mass, they become sedimentary rock. The composition, texture (how the rock looks) and other features of a sedimentary rock can tell us a story about its origin. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock.
Clastic sediments vary widely in size, shape and composition. A single clastic sedimentary rock may be composed of one type of rock and mineral or many types of rocks and minerals. The types of sediment found in a clastic sedimentary rock can tell geologists much about past environments. Clastic sediments and the rocks formed from them are named on the basis of particle size rather than mineral composition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from microscopic silt

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What can be formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock and dissolving limestone?" and the following answer choices: 
- water
 - swamp vegetation
 - Calcium carbonate
 - sunlight
 - contamination
 - loose soil
 - underground caves
 - arsenic

Now knowing that acavern is formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock and dissolving limestone and underground caves and caverns pose an exciting adventure to many, choose the best answer.

Target Text: underground caves

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Karst is a type of land surface that is formed over limestone, dolomite, or gypsum by dissolving or dissolution, and is characterized by closed depressions or sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage system. From the Slavic word Kras- meaning “bleak waterless place”.-source Glossary of Geology, 1974, American Geological Institute.
Karst development in Ohio is fairly widespread throughout the western half of the state. However, detailed karst hydrogeologic (groundwater) studies of the region have been seriously lacking. Recent studies by Tintera (1980), Tintera & Forsyth (1980), Kihn (1988) and Miller (2001) identified various karst features and have greatly increased our knowledge of the geology of the area and the groundwater system, which underlies it.
Landforms, which develop as a result of rock being dissolved (dissolution), such a as limestone, dolomite, marble, gypsum, and salt are collectively known as karst. The distinct features of a karst landscape include sinkholes, caves, large springs, dry valleys and shrinking steams. These systems are characterized by the gravity flow of weak carbon dioxide (CO2) charged groundwater percolating through fractures and openings that enlarge as the bedrock dissolves. Surface water, i.e. rain or snowmelt, drains rapidly into the subsurface system recharging it. Consequently, within the recharge area, there are no significant surface systems developed.
Our original karst area begins south and west of the caverns and extends northward to Sandusky Bay. The undulating or rolling topography of small hills and depressions is the surface expression of the subsurface condition. Although masked by glacial till from Pleistocene Ice Age, the karst landscape remains the predominate landform in this

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Retrieved Text: Natural Tunnel State Park offers glimpses into both historic and prehistoric periods. The tunnel itself formed as the result of groundwater containing carbonic acid seeping through and dissolving massive limestone deposits to create a cave that grew to 850 feet in length and 100 feet in height with the assistance of some blasting. Fossils can be seen along the bed of Stock Creek, which traverses the tunnel, as well as on the tunnel walls. Former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan called Natural Tunnel the Eighth Wonder of the World, and visitors have been flocking here for more than 100 years. Because of its location in the shadow of the Cumberland Gap, through which the country’s earliest settlers crossed on their westward passage, it should come as little surprise that Daniel Boone is thought to have been one of the first Europeans to view this natural wonder. But it was not written about until Col. Stephen Long did so in the March 1832 Monthly American Journal of Geology and Natural Science. Final blasting was done to open both ends of the tunnel to allow for the South Atlantic and Ohio Railroad to lay down tracks and pass through, and coal trains continue to do so.
One of Virginia's best trails, Natural Tunnel State Park is located near Duffield, VA. Trails' printable online topo maps offer shaded and un-shaded reliefs, and aerial photos too. Use topographic maps to find elevation, print high resolution maps, save a PNG, or just learn the topography around Natural Tunnel State Park. You

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Retrieved Text: Below the ground in Florida lies a layer of porous limestone or dolostone known as the Floridan Aquifer. This aquifer is the primary source of Florida's drinking water. It is one of the largest aquifers in the United States, extending across Florida and through parts of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. Above and below the aquifer are other layers of gravel, sand, clay, dolomite, or limestone.
In some places, the Floridan Aquifer's limestone layers are thousands of feet thick; in others, the layers are thin. Some places these limestones are far below the ground surface, and some places they are the ground surface. Water is able to flow through the limestone's many interconnected holes and empty spaces. The result is a unique and complex terrain that scientists call "karst" topography – land whose shape is influenced by the dissolving of underground limestone layers.
Where the water table (the groundwater/air interface underground) lies within this porous limestone, we have dry caves. Below the water table, we have cave diving. By definition, a cave is "an underground chamber, typically of natural origin, that can be entered by humans", so these chambers become our caves. But how exactly did they get here?
The Florida Peninsula is a limestone plateau formed many millions of years ago when the area was a warm, shallow sea. During the Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago [mya] – present), millions of years of deposits from small sea creatures make up the limestone, which is several thousand feet thick. Below that lies the Paleozoic and Mesozoic basement rocks

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Retrieved Text: freezing and thawing cycles break up rocks by water seeping into cracks, freezing and expanding, cracking the rocks further, and then melting.
roots from trees can grow deep in cracks, become bigger and eventually crack rocks.
acids found in the environment can react with certain rocks.
carbon dioxide mixed with water can create carbonic acid which dissolves limestone, dolomite, and marble.
plant roots produce acid or substances that makes acid when mixed with water.
a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and air that supports the growth of plant life.
the original rock from which the soil is formed. It has a large influence on the nature of soil it produces.
the topography (surface features) influences soil formation. Soil has little chance of developing on steep slopes.
the weather can control speed of soil formation (if rocks weather quickly, then soil can form quickly) and amount of organic material in the soil (dry areas have less life, so soils have less organic material).
dark colored organic material in soil that comes from the decomposition of plants and animals. Holds water and provides nutrients.
different soils take different amounts of time to form. Soil that takes a long time to be made could be eroded away or disturbed, slowing the process of making it.
Gravel (stone) - about 2 millimeters or bigger. Doesn't retain water.
i. Loam soil - contains about equal concentrations of sand, silt, and clay (usually about 40,40,20% respectively). It is usually gritty and moist.

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Retrieved Text: Geologists study the history of our planet by examining the rock layers that make up the Earth's crust. Sedimentary rocks (those formed from the weathered remains of other rocks) are one type of rock that makes up the Earth's crust. One kind of sedimentary rock is limestone. It constitutes 10% of all sedimentary rocks, and occurs as striking outcrops, which often contain openings to caves. Although caves Woccur in several types of material (limestone, dolostone, granite, sandstone, ice, lava), the majority of caves are found in limestone. Our study of the geology of caves will take you through where caves occur in the United States, the major ways that caves form (through the action of carbonic acid and by sulfuric acid dissolution), and how they are decorated with cave formations (speleothems).

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Retrieved Text: Millions of years ago, the Yucatan peninsula was below sea level and formed the bed of a shallow ocean. Fish shellfish and coral thrived in this environment, and when they died their bones and shells fell to the sea floor. The calcium from these formed a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sludge. As the depth of this layer of sludge thickened, the increasing pressure solidified the calcium carbonate into a porous limestone rock.
During subsequent ice ages the sea level fell and the peninsula was exposed, forming dry land covered in heavy vegetation. Rain falling on the land would percolate through the decaying vegetation and the porous limestone, and then flow horizontally to the sea.
The rainwater dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and produced by decaying vegetation, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). This carbonic acid solution dissolved the limestone, sometimes creating vertical shafts from the surface, and sometimes creating horizontal passages towards the ocean. Most of the horizontal cave development is believed to have happened close to the water level.

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Retrieved Text: The precise erosional forms which the karst takes depends on many variables. The mechanical structure and chemical composition of the rock, the local climate and temperature range, and the amount of vegetation and rainfall a region has all determine how fast a carbonate landscape erodes. Karst along a seaside is quite different than that inland, and tropical karst does not resemble karst in temperate or sub-Arctic zones. Landforms in zones with earthquake activity are quite different than that in quiet zones, or places where mountain-building have turned the layers of carbonate rock on edge. Some karst is formed as a result of sulfuric acid welling up from below instead of carbonic acid percolating down from above. Some places in the American West are a mix of the two processes.
A spring is a natural resurgence of groundwater, usually along a hillside or from a valley floor.
A cave is an airfilled underground void, large enough to be examined in some way by man.
A sinkhole or sink is a collapsed portion of bedrock above a void. Sinks may be a sheer vertical opening into a cave, or a shallow depression of many acres.
A losing stream is one with a bed with allows water to flow directly into the groundwater system. There are many chert bottomed losing streams in the Ozarks.
A natural bridge or tunnel is a void beneath still standing bedrock, usually of short extent, and allowing human passage from one end to the other, at least part of the time. A natural bridge is somewhat shorter than a

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Retrieved Text: Weathering creates underground caves and passages in limestone in addition to depressions and other unusual dips and grooves on the surface. Karst is landscape formed from the weathering of limestone.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock created from the remains of dead sea creatures and is predominately made up of calcium carbonate. Many horizontal and vertical cracks run through limestone. These cracks allow water to pass easily through the rock. Water acts as an acid when it contacts calcium carbonate, dissolving the limestone. The dissolved calcium carbonate may drip into underground caves hollowed out from the action of weathering. Sometimes, the calcium carbonate evaporates as it drips from the cave ceiling creating stalactites. If the calcium carbonate drips and evaporates on the ground it creates stumps called stalagmites. Occasionally other unusual features develop from the dripping and evaporation of calcium carbonate such as curtains or columns.
Complex underground passageways develop as limestone weathers. Water flow through these passageways creates immense underground networks of rivers and streams. These water flows are accessed by humans and used as aquifers for water storage and extraction. Many places depend upon limestone aquifers for their water supply. Care must be taken with using limestone aquifers since pollutants as well as rain can easily pass through the limestone.

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Retrieved Text: Material Availability This science fair project requires that you own or can borrow safety equipment, such as a hardhat and sturdy shoes, to wear in the cave.
Safety In this science fair project you will be visiting caves. Please exercise caution when working in caves because the ground can be slippery. Always stay on prescribed paths. Adult supervision is required. When exploring in caves, always take an adult. Let the authorities in charge of the cave system know about your project and that you will be working in the cave.
Caves have been used for much more than just exploring throughout Earth's history. Caves have been used for shelter, for religious purposes, and for burial sites. They were even used for food storage, before refrigeration, because they are cool and have constant high humidity. But how are caves formed? What causes those fantastic formations in caves? How do cave formations change as you go deeper in the cave? Get ready for an adventure as you visit a local cave and learn more in this science fair project!
To learn more about speleology, and to count the number of speleothems versus distance into a cave.
Science Buddies Staff. "Speleology: Counting Formations in a Local Cave." Science Buddies, 27 Jan. 2018, https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Geo_p039/geology/speleology-cave-formations. Accessed 25 Apr. 2019.
What do you think about when you hear the word cave? Do you think about a large, dark, scary place like Batman's Batcave? Caves are actually places of geological wonder and they are a variety of sizes. A cave is defined as an underground void large enough

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Retrieved Text: It’s old, complex, and filled with more boxwork than is found in all other caves on Earth put together. Any one of these qualities would make Wind Cave unique. Together they make it a world-class cave. And each component is essential to understanding how the cave formed.
A warm shallow sea covered the area about 350 million years ago. Fragments of seashells, made of calcium carbonate, built up over time on the seafloor and eventually became limestone. Bodies of gypsum, made of calcium sulfate, also formed during this time when arid conditions caused seawater to evaporate and the minerals to crystallize. The gypsum formed irregular shaped masses within the limestone. The resulting rock is known as the Madison Limestone formation, or locally as the Pahasapa (Black Hills) Limestone.
The gypsum masses were unstable. They grew and shrank as they absorbed and expelled water. This pressure fractured the gypsum and surrounding limestone. Like thick toothpaste, some gypsum squeezed into these cracks and crystallized in place. Later, water rich in carbonate ions converted all of the gypsum to calcite, or calcium carbonate. This set the stage for the cave and boxwork to form.
The oceans receded allowing fresh water into the region. This naturally acidic freshwater reacted with the bodies of gypsum. They were converted to calcite, creating sulfuric or sulfurous acid as a byproduct. These acids dissolved the surrounding limestone to form the first cave passageways approximately 320 million years ago.
After the first period of cave formation, seas again advanced over this area. About 300 million years ago, layers of

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Retrieved Text: Caves begin to form when rainwater seeps into soil where it absorbs a small amount of carbon dioxide. Water mixed with carbon dioxide forms a weak carbonic acid solution that is able to dissolve rock (particularly dolomite or limestone). Water flow creates and enlarges underground passages, until finally the water surfaces at a spring. As the flow of water continues to erode deeper into the surface, the openings left behind become caves.
The limestone and dolomite bedrock of the Ozarks´ mountains, where Marvel Cave is located, contains the mineral calcite. Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide found in the soil and air to form a weak acid solution called carbonic acid. As with the cave atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released from the solution, which causes small deposits of crystallized calcite. This crystallized calcite forms stalactites. Growth rates of stalactites can vary greatly but the average is one inch per 25 to 100 years. As this process is driven by rainwater, increased rainwater will increase the rate at which stalactites form.

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Retrieved Text: Dolomite and Diopside glass slabs like this can be found everywhere Limestone (Dolomite) deposits have been covered through time and then uncovered later.
The Limestone is buried. Then weight, heat and salts chemically create the secondary layers along fissures. Then further weight and heating/cooling fractures the stone. Water soaks through Decomposing Vegetation to create Carbonic Acid. The Carbonic Acid then eats at the underlying softer limestone where the fractures happen to be in the layer of harder Diopside Glass creating these type of common examples.
Slabs like this can be found all over the world in areas where Limestone Caverns have been formed. It just happens to be a coincidence that the markings resemble the map of the area.
Why is it difficult to date the engravings? Isn’t there patina in them? If no patina exists, then I would deem it a fake because no engraving could exist in a stone that is exposed to the elements or buried without accumulating debris. As for dating the seashell, that is useless in dating the engraving as whenever engraved the stone could have picked it up anywhere.
This object should be considered in context with the many other anomalous objects found in the Urals.
As for the age given of 120 million years, until Uniformitarians get around to factoring catastrophic events into their stratigraphy dating models, the numbers they use should be considered more as common placemarks than as actual spans of time.
If your god exist's he/she/it cannot be very loving and merciful and perfect with all the pain and suffering in this

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Retrieved Text: Manufacturer and supplier of industrial minerals and chemicals. Rock Phosphate, Zeolite, Soapstone, China Clay, Calcium Carbonate, Dolomite, etc.
. 800dia X1000width Heavy Calcium Carbonate Roller Mill Supplier Roller Mill Grinding Fluting Roller Tee Mill Junagadh Roller Conveyor . or rock dust. Crushers .
Belt conveyor mainly is formed by belt . calcite, dolomite, barite, talc calcium, carbonate. The frame equipe with belt roller ,carrying roller and so .
Calcium Carbonate powders can cause many problems in conveying systems. Flexicon's product line of advanced flow promotion conveyors, high-flow hoppers.
Calcium Carbonate Powder Processing Machin Clirikcalcium carbonate powder processing machine Raymond mill,Raymond roller . conveyor designed for Calcium carbonate .
Carbonate Crusher Calcium - aidacreations. How To Crush Calcium Carbonate - - Rock Crusher … is a manufacturer of construction and mining equipments in .
Carbonate,Define Carbonate at Dictionary. Carbonate definition, a salt or ester of carbonic acid. See more. . Limestone is a carbonate rock.
Limestone is defined by these two criteria: it is a sedimentary rock (1) and it is composed of calcium carbonate (2). There are other rocks that are composed of .
>> Belt Conveyor >> BWZ Heavy Duty . Limestone / Calcium Carbonate; Rock Salt; Silicon. . Manganese 300tph rock crusher(roller mill calcium carbonate plant) .
LUM Ultrafine Vertical Roller . craigs list wanted used hand rock crusher; used rubber conveyor . As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock.
The present invention relates to a method for separating mineral impurities from calcium carbonate-containing rocks by . of a conveyor belt and an X-ray . roller .
Belt Conveyor Sedimentary Rock Everyday Life Grinding

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Retrieved Text: The next deepest occurrence is in the extreme northwest part of the state, where limestone occurs down no further than about 4,000 feet. Limestone is absent altogether in the St. Francois Mountains area in southeast Missouri, occurring neither at the surface nor in the subsurface.
Yellowstone's Geologic Significance. Yellowstone continues today as a natural geologic laboratory of active Earth processes. One of the most geologically dynamic areas on Earth due to a shallow source of magma and resulting volcanic activity.
1 As dramatic as the process of weathering sounds, it does not happen overnight. In fact, some instances of mechanical and chemical weathering may take hundreds of years. An example would be the dissolving of limestone through carbonation. Limestone dissolves at an average rate of about one-twentieth of a centimeter every 100 years.
The degree of chemical weathering depends on the type of rock for example limestone is more readily chemically weathered than granite. Other factors such as temperature also play a role as the chemical reactions occur more quickly in areas of high temperatures. Acid rain is also a contributor to chemical weathering.
Home>define the processes occuring in limestone areas> British Hydrogeology - a brief history - Groundwater in Depth Groundwater in Depth British Hydrogeology - a brief history. by John Mather, Emeritus Professor of Geology, University of London.
A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes potholes. Frost Wedging Diagram [click here to see the diagram and copy it (including the labels) into your notes] o Abrasion--physical wearing down of rocks as they rub or bounce against each

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Retrieved Text: On yer bike, limestone cycle!
References to limestone in school curricula date back to at least 1925, when one researcher in the US despaired that half of their students could not name the mineral in the rock. It seems students found limestone boring back then, too.
Limestone probably boarded the science curriculum gravy train by helping to debunk the phlogiston myth. Joseph Black performed the same thermal decomposition that we inflict on our own students, helping to establish that gases have mass.
The misconception that gases are massless persists even now, so maybe what I’m really railing against is the dumbing down of textbooks, which are increasingly free of such historical facts and could usefully place more focus on misconceptions.
Exactly what chemical concepts does limestone so uniquely demonstrate? It undergoes thermal decomposition, but so do cracked alkanes, which students also have to learn about. Other than that, there is just limestone’s cyclical reactions.
Why not focus on calcium carbonate in more engaging environments? Studies have predicted that coral reefs will disappear within a century. Our students may not have visited the Great Barrier Reef, but they have all seen Finding Nemo. Carbonic acid formed from dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the coral, distressingly producing yet more carbon dioxide. But interrelated equilibria will ultimately enable nascent crustaceans to form new seashells from the dissolved ruins of their ancestors.
Now there’s an engaging cycle.
But when it comes down to it, the limestone cycle doesn’t demonstrate anything that some other process could not do so more engagingly. It's time to give this stultifying sedimentary

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Retrieved Text: Karst topography is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer or layers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground drainages, and in some cases there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern Missouri and northern Arkansas in the United States, are underlain by thousands of caves.
The karst hills of the Burren on the west coast of Ireland.
Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages—for example, yanrong in Chinese and tsingy in Malagasy—a notable exception being English (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on karst, the German name for Kras, a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has Paleoeuropean origin (karra, meaning stone) and in antiquity it was called carusardius in Latin. The Slovenian form grast is attested since 1177, and the Croatian kras since 1230.
Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić's publication Das Karstphänomen (1893), based on his studies in the Dinaric Kras region, established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of dolines, "the diagnostic karst landforms." The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name kras, Germanicized as "karst," is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behavior of karst aquifers

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Retrieved Text: This booklet deals an perception into the worldwide prevalence, geomorphology, evolution, weathering and erosion of coastal cliffs and bluffs. Stabilization and protection of cliffs are taken care of intimately. Mitigation of cliff risks and maintenance of scenic positive factors and websites of clinical value calls for potent coastal cliff administration which can simply be in line with thorough wisdom of the actual procedures at paintings.
We are living in a 'risk society' the place the id, distribution and administration of hazards, from new expertise, environmental elements or different resources are the most important to our person and social life. within the Social Contours of danger, Volumes I and II, of the world's best and such a lot influential analysts of the social dimensions of threat assemble their most crucial contributions to this primary and wide-ranging box.
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Advent to method Geomorphology presents an integrative method of the method dynamics and the foundation of landforms via the modern methods excited about their evolution. the writer highlights the actual and chemical legislation governing the task of the earth-surface tactics in particular environmental tension stipulations, places ahead competing hypotheses at the evolution of landforms, and discusses the bases of inner geologic procedures for the reason of the tectogenic positive factors of the earth.
The upper layers of the Gault clay then become a soft wet slurry

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Retrieved Text: use. Lime softening is best suited to groundwater sources, which have relatively stable water quality. The combination of variable source water quality and the complexity of the chemistry of lime softening may make lime softening too complex for small systems that use surface water sources.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because .
The pisolitc limestone near the surface of the High Plains in western Kansas is such a bed. This dense limestone has a distinctive structure and can be recognized by its pinkish color, banded appearance and concentric areas. It was formed after the close of the Tertiary, when the climate was drier than it is now.
stone slurry is a semi-liquid substance consisting of particles originated from sawing and polishing processes. These wastes were studied by many researchers for its use in several industrial applications such as cement, concrete mortar, ceramics, composite materials, lime, bricks manufacturing and others that showed positive results and benefits.
Lagoons are one of the most popular methods for wastewater treatment around the world they are also among the simplest and least expensive. Lagoon systems use natural and energy-efficient processes to provide low-cost wastewater treatment for many homes and rural communities in the U.S.
Accessory minerals include chert, pyrite, and gypsum, with gypsum becoming more abundant with depth. Although the uppermost part of the Avon Park Forma­tion varies between lime­stone and dolostone, dolostone predominates deeper within the unit, especially toward the south.
Graymont is committed to achieving industry leadership in sustainability

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Retrieved Text: Caving in Belize has exploded in popularity in recent years, but among the small world of cave explorers the country has been world-renowned for decades. The Maya Mountains uplifted a large area of limestone beds that have subsequently eroded into a huge network of Belize caves, many with rivers coursing through them. Belize hiking and caving exploratory excursions in the 1970’s and 80’s discovered the second largest underground room in the world in the Chiquibul system in the western part of the mountains, putting Belize on the map for extraordinary caves.
Much of Belize’s inland topography is composed of ‘karst’ geology, which features deeply eroded limestone mountains. Karst geography is typically honeycombed with caves. Belize is famous among cave explorers, who have mapped innumerable underground caverns throughout the country. Belize contains the second largest underground chamber in the world, over 1/4 mile long!
Mayan religious beliefs state that most of their important deities resided in the underworld, for which caves were the gateway. Therefore, the Mayans held all caves sacred, and performed religious ceremonies in nearly every cave they found. Each Belize cave contains treasures from these ancient ceremonies. The thick rainforest cloaking the geology of Belize makes it difficult to find undiscovered openings, and new discoveries are made every year.
Slickrock Adventures offers a Che Chem Ha one-day tour for groups of 8 minimum, with a maximum of 14; read more about that below. We also offer a one-day Belize cave kayaking adventure, please inquire.
Many of the large caves in Belize are well known and easily accessible, but

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Retrieved Text: Limestone, quicklime and slaked lime are all used to neutralise excess acidity - which may be caused by acid rain - in lakes and in soils. Limestone is used as a building material, and to purify iron in blast furnaces. It's also used in the manufacture of glass, and of cement (one of the components of concrete).
List Of Limestone Uses - snmarketing.
Indiana Limestone - Wikipedia. Indiana limestone is part of a high-end market. It is mostly used on the exterior of homes and commercial buildings.
Where is Limestone found - .
list of all texas limestone quarries – Grinding .
1)limestone is used on skyscrapers to coat the outer blocks to protect them. 2) lime stone can be used for water treatment. 3) limestone can be used for acid gas .
Students use the information in the 'Uses Posters&' to create a table on the uses of limestone. The students then peer assess each others tables.
21/12/2012· What are the uses of limestone – The Q&A wiki. Limestone Uses: Used as aggregate or base for roads and foundations. Used in the purification of molten glass.
Limestone is a grey rock that is made of calcite. This piece of limestone (to the left) came from Portland Bill on the English South coast. .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks - Cochise .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks Cochise College Geology Home Page ... project out of the limestone as the limestone is slowly dissolved by rainwater.
list of limestone uses - .
list of uses for limestone - .
Limestone landscapes and their uses - Royal .
Limestone landscapes and their uses

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Retrieved Text: Large areas of freshwater marl prairie border the deeper sloughs of the Everglades. These relatively short-hydroperiod marshes are typified by a diverse assemblage of low-growing vegetation. A complex mixture of algae, bacteria, microbes, and detritus that is attached to submerged surfaces, periphyton serves as an important food source for invertebrates, tadpoles, and some fish. Periphyton is conspicuous and is the basis for the marl soils present. The marl allows slow seepage of the water but not rapid drainage. Though the sawgrass is not as tall and the water is not as deep, freshwater marl prairies look a lot like freshwater sloughs.
The acidity of rainwater increases as it infiltrates plant tissue, debris, and soils. Over thousands of years, the water is capable of dissolving solution holes into the limestone bedrock.
Marl prairie occurs on thin, calcitic soil that has accumulated over limestone bedrock. In places, the bedrock may be exposed as jagged, foot-tall projections called pinnacle rock, or it may be dissolved below the surface of the ground into solution holes. Most precipitation is of relatively neutral pH, but it becomes increasingly acidic as it infiltrates live plant tissue, decaying plant debris, and soils before seeping into the ground. The acidic water dissolves the carbonate rock along cracks and fractures in the bedrock. Over thousands of years, dissolution within pore spaces and along fractures creates increasingly larger voids.

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Retrieved Text: This has been an amazing past few days! After a quick visit to Maní to see a traditional Mexican Sunday mass, we were off to La Reserva Biocultural de Kaxil Kiuic (pronounced “Kashil Kooeek“). “Kax” in Mayan means forest and “Kiuic” means a place to come together.
The inside of the church in Maní during Sunday mass.
Click to see a traditional Sunday Mass in Maní.
Kaxil Kiuic is a nonprofit private reserve created in 2002 by Millsaps College run by Dr. James Callahan. According to its mission statement, its purpose is to “conserve through research and education.” The reserve encompasses 4,500 acres of tropical dry forest and data is collected regarding the forest’s ecology and capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, a very important attribute to fight against climate change. According to the latest experiments, Kaxil Kiuic’s forest stores about 215,000 tons of carbon in the above-ground biomass and in the soil.
Kaxil Kiuic has a nursery to grow produce-bearing plants and provide them to more than 400 Mayan farmers and 5 private property owners in 5 counties in the region. The plants help to provide support for production in agriculture and biodiversity in the Yucatán.
Kaxil Kiuic is important for its biodiversity: 247 bird, 14 amphibian, 52 reptile, and 63 mammal species call Kaxil Kiuic their home. 29.2% of the birds present in the Yucatán Peninsula and 14.3% of birds in Mexico live in Kaxil Kiuic. Also, five of the six large feline species endemic to Mexico, including jaguars, live in Kaxil Kiuic.
Kaxil Kiuic is also an archaeological site, where

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Retrieved Text: Coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool SLOWLY DEEP in the Earth.
Molten rock INSIDE the earth.
Molten rock ON Earth's surface.
Extrusive igneous rock that cools SO FAST that NO crystals are formed. It looks like "black glass".
Extrusive igneous rock with holes due to escaping gas.
When a mineral changes from a solid to a liquid at a particular temperature. .
When the liquid rocks/minerals are able to cool off and turn into solid rocks. This is a process in the formation of Igneous Rocks.
Small pieces of rock or shells produced by weathering.
Rocks made of sediments cemented together. Usually formed under water. Examples are sandstone (medium-grain) and conglomerate (coarse).
Made from remains of once living things. Examples: limestone made from shells, coal from swamp plants, etc.
Formed from the evaporation of water that leaves minerals behind. Occurs along the coasts of oceans and large salt lakes.
When land is pushed to a higher elevation due to natural processes such as mountain building & plate tectonics. This brings deep rocks to surface where they can be weathered.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by processes, such as dissolving due acid rain, rusting/oxidation, etc.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by forces, such as waves, ice wedging, freeze-thaw, etc.
Movement and removal of surface materials to a new location. Movement may be caused by wind, moving water, gravity (landslide), etc.
"Laying down" or "settling out" of sediments after being moved by erosion. Usually happens at the bottom of a body of water.
When sediments become covered beneath layers of other sediments.
Process that transforms sediments

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Retrieved Text: Rock. Katarína Bavoľárová Gymnázium sv. Tomáša Akvinského 2.B. ...obsah. Rock Rock and Roll Hard rock 1) formovanie 2) 70. a 90. roky Three Days Grace - od histórie - albumy Anketa Organizačný diagram Použitá literatúra. Rock.
What is a Rock? -. a rock is a: naturally formed, consolidated material, composed of grains of one or more minerals. some rocks. types of common rocks. there are three types of common rocks: igneous rock sedimentary rock metamorphic rock.
Salt from Rock Salt -. what is this?. where does it come from?. what does it contain?. can you describe it?. salt from rock salt. salt from rock salt. ionic compound. salt. rock salt. filtration. soluble. dissolving. halite.
The Dome of the Rock -. the dome of the rock is a shrine built over a large stone in the center of jerusalem. this holy rock is known as the foundation stone.
Rock identification -. liz larosa http://www.middleschoolscience.com 2009. what type of rock is this? where or how is it formed?. marble. metamorphic non-foliated calcium carbonate metamorphism of limestone. what type of rock is this?

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Retrieved Text: where time seems to stand still, and all that’s left is nature’s pristine beauty. In the last wild forest of Europe purity reigns. The Carpathian Mountains of Romania are a range of majestic mountains stretching 1,000 miles across Central Europe, unspoiled by civilization, untouched by agriculture and industry.
The geology of the AQUA Carpatica sparkling water is a testimony to a rich history of transformation that has taken place below the Earth’s surface, going back millennia. The underground journey of the water traverses layers of Neogene-period volcanic rocks, absorbing carbonic acid, and eventually through dolomite -- a limestone rock which contains Calcium and Magnesium, a strata from 1 billion years ago (Proterozoic eon). The carbonic acid dissolves valuable Calcium and Magnesium from the almost insoluble dolomite and a perfect water is created. It has been established that the underground path of the sparkling water (Paltinis Spring) is around 40 years long, during which natural filtration and enrichment with CO2 take place -- giving AQUA Carpatica its distinctive sparkle and taste. The spring is located deep in the forest, far away from any human activity.
Nose-to-tail #nosetotail dishes are complex and flavorful with sometimes surprising textures. With this pork nose dish I would prefer a High Minerality content water with natural carbonation. AQUA Carpatica would be a perfect example of such a water.
The brand was honored with many prestigious awards: Grand Prix Expo for bottled water in China (2013), the Grand Effie in Romania (2015), Fibra Awards' Campaign of the Year (2016), the prestigious Cannes Lions (2016), and the

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Around the world, people use quicklime to balance the pH of their fish tanks. Could governments do something similar to correct the pH of our acidifying oceans?
It’s not as crazy as it sounds. For the past decade would-be geoengineers have been searching for practical ways of adding limestone to the world’s waters to stave off acidification before it kills too many corals and shellfish. Now Greg Rau of the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of California, Santa Cruz, says that, paradoxically, carbon dioxide captured from the flue gas of power stations could do the trick. Combined with limestone, it produces an alkaline that could then be dumped into the sea to counter acidification.
Others are intrigued by the solution, but caution that it should be used only as a last resort.
Rau pumped seawater and CO2 gas over limestone particles. As it would in the oceans, the CO2 formed carbonic acid in the seawater, and the acid then reacted with the limestone to produce calcium bicarbonate. This removed up to 97 per cent of the CO2 pumped into the tube – and left behind a highly alkaline mixture.
Preliminary, unpublished, studies in Rau’s laboratory suggest that dumping concentrated alkaline into the ocean would not harm organisms in the immediate vicinity of the dump site. For example, adding half the amount of calcium bicarbonate that is found in natural seawater does not affect the growth of hydroid invertebrates – and can boost it.
Rather than attempting to neutralise all the world’s oceans, Ken Caldeira of the Carnegie Institution of

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Retrieved Text: Traditional lime mortars carbonate ‘within’ as well as on the surface.
This is calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate but also as un-burnt material in the lime. The reaction series that is critical to the performance of historic lime mortars is carbonation, and not the hydration of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates.
To understand this, it is necessary to understand the chemistry of carbonation, and this is more complicated than generally thought.
The first reaction is that of CO2 + H2O to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid). Reactivity increases in the presence of acidity in rainwater. It is this carbonic acid that reacts with lime on the surface of mortar to produce calcium carbonate.
The depth of this surface reaction depends on many factors including time, permeability of mortar, and relative humidity.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2(aq).
As long as sufficient CO2 is available to stabilise the bicarbonate in solution which is likely to occur in the long term, calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate, or as unconverted, partially converted, or reconverted material, will in turn dissolve in the carbonic acid to produce calcium bicarbonate. This bicarbonate will in turn react with lime to form calcium carbonate.

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Retrieved Text: In the Mojave National Preserve, carbonate sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic and Paleozoic age (consisting of limestone and dolostone) crop out throughout the Clark Mountains, the Mescal Mountains, in the northern Ivanpah Range, in the central portion of Providence Mountains, and elsewhere. Carbonate rocks originally form from limey sediments consisting of the calcareous skeletal remains of algae and invertebrate shell material or precipitates directly from agitated, warm seawater (as on a shallow continental shelf in a warm climate). Most ancient limestones formed from planktonic algae, but in late Paleozoic time coralline reefs became significant producers of carbonate sediments. Limestone consists dominantly of the mineral Calcite-CaCO3, whereas dolostone consists dominantly of the mineral dolomite-CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite is typically a secondary mineral replacement of original calcite material. Ancient carbonate rocks like those in the Mojave region tend to be enriched in dolomite. Below are examples of common fossiliferous carbonate rocks of Paleozoic age from the Mojave region.
Oncolites (algal limestone balls) float in a carbonate-mud matrix in the Cambrian-age Chambless Formation. This easy-to-recognize oncolite-bearing limestone formation crops out in many areas throughout the Mojave National Preserve region. These nearly spheroidal oncolites formed by algae and/or cyanobacterial growth in shallow warm marine waters of a carbonate platform environment.
A boulder of a fossiliferous limestone displays stromatoporoids and corals of early Devonian age (Sultan Formation). Boulders like this one are not uncommon in alluvial fans downstream from the Paleozoic age sedimentary rock belt exposed in the Providence Range.
An expansive Joshua-tree forest covers a pediment surface (along Cima Road). In the distance, steeply dipping and

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Retrieved Text: KNOXVILLE -- As carbon dioxide continues to burgeon in the atmosphere causing the Earth's climate to warm, scientists are trying to find ways to remove the excess gas from the atmosphere and store it where it can cause no trouble.
Sigurdur Gislason of the University of Iceland has been studying the possibility of sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in basalt and presented his findings today to several thousand geochemists from around the world at the Goldschmidt Conference hosted by the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Carbon sequestration is currently the most promising way to reduce greenhouse gases. Gislason leads an international team of scientists on the Carbfix Project, which aims at pumping carbon deep underground in southwest Iceland where it will mix with minerals and become rock. The project's goal is to find a storage solution that is long lasting, thermodynamically stable and environmentally benign.
An Icelandic geothermal plant is now hosting the pilot program. Gislason's project involves capturing and separating flue gases at the Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant, transporting the gas, dissolving it in water, and injecting it at high pressures to a depth between 400 and 800 meters into a thick layer of basalt. Then he and his coworkers will verify and monitor the storage.
Carbon dioxide mixed with water forms carbonic acid (also known as carbonated water or soda water), which percolates through the rocks, dissolving some minerals and forming solid carbonates with them, thereby storing the carbon dioxide in rock form, said Gislason.
If successful, Gislason said, the experiment will be scaled up

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what are formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock dissolving limestone" and the following answer choices: 
- oceans
 - Calcium carbonate
 - coral reefs
 - enormous rooms
 - a solute
 - creeks
 - Greenhouse gasses
 - a hydraulic system

Now knowing that acavern is formed by carbonic acid in groundwater seeping through rock and dissolving limestone and caverns are characterized by enormous rooms, choose the best answer.

Target Text: enormous rooms

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Karst is a type of land surface that is formed over limestone, dolomite, or gypsum by dissolving or dissolution, and is characterized by closed depressions or sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage system. From the Slavic word Kras- meaning “bleak waterless place”.-source Glossary of Geology, 1974, American Geological Institute.
Karst development in Ohio is fairly widespread throughout the western half of the state. However, detailed karst hydrogeologic (groundwater) studies of the region have been seriously lacking. Recent studies by Tintera (1980), Tintera & Forsyth (1980), Kihn (1988) and Miller (2001) identified various karst features and have greatly increased our knowledge of the geology of the area and the groundwater system, which underlies it.
Landforms, which develop as a result of rock being dissolved (dissolution), such a as limestone, dolomite, marble, gypsum, and salt are collectively known as karst. The distinct features of a karst landscape include sinkholes, caves, large springs, dry valleys and shrinking steams. These systems are characterized by the gravity flow of weak carbon dioxide (CO2) charged groundwater percolating through fractures and openings that enlarge as the bedrock dissolves. Surface water, i.e. rain or snowmelt, drains rapidly into the subsurface system recharging it. Consequently, within the recharge area, there are no significant surface systems developed.
Our original karst area begins south and west of the caverns and extends northward to Sandusky Bay. The undulating or rolling topography of small hills and depressions is the surface expression of the subsurface condition. Although masked by glacial till from Pleistocene Ice Age, the karst landscape remains the predominate landform in this

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Retrieved Text: Natural Tunnel State Park offers glimpses into both historic and prehistoric periods. The tunnel itself formed as the result of groundwater containing carbonic acid seeping through and dissolving massive limestone deposits to create a cave that grew to 850 feet in length and 100 feet in height with the assistance of some blasting. Fossils can be seen along the bed of Stock Creek, which traverses the tunnel, as well as on the tunnel walls. Former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan called Natural Tunnel the Eighth Wonder of the World, and visitors have been flocking here for more than 100 years. Because of its location in the shadow of the Cumberland Gap, through which the country’s earliest settlers crossed on their westward passage, it should come as little surprise that Daniel Boone is thought to have been one of the first Europeans to view this natural wonder. But it was not written about until Col. Stephen Long did so in the March 1832 Monthly American Journal of Geology and Natural Science. Final blasting was done to open both ends of the tunnel to allow for the South Atlantic and Ohio Railroad to lay down tracks and pass through, and coal trains continue to do so.
One of Virginia's best trails, Natural Tunnel State Park is located near Duffield, VA. Trails' printable online topo maps offer shaded and un-shaded reliefs, and aerial photos too. Use topographic maps to find elevation, print high resolution maps, save a PNG, or just learn the topography around Natural Tunnel State Park. You

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Retrieved Text: Below the ground in Florida lies a layer of porous limestone or dolostone known as the Floridan Aquifer. This aquifer is the primary source of Florida's drinking water. It is one of the largest aquifers in the United States, extending across Florida and through parts of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. Above and below the aquifer are other layers of gravel, sand, clay, dolomite, or limestone.
In some places, the Floridan Aquifer's limestone layers are thousands of feet thick; in others, the layers are thin. Some places these limestones are far below the ground surface, and some places they are the ground surface. Water is able to flow through the limestone's many interconnected holes and empty spaces. The result is a unique and complex terrain that scientists call "karst" topography – land whose shape is influenced by the dissolving of underground limestone layers.
Where the water table (the groundwater/air interface underground) lies within this porous limestone, we have dry caves. Below the water table, we have cave diving. By definition, a cave is "an underground chamber, typically of natural origin, that can be entered by humans", so these chambers become our caves. But how exactly did they get here?
The Florida Peninsula is a limestone plateau formed many millions of years ago when the area was a warm, shallow sea. During the Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago [mya] – present), millions of years of deposits from small sea creatures make up the limestone, which is several thousand feet thick. Below that lies the Paleozoic and Mesozoic basement rocks

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Retrieved Text: Geologists study the history of our planet by examining the rock layers that make up the Earth's crust. Sedimentary rocks (those formed from the weathered remains of other rocks) are one type of rock that makes up the Earth's crust. One kind of sedimentary rock is limestone. It constitutes 10% of all sedimentary rocks, and occurs as striking outcrops, which often contain openings to caves. Although caves Woccur in several types of material (limestone, dolostone, granite, sandstone, ice, lava), the majority of caves are found in limestone. Our study of the geology of caves will take you through where caves occur in the United States, the major ways that caves form (through the action of carbonic acid and by sulfuric acid dissolution), and how they are decorated with cave formations (speleothems).

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Retrieved Text: Millions of years ago, the Yucatan peninsula was below sea level and formed the bed of a shallow ocean. Fish shellfish and coral thrived in this environment, and when they died their bones and shells fell to the sea floor. The calcium from these formed a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sludge. As the depth of this layer of sludge thickened, the increasing pressure solidified the calcium carbonate into a porous limestone rock.
During subsequent ice ages the sea level fell and the peninsula was exposed, forming dry land covered in heavy vegetation. Rain falling on the land would percolate through the decaying vegetation and the porous limestone, and then flow horizontally to the sea.
The rainwater dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and produced by decaying vegetation, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). This carbonic acid solution dissolved the limestone, sometimes creating vertical shafts from the surface, and sometimes creating horizontal passages towards the ocean. Most of the horizontal cave development is believed to have happened close to the water level.

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Retrieved Text: freezing and thawing cycles break up rocks by water seeping into cracks, freezing and expanding, cracking the rocks further, and then melting.
roots from trees can grow deep in cracks, become bigger and eventually crack rocks.
acids found in the environment can react with certain rocks.
carbon dioxide mixed with water can create carbonic acid which dissolves limestone, dolomite, and marble.
plant roots produce acid or substances that makes acid when mixed with water.
a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and air that supports the growth of plant life.
the original rock from which the soil is formed. It has a large influence on the nature of soil it produces.
the topography (surface features) influences soil formation. Soil has little chance of developing on steep slopes.
the weather can control speed of soil formation (if rocks weather quickly, then soil can form quickly) and amount of organic material in the soil (dry areas have less life, so soils have less organic material).
dark colored organic material in soil that comes from the decomposition of plants and animals. Holds water and provides nutrients.
different soils take different amounts of time to form. Soil that takes a long time to be made could be eroded away or disturbed, slowing the process of making it.
Gravel (stone) - about 2 millimeters or bigger. Doesn't retain water.
i. Loam soil - contains about equal concentrations of sand, silt, and clay (usually about 40,40,20% respectively). It is usually gritty and moist.

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Retrieved Text: The precise erosional forms which the karst takes depends on many variables. The mechanical structure and chemical composition of the rock, the local climate and temperature range, and the amount of vegetation and rainfall a region has all determine how fast a carbonate landscape erodes. Karst along a seaside is quite different than that inland, and tropical karst does not resemble karst in temperate or sub-Arctic zones. Landforms in zones with earthquake activity are quite different than that in quiet zones, or places where mountain-building have turned the layers of carbonate rock on edge. Some karst is formed as a result of sulfuric acid welling up from below instead of carbonic acid percolating down from above. Some places in the American West are a mix of the two processes.
A spring is a natural resurgence of groundwater, usually along a hillside or from a valley floor.
A cave is an airfilled underground void, large enough to be examined in some way by man.
A sinkhole or sink is a collapsed portion of bedrock above a void. Sinks may be a sheer vertical opening into a cave, or a shallow depression of many acres.
A losing stream is one with a bed with allows water to flow directly into the groundwater system. There are many chert bottomed losing streams in the Ozarks.
A natural bridge or tunnel is a void beneath still standing bedrock, usually of short extent, and allowing human passage from one end to the other, at least part of the time. A natural bridge is somewhat shorter than a

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Retrieved Text: Weathering creates underground caves and passages in limestone in addition to depressions and other unusual dips and grooves on the surface. Karst is landscape formed from the weathering of limestone.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock created from the remains of dead sea creatures and is predominately made up of calcium carbonate. Many horizontal and vertical cracks run through limestone. These cracks allow water to pass easily through the rock. Water acts as an acid when it contacts calcium carbonate, dissolving the limestone. The dissolved calcium carbonate may drip into underground caves hollowed out from the action of weathering. Sometimes, the calcium carbonate evaporates as it drips from the cave ceiling creating stalactites. If the calcium carbonate drips and evaporates on the ground it creates stumps called stalagmites. Occasionally other unusual features develop from the dripping and evaporation of calcium carbonate such as curtains or columns.
Complex underground passageways develop as limestone weathers. Water flow through these passageways creates immense underground networks of rivers and streams. These water flows are accessed by humans and used as aquifers for water storage and extraction. Many places depend upon limestone aquifers for their water supply. Care must be taken with using limestone aquifers since pollutants as well as rain can easily pass through the limestone.

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Retrieved Text: It’s old, complex, and filled with more boxwork than is found in all other caves on Earth put together. Any one of these qualities would make Wind Cave unique. Together they make it a world-class cave. And each component is essential to understanding how the cave formed.
A warm shallow sea covered the area about 350 million years ago. Fragments of seashells, made of calcium carbonate, built up over time on the seafloor and eventually became limestone. Bodies of gypsum, made of calcium sulfate, also formed during this time when arid conditions caused seawater to evaporate and the minerals to crystallize. The gypsum formed irregular shaped masses within the limestone. The resulting rock is known as the Madison Limestone formation, or locally as the Pahasapa (Black Hills) Limestone.
The gypsum masses were unstable. They grew and shrank as they absorbed and expelled water. This pressure fractured the gypsum and surrounding limestone. Like thick toothpaste, some gypsum squeezed into these cracks and crystallized in place. Later, water rich in carbonate ions converted all of the gypsum to calcite, or calcium carbonate. This set the stage for the cave and boxwork to form.
The oceans receded allowing fresh water into the region. This naturally acidic freshwater reacted with the bodies of gypsum. They were converted to calcite, creating sulfuric or sulfurous acid as a byproduct. These acids dissolved the surrounding limestone to form the first cave passageways approximately 320 million years ago.
After the first period of cave formation, seas again advanced over this area. About 300 million years ago, layers of

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Retrieved Text: Material Availability This science fair project requires that you own or can borrow safety equipment, such as a hardhat and sturdy shoes, to wear in the cave.
Safety In this science fair project you will be visiting caves. Please exercise caution when working in caves because the ground can be slippery. Always stay on prescribed paths. Adult supervision is required. When exploring in caves, always take an adult. Let the authorities in charge of the cave system know about your project and that you will be working in the cave.
Caves have been used for much more than just exploring throughout Earth's history. Caves have been used for shelter, for religious purposes, and for burial sites. They were even used for food storage, before refrigeration, because they are cool and have constant high humidity. But how are caves formed? What causes those fantastic formations in caves? How do cave formations change as you go deeper in the cave? Get ready for an adventure as you visit a local cave and learn more in this science fair project!
To learn more about speleology, and to count the number of speleothems versus distance into a cave.
Science Buddies Staff. "Speleology: Counting Formations in a Local Cave." Science Buddies, 27 Jan. 2018, https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Geo_p039/geology/speleology-cave-formations. Accessed 25 Apr. 2019.
What do you think about when you hear the word cave? Do you think about a large, dark, scary place like Batman's Batcave? Caves are actually places of geological wonder and they are a variety of sizes. A cave is defined as an underground void large enough

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Retrieved Text: The next deepest occurrence is in the extreme northwest part of the state, where limestone occurs down no further than about 4,000 feet. Limestone is absent altogether in the St. Francois Mountains area in southeast Missouri, occurring neither at the surface nor in the subsurface.
Yellowstone's Geologic Significance. Yellowstone continues today as a natural geologic laboratory of active Earth processes. One of the most geologically dynamic areas on Earth due to a shallow source of magma and resulting volcanic activity.
1 As dramatic as the process of weathering sounds, it does not happen overnight. In fact, some instances of mechanical and chemical weathering may take hundreds of years. An example would be the dissolving of limestone through carbonation. Limestone dissolves at an average rate of about one-twentieth of a centimeter every 100 years.
The degree of chemical weathering depends on the type of rock for example limestone is more readily chemically weathered than granite. Other factors such as temperature also play a role as the chemical reactions occur more quickly in areas of high temperatures. Acid rain is also a contributor to chemical weathering.
Home>define the processes occuring in limestone areas> British Hydrogeology - a brief history - Groundwater in Depth Groundwater in Depth British Hydrogeology - a brief history. by John Mather, Emeritus Professor of Geology, University of London.
A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes potholes. Frost Wedging Diagram [click here to see the diagram and copy it (including the labels) into your notes] o Abrasion--physical wearing down of rocks as they rub or bounce against each

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Retrieved Text: On yer bike, limestone cycle!
References to limestone in school curricula date back to at least 1925, when one researcher in the US despaired that half of their students could not name the mineral in the rock. It seems students found limestone boring back then, too.
Limestone probably boarded the science curriculum gravy train by helping to debunk the phlogiston myth. Joseph Black performed the same thermal decomposition that we inflict on our own students, helping to establish that gases have mass.
The misconception that gases are massless persists even now, so maybe what I’m really railing against is the dumbing down of textbooks, which are increasingly free of such historical facts and could usefully place more focus on misconceptions.
Exactly what chemical concepts does limestone so uniquely demonstrate? It undergoes thermal decomposition, but so do cracked alkanes, which students also have to learn about. Other than that, there is just limestone’s cyclical reactions.
Why not focus on calcium carbonate in more engaging environments? Studies have predicted that coral reefs will disappear within a century. Our students may not have visited the Great Barrier Reef, but they have all seen Finding Nemo. Carbonic acid formed from dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the coral, distressingly producing yet more carbon dioxide. But interrelated equilibria will ultimately enable nascent crustaceans to form new seashells from the dissolved ruins of their ancestors.
Now there’s an engaging cycle.
But when it comes down to it, the limestone cycle doesn’t demonstrate anything that some other process could not do so more engagingly. It's time to give this stultifying sedimentary

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Retrieved Text: Caves begin to form when rainwater seeps into soil where it absorbs a small amount of carbon dioxide. Water mixed with carbon dioxide forms a weak carbonic acid solution that is able to dissolve rock (particularly dolomite or limestone). Water flow creates and enlarges underground passages, until finally the water surfaces at a spring. As the flow of water continues to erode deeper into the surface, the openings left behind become caves.
The limestone and dolomite bedrock of the Ozarks´ mountains, where Marvel Cave is located, contains the mineral calcite. Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide found in the soil and air to form a weak acid solution called carbonic acid. As with the cave atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released from the solution, which causes small deposits of crystallized calcite. This crystallized calcite forms stalactites. Growth rates of stalactites can vary greatly but the average is one inch per 25 to 100 years. As this process is driven by rainwater, increased rainwater will increase the rate at which stalactites form.

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Retrieved Text: Manufacturer and supplier of industrial minerals and chemicals. Rock Phosphate, Zeolite, Soapstone, China Clay, Calcium Carbonate, Dolomite, etc.
. 800dia X1000width Heavy Calcium Carbonate Roller Mill Supplier Roller Mill Grinding Fluting Roller Tee Mill Junagadh Roller Conveyor . or rock dust. Crushers .
Belt conveyor mainly is formed by belt . calcite, dolomite, barite, talc calcium, carbonate. The frame equipe with belt roller ,carrying roller and so .
Calcium Carbonate powders can cause many problems in conveying systems. Flexicon's product line of advanced flow promotion conveyors, high-flow hoppers.
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Carbonate Crusher Calcium - aidacreations. How To Crush Calcium Carbonate - - Rock Crusher … is a manufacturer of construction and mining equipments in .
Carbonate,Define Carbonate at Dictionary. Carbonate definition, a salt or ester of carbonic acid. See more. . Limestone is a carbonate rock.
Limestone is defined by these two criteria: it is a sedimentary rock (1) and it is composed of calcium carbonate (2). There are other rocks that are composed of .
>> Belt Conveyor >> BWZ Heavy Duty . Limestone / Calcium Carbonate; Rock Salt; Silicon. . Manganese 300tph rock crusher(roller mill calcium carbonate plant) .
LUM Ultrafine Vertical Roller . craigs list wanted used hand rock crusher; used rubber conveyor . As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock.
The present invention relates to a method for separating mineral impurities from calcium carbonate-containing rocks by . of a conveyor belt and an X-ray . roller .
Belt Conveyor Sedimentary Rock Everyday Life Grinding

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Retrieved Text: Dolomite and Diopside glass slabs like this can be found everywhere Limestone (Dolomite) deposits have been covered through time and then uncovered later.
The Limestone is buried. Then weight, heat and salts chemically create the secondary layers along fissures. Then further weight and heating/cooling fractures the stone. Water soaks through Decomposing Vegetation to create Carbonic Acid. The Carbonic Acid then eats at the underlying softer limestone where the fractures happen to be in the layer of harder Diopside Glass creating these type of common examples.
Slabs like this can be found all over the world in areas where Limestone Caverns have been formed. It just happens to be a coincidence that the markings resemble the map of the area.
Why is it difficult to date the engravings? Isn’t there patina in them? If no patina exists, then I would deem it a fake because no engraving could exist in a stone that is exposed to the elements or buried without accumulating debris. As for dating the seashell, that is useless in dating the engraving as whenever engraved the stone could have picked it up anywhere.
This object should be considered in context with the many other anomalous objects found in the Urals.
As for the age given of 120 million years, until Uniformitarians get around to factoring catastrophic events into their stratigraphy dating models, the numbers they use should be considered more as common placemarks than as actual spans of time.
If your god exist's he/she/it cannot be very loving and merciful and perfect with all the pain and suffering in this

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Retrieved Text: Karst topography is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer or layers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground drainages, and in some cases there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern Missouri and northern Arkansas in the United States, are underlain by thousands of caves.
The karst hills of the Burren on the west coast of Ireland.
Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages—for example, yanrong in Chinese and tsingy in Malagasy—a notable exception being English (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on karst, the German name for Kras, a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has Paleoeuropean origin (karra, meaning stone) and in antiquity it was called carusardius in Latin. The Slovenian form grast is attested since 1177, and the Croatian kras since 1230.
Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić's publication Das Karstphänomen (1893), based on his studies in the Dinaric Kras region, established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of dolines, "the diagnostic karst landforms." The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name kras, Germanicized as "karst," is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behavior of karst aquifers

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Retrieved Text: This booklet deals an perception into the worldwide prevalence, geomorphology, evolution, weathering and erosion of coastal cliffs and bluffs. Stabilization and protection of cliffs are taken care of intimately. Mitigation of cliff risks and maintenance of scenic positive factors and websites of clinical value calls for potent coastal cliff administration which can simply be in line with thorough wisdom of the actual procedures at paintings.
We are living in a 'risk society' the place the id, distribution and administration of hazards, from new expertise, environmental elements or different resources are the most important to our person and social life. within the Social Contours of danger, Volumes I and II, of the world's best and such a lot influential analysts of the social dimensions of threat assemble their most crucial contributions to this primary and wide-ranging box.
Completely giftable replica! backbone is intact. Pages are fresh without markings or folds. Pages, disguise, and mud jacket (if appropriate) are intact. speedy transport from Amazon! Qualifies for high delivery and unfastened normal transport for orders over $35.
Advent to method Geomorphology presents an integrative method of the method dynamics and the foundation of landforms via the modern methods excited about their evolution. the writer highlights the actual and chemical legislation governing the task of the earth-surface tactics in particular environmental tension stipulations, places ahead competing hypotheses at the evolution of landforms, and discusses the bases of inner geologic procedures for the reason of the tectogenic positive factors of the earth.
The upper layers of the Gault clay then become a soft wet slurry

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Retrieved Text: Caving in Belize has exploded in popularity in recent years, but among the small world of cave explorers the country has been world-renowned for decades. The Maya Mountains uplifted a large area of limestone beds that have subsequently eroded into a huge network of Belize caves, many with rivers coursing through them. Belize hiking and caving exploratory excursions in the 1970’s and 80’s discovered the second largest underground room in the world in the Chiquibul system in the western part of the mountains, putting Belize on the map for extraordinary caves.
Much of Belize’s inland topography is composed of ‘karst’ geology, which features deeply eroded limestone mountains. Karst geography is typically honeycombed with caves. Belize is famous among cave explorers, who have mapped innumerable underground caverns throughout the country. Belize contains the second largest underground chamber in the world, over 1/4 mile long!
Mayan religious beliefs state that most of their important deities resided in the underworld, for which caves were the gateway. Therefore, the Mayans held all caves sacred, and performed religious ceremonies in nearly every cave they found. Each Belize cave contains treasures from these ancient ceremonies. The thick rainforest cloaking the geology of Belize makes it difficult to find undiscovered openings, and new discoveries are made every year.
Slickrock Adventures offers a Che Chem Ha one-day tour for groups of 8 minimum, with a maximum of 14; read more about that below. We also offer a one-day Belize cave kayaking adventure, please inquire.
Many of the large caves in Belize are well known and easily accessible, but

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Retrieved Text: This has been an amazing past few days! After a quick visit to Maní to see a traditional Mexican Sunday mass, we were off to La Reserva Biocultural de Kaxil Kiuic (pronounced “Kashil Kooeek“). “Kax” in Mayan means forest and “Kiuic” means a place to come together.
The inside of the church in Maní during Sunday mass.
Click to see a traditional Sunday Mass in Maní.
Kaxil Kiuic is a nonprofit private reserve created in 2002 by Millsaps College run by Dr. James Callahan. According to its mission statement, its purpose is to “conserve through research and education.” The reserve encompasses 4,500 acres of tropical dry forest and data is collected regarding the forest’s ecology and capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, a very important attribute to fight against climate change. According to the latest experiments, Kaxil Kiuic’s forest stores about 215,000 tons of carbon in the above-ground biomass and in the soil.
Kaxil Kiuic has a nursery to grow produce-bearing plants and provide them to more than 400 Mayan farmers and 5 private property owners in 5 counties in the region. The plants help to provide support for production in agriculture and biodiversity in the Yucatán.
Kaxil Kiuic is important for its biodiversity: 247 bird, 14 amphibian, 52 reptile, and 63 mammal species call Kaxil Kiuic their home. 29.2% of the birds present in the Yucatán Peninsula and 14.3% of birds in Mexico live in Kaxil Kiuic. Also, five of the six large feline species endemic to Mexico, including jaguars, live in Kaxil Kiuic.
Kaxil Kiuic is also an archaeological site, where

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Retrieved Text: where time seems to stand still, and all that’s left is nature’s pristine beauty. In the last wild forest of Europe purity reigns. The Carpathian Mountains of Romania are a range of majestic mountains stretching 1,000 miles across Central Europe, unspoiled by civilization, untouched by agriculture and industry.
The geology of the AQUA Carpatica sparkling water is a testimony to a rich history of transformation that has taken place below the Earth’s surface, going back millennia. The underground journey of the water traverses layers of Neogene-period volcanic rocks, absorbing carbonic acid, and eventually through dolomite -- a limestone rock which contains Calcium and Magnesium, a strata from 1 billion years ago (Proterozoic eon). The carbonic acid dissolves valuable Calcium and Magnesium from the almost insoluble dolomite and a perfect water is created. It has been established that the underground path of the sparkling water (Paltinis Spring) is around 40 years long, during which natural filtration and enrichment with CO2 take place -- giving AQUA Carpatica its distinctive sparkle and taste. The spring is located deep in the forest, far away from any human activity.
Nose-to-tail #nosetotail dishes are complex and flavorful with sometimes surprising textures. With this pork nose dish I would prefer a High Minerality content water with natural carbonation. AQUA Carpatica would be a perfect example of such a water.
The brand was honored with many prestigious awards: Grand Prix Expo for bottled water in China (2013), the Grand Effie in Romania (2015), Fibra Awards' Campaign of the Year (2016), the prestigious Cannes Lions (2016), and the

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Retrieved Text: Large areas of freshwater marl prairie border the deeper sloughs of the Everglades. These relatively short-hydroperiod marshes are typified by a diverse assemblage of low-growing vegetation. A complex mixture of algae, bacteria, microbes, and detritus that is attached to submerged surfaces, periphyton serves as an important food source for invertebrates, tadpoles, and some fish. Periphyton is conspicuous and is the basis for the marl soils present. The marl allows slow seepage of the water but not rapid drainage. Though the sawgrass is not as tall and the water is not as deep, freshwater marl prairies look a lot like freshwater sloughs.
The acidity of rainwater increases as it infiltrates plant tissue, debris, and soils. Over thousands of years, the water is capable of dissolving solution holes into the limestone bedrock.
Marl prairie occurs on thin, calcitic soil that has accumulated over limestone bedrock. In places, the bedrock may be exposed as jagged, foot-tall projections called pinnacle rock, or it may be dissolved below the surface of the ground into solution holes. Most precipitation is of relatively neutral pH, but it becomes increasingly acidic as it infiltrates live plant tissue, decaying plant debris, and soils before seeping into the ground. The acidic water dissolves the carbonate rock along cracks and fractures in the bedrock. Over thousands of years, dissolution within pore spaces and along fractures creates increasingly larger voids.

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Retrieved Text: Rock. Katarína Bavoľárová Gymnázium sv. Tomáša Akvinského 2.B. ...obsah. Rock Rock and Roll Hard rock 1) formovanie 2) 70. a 90. roky Three Days Grace - od histórie - albumy Anketa Organizačný diagram Použitá literatúra. Rock.
What is a Rock? -. a rock is a: naturally formed, consolidated material, composed of grains of one or more minerals. some rocks. types of common rocks. there are three types of common rocks: igneous rock sedimentary rock metamorphic rock.
Salt from Rock Salt -. what is this?. where does it come from?. what does it contain?. can you describe it?. salt from rock salt. salt from rock salt. ionic compound. salt. rock salt. filtration. soluble. dissolving. halite.
The Dome of the Rock -. the dome of the rock is a shrine built over a large stone in the center of jerusalem. this holy rock is known as the foundation stone.
Rock identification -. liz larosa http://www.middleschoolscience.com 2009. what type of rock is this? where or how is it formed?. marble. metamorphic non-foliated calcium carbonate metamorphism of limestone. what type of rock is this?

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Retrieved Text: use. Lime softening is best suited to groundwater sources, which have relatively stable water quality. The combination of variable source water quality and the complexity of the chemistry of lime softening may make lime softening too complex for small systems that use surface water sources.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because .
The pisolitc limestone near the surface of the High Plains in western Kansas is such a bed. This dense limestone has a distinctive structure and can be recognized by its pinkish color, banded appearance and concentric areas. It was formed after the close of the Tertiary, when the climate was drier than it is now.
stone slurry is a semi-liquid substance consisting of particles originated from sawing and polishing processes. These wastes were studied by many researchers for its use in several industrial applications such as cement, concrete mortar, ceramics, composite materials, lime, bricks manufacturing and others that showed positive results and benefits.
Lagoons are one of the most popular methods for wastewater treatment around the world they are also among the simplest and least expensive. Lagoon systems use natural and energy-efficient processes to provide low-cost wastewater treatment for many homes and rural communities in the U.S.
Accessory minerals include chert, pyrite, and gypsum, with gypsum becoming more abundant with depth. Although the uppermost part of the Avon Park Forma­tion varies between lime­stone and dolostone, dolostone predominates deeper within the unit, especially toward the south.
Graymont is committed to achieving industry leadership in sustainability

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Retrieved Text: Coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool SLOWLY DEEP in the Earth.
Molten rock INSIDE the earth.
Molten rock ON Earth's surface.
Extrusive igneous rock that cools SO FAST that NO crystals are formed. It looks like "black glass".
Extrusive igneous rock with holes due to escaping gas.
When a mineral changes from a solid to a liquid at a particular temperature. .
When the liquid rocks/minerals are able to cool off and turn into solid rocks. This is a process in the formation of Igneous Rocks.
Small pieces of rock or shells produced by weathering.
Rocks made of sediments cemented together. Usually formed under water. Examples are sandstone (medium-grain) and conglomerate (coarse).
Made from remains of once living things. Examples: limestone made from shells, coal from swamp plants, etc.
Formed from the evaporation of water that leaves minerals behind. Occurs along the coasts of oceans and large salt lakes.
When land is pushed to a higher elevation due to natural processes such as mountain building & plate tectonics. This brings deep rocks to surface where they can be weathered.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by processes, such as dissolving due acid rain, rusting/oxidation, etc.
Breaking down and loosening of materials on Earth's crust (rocks) by forces, such as waves, ice wedging, freeze-thaw, etc.
Movement and removal of surface materials to a new location. Movement may be caused by wind, moving water, gravity (landslide), etc.
"Laying down" or "settling out" of sediments after being moved by erosion. Usually happens at the bottom of a body of water.
When sediments become covered beneath layers of other sediments.
Process that transforms sediments

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Retrieved Text: Traditional lime mortars carbonate ‘within’ as well as on the surface.
This is calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate but also as un-burnt material in the lime. The reaction series that is critical to the performance of historic lime mortars is carbonation, and not the hydration of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates.
To understand this, it is necessary to understand the chemistry of carbonation, and this is more complicated than generally thought.
The first reaction is that of CO2 + H2O to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid). Reactivity increases in the presence of acidity in rainwater. It is this carbonic acid that reacts with lime on the surface of mortar to produce calcium carbonate.
The depth of this surface reaction depends on many factors including time, permeability of mortar, and relative humidity.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2(aq).
As long as sufficient CO2 is available to stabilise the bicarbonate in solution which is likely to occur in the long term, calcium carbonate present as limestone aggregate, or as unconverted, partially converted, or reconverted material, will in turn dissolve in the carbonic acid to produce calcium bicarbonate. This bicarbonate will in turn react with lime to form calcium carbonate.

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Retrieved Text: In the Mojave National Preserve, carbonate sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic and Paleozoic age (consisting of limestone and dolostone) crop out throughout the Clark Mountains, the Mescal Mountains, in the northern Ivanpah Range, in the central portion of Providence Mountains, and elsewhere. Carbonate rocks originally form from limey sediments consisting of the calcareous skeletal remains of algae and invertebrate shell material or precipitates directly from agitated, warm seawater (as on a shallow continental shelf in a warm climate). Most ancient limestones formed from planktonic algae, but in late Paleozoic time coralline reefs became significant producers of carbonate sediments. Limestone consists dominantly of the mineral Calcite-CaCO3, whereas dolostone consists dominantly of the mineral dolomite-CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite is typically a secondary mineral replacement of original calcite material. Ancient carbonate rocks like those in the Mojave region tend to be enriched in dolomite. Below are examples of common fossiliferous carbonate rocks of Paleozoic age from the Mojave region.
Oncolites (algal limestone balls) float in a carbonate-mud matrix in the Cambrian-age Chambless Formation. This easy-to-recognize oncolite-bearing limestone formation crops out in many areas throughout the Mojave National Preserve region. These nearly spheroidal oncolites formed by algae and/or cyanobacterial growth in shallow warm marine waters of a carbonate platform environment.
A boulder of a fossiliferous limestone displays stromatoporoids and corals of early Devonian age (Sultan Formation). Boulders like this one are not uncommon in alluvial fans downstream from the Paleozoic age sedimentary rock belt exposed in the Providence Range.
An expansive Joshua-tree forest covers a pediment surface (along Cima Road). In the distance, steeply dipping and

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Retrieved Text: Limestone, quicklime and slaked lime are all used to neutralise excess acidity - which may be caused by acid rain - in lakes and in soils. Limestone is used as a building material, and to purify iron in blast furnaces. It's also used in the manufacture of glass, and of cement (one of the components of concrete).
List Of Limestone Uses - snmarketing.
Indiana Limestone - Wikipedia. Indiana limestone is part of a high-end market. It is mostly used on the exterior of homes and commercial buildings.
Where is Limestone found - .
list of all texas limestone quarries – Grinding .
1)limestone is used on skyscrapers to coat the outer blocks to protect them. 2) lime stone can be used for water treatment. 3) limestone can be used for acid gas .
Students use the information in the 'Uses Posters&' to create a table on the uses of limestone. The students then peer assess each others tables.
21/12/2012· What are the uses of limestone – The Q&A wiki. Limestone Uses: Used as aggregate or base for roads and foundations. Used in the purification of molten glass.
Limestone is a grey rock that is made of calcite. This piece of limestone (to the left) came from Portland Bill on the English South coast. .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks - Cochise .
12 Common Sedimentary Rocks Cochise College Geology Home Page ... project out of the limestone as the limestone is slowly dissolved by rainwater.
list of limestone uses - .
list of uses for limestone - .
Limestone landscapes and their uses - Royal .
Limestone landscapes and their uses

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Around the world, people use quicklime to balance the pH of their fish tanks. Could governments do something similar to correct the pH of our acidifying oceans?
It’s not as crazy as it sounds. For the past decade would-be geoengineers have been searching for practical ways of adding limestone to the world’s waters to stave off acidification before it kills too many corals and shellfish. Now Greg Rau of the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of California, Santa Cruz, says that, paradoxically, carbon dioxide captured from the flue gas of power stations could do the trick. Combined with limestone, it produces an alkaline that could then be dumped into the sea to counter acidification.
Others are intrigued by the solution, but caution that it should be used only as a last resort.
Rau pumped seawater and CO2 gas over limestone particles. As it would in the oceans, the CO2 formed carbonic acid in the seawater, and the acid then reacted with the limestone to produce calcium bicarbonate. This removed up to 97 per cent of the CO2 pumped into the tube – and left behind a highly alkaline mixture.
Preliminary, unpublished, studies in Rau’s laboratory suggest that dumping concentrated alkaline into the ocean would not harm organisms in the immediate vicinity of the dump site. For example, adding half the amount of calcium bicarbonate that is found in natural seawater does not affect the growth of hydroid invertebrates – and can boost it.
Rather than attempting to neutralise all the world’s oceans, Ken Caldeira of the Carnegie Institution of

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Retrieved Text: Red Rock Canyon, Nevada is formed from bright red and pink Navajo Sandstone formed from sand dunes during the Jurassic Period. Layering is visible apparent.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups: clastic, biologic and chemical. When sediments consolidate into a cohesive mass, they become sedimentary rock. The composition, texture (how the rock looks) and other features of a sedimentary rock can tell us a story about its origin. Many of the picturesque views of the desert southwest show mesas and arches made of layered sedimentary rock.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock.
Clastic sediments vary widely in size, shape and composition. A single clastic sedimentary rock may be composed of one type of rock and mineral or many types of rocks and minerals. The types of sediment found in a clastic sedimentary rock can tell geologists much about past environments. Clastic sediments and the rocks formed from them are named on the basis of particle size rather than mineral composition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from microscopic silt

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What will be the result of female sperm fusing with an egg to form a diploid zygote?" and the following answer choices: 
- baby girl
 - pollen
 - seeds
 - allow growth
 - Leptospirosis
 - litter
 - Plants growth
 - offspring

Now knowing that fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid zygote and if a female sperm fertilizes the egg, the result is a baby girl, choose the best answer.

Target Text: baby girl

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Retrieved Text: Human development begins at fertilization when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual... The zygote divides many times and becomes progressively transformed into a multi-cellular human being.
Last week I watched CNN reporter Chris Cuomo and Marco Rubio have this discussion over the matter of abortion and the meaning of "human life."
RUBIO: No, science has decided when it is human life.
CUOMO: Science has not decided it’s at conception.
RUBIO: No, let me correct you. Science has—absolutely it has.
At this point Cuomo made me want to jump through the flat screen of my TV and slap some scientific sense into him!
The conceptus (fertilized egg) is alive. It is a living thing.
It is not a daisy life or a fish life or a mosquito life or a rhinocerous life. It is a human conceptus, AKA human life.
Just as frog life begins in the frog egg, so does human life begin in the fertilized egg in a mother's womb.
Cuomo accused Rubio of "oversimplifying," and that he was answering the question based on his faith, not science."
Cuomo: "We'll have scientists on the show all morning who will say we cannot say it is definitely human life at conception. It's more faith than science."
Rubio: "They can't say it's human life? What would it become then? A cat? I can tell you that every single one of us started at that same stage, that it can't become anything other than a human

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Retrieved Text: This sqadia.com short video clip is brief explanation of Zygote by Ms. Sidra Afzal.
The capacitated sperm can freely penetrate through the corona radiata to reach the zone pellucida by the movements of its tail. When the head of sperm meets zona pellucida, the acrosome releases digestive enzymes, which cause lysis of zona pellucida and plasma membrane around the head of the sperm.
The head and tail of sperm enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte. The sperms move forward to come in close contact with the female pronucleus. Its nucleus becomes swollen and forms the male pronucleus. The male and female pronuclei lose their cell membrane and chromosomes of two nuclei mix together to form diploid. The ootid becomes a zygote.

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Retrieved Text: This biphasic life cycle that plants demonstrate is referred to as an?
The life cycle of a plant from?
The leafy green gametophyte is the haploid generation that produces sperm and eggs. The sperm must swim through a film of water to the egg. The zygote develops into a stalked, diploid sporophyte that emerges from the gametophyte plant. The sporophyte is topped by a brown capsule in which haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These are dispersed and germinate, producing another green gametophyte generation.
What is the function and structure of the flower?
Flowers are the part of the sporophyte generation in flowering plants that is dedicated to sexual reproduction.
Insect and vertebrate pollination is ____ efficient than wind pollination.
that put more efforts into mechanisms to attract the animals (i.e. nectar, odoriferous compounds, appearance and etc.) ensured the success of those flowering plant lineages.
Stamens and carpels are composed of two to three distinctly different parts.
1.) To recap pollination is when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower's carpel.
2.) The pollen generates a tube to transfer the sperm from the male gametophyte to the female gametophyte.
3.) In flowering plants we see a double fertilization from the fusion of the sperm to specific cells of female gametophyte.
4.) This double fertilization gives rise to a zygote and endosperm.
5.) When the female gametophyte develops in the manner previously illustrated (polygonum type), which is the most common, the double fertilization gives rise to a (2n) zygote and a (3n) endosperm.
How do seeds germinate and grow?
Seeds need moisture and warmth to germinate. If conditions

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Retrieved Text: Like all plants Toxicodendron diversilobum exhibits an alternation of generations. This means that during the life cycle of the plant it alternates between a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation and a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation. Since the Pacific poison oak is in the phylum Angiosperm it has a dominant sporophyte generation which means that the gametophyte generation will be more dependent on the sporophyte generation.
The first part of the angiosperm life cycle takes place in the flower of the plant. Here in the anther the microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis which produces haploid microspores. Each microspore undergoes one division of mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Together they form an immature pollen grain. The generative cells then go through a second mitotic division which produces two sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule one megaspore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore. Three die off and one remains. The remaining megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions and generates an 8 nucleate embryo sac also known as a megagametophyte.
Next pollination occurs. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma where a pollen tube grows down into the style. Eventually it grows down into the ovary through the micropyle. One sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg which creates a diploid zygote, and the other sperm fuses with the central cell of the egg to form the endospore.
Now that the embryo has formed it grows inside the embryo sac. The ovule creates a protective seed coat around the embryo and embryo sac. Then the seed is dropped from fruit

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Retrieved Text: Download "Rhizarians. Forams. Radiolarians. Cercozoans"
14 Figure 29.3 Exploring Derived Traits of Plants Charophyte algae lack the key traits of plants described in this figure: alternation of generations; multicellular, dependent embryos; walled spores produced in sporangia; multicellular gametangia; and apical meristems. This suggests that these traits were absent in the ancestor common to plants and charophytes but instead evolved as derived traits of plants. Not every plant exhibits all of these traits; certain lineages of plants have lost some traits over time. Alternation of Generations The life cycles of all plants alternate between two generations of distinct multicellular organisms: gametophytes and sporophytes. As shown in the diagram below (using a fern as an example), each generation gives rise to the other, a process that is called alternation of generations. This type of reproductive cycle evolved in various groups of algae but does not occur in the charophytes, the algae most closely related to plants. Take care not to confuse the alternation of generations in plants with the haploid and diploid stages in the life cycles of other sexually reproducing organisms (see Figure 13.6). Alternation of generations is distinguished by the fact that the life cycle Mitosis n Alternation of generations: five generalized steps 5 The spores develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes. n MEIOSIS 1 The gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Gametophyte (n) Spore includes both multicellular haploid organisms and multicellular diploid organisms. The multicellular haploid gametophyte ( gamete-producing plant ) is named for its production by mitosis of haploid gametes eggs and sperm that fuse during

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Retrieved Text: The chick uses its egg tooth to help break out of the egg. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. Inside the Egg …... Figure 2. Three early vitellogenic follicle from an ovariole such as that in figure 1. Oocytes are opaque due to light scattering by yolk particles and yellow due to the carotenoid conjugates of lipophorin, the second most abundant yolk protein in this species.
Department of Animal Sciencespoultry AS-525-W Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service • West Lafayette IN, 47907 The Process of Egg Formation... The process of cleavage is concerned only with the continuous doubling of the number of blastomeres and not with cellular growth; the result is a ball of cells not larger than the original egg itself.
Commercial egg processing is a quick business that relies on speed to market in order to provide fresh, quality product. Hens are kept in cages that are devised so that when an egg is …... Process of fertilization: (a) Fertilization is the process in which sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote. (b) Acrosomal reactions help the sperm degrade the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allow the sperm to transfer its nucleus.
Describe the process of egg formation in poultry.
The rest of the egg-formation process may then continue as normal, except that an egg without a yolk is laid. Blood Spots and Meat Spots These are rarely seen in commercially produced eggs, as when the eggs are candled, those containing

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Retrieved Text: Gametogenesis is the process whereby a haploid cell (n) is formed from a diploid cell (2n) through meiosis and cell differentiation. Gametogenesis in the male is known as spermatogenesis and produces spermatozoa. Gametogenesis in the female is known as oogenesis and result in the formation of ova. In this article we shall look at both spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Males start producing sperm when they reach puberty, which is usually from 10-16 years old. Sperm are produced in large quantities (~200 million a day) to maximise the likelihood of sperm reaching the egg. Sperm are continually produced as males need to be ready to utilise the small window of fertility of the female.
Sperm production occurs in the testes of the male, specifically in the seminiferous tubules. The tubules are kept separate from the systemic circulation by the blood-testis barrier.
The blood-testis barrier is formed by Sertoli cells and is important in preventing hormones and constituents of the systemic circulation from affecting the developing sperm, and also in preventing the immune system of the male from recognising the sperm as foreign – as the sperm are genetically different from the male and will express different surface antigens. Sertoli cells also have a role in supporting the developing spermatozoa.
Spermatogonia are the initial pool of diploid cell that divide by mitosis to give two identical cells. One of these cells will be used to replenish the pool of spermatogonia – these cells are A1 spermatogonia. This replenishment of spermatogonia means that males are fertile throughout their adult life. The other cell –

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Retrieved Text: Young to old. A life cycle?
Not in the biological sense. Life cycles describe the amount of DNA present at a specific stage or time in the life of an organism. Is there a haploid or diploid amount of DNA? That is the key question.
Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are represented in Figure below and described following sections.
Life cycles can vary in sexually reproducing organisms. Three types of sexual life cycles are shown here. Do you see how they differ? The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates diploid stages.
The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases, known as alternation of generations. In plants, the life cycle alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte. Spore forming cells in the diploid sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores, a haploid reproductive cell. Spores can develop into an adult without fusing with another cell.

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Retrieved Text: Angiosperm life cycle comprises of two generations, the Sporophytic and the Gametophytic. These two generations alternate with each other in regular sequence. This phenomenon is known as Alternation of Generation.
The angiospermic plant, that is usually differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and flowers, is the Sporophyte as it consists of diploid cells (2n). It is the dominant phase of the angiosperm life cycle. As a result of reduction division, it produces haploid Microspores and Megaspores. The Gametophytic phase (n) is represented by two structures, the Male Gametophyte and the Female Gametophyte. The male gametophyte is represented by the microspores (pollen grains) and the pollen tube with two sperm nuclei and a tube nucleus. The female gametophyte is generally, represented by eight-nucleate embryo sac. Both gametophytes are highly reduced and completely dependent on the sporophyte.
The reduction division occurs at the time of formation of microspores and megaspores and the diploid number is restored when zygote is formed. The zygote, therefore is the first cell of the sporophyte.
Another significant point is the formation of Endosperm. Endosperm in angiosperms is usually triploid as it develops from Primary Endosperm Nucleus formed as a result of the union of two polar nuclei and one sperm nucleus. It is thus formed after the process of fertilization.
During the course of evolution there has been gradual reduction and loss of independence in gametophytic generation whereas sporophytic generation has registered a gradual increase in size to attain even tree like proportions in angiosperms.
The oospore (thick-walled zygote) produces Embryo by segmentation; the ovule produces Seed and the

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Retrieved Text: Reproductive Isolation & Speciation Guided Viewing - AP Environmental Science!
1)What happened with Diane Dodd and the fruit flies? How did she create reproductive isolation? Diane Dod took a group of fruit flies and fed them, creating reproductive isolation.
2) What is the definition a species? Species are a group of individual that can interbreed and create fertile offspring.
3) What are the two main types of barriers in reproductive isolation? Physical and pre/post-zygotic.
4) What is gene flow? What is reproductive isolation? Is when the gene within a population are not able to mix.Reproductive isolation is a population not being able to reproduce with rest of the population due to barriers.
5) What is geographic isolation? (Give an example). When there is isolation in the population due to where they exist. Ulmis Pulima is an example because it cannot breed entirely due from the separation by the Great Wall of China.
6) What is allopatric speciation? (Give an example). 2 groups that have different lands. An example would be the meta-lark.
7) What is sympatric speciation? (Give an example). Something just within that population 2 species living together . An example would be in plants.
8) What is peripatric/parapatric speciation? (Give an example). Peripatric/parapatric selection is when 2 groups of a population move to another place and start breeding. An example would be the "forest" elephant that is different to the African elephant.
9) What are pre-zygotic barriers? Name the types of pre-zygotic barriers (Explain each). Pre-zygotic barrier are barriers formed before a zygote is formed. Temporal is a breeding species that breed at

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Retrieved Text: Abortion is a process of terminating a baby while it is in its mothers stomach. People should be allowed to decide for themselves whether or not they want to terminate their child as it may have been accidental or they may think they can't handle the responsibility. The government should not be able to decide if citizens can go through the process of abortion, as the baby is going to be their responsibility and they may not want that.
Lets be on the same page and go through some definitions.
Murder-the unlawful premeditated killing of one human being by another.
Abortion is the murder of a human. The sole reason is for the mothers benefit and or father. That is evil. There are other ways to handle unwanted humans than killing them which is immoral. The justification my opponent presented for murder is " it may have been accidental or they may think they can't handle the responsibility ". Well, killing the human will benefit the mother so the murder is justified. That is the equivalent of a poor person killing a rich person for money. ( without the rich person knowing or without his ability for self defence) My question is - Should we kill humans?
My opponent argued a embryo is not a human being.
When the two haploid cells( sperm and egg) meet, each with 23 chromosomes, they create a 46 chromosome diploid, zygote. This zygote contains DNA patterns that match many of it's parents DNA patterns. This zygote divides with a unique DNA and creates a embryo

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Retrieved Text: Gametes are specialised haploid cells that are used to combine and when they do they combine to form a new diploid cell. That process of combination is called fertilization.
Now, you are hopefully familiar with sperm and egg, the two most common kinds of gametes that you've heard of. Where sperm they're small specialized for quick delivery of the DNA to the other cell, the other kind of gamete which is called the egg. Eggs are large. Why are they so large? It allows them to accumulate or store up large amounts of resources to provide for their newly developed diploid cell which will eventually become some new offspring like you and I became came from a single fertalized egg.
We take a look over here we can see in this scale, this thing that looks almost like a planet, that's the egg and you can see how much larger the egg is in size comparison to the sperm. Now if they were both the same size, they would be called isogametes.
We take a look at an isogamete. Every isogamete looks like the other. Now how are iso- how are sperm and egg made different? That happens during the process of either spermatogenesis or oogenesis.
Here we see a generic description of meiosis. The process of making gametes where here we have a cell that has let's suppose four chromosomes. Ultimately it can create four haploid cells. So this is a diploid cell. See it has pairs of homologous chromosomes. These are individual haploid cells, no more do they

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Retrieved Text: Drachiella spectabilis, one of the few species of Schizoserideae found in the North Atlantic. Note the characteristic iridescence of the fronds. If you look very closely at the photo, you can also see one other characteristic of the family Delesseriaceae to which this species belongs - the fronds are so thin that you can see the features of the rock the alga is growing on through them. Photo by Keith Hiscock.
Despite being the most speciose clade of multicellular marine algae, I must admit I find that the Macrorhodophytina* (multicellular red algae) are not that easy to get a handle on. Most of the significant distinguishing features of various groups of red algae are at the cellular level, and often wrapped up in the eye-wateringly complicated life cycles many macrorhodophytes indulge in. So before I wrote this post, I had to spend a certain amount of time looking up things like just what a "gonimoblast" is. I hope I got it right.
*If you're wondering why I didn't use the name Rhodophyta, that's because Rhodophyta is a larger clade that also includes a few unicellular forms.
The Schizoserideae are a tribe of the red algal family Delesseriaceae containing five genera - Schizoseris, Neuroglossum, Abroteia, Drachiella (Lin et al., 2002) and the recently described Nancythalia (Millar et al., 2002). Delesseriaceae is a large family of red algae with very thin fronds (sometimes only a single cell thick) that may be anything from flat, broad and unbranched to very feathery; however the fronds are not filamentous or polysiphonous (a tubular construstion

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Retrieved Text: Secular Pro-Life Perspectives: What's wrong with killing?
Suppose a cute toddler is playing in front of us, riding on a toy truck, laughing and having a great time. She may be my child, or she may be anyone’s child. And suppose I kill that toddler before your eyes. You will all be shocked, certainly.
What I want to dig into here is what exactly has shocked us. I would like to submit that we would not have been shocked if not for our expectations that the life of that conspicuously alive child would continue in the next moment – and the moment after that, and the moment after that. Our shock will, by definition, consist simply of emotion and a pre-logical sense of wrongdoing. Logical analysis will not constitute any important part of our initial experience. And yet that gut experience, though it does not include analysis, can be subjected to analysis. We are shocked by the violence and the gore, but the violence and the gore mean what they do to us because subconsciously we understand their consequences. Their consequences are that I have deprived that child of her future. I have deprived all of us, but above all the child, of the life she would have had. Underlying our sense of wrongdoing, this was the real wrong.
Suppose I killed that child with a sudden blow from behind. She did not experience pain. She did not experience fear. Yet nevertheless what I did was wrong. Some would say that I frustrated the child’s desire to live, but

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Retrieved Text: Sometimes less is more. Scientists have created a new kind of human stem cell that has just half a genome. The cells can be turned into any tissue in the human body, despite only containing one set of chromosomes. The discovery will provide a vital tool for developing therapies to treat a range of conditions, including cancer and infertility, and may even shed light on why we reproduce sexually via two parents rather than one.
Most cells in the body contain information in the form of DNA packaged into two sets of chromosomes – one from each parent. They are called diploid cells. Egg and sperm cells are the exception – they are haploid cells with one set of chromosomes. They can’t normally divide by themselves; instead they come together at fertilisation to create diploid cells that eventually form a fetus.
Embryonic stem cells are diploid cells from which all tissues in the body are built. Now, Nissim Benvenisty, director of the Azrieli Center for Stem Cells and Genetic Research at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, and his colleagues have generated haploid embryonic stem cells with a single set of chromosomes.
The new embryonic stem cells could potentially be used to create eggs and sperm for infertile couples.
Perhaps the most important aspect of the work though, is its application in genetic screening. Detecting the effect of single genes that mutate in our cells and cause disease is complicated because the second copy of the gene can serve as a healthy backup. Now that we can make haploid versions

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Retrieved Text: Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the

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Retrieved Text: Mitosis is the process of cell division that enables organisms to maintain cell populations and grow. All chromosomes duplicate themselves prior to cell division, followed by partitioning of these exact copies into daughter cells. In the image to the right, two sets of chromosomes are going through mitosis.
In contrast, meiosis is a two-part cell division process which results in reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) with one-half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
In males, the process results in four equal gametes with one chromosome each (sperm cells—not shown). In females, each ovum is produced by two chromosome divisions, called the first and second meitic divisions, and the parent cell's cytoplasm and organelles end up in one gamete.
When a haploid sperm cell fertilizes a haploid ovum, a diploid zygote is formed, with one set of chromosomes donated from each parent.

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Retrieved Text: Life is made up of many special events, one of them is fertilization. It ‘a phenomenon of sexual reproduction, in which two gametes from different species bind to bring the formation of a new cell, which later take the name of the zygote.
There are several cases of fertilization: there is the inner one, in which the male gametes are released directly into the female apparatus, and the external one which is that fertilization which mostly takes place in water, in which the individual releases the gametes so that the another individual may collect them in opportune moments. Finally there is the assisted reproduction in which the union of gametes occur via artificial. But what are the stages of fertilization? Firstly million sperm reach the fallopian Faloppio, which are later attracted the oocyte, but only one of them manages to penetrate the egg, and then finally to fertilize the zygote. As a result of this process is followed by others, such as the development of the embryo, placenta and fetus.
The placenta begins to develop at conception.
It is therefore a vital organ to the fetus, with which it is in close relation. The main task of the placenta to the fetus is to ensure the necessary nutrients for proper development.
The fetus is nothing but the product of “mutations” that the embryo undergoes from the third month. Life is made up of many events, processes unknown to us, we begin to know them without dwelling on what’s appearance.
Previous articleWHAT TIME IS IT?

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Retrieved Text: In recent years assisted reproductive technology (ART) has offered hope to those struggling with infertility in South Africa. Sperm, oocytes, and embryos can now be frozen at various stages of development, allowing for safer and more successful ART treatments as well as allowing for the cryopreservation of gametes and embryos for fertility preservation.
In addition, the length of time that embryos and gametes can be stored in a cryopreserved state has increased. Thus allowing for couples to keep trying for longer and longer periods. However, it has also had some unintended consequences. One of these unintended consequences relates to the fate of embryos or gametes that may be “surplus” or left over after couples finish their treatment or where something happens to the patients and they are no longer able to provide their informed consent.
As couples and individuals embark on the journey of assisted reproduction, with the hope of becoming parents, there are questions that these patients and couple’s might not ask or even consider – What will happen to my embryos or gametes in the unfortunate event of a divorce, separation or the death of my spouse? If I have frozen embryos or gametes can my spouse or partner use them after my death? Who is the owner of our embryos or gametes in the event of our divorce, separation or my death or that of my spouse? What becomes of our embryos or gametes on completion of ART treatment or if we take the decision to discontinue ART treatment? What happens to our embryos or

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Retrieved Text: There are two main types of stem cells – embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells (also known as tissue stem cells). More recently scientists have created a new type of stem cell, known as induced pluripotent stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells: what are they are where do we find them?
Embryonic stem cells are cells found in the embryo when it’s just a few days old. They are pluripotent cells, meaning they are capable of differentiating into all the different types of specialised cells in the body.
In order to understand more about what these cells are and where we find them, it is useful to understand human development, from the time an egg is first fertilised.
Day 1: Fertilisation occurs when a male sperm and female egg fuse. The fertilised egg is referred to as a zygote.
Days 2-4: The zygote divides (cleaves) to form 2 cells, then divides again to form 4 cells. Over the next few days the cells keep dividing and by day 4 a ball of ~32 cells has been formed. This ball of cells is called a morula.
Days 3-8: The cells begin to specialise and form a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. The outer layer of cells is referred to as the trophoblast and contains extra-embryonic cells which will go on to form structures which will support the embryo as it grows, including the placenta. Within the blastocyst is a small cluster of cells, called the inner cell mass. These are the pluripotent embryonic stem cells which will go on to form

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Retrieved Text: The Northern White Rhino is basically extinct — just two living females remain — yet scientists announced Wednesday that they’ve found a way to bring the species back from the brink.
In a paper published July 4 in the journal Nature Communications, an international team of researchers say they’ve created a first-ever hybrid rhino embryo outside the womb.
The scientists extracted a kind of egg cells called oocytes from the closely-related female Southern White Rhinos. Then they put them in test tubes and fertilized the eggs using frozen sperm collected from now-dead Northern White Rhino males. The last male of their kind, named Sudan, died back in March.
These embryos could become healthy young white rhino calves once implanted into females.
“These are the first in vitro produced rhinoceros embryos ever. They have a very high chance to establish a pregnancy once implanted into a surrogate mother,” Thomas Hildebrandt, of the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in Berlin, said in a media announcement.
Now that they’ve shown the method works, the team plans to collect oocytes from the last two Northern White Rhinos on Earth, fertilize them, and put the embryos in Southern White Rhino mothers.
The technique was actually adopted from methods already used routinely for cattle and horses. It involves a 6-foot-long high-tech ultrasound machine with a special needle that punctures through intestinal walls to extract the oocytes.
However, with sperm available from just four male Northern White Rhinos, the scientists say this method alone won’t be enough to restart a genetically diverse, self-sustaining population.
But they’ve already got a

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Retrieved Text: (II) where fusion of egg and sperm takes place.
(III) where zygote is implanted. What happens to human egg when it is not fertilized ?

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Retrieved Text: Internal fertilization is the process when the syngamy (union of male and female gamete) occurs inside the female body after insemination using copulation. In contrast, External fertilization is the syngamy outside the female body, that is in the outer environment especially in water bodies.
Internal fertilization is followed by mammals, birds, while external fertilization is supported by mostly aquatic animals and few amphibians.
We all are aware of the word fertilization, which defines the union of sperm (male gamete) and egg nucleus (female gamete) to produce diploid cell or zygote, which further develops or grow into the young ones of their generation. Internal and External fertilization are the two types of fertilization, which takes place among various groups of animals, and with this content, we will be discussing the diverse features of them.
Meaning The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place inside the body of the female, is called as internal fertilization. The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place in the external environment (in water bodies) and so-called as external fertilization.
Gametes released Less number of gametes (sperms) are released, which gets deposited inside the female body. Numerous gametes (sperms and egg) are released into the environment. These gametes are of male as well as of female.
Process involves Only male gametes are released or discharged into the female genital tract. Both male and female release or discharge their gametes in their external surrounding.
Further process of development (syngamy) occurs inside the body only. Further process of development

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Retrieved Text: Distinguish, differentiate, compare and explain what is the main difference between Gametogenesis from Embryogenesis. Comparison and Differences.
1. Gametogenesis is the formation of male and female gametes. Embryogenesis is the formation of an embryo from the zygote.
2. In Gametogenesis, gametes are the haploid cells. In Embryogenesis, an embryo is a diploid cell.
3. Both mitotic & meiotic cell division take place in Gametogenesis. Only mitotic division occur in Embryogenesis.

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Retrieved Text: For the female reproductive cell, see Ovum.
This use of the term egg deals with the fertilised ovum, the zygote, and what surrounds it during its development.
Some animals, mostly mammals, keep the zygote inside their body where the embryo grows until it is ready to be born. Other animals (tetrapods) lay a protective egg outside the mother. The egg nourishes and protects the embryo. When the baby animal is ready, it hatches; that means it comes out of the egg.
Reptiles, birds and monotremes lay cleidoic eggs, like a chicken's egg. Other mammals form similar eggs, but without the shell. They develop internally. Fish, amphibia, insects and arachnids lay simpler eggs in greater numbers, but with much less protection and nourishment.
The ostrich has the largest eggs of all currently living animals. Eggs, mostly bird eggs, are often eaten as food. The shell of an egg is a hard calcareous (CaCO3) material. The shell of an ostrich egg can support the weight of a fully grown human.
A baby tortoise hatches from a reptile egg.
Bird eggs with hatched chick.
A frog with frog eggs.
Butterfly eggs on a stalk.
Map butterfly (Araschnia levana) laying strings of eggs.
This page was last changed on 8 November 2014, at 13:14.

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Retrieved Text: Meiosis contributes to genetic variation by creating new groups of genes, according to the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine. The new groups are created when chromosomes passed down from a mother and father share instructions encoded into genes. The process of mixing genes leads to offspring with nearly unlimited possibilities for genetic instructions.
Meiosis is a way in which cells divide that distributes half of the usual 46 human chromosomes to sperm and half to an egg, according to Wikipedia. Together, the egg and sperm result in a fertilized egg, known as a zygote, which contains all 46 chromosomes. Half the chromosomes come from the father, and half come from the mother. The process of meiosis and fertilization result in every generation having the same number of 46 chromosomes. The process also takes place in animals and plants.
Oscar Hertwig, a German biologist, first observed the process of meiosis in 1876 as he studied the eggs of sea urchins, Wikipedia notes. Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden further explained the process, including the relationship to chromosomes, in 1883. American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan expanded on the knowledge in 1911 with the first proof that chromosomes pass genes to offspring.

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Retrieved Text: Don't be too down on yourself, maybe he just looks like a girl.
what movie we referring to??
nah, Twelfth Night should get the credit!
If she keeps getting mistaken for her brother, I would have to say that they do.
It's possible they have similar facial features and skin color/ hair color, and if they wear similar clothing, it can be difficult to tell even fraternal twins apart.
Good point; I stand corrected on the twin thing, but you said they don't look anything alike. I think we're talking about two different things here.
its possible for identical twins to be different genders, one will normally just look slightly more feminine in body structure.
identical twins cannot be different genders. they are split from the same egg meaning their DNA is identical at the point of conception including their chromesones.
fratenal twins are basically two babies that share the womb. two seperate eggs and sperm.
20 are you sure it's different eggs as well? I thought it was just different sperm same egg, then again I never looked into it. If what I said is true, then they share all of their mother's genes, which means more similarities than normal siblings.
having researched a wee bit yoy can have very rare cases of identical twins where one is male and one is female. it is caused by a mutation in one male twin. identical refers to the zygote meaning they have ti be from the same zygote.
You guys made a bid deal out of nothing.
Actually identical twins are always the same gender. Contrary to common

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Retrieved Text: Individual organisms come and go, but, to a certain extent, organisms transcend time through producing offspring. Reproduction in animals occurs in two primary ways: through sexual reproduction and through asexual reproduction.
Now let's take a look at sexual reproduction.
In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population.
In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis.
The gametes are haploid (containing only one set of chromosomes) while the zygote is diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes).
In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is nonmotile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.
There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place.
The first is external (the eggs are fertilized outside of the body); the second is internal (the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract).
For example, many animals have estrous cycles that occur during certain parts of the year so that offspring can typically be born under favorable conditions. Humans however, do not undergo estrous cycles but menstrual cycles.

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Retrieved Text: Recently, a question was presented to me, “Can one pollen grain fertilize all the ovules in an iris flower?” I will attempt to answer this question and add what I hope will be some interesting facts about iris reproduction.
Highly successful land plants, such as irises, have two different plant forms (sporophyte and gametophyte) that alternate in each generation between a diploid sporophyte organism designed to resist drying out and haploid organisms (pollen or microgametophytes and ovules containing macrogametophytes) that require a moist environment inside the sporophyte where fertilization takes place. Each sporophyte microspore mother cell produces by meiosis (reduction and division, 2N to 1N sets of chromosomes, or in tetraploids 4N to 2N) four microspores that develop into four binucleate pollen grains with tough coats. Irises are seed plants (Angiosperms) with one embryonic seed leaf (Monocotyledons) and leaves with parallel venation. Irises advance the basic lily plan and reduce the flower parts, which are basically modified leaves, from multiples of six to three.
The female part of the iris flower is the pistil composed of the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The male part is the stamen made of the attachment filament and the anther with four long, parallel pollen sacs. The pollen is not “ripe” until the pollen sacs open and the puffy masses of pollen are apparent. If the nourishing filament of the stamen is broken too early when the pollen sacs are immature, the pollen may be of no use. The stigma has a sticky secretion that not only holds the pollen grains,

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Retrieved Text: be passed on for the offspring to harness in their lifetime.
getting closer or further away.
what makes us unique. Nucleotides are situated in adjacent pairs in the double helix nature mentioned.
connected by three hydrogen bonds.
able to replicate the DNA to be passed on to offspring.
uncoil, the nucleotides are exposed so that the freely available nucleotides can pair up with them.
strands of DNA involved in replication, the first double helix produces 2 copies of itself via each strand.
used to make a protein.
A base called uracil replaces all thymine bases in mRNA.
The deoxyribose sugar in DNA in is replaced by ribose sugar in mRNA.
G-G-C-A-T-T, then the mRNA would be C-C-G-U-A-A (remember uracil replaces thymine).
mRNA moves out of the nucleus and away from the DNA towards the ribosomes.
assembled. The amino acids are assembled according to three nucleotide base sequences called CODONs.
Each codon codes for a specific amino acid.
amino acids to the site of protein synthesis on the ribosome.
originally proteins that were assembled from amino acids.
Chromosomes are DNA wrapped around proteins to form an Xshaped structure.
chromosomes (46 in humans) and are called DIPLOID (or 2n).
Chromosomes come in pairs, called Homologous Pairs (or homologs).
female. If a sperm cell containing a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg, the offspring will be male.
resulting egg or sperm has 24 instead of the normal 23.
composed of ribosomal RNA and is the site of protein synthesis within the cell.
centrioles are present in the cytoplasm at one end of the cell. Centrioles are not typically present in plant cells.
chromosome is doubled and consists of two chromatids, joined by a

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What do lympophocytes use to convert oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water and energy?" and the following answer choices: 
- sunlight
 - resuscitation
 - respiration
 - energy
 - mitosis
 - exoskeleton
 - reproduction
 - Energy.

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and lymphocytes are B cells, T cells and NK cells, choose the best answer.

Target Text: respiration

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: You need to be a member of Brock Shores Financial #ImprovingFutures to add comments!
Wheat is a grass, converting sunlight energy into carbohydrates and surprisingly a high percentage of protein and that protein is part of the gluten that many people have an intolerance too. Interesting side bar on protein that I had forgotten about and had no idea about the gluten. We hand grind our own flour from wheat, corn, rice and other grains, so hopefully the lower processing results in a better spectrum of nutrition.
“More than half the supply of palladium and its congenerplatinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

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Retrieved Text: Zebec's clients can rely on Zebec to deliver to an agreed scope, on budget and on programme, whilst meeting Health & Safety and Environmental requirements.
Anaerobic Digestion as a resource recovery technology is relevant for a range of industries. It can be applied as a pre-treatment step to reduce the volume of waste and to control odours and pathogens in order to keep final disposal costs down. More often today it is utilised as primary treatment of biomas to produce valuable products such as biogas that can be converted into heat and energy plus digestate which can used as fertiliser.
Anaerobic digestion is the simple, natural breakdown of organic matter into carbon dioxide, methane and water, by two groups of microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. Since many of these are intolerant to oxygen, this process is known as anaerobic.
There are four main stages of the anaerobic digestion process.
Each stage breaks the matter into smaller and smaller parts, until the only remaining substances are methane, carbon dioxide and water, three very simple molecules.
Hydrolysis breaks down the complex organic matter – carbohydrates, fats and proteins – into simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates, long chains of simple sugars, are broken down into single glucose molecules; proteins, long folded chains of amino acids, become individual amino acids; while fats, made up of head groups and fatty acid chains, have the latter part removed from the head groups and cut into smaller and smaller pieces.
Acidogenesis sees those single sugar molecules, fatty acids and amino acids broken down further into alcohols and

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: All organisms require a continuous supply of energy in order to stay alive. This energy can be obtained by the absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis, the absorption of chemical potential energy from large molecules or obtained by certain chemical reactions, which can be carried out by some specialised bacteria. Almost all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, either directly or indirectly. The process of photosynthesis is vital since it supplies organisms with both an energy supply and useful carbon compounds. Photosynthesis supplies humans with the food they use as an energy source, the oxygen we need to release the energy from this food source, and a huge variety of useful products such as wood, coal and natural gas.
The light-independent stage uses the ATP and NADP made during the first stage to convert carbon dioxide into simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can then be transformed into a large number of other organic molecules.
Investigating Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis.
How plants have adapted or become acclimatised to shade.

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Scientists in Switzerland have split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen using a solar reactor. The technology uses a thermochemical process to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful fuels.
Splitting carbon dioxide and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas (syngas) is the first step to producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels for cars and aeroplanes. Current approaches for splitting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen suffer from low mass conversions, poor selectivity and low energy efficiencies.
The solar reactor has a 100mm inner diameter, a 75mm deep receiver with a 4cm diameter circular aperture sealed by a 4mm thick quartz window so it can access the concentrated solar radiation. The cavity contains an octagonal 25mm thick porous ceramic structure made of pure ceria. With this arrangement, the structure is directly exposed to high-flux irradiation, enabling volumetric absorption and uniform heating.
Now, a team led by Aldo Steinfeld at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, has made a 4kW solar reactor containing cerium oxide or ceria, a well-known redox material. The reactor can split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The technology uses a two-step cyclic process based on the reduction and oxidation reactions of ceria and a swing in temperature and pressure to control the oxygen exchange. In the first step, 3000-fold concentrated solar power heats the ceria to 1500°C under reduced pressure to generate oxygen. In the second step, carbon dioxide reoxidises the reduced ceria at 900°C to generate carbon monoxide. This redox cycle can also

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : After much practice, scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago have created artificial leaves that can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide to fuel ten times more efficiently than natural plants. Artificial leaves mimic the process whereby plants use water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates using energy from the Sun.
But, the state-of-the-art artificial leaves only work in the laboratory because these leaves need pure, pressurised carbon dioxide from tanks.
Researchers from the University of Illinois at Chicago in the US have suggested a design solution that could bring artificial leaves out of the laboratory and into the environment. The artificial leaf which would use carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas from the air, would be at least 10 times more efficient than natural leaves at converting carbon dioxide to fuel.
"So far, all designs for artificial leaves that have been tested in the lab use carbon dioxide from pressurised tanks," said Meenesh Singh, assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago."In order to implement successfully in the real world, these devices need to be able to draw carbon dioxide from much more dilute sources, such as air and flue gas, which is the gas given off by coal-burning power plants," said Singh, corresponding author of the study published in the journal ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.
Unlocking the pressurised carbon dioxide supply from these leaves means that they must have a way to collect and concentrate carbon dioxide from the air to drive their artificial photosynthetic reactions. Singh and Aditya Prajapati, a

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Retrieved Text: Researchers at Florida State University have developed a new artificial material that functions similar to the process of photosynthesis and can open up new avenues to create a sustainable energy source. According to Jose L Mendoza-Cortes, Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, who led the study, this energy source will be self-sustainable.
He has published his findings in The Journal of Physical Chemistry where it has been mentioned that the material could be installed on your roof in the near future and could create energy from rainwater with the help of the Sun. The energy captured by the material from the Sun is used to decompose water into oxygen and hydrogen, a process commonly referred to as electrolysis of water. The same thing can be seen in photosynthesis wherein a plant can, with the help of the Sun, convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates. Plants hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in the process and use it to break down carbohydrates in order to give them the energy they need.
Mendoza-Cortes’ discovery generates fascinating new approaches on the way this process can be used to create new sources of energy that are absolutely free of carbon. Furthermore, hydrogen could eventually be carried to distant locations and used as fuel. The best part about this is that it is environment-friendly and as such, will not have any unfavourable impacts on the surroundings as the material will not release carbon dioxide or waste as by-products.
To accomplish this, Mendoza-Cortes initially created a multi-layered material

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: Plants have oxygen-producing capabilities. In the process of photosynthesis, plants and some species of bacteria possess the ability to use the energy from the sun to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals present in the environment into organic material that is essential for plant growth. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.
To create an ideal tank environment where plants and the fish population can thrive well, there must be a light source of sufficient intensity which will be the source of energy for photosynthesis to take place. There should also be a continuous supply of carbon dioxide when the tank is lit as well as a reliable supply of other essential nutrients needed by plants for photosynthesis to occur.

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: June 2, 2005 By Mark Peplow This article courtesy of Nature News.
Fuel born from carbohydrates could be clean and easy.
The diesel fuel in your car could one day come from plants rather than oil wells, according to chemists who have converted plant chemicals into useful hydrocarbons.
Biomass fuels are often touted as a green alternative to oil. Although the carbon dioxide they produce when burnt is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, in theory it should be sucked up by the following year's crop as it grows.
The easiest way to extract energy from plants is simply to burn them, and convert the heat to electricity. Although this is good for stationary power plants, it isn't ideal for cars. Electric cars have to be recharged frequently, which may make them unsuitable for long journeys.
A better idea is to convert plant material into fuel that vehicles can use directly. This has been done with the fatty acids in vegetable oils, which make up a small part of plant material. But now researchers have found a way to create fuel from the carbohydrates that make up about 75% of a plant's dried weight.
The result is a much more efficient use of plant material, report James Dumesic, a chemist from University of Wisconsin, Madison, and his colleagues in Science1.
The plant-derived hydrocarbons are just like conventional diesel, notes Jens Rostrup-Nielsen of Haldor Topsoe, a chemical technology company based in Lyngby, Denmark, so they can be distributed through existing infrastructure. This makes the fuel easier to use than hydrogen, for example,

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis comes from the Greek words "light" and "putting together." During photosynthesis, plants absorb light energy and use it to make molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the building block for plants in much the same way as DNA is for humans.
Researchers have shown that plants subjected to certain shades of colour rather than the entire spectrum have varying degrees of growth.
Light travels in waves but also as little energy packets called photons. A photon of light contains the entire visible spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Plants absorb red, orange, yellow, blue, indigo and violet wavelengths of light but reflect green. When wavelengths of light are absorbed, they are no longer available for eyes to see, which is why plants look green.
Pigments absorb light. The pigment chlorophyll, found in green plants, absorbs violet, blue and red wavelengths. Carotenoids absorb red, orange and yellow wavelengths, while phycobilins absorb red and blue wavelengths.
During the process of photosynthesis, pigments absorb light and convert it to energy. The energy, along with carbon dioxide and water, is used to make sugar. This sugar molecule bonds with the adenine, a colourless crystalline substance, and three phosphate groups to form the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Carbon dioxide exists in the air just like oxygen. It's true that plants use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen as a waste product. During photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide plus six molecules of water plus the light energy yields a molecule of sugar and six molecules of oxygen. The carbon dioxide is

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: Turning fossil fuel into energy is easy: You just burn it. And live with the carbon dioxide byproduct. What if we could reverse the process and turn water and carbon dioxide back into fuel?
A dream solution, but it may seem like trying to put the genie back in the bottle.
Not for University of Minnesota researcher Jane Davidson. She and her colleagues are using concentrated light energy equal to 3,000 suns to find the most efficient way to convert carbon dioxide and water into synthetic gas, or "syngas," with solar power.
Syngas is easy to transport via pipelines and is readily converted to high-energy-density liquid hydrocarbon fuels, or "synfuels," with properties equivalent to what we derive from petroleum. “We are aiming for unprecedented solar-to-fuel efficiencies that will enable the entire sunlight-to-synfuels process to be done with 10 percent efficiency and no input of fossil fuels,” says Davidson, a mechanical engineering professor.
At the University's Solar Energy Laboratory, the process begins with an indoor solar simulator in the form of seven mirrored, 6,500-watt lamps that concentrate the light on a 10-centimeter spot with an irradiance of 3,000 suns. (One "sun" equals 1,000 watts of solar energy falling per square meter of surface.) With this concentrated radiant energy, one can generate temperatures of more than 3,600 F in a chemical reactor. There, carbon dioxide and water are split to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the two components of syngas.
Davidson, along with mechanical engineering professor Tom Chase and their students, have developed two prototype reactors to split water and CO2. Deploying these

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Retrieved Text: Spinach gave Popeye super strength, but it also holds the promise of a different power for a group of scientists: the ability to convert sunlight into a clean, efficient alternative fuel.
Purdue University physicists are part of an international group using spinach to study the proteins involved in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the sun's energy into carbohydrates used to power cellular processes.
"The proteins we study are part of the most efficient system ever built, capable of converting the energy from the sun into chemical energy with an unrivaled 60 percent efficiency," said Yulia Pushkar, a Purdue assistant professor of physics involved in the research. "Understanding this system is indispensible for alternative energy research aiming to create artificial photosynthesis."
During photosynthesis plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrogen-storing carbohydrates and oxygen. Artificial photosynthesis could allow for the conversion of solar energy into renewable, environmentally friendly hydrogen-based fuels.
In Pushkar's laboratory, students extract a protein complex called Photosystem II from spinach they buy at the supermarket. It is a complicated process performed over two days in a specially built room that keeps the spinach samples cold and shielded from light, she said.
Once the proteins have been carefully extracted, the team excites them with a laser and records changes in the electron configuration of their molecules.
"These proteins require light to work, so the laser acts as the sun in this experiment," Pushkar said. "Once the proteins start working, we use advanced techniques like electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray spectroscopy to observe how the electronic

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What does burning coal in coal-fired power plants produce?" and the following answer choices: 
- Decibels
 - Fireplaces.
 - engines
 - organisms
 - Aloe plants.
 - Banana plants.
 - Energy.
 - warmth

Now knowing that coal is used to produce electricity by burning in coal-fire power stations and electricity is a form of energy, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Energy.

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Retrieved Text: Typically, in one washing process, the coal chunks ... the country called "coal preparation plants" that ... of the smoke released by coal-burning boilers. How do scrubbers work?
Coal is pulverized and then burned inside of a heat box. The fires in ... How Does A Coal Power Plant Work?
How Coal Gasification Power Plants Work ... can cut the formation of carbon dioxide by 40% compared to a typical coal combustion plant).
In a coal plant, coal is pulverized and then sent to a...view more ... How Does A Coal Fired Power Plant Work?
A coal fired power plant works by burning coal to heat water that builds up pressure to run a turbine to produce electricity. Instead of us... view more.

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Retrieved Text: Power Generation-Steam Power - Wikiversity Aug 1, 2013 A steam/thermal power station uses heat energy generated from burning coal to produce electrical energy. How do power plants work? | How do we make electricity?
What is Coal Used For?
Coal Fired Generation - How It's Done - RST2 - MSET - TIES - Coal power is a rather simple process. In most coal fired power plants, The earliest power plants used hand fed wood or coal to heat a boiler and produce steam.

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Retrieved Text: Biomass plant – how it works - VattenfallThe Biomass plant – how it works A biomass-fired power plant produces electricity and heat by burning biomass in a boiler. The most common types of boilers are hot water boilers and steam boilers.
How do power plants work? | How do we make electricity?How does a power plant work? ... Boiler: In the boiler, heat from the furnace flows around pipes full of cold water. The heat boils the water and turns it into steam.
Generating Electricity from Coal - Duke EnergyAfter doing its work in the turbine, the steam is drawn into a large chamber in the basement of the power plant. In this important step, millions of gallons of cool water from a nearby source (such as a river or lake) are pumped through a network of tubes running through the condenser.
Why is it necessary to use a condenser in a steam ... - QuoraAs other answers have already said, the condenser on the exhaust of a power plant turbine serves to increase the efficiency of the cycle by lowering the exhaust pressure and recover the valuable condensate to return as boiler feedwater.
How does a Power Plant Boiler work? - Combustion SystemBoiler in a power plant has two functions. The Combustion system converts energy in coal to Heat. Water and steam system converts the heat to steam at high pressures and temperatures.
Power Plant Boiler, How does a Power Plant Boiler workBoilers burn coal to produce steam. Burning coal involves fuel preparation, providing the necessary combustion air and removal

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Retrieved Text: A conventional coal-fired power plant produces electricity by the burning of coal and air in a steam ... Simplified diagram of a conventional coal-fired steam generator.
1 Block Flow Diagram of SCR ... The project is described in the report Demonstration of Selective Catalytic Reduction ... stationary coal-fired power plants.
English: Coal-fired plant. Coal burned in the boiler heats water to produce steam. The steam spins the turbine, which drives the generator.
But the phase diagram does not stop there ... Figure 2 shows the trends in supercritical and ultrasupercritical coal-fired power plant development since the 1970s.
A simple schematic diagram of a typical coal-fired power plant steam generator (boiler) that highlights where the combustion air preheater (APH) is usually located.

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Retrieved Text: The Philippines is on a path to create a secure energy mix, but in order to reach the most remote islands, more emphasis will need to be placed on mini-grids supported by renewable technology, but backed up by a strong base load power from the country's oil, gas and coal power plants.
The 150 MW expansion plant is owned and operated by PEDC, a subsidiary of Global Business Power Corporation, which is one of the leading energy companies in the Philippines.
World Bank and coal For a map and list of all coal plants in Philippines, go to CoalSwarm's Global Coal Plant Tracker and choose Region Southeast Asia, Map Philippines. Pages in category "Proposed coal plants in the Philippines"
They cited Pope Francis' call for ecological conversion and for humanity to reduce the consumption of coal and other fossil fuels that have become major contributors to climate change. At present, the coal-reliant Philippines has 28 operational coal-fired power plants and another 28 proposed coal projects across the country.
Coal-fired power plant in Mauban, Quezon, Philippines The supercritical coal-fired power plant in Mauban, Quezon, Philippines under San Buenaventura Power, Ltd. Co. (SBPL), is a partnership between Meralco PowerGen Corp. (MGen) and New Growth BV, a subsidiary of the Electricity Generating Public Co., Ltd. or EGCO Group of Thailand.
Coal fired power plants, Batangas, Philippines Public event against coal Four 150-megawatt coal plants on a 20-hectare site in Barangay Pinamucan Ibaba, adjacent to JG Summit's Batangas petrochemical plant.
"The power plant will be the first in the country to use state-of-the art supercritical technology,

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Retrieved Text: Power plants are industrial facilities where electrical power is generated for distribution. The energy source used to generate electricity varies. Most power plants in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Others use nuclear, solar, wind, wave, or hydroelectric power.
Coal-fired power plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce steam. The steam produced, under high pressure, flows into a turbine, which spins a generator to create electricity.
Coal is the largest energy source used to generate electricity at U.S. power plants. There are approximately 1,200 coal-fired generators at 450 facilities in the United States. They generate nearly 45 percent of the country’s electricity.
Air emissions from coal-fired power plants cause serious human health impacts. Coal-fired power plants emit 84 of the 187 hazardous air pollutants identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Several of these pollutants cause cancer, according to the National Toxicology Program.
Hazardous air pollutants released by coal-fired power plants can cause a wide range of health effects, including heart and lung diseases. Exposure to these pollutants can damage the brain, eyes, skin, and breathing passages. It can affect the kidneys, lungs, and nervous and respiratory systems. Exposure can also affect learning, memory, and behavior.
Coal-fired power plants are the biggest industrial sources of mercury and arsenic in the air. Mercury pollutes lakes, streams, and rivers, and builds up in fish. People who eat large amounts of fish from contaminated lakes and rivers are at the greatest risk of exposure to mercury.
Coal-fired power plants account for 81 percent of the

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Retrieved Text: The Green Party of Alberta calls on the provincial government to retire coal-burning electricity plants as quickly as possible to save the health of Albertans and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The problem is unique to this province as Alberta burns more coal to produce electricity than all other nine provinces combined. In 2012, 64% of the electricity produced in Alberta was generated through the combustion of coal.
Diseases caused or exacerbated by emissions from coal generation of power include asthma and emphysema. Heavy metals, such as mercury, in the emissions can cause neurological disorders and lower the intelligence of young children whose brains are still developing. Other conditions such as diabetes are exacerbated by the emissions from coal power plants.
And Alberta’s coal fired electricity generation accounts for nearly the same volume of greenhouse gases as are produced by the oil sands.
Common sense requires that we take immediate measures to reduce this pollution. Instead, even though these hazards have been well-known for a long time, as the report notes, generation of electricity from coal actually increased 14 % over the period 2006 to 2012 in Alberta. Further, our federal government has made matters worse by extending the lives of Alberta’s coal-fired power plants for up to 10 years beyond the lifespans advised by the Clean Air Strategic Alliance.
These policies are dangerous and unnecessary. Reducing energy demand through energy conservation is the quickest and cheapest way to reduce the pollution from burning coal. In Alberta solar, wind and geothermal power hold great and largely untapped potential. And while it is

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Retrieved Text: Coal ash is the powdery substance that continues to be after burning coal. What stays after coal is burned consists of fly ash, backside ash and so-called scrubber sludge, stated Lisa Evans, chief counsel to Earthjustice, an environmental regulation group.
Fly ash is a fine powder recovered from gases created by the burning of coal. It is the largest component of coal combustion waste, totaling around 70 million tons annually in the United States.
As you might expect, coal ash is a cocktail of toxic chemicals -- it contains the same heavy metals that are found in coal, only in higher concentrations. Fly ash typically contains heavy metals like arsenic, lead and selenium that are known to cause cancer and other health problems.
Coal ash spurted to regional prominence this winter when, after years of neglect, a drainage pipe ruptured beneath a Duke Energy ash-storage pond beside the Dan River, on the outskirts of Eden.
Fly ash is a fine gray powder consisting mostly of spherical, glassy particles that are produced as a byproduct in coal-fired power stations. Fly ash has pozzolanic properties, meaning that it reacts with lime to form cementitious compounds.
Oct 01, 2018· Fly ash, for example, can be very useful, and up to 75% of the fly ash from a power plant may be reused in concrete and other products. Environmental studies have shown that coal ash can be quite dangerous.
Fly ash is produced when coal is burned, and environmental laws in the United States require power companies to trap and properly dispose of it. Disposal presents

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Retrieved Text: Engineering Report RWE Power International. The user of this document has the obligation to employ safe working practices for any activities .. The size of the coal and ash handling plants are much increased when burning the lignites, for lignite and vertical spindle or tube ball mills for hard coals. ..
Coal Ball Mill Used In Power Plant .za. coal mill used in thermal power plant pdf, Mill (Grinding, Coal Mills in thermal power plant, Larger the size of raw coal fed to mill, . . commonly used mill in coal grinding, Coal ball grinding mill is a common milling machine used in coal preparation plant, General ball grinding mill is the first coal milling machine, Get price .
Milling Plant Mill sizes The nominal diameter of the ring or racer or wheel is the prime dimension in a mill. In about six to eight ring sizes of —1750 to 3500 mm (—70 to 140 in.), a range of about 20-100 tph of coal grinding can meet large boiler requirements.
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The "Big Five" Chinese power companies (Datang,

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Retrieved Text: Nov 30, 2018 · Carbon Tracker has released a report claiming it is cheaper, in many markets, to construct new renewable generation assets instead of running legacy coal-fired power plants.
POWER magazine 3 hrs · A system to optimize wet limestone scrubbing at a 700-MW Japanese # coal plant enhanced regulatory control, model-based prediction, and process value prediction to reduce house load, saving $900,000 annually.
Decommissioning coal plants ... Contact our news team for information on Public Power Daily and Public Power magazine. (202) 467-2947 [email protected] Become a Member. BECOME A MEMBER. Join Now. Consulting Services. MEMBER BENEFITS. Access Programs and Resources. Shop Product Store.
Bucking global trends, Japan again embraces coal power. By Dennis Normile May. 2, 2018 , 5:00 PM. Most of the world is turning its back on burning coal to produce electricity, but not Japan.
Congratulations to Xcel Energy and the Comanche Generating Station! We’re proud of our team at Comanche and their efforts to support our Customer, and pleased to be recognized as co-recipient of the Powder River Basin Coal Users’ Group Power Plant of the Year Award for 2018.
LOUISVILLE, KY (November 16, 2007) – Charah®, Inc., a leading ash management provider for the coal-fired electric utility industry, has been featured in the September/October 2007 issue of Coal Power Magazine.
A Montana coal-fired power plant that provides electricity for Puget Sound Energy is once again operating at full strength after a summer complicated by pollution problems.

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Retrieved Text: Coal-To-Gas Plant Conversions in the U.S. filed a petition to buy a 330-MW coal-fired power plant in Florida before then phasing it out of Power Engineering.
With regulatory changes on the horizon, coal-fired power plant operators are preparing for modifications in ash handling procedures. A number of operating options are available, such as solutions for pond removal and eliminating the water from the conveying process.
Coal-fired power plant development started with the introduction of the first dynamo built for power generation in 1866 by Werner von Siemens, illustrated in Figure 1-1. In 1882, Thomas Edison built the first central power station in New York.
Coal-fired power plants, which produce almost half of the country's electricity, have significant impacts on water quantity and quality in the United States. Water is used to extract, wash, and sometimes transport the coal; to cool the steam used to make electricity in the power plant; and to control pollution from the plant.
Coal-fired power stations are burning an increasingly varied range of fuels and fuel blends, including sub-bituminous and lower volatile coals and biomass of varying composition and combustion properties, under tight economic and environmental constraints.

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Retrieved Text: Natural gas is an incredibly versatile fuel - as well as being used as an efficient energy source in its own right, for heating, cooking and hot water, it is also a means for electricity production. Gas power stations convert the heat energy from the combustion of natural gas into electricity, which can be used in homes and businesses. With greater operational flexibility and being cleaner burning than coal power plants, more and more gas-fired power stations are being built across the globe and, today, natural gas produces around 15% of Australia’s electricity.
Open cycle or combined cycle?
There are two main types of power stations used to convert natural gas into electricity - open cycle and combined cycle. The most common of the two is open cycle, in which natural gas is burned to produce pressurised gas. This powers a turbine, which is connected to a generator, causing the generator’s magnets to spin and create an electrical current.
In a combined cycle power station, the waste heat from the gas burnt to operate the turbine is used to boil water and create steam, driving a second turbine to produce even more electricity. This allows such power stations to convert as much as 50% of the energy contained in natural gas - far more than the 33% conversion of coal power stations. For this reason, combined cycle gas-fired power stations tend to be used to supply daily baseload power, whilst open cycle stations operate during peak demand.
One of the major advantages of using gas to generate electricity is that

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Retrieved Text: A compnay that is helping coal burning power plants reduce their Green House Gas emissions to ZERO, with inexpensive and reliable biomass fuels that can be co-fired with coal or can replace the burning of coal altogether. The compnay claims it has existing and patent pending new biomass fuels and technologies that will help to meet the world's demand for sustainable renewable clean energy.
NewEarth ECO Clean Coal or E-Coal is a revolutionary new sustainable 100% biomass flex fuel alternative to fossil coal. E-Coal was specifically designed to help coal-burning power plants meet their mandatory emissions reductions immediately. Any coal-fired electric power station can immediately reduce its CO2 and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions by directly co-firing E-Coal with fossil coal or by totally replacing fossil coal with E-Coal without any retrofitting, loss of productivity, down time, or service to customers.

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Retrieved Text: 7 companies to watch in carbon capture and storage | GreenBizJul 14, 2016 . They aim to clean up dirty fuel sources such as coal-fired power . Yet startups and big companies alike are working to make CCS both viable and profitable. . it's still widely deployed in China and India — and this technology.coal burning equipment suppliers india,Why Are Power Plants in India Less Efficient than . - UMD Econof coal-fired power plants in India with the ther- . government, and 4 percent by private companies. (Tongia . tage) of equipment, calculated as the capacity-.Coal & Oil Power Plants | Coal Fired Power | GE PowerCoal fired power supplies 40% of the world's electricity, but emissions are a . to combine GE's components and auxiliary equipment into fully enhanced and.
Burning coal, however, can pollute and it produces carbon dioxide. Clean coal ... The coal sector – producers, consumers and equipment suppliers – as well as .. Germany, the USA and major developing countries like China and India, were.
china's involvement in coal-fired power projects along the belt and .
Map 1 | Belt and Road Coal-Fired Power Projects with Chinese Involvement, by Number and Installed Capacity4. Installed . of involvement for Chinese companies developing coal- fired . of electromechanical equipment to India. As such.
Combustion Equipment - Manufacturers, Suppliers & Traders of .
Find here details of companies selling Combustion Equipment, for your purchase . Get latest info on Combustion Equipment, suppliers, manufacturers, . For wide variation of coal from design specification(low volatile &high volatile coal)to.
Coal Analysis and Production

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Retrieved Text: As an energy investor, you should know that there is a dark side to burning coal in terms of pollution and climate change. The basic problem is that coal is much cheaper than other fossil fuels ($1 to $2 per MMBTU, compared to $6 or $12 for oil). It’s also a heavier pollutant than its peers.
The good news is that the low cost of coal means that high-cost solutions to pollution and climate change can be adopted, and king coal will remain competitive as a global energy source.
Coal mining takes a tremendous toll on the environment by destroying mountain ranges and polluting waterways. Black lung is a killer for miners. Underground seams of coal have been known to catch fire and burn for years.
Thousands of underground seam fires are currently burning around the world. The most publicized is perhaps the one that started in 1962 and is still burning underneath the now empty town of Centralia, Pennsylvania. One in India has been burning since 1916.
But the real problem is the waste products that are produced after coal is burned in power plants.
Coal plants produce the largest amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the world. Scientists believe that CO2 is the primary cause of global warming, or climate change. The combustion of coal, whether for electricity, heat, or cooking, is the leading cause of toxic air pollution that causes smog and acid rain.
China has an epic problem with air pollution. Recent air pollution was so bad that it was reported as “beyond index” according to the

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Retrieved Text: Today, many of us realise that in burning all that coal, and encouraging the rest of the world to follow suit, industrialising Britain was unknowingly stoking humankind’s biggest single problem: global warming. Burning coal, like oil and gas, produces carbon dioxide, and other gases that slowly trap heat in the atmosphere. Unless we quickly turn our backs on our carbon-intensive past and mobilise a new, low-carbon way of powering our activities, the climatic extremes that result from global warming will threaten to destroy most and maybe all of the wealth and heritage built up by industrialisation.
David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, is among many politicians who understand this. He told the big energy companies in June that, as Prime Minister, he would not allow them to build any new coal-fired power plants without carbon capture and storage (CCS). CCS is an industrial process – feasible but still essentially untested – that can take carbon dioxide from the exhaust gas in a power station, pump it underground and store it there so it cannot escape to the atmosphere to trap heat.
At last, say relieved environmentalists, we have a Conservative leader who actually wants to conserve something. Cameron’s adoption of a blue-green hue is not before time. New research has shown as recently as March 2008 that coal-burning is more damaging to the climate than was previously thought. American researchers have found that ‘black carbon’ particles from the burning of coal and other fuels could by itself be causing up to 60% of the global warming that

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Retrieved Text: Kids Korner - Processing Coal - Apogee InteractiveProcessing Coal. Once the coal has been mined it needs to be processed. The coal first goes to a preparation plant where it is washed or cleaned to remove contaminants. The cleaning removes impurities like rocks, ash, sulfur and other substances. Coal that is going to be burned in solid form may go through a variety of.how does process plant in coal,TVA - How a Coal Plant WorksCoal-fired plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce steam. The steam produced, under tremendous pressure, flows into a turbine, which spins a generator to create electricity. The steam is then cooled, condensed back into water and returned to the boiler to start the process over.
Coal Processing Plant Flowsheet - 911 MetallurgistMar 17, 2017 . Need ENGINEERING Services or Plant TROUBLESHOOTING? We can IMPROVE ALL PLANTS / Mineral Processing Engineering & LABORATORY Ore Testing.how does process plant in coal,Coal preparation plant - WikipediaA coal preparation plant is a facility that washes coal of soil and rock, crushes it into graded sized chunks (sorting), stockpiles grades preparing it for transport to market, and more often than not, also loads coal into rail cars, barges, or ships. The more of this waste material that can be removed from coal, the lower its total ash.
A Coal preperation plant, nestled among the mountains. Coal Preperation plants generally use gravity process equipment to separate the refuse from the product (coal). Coal has a specific gravity between 1.35 and 1.5, while the refuse rock has

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Retrieved Text: Excellent news! No math today. Bad news! There are some confusing terms here. Every thermal power plant drives a turbine to produce power. There is a special type of turbine called a gas turbine that directly burns natural gas inside of it to produce power. There are a few places where I use gas turbine and turbine in the same sentence. Sorry about that.
Natural gas fired power plants come in two primary flavors: standard thermal plants, and fancy jet turbines. The former has the same internals as a coal power plant and can provide baseload power, the latter is for peak power. Both produce less pollution than coal, simply because natural gas is cleaner than coal and produces more energy per unit CO2 emitted. Natural gas plants contribute to GHG emissions and PM2.5 (PM 2.5 can form from emissions of NOx, which occurs from any combustion). With hydrofracking causing a glut in natural gas in the US, producing power via gas is cost-competitive with coal in the US, and recently has been replacing coal to produce electricity. This has caused the US to decrease its annual CO2 emissions by nearly 10%.
Let’s get down into the meat of how these plants work. We have discussed how standard thermal plants work in a prior post. The jet turbine power plant is pretty simple. It is very similar to the turbines found on airplanes. The fuel is injected and burnt. It expands and drives a turbine to generate electricity. These systems get incredibly hot. They have thermal efficiencies approaching

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Retrieved Text: Colstrip runs on coal, but what happens when that industry faces an uncertain future?
Colstrip, MT is a town that coal built. But what happens to a community when the very industry that created it is facing an uncertain future? This 30-minute documentary by MontanaPBS explores the struggle between locals who say they’re fighting a war on coal and those who say they’re fighting to save the planet.
Colstrip was established in 1924 by Northern Pacific Railway as a company town to mine coal to power the railroad’s steam locomotives. In 1959, Montana Power Company bought the rights to the mine and the town and later built four coal-fired plants to produce electricity. Today the ownership of the plants is more complicated and adds to the uncertainty surrounding its future. A total of six different companies share ownership and only one, NorthWestern Energy, is in Montana.
The Colstrip Generating Station is the second-largest coal-fired power facility west of the Mississippi but it’s also one of the country’s biggest producers of greenhouse gasses, emitting 13.5 million metric tons each year, according to the EPA. Under the federal Clean Power Plan, Montana would have to cut emissions by 47 percent, which could spell the end of the plants and possibly the coal mine in Colstrip. Residents say they feel like they are under attack, by the federal government and environmentalists, who want to see coal-fired power replaced with renewable energy.
A little more than 2,200 people live in this small Eastern Montana town and over 700 of them work at either the

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Retrieved Text: Pulverizer - WikipediaA pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding of many different types of materials. For example, a pulverizer mill is used to pulverize coal for combustion in the steam-generating furnaces of fossil fuel power.how much power does a coal pulverizers use,Coal Fired Power Generation - RST2The earliest power plants used hand fed wood or coal to heat a boiler and . The powdered coal from the pulverizer is directly blown to a burner in the boiler. . IECG and International Electric hold in dispute many of the commonly held.
Aug 1, 2011 . A typical MPS-89 pulverizer found in many coal-fired power plants. . These two mill types represent perhaps 70% of the pulverizers used in modern . Blueprinting a pulverizer isn't rocket science, but it does require close.
Jul 20, 2016 . Coal pulverizer advantages,Advantages of roller mill in Coal . Coal how much power does a coal pulverizers use how coal pulverizers works.
Oct 21, 2013 . Such plants provide most of the electrical energy used in many countries. . A 500 MW coal-fired power plant will have about six such pulverizers, five of .. plants because boiler water does not circulate multiple times as in a.
A machine called a pulverizer grinds the coal into a fine powder. The coal . Other new processes of using coal to make electricity include the following: Fluidized . How does coal compare to these other fossil fuels? In terms . This is, in part, because the United States must import much of its oil supply

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Retrieved Text: The above diagram shows the simplest arrangement of Coal fired (Thermal) power . Basic Operation : A thermal power plant . is based on cooling of a .
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Typical coal thermal power station. Typical diagram of a

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Retrieved Text: Natural gas plants, like this one, are how DTE plans to phase out coal-burning plants.
Sarah Mills is a senior project manager at the University of Michigan’s Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy. Mills spoke with Stateside on DTE’s decision to invest in natural gas instead of renewable energy sources.
Natural gas is currently cheaper to produce than coal, and emits a lower level of greenhouse gases, but environmentalists are not happy with DTE's decision.
Mills said there is also concern about the average lifespan of a natural gas plant.
Though natural gas is relatively cheap to produce today, according to Mills we do not know what could happen to the costs of production in the future.
Of course, there are also hurdles to implementing a renewable energy plan. Mills points out that the geographic footprint of a renewable power plant is much larger than that of a natural gas plant.
While the state may not be able to abandon natural gas altogether, Mills says the biggest concerns is the size of this investment.
A coalition of groups is calling on state regulators to reject DTE’s plans to build a billion dollar natural gas plant.
The utility wants to replace three retiring coal-fired power plants with the new natural gas plant in St. Clair County. The three aging coal plants represent roughly 20% of DTE’s power capacity. The plants are scheduled to shut down over the next five years.
Michigan officials have approved an energy company's request to build two natural-gas-fired turbines outside Detroit.
The commissioners who run the Lansing Board of Water and Light

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Retrieved Text: Circulating Water Systems in Thermal Power Plants.
All thermal power plants, be they coal fired or nuclear, use the modified Rankine steam cycle. The steam exiting from the steam turbine condenses in a condenser and then is reused in the steam cycle. Almost all thermal power plants use a surface condenser for cooling the steam.
What is the single line diagram for a power generation plant?
Carbon nanotube immobilized membranes (CNIM) could enable the generation of pure water from saline and brackish water, as well as support the use of degraded water sources for power plant cooling.
Annexure- 2 Typical plant water balance diagram for 2x500 MW in-land coal based plant with wet cooling ... cooling in thermal power plants so as to reduce plant consumptive water by a significant order. Later, the scope of the study was widened to include ... Report on Minimisation of Water Requirement in Coal Based Thermal Power Stations.
The main body of this article outlines the water flow path for a proposed power plant where makeup water volume is not of concern, albeit where a large portion comes from tertiary-treated wastewater.
Oct 04, 2009· The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour).
Cooling steam-cycle power plants has nothing essentially to do with whether it is fuelled by coal, gas or uranium. Nuclear power plants

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Retrieved Text: our environment, and our planet at risk.
Burning coal pollutes our environment with toxins, produces a quarter of US global warming emissions, and accounts for a whopping 80 percent of all carbon emissions produced by power generation nationwide. It’s time to reduce our dependence on this polluting energy source.
There are nearly 600 coal-fired power plants operating in the United States today, producing nearly half of the nation’s electricity. To decrease our reliance on coal, we must shut down the oldest and dirtiest coal plants and replace them with reliable and clean energy sources.
UCS experts work to analyze practical, cost-effective strategies for lowering America’s coal use—and have consistently demonstrated that closing down the dirtiest coal-fired power plants would not adversely effect the reliability of our electricity supply, nor would it significantly increase the cost of electricity for consumers.
A significant number of US coal-fired power plants are old, inefficient, and no longer economically competitive: it simply makes no financial sense to keep them running when cheaper, cleaner alternatives are available. They are ripe for retirement.
The costs of coal go beyond just its environmental impacts. Coal also incurs substantial economic costs for the states that rely on it most, especially when they import large amounts from other states or foreign countries.
A significant number of US coal-fired generators use once-through cooling systems, which involve large amounts of water withdrawals. This places them at greater risk for energy-water collisions, which occur when insufficient water is available or water temperatures are too warm for power plant cooling.
Investing heavily in retrofitting old coal-fired power

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Retrieved Text: The Independence City Council unanimously supported a resolution that contain an aggressive renewable energy agenda, calls for a rate study and curtail ceasing burning coal at the city-owned Missouri City and Blue Valley power plants in 2016.
The Missouri City plant would stop production; Blue Valley would be converted over to natural gas. Both plants are among the oldest in the region and mostly used on a seasonal basis to meet peak demand during the summer.
The resolution, sponsored by City Councilmember Scott Roberson, follows extensive discussion on energy issues in the community and is largely consistent with a 2011 master plan for Independence Power & Light.
Here's a summary of the resolution. Read The Examiner story about the City Council action.
"The Independence City Council today (July 21) should move full speed ahead to promote the use of renewable energy in the city and reduce reliance on coal-fired power plants to produce electricity for its residents.
Elected officials have a welcome opportunity to show leadership on these issues because the city owns and operates Independence Power & Light.
Contrary to popular rumors, electricity rates will not soar if the city chooses this path. And eventually ending coal-fired production at old plants will reduce pollution in this region, a benefit for many."
The resolution and its adoption represents a significant policy direction for IP&L which is one of the largest municipal power operations in the U.S.
The Missouri Beyond Coal Campaign issued this media release following passage of the city council resolution.

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Retrieved Text: Coal has powered the U.S. for decades, but it’s time to move beyond coal to a new generation of clean, renewable, carbon-free energy sources and technologies. Such action is critical for a simple reason: the mining and burning of coal is simply not compatible with the health and well being of humanity or the planet.
We play an active role in speeding the American West’s transition from dirty coal to the responsible use of clean energy from the sun and wind. Our goals are to retire coal-fired power plants and mines as soon as possible to protect our climate, facilitate a transition to the responsible and efficient use of clean energy, and prevent the export of the West’s coal.
We’re doing this by targeting coal mines, coal-fired power plants, and other coal infrastructure, holding them accountable for the social harms that, for too long, have been borne by the people and places of the American West. We’re also working to create opportunities for clean energy, ensuring that when coal mines and coal-fired power plants are closed, we’re taking care to spark a new, more durable energy foundation for the American West and its lands, people, and economy.

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Retrieved Text: advantages of coal pulvirization - lacharbonniere.be. advantages of coal pulverization in thermal plant - Mining . coal pulverization in coal mill of thermal power plants.
coal pulverization in coal mill of thermal power plants coal size for power plant pulverization, Coal Size For Power Plant Pulverization, process crusher,, Contact Supplier Pulverizer - Wikipedia A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding of many different types of materials For example, a pulverizer mill is used .
coal pulverization equipment - tobieneu. for coal pulverization is the most preferred and utilized mill what is pulverization of coal - Heavy construction equipment refers to heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for executing construction tasks, what is pulverization of coal (Total: .
Coal mill pulverizer in thermal power plants - SlideShare. Nov 17, 2012 Coal pulverizer/mill system One of the critical power plant components that 3. Nov 17, 2012 Coal pulverizer/mill system One of the critical power plant components that 3.
2010-08-29· The power consumed by the mill per ton of coal ground is only two-thirds of the ball mills. However if the primary air fan power is also taken into account, in the case of a pressurized mill the power consumption is lower only by about 15%.
Why Pulverized Coal is Used in a Power Plant. This is what is special in a coal fired power plant, especially large thermal power plants. Burning the coal in the combustion process to release the energy in the fuel. slide 3 of 4.
coal mill pulverizer in thermal power plant. As a leading global manufacturer of crushing,

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Retrieved Text: Coal-fired power plants produce more than just the carbon dioxide that contributes to global warming. When burning coal, they also release particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and mercury - thus damaging the health of many people around the world in various ways. To estimate where action is most urgently required, the research group led by Stefanie Hellweg from ETH Zurich's Institute of Environmental Engineering modelled and calculated the undesired side effects of coal power for each of the 7,861 power plant units in the world.
The results, which were recently published in the journal Nature Sustainability, show that China and the US are the two largest producers of coal power, but power plants in India take the highest toll in the world when it comes to health. Central Europe, North America and China all have modern power plants, but Eastern Europe, Russia and India still have many older power plants equipped with insufficient flue gas treatment.
As a result, these power plants only remove a fraction of the pollutants - while also often burning coal of inferior quality. "More than half of the health effects can be traced back to just one tenth of the power plants. These power plants should be upgraded or shut down as quickly as possible," says Christopher Oberschelp, the lead author of the study.
The global picture of coal power production shows that the gap between privileged and disadvantaged regions is widening. This is happening for two reasons. Firstly, wealthy countries - such as in Europe - import high-quality coal with a high

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Retrieved Text: Mining plant; coal mill powder sampler; copper sampling powder crusher Coal mill pulverizer in thermal power plants Slideshare.
Thermal Power Plant Working INDIAN POWER SECTOR A coal based thermal power plant converts the chemical energy of the coal into electrical energy.
pulverize of plant. the coal in a coal fired power plant, pulverizing to a fine powder for burning is an Ore Crusher. A Coal Pulverizer In A Power Plant.
Solutions / Coal Mill in Power Plant. and so will usually choose Ball Mill as a coal Mill in powder plant, Mobile Crushing Plant.

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Retrieved Text: The Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) released a study today that examines the finances of seven large Texas coal plants. The news isn’t good for the owners of those plants, but it’s great for those of us fighting keep climate change to a manageable level, clean up air pollution and preserve our water resources. The report – “The Beginning of the End: Fundamental Changes in Energy Markets Are Undermining the Financial Viability of Coal-Fired Power Plants in Texas” – describes how the coal-fired electricity industry in Texas is in decline and unlikely to recover in the face of rising competition from other energy sources.
The report, presented by IEEFA in partnership with Public Citizen, analyses the performance of four merchant generators—the Big Brown, Martin Lake and Monticello plants owned by EFH’s Luminant subsidiary, and the Coleto Creek plant owned by Dynegy. It also analyzes three coal-fired plants owned public power utilities or power agencies—the Fayette Power Project (co-owned by Austin Energy and the Lower Colorado River Authority), Gibbons Creek (currently up for sale by the Texas Municipal Power Agency), and J.K. Spruce Unit 1 (owned by San Antonio’s CPS). The 8,100 MW of capacity from these seven plants represents a little more than 40 percent of the total coal-fired capacity in ERCOT.
The study shows that all but one of the plant is losing money and that even that one – Martin Lake – is barely making a profit. If output or market prices dip below those assumed in the base case scenario, Martin Lake

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes?" and the following answer choices: 
- Something with a head, thorax, and abdomen
 - Microscopic organisms
 - The smallest agent of disease
 - Dead prehistoric beings
 - female sex cells
 - major threat to health
 - remains of prehistoric life
 - Something that smells like rotten eggs

Now knowing that viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes and viruses Viruses are the smallest agents of disease, choose the best answer.

Target Text: The smallest agent of disease

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What is a virus? Is it even a living organism?
This alien-looking thing is a virus. But is it prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Or neither? Or both? A virus is essentially genetic material surrounded by protein. That's it. So, is a virus prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Or neither? Or both?
Viruses, like the one depicted in Figure below, are tiny particles that may cause disease. Human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold and flu. Do you think viruses are prokaryotes or eukaryotes? The answer may surprise you. Viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes.
Cartoon of a flu virus. The flu virus is a tiny particle that may cause illness in humans. What is a virus? Is it a cell? Is it even alive?
Viruses contain DNA but not much else. They lack the other parts shared by all cells, including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Therefore, viruses are not cells, but are they alive? All living things not only have cells; they are also capable of reproduction. Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves. Instead, they infect living hosts, and use the hosts’ cells to make copies of their own DNA. Viruses also do not have their own metabolism or maintain homeostasis. For these reasons, most scientists do not consider viruses to be living things.
An overview of viruses can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0h5Jd7sgQWY(23:17).
Viruses are neither prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Viruses are not made of cells. Viruses cannot replicate on their own.
Most scientists do not consider viruses to be living.
Why are viruses considered parasites?
Describe the outside covering

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Retrieved Text: Browse Relevant Sites & Find Eukaryotes Vs Prokaryotes. All Here!
What are some examples of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotic- bacteria Eukaryotic- protist, amoeba, etc. An example of a prokaryote would be bacteria or any single cellular organism and an example of a eukaryote would be any multicellular organism.
Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things. However, due to their generally much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is estimated to be about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes evolved approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago, during the Proterozoic eon.
The eukaryotic cells are identified by the presence of a distinct nucleus with the genetic material enclosed inside it. They also have differences in the process of protein synthesis, RNA structures, etc. See for more details the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Examples of eukaryotic cells include: 1.
The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide.
Start studying Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

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Retrieved Text: Animals (kingdom Animalia) are distinguished from protests because animals are composed of many cells arranged into tissues. Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts, which are present in most plants.
Exactly what is a plant and how is it different from other life-forms? This may initially seem like a simple question. Everyone knows that an elm tree is a plant, whereas a dog is not. Nevertheless, the precise definition of plants is still a matter of debate among some scientists. All living things are made up of protoplasm, a complex material composed of organic substances such as sugars, proteins, and fats. Protoplasm is arranged in tiny units called cells. All living things are composed of cells.
As recently as the late 1960s, scientists believed that all organisms could be classified as members of either the plant or the animal kingdom. Life-forms that are green and that can synthesize their own food using light energy were put in the plant kingdom. Those organisms that lack green pigment and are able to move about were considered to be animals. Researchers now agree that living things are more properly divided into two groups—prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These major groups comprise five kingdoms. Major differences between cells are used to distinguish between these groups and kingdoms.
Prokaryotes are very small, single-celled organisms that constitute a single kingdom, the Monera. They include bacteria. Some prokaryotes can produce food using light energy much as plants do. Prokaryote cells are very simple. The protoplasm within the cell, called the cytoplasm, lacks many of the structures found in

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Retrieved Text: Eukaryotes are organisms having very complex cellular structure. This article deals with eukaryotic cell cycle along with its phases and regulation.
Let's get to the roots of what eukaryotes are before we proceed upon discussing life cycle of a eukaryotic cell. Cells are the building blocks of life as a single cell, in itself, is a functional unit of life. Sometimes a single cell can compose an entire organism (lesser, unicellular life forms like bacteria) while on other occasions, a cluster, sometimes reaching a count of millions, of cells may combine together to take the shape of a higher organism like mammals, reptiles, etc. With regards to cell biology, based upon their structures and corresponding functions, cells can be classified under two broad categories - prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Let's take a brief look at each of these cell types and follow it up with a detailed study of the cycle of eukaryotic cells.
A prokaryotic cell is composed of a cell envelop which consists of a cell wall and a plasma membrane beneath the cell wall. Enclosed within this cell envelop is the cytoplasmic area that houses the cell genome (DNA or RNA, as the case may be) along with ribosomes and various other material. Although there exists a nuclear region in the cytoplasmic are, prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus. This is the most significant aspect that differentiates prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells. Archaebacteria and eubacteria are the two chief prokaryote life forms.
Eukaryotic cells are greater in dimension than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotes have a

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Retrieved Text: What is a Unicellular Eukaryote?
Life on Earth consists of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with no defined nucleus; their DNA floats in a circle inside them, and they have no organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular. Eukaryotes carry a defined nucleus, which houses DNA and organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and in the case of plants, chloroplasts. Unicellular eukaryotes comprise the majority of species, and have existed on Earth for billions of years.
Unicellular eukaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with a defined nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles. They include phytoplankton, or algae, and zooplankton, or protozoa. Unicellular eukaryotes originated billions of years ago.
Eukaryotes likely descended from prokaryotes. Mitochondria may actually be an example of an amalgam of two prokaryotes, one consuming the other. The smaller bacterium could have survived after consumption and produced energy while the larger bacterium provided nutrients, and one theory holds that this symbiotic relationship led to eukaryotes. As for genomics, scientists continue to tease out at what point Superkingdom (or Domain) Eukaryota split off from the others, Bacteria and Archaea, as tiny protists prove to be more diverse than originally thought. Examining the microfossil record indicates that ancient unicellular eukaryotes evolved some time between 2 billion and 3.5 billion years before the present day.
Most algae are unicellular plants and are also known as phytoplankton. Phytoplankton, as tiny plants, generate their energy from the sun via photosynthesis. They possess a cell wall. Since they perform photosynthesis, phytoplankton are sensitive to the position of the sun and the length

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Retrieved Text: Cells will not grow unless conditions allow them to do so. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are subject to these constraints. The fundamental requirements for cells to grow in size or to divide are the availability of food, the temperature and pH of the environment, a properly functioning internal status, and physical space in which to grow. These factors are interconnected and often go hand-in-hand as they influence a cell’s decision to grow or not.
Cells are microscopic factories that contain many protein machines. Machines run on fuel. For a cell, the fuel is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is considered the $20 bill of the cell, since one ATP is enough for a protein machine to do one task, just as a $20 bill is usually enough to buy a typical meal in America. For most cells, the sugar molecule glucose is a common food source. Glucose is broken down to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration, which is also why animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.
Each organism, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, has a preferred temperature and pH range within which it lives. This is because the enzymes within cells only function within certain temperature and pH ranges. Extremes temperature and pH, too high or too low, causes enzymes to denature, meaning they lose the 3D shape that is essential to their function. Human body temperature is 37.5 degrees Celsius. Most enzymes in the body will denature starting at 40 degrees Celsius.
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic symbionts are common in invertebrates and play an essential metabolic role in deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities.
This basic difference in how prokaryotes and eukaryotes function allows for the isolation of natural products or development of new materials that inhibit the growth of prokaryotes, yet have no toxic effects on eukaryotes .
A cross-section of a prokaryotic cell, as depicted in the upcoming scientific journal Invisible Monsters: Man's Struggle Against a Miniature Nemesis.
Whatever the case, the interim "B" might be a prokaryote version of the proposed Oakland Streetcar Project, which would run all the way from Jack London Square to Piedmont Avenue, near Kaiser Hospital.
Multiple coding regions in prokaryotic translation (Shine-Dalgarno sequences) can be modeled as a sequence of initiation (sinks) and termination (sources) sites.
Though there have been a variety of insights into the combinatorial aspects of transcriptional control, the mechanism of DNA looping as an agent of combinatorial control in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes remains unclear.
In the setting of transcriptional regulation, there are a host of regulatory architectures both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes which require the interaction of sequences on the DNA that are not adjacent [4, 5, 6, 7].
Martin W, Russell MJ (2003) On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells.
As discussed at length by Zeh et al. (2009), eukaryotic genomes contrary to prokaryotic ones have a very low relative amount of sequences coding for RNA or proteins: non-coding ones cover the vast majority of DNA.
ISBN 9780387254937. b. Dworkin M, Falkow

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Retrieved Text: Ans: The structural and functional unit of the living organism is called cell.
Ques: Name the instrument by which cell can be seen.
Ques: What is unicellular organism?
Ans: The organism which is made of only one cell that is called unicellular organism. Ex – amoeba and paramecium.
Ques: What are multi cellular organisms?
Ans: The organism which is made of more than one cell are called multi cellular organism. Ex – human and tree.
Ques:Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Ques:Distinguish between plant cell and animal cell.
cell wall is present in it.
Cell wall is absent in it.
Ques: Name the projection in amoeba by which it take food.
Ans: A tissue is a group of similar cells having a specific function.
Ques:What are the basic components of a cell?
Ans: The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Ques:Name the components of cell which are enclosed within the cell membrane.
Ques:State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The organisms which cells have a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
Ex. Onion and other animals’ cells.
The organisms which cells do not have nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes.
Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.

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Retrieved Text: Have LGT of prokaryotic origin significantly contributed to current eukaryotic genes sets?
Lateral gene transfer in eukaryotes: tip of the iceberg or of the ice cube?
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the transmission of genes, sometimes across species barriers, outwith the classic vertical inheritance from parent to offspring. LGT is recognized as an important phenomenon that has shaped the genomes and biology of prokaryotes. Whether LGT in eukaryotes is important and widespread remains controversial. A study in BMC Biology concludes that LGT in eukaryotes is neither continuous nor prevalent and suggests a rule of thumb for judging when apparent LGT may reflect contamination.
Lateral (or horizontal) gene transfer (LGT) refers to the transmission of genes between individuals without direct vertical inheritance from parents to their offspring. In contrast to vertical inheritance, LGT can cross species barriers and may even allow transmission of genes across the kingdoms of life. In prokaryotes, LGT is well documented and the supporting mechanisms have been widely described .
The high prevalence of LGT in prokaryotes has even challenged the validity of a bifurcating Darwinian tree of life and led to the suggestion that an interconnected rhizome of life would be a more realistic representation of relations between species . The model bacterium Escherichia coli is a good illustration of the plasticity of bacterial gene repertoires due to gene acquisition via LGT and differential loss. While a typical E. coli genome contains ~5000 protein-coding genes, the pan-genome of E. coli, taking into account more than 60 different strains, is estimated to contain more than 15,700 genes

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Retrieved Text: A cell is a pool of controlled chemical composition bounded by an outer membrane. It is the main structure of undifferentiated single-celled organisms and the essential building block of highly complex multicellular animals composed of many different cell types. A cell (1) sequesters biological resources relative to the outside world, and also internally; (2) maintains the necessary concentrations of chemical components, pH, and so forth; (3) localizes, transports, exports, and imports select molecules; (4) uses selected, controlled, context-dependent subsets of its genes and controls whether gene products are kept local, for use by this cell, or are sent outside the cell; (5) allows differentiation from the surrounding medium, and (6) provides a building-block mechanism by which life can evolve more complex traits.
Although there is extensive variation in cells found in the biosphere, generalizations can be made about them and hence about life, a fact basic to our understanding of how life works and evolved. These generalizations have placed at least some constraints on what has evolved and on what can or will evolve in the future. All known organisms (except very primitive "life" forms like viruses and prions, which, although not cells themselves, depend on cells to replicate and to continue to exist) are composed of one of two basic cell types, prokaryote and eukaryote, shown schematically in Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2 provides a detail of the cell membrane. See Table 6-1 for details of the structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
All cells use the DNA-RNA coding system for replication and for coding proteins. All cells are

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is the process by which the information in DNA is copied to make RiboNucleic Acid (RNA). RNA in turn synthesizes proteins through a process called translation. These two steps are together the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
There are mainly three kinds of RNA that are produced by transcription.
RNA are single stranded molecules that are synthesized in the nucleus, but are mainly found in the cytoplasm and ribosomes in all the cells of every living organism.
RNA has a chemical make-up similar to DNA, but is less stable than DNA. RNA, like DNA is composed of nucleotides, with the same phosphate group, but the sugar is a five-carbon compound. The two complementary pairs of bases are adenine and uracil (instead of thymine), and guanine and cytosine.
The process is basically the same in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One of the DNA strands is used as the template by RNA polymerase to form the RNA strand that is complementary to the template strand. Thus the base sequence in the RNA strand is the same as the non template DNA strand which is called coding strand or sense strand. The template DNA strand is also called anti-sense strand.
In prokaryotes, there is only one RNA polymerase that produces all the three types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are three groups. RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA, RNA polymerase II transcribes mRNA, while RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA.
During transcription, only sections of the DNA with the gene to be expressed are involved. There can be different genes that are transcribed at any given time.

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to proteins with the aid of tRNA. In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria. Proteins synthesized in each of these locations serve a different role in the cell. In prokaryotes, ribosomes can be found in the cytosol as well. This protein-synthesizing organelle is the only organelle found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, asserting the fact that the ribosome is a trait that evolved early on, most likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that only bind together during protein synthesis. The purpose of the ribosome is to take the actual message and the charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate the protein. To do so, they have three binding sites. One is for the mRNA; the other two are for the tRNA. The binding sites for tRNA are the A site, which holds the aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and the P site, which binds to the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain.
Peptide synthesis by a ribosome.: The ribosome assembles amino acids into a protein. The specific amino acids are controlled by the mRNA sequence. This is required by all living cells

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Retrieved Text: (eucaryotic) Describing cells that have a nucleus, or organisms made up of such cells (compare prokaryotic). The genetic material of eukaryotes consists of *chromatin and is divided into a number of chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells usually divide either by mitosis or meiosis while division in prokaryotes is amitotic. In certain classifications all eukaryotic organisms are placed in the kingdom Eukaryota, to emphasize the difference between these and the prokaryotes, or Prokaryota.

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Retrieved Text: On the evolution of neurochemical transmission.
"The roots of chemosignalling systems are likely to be found in prokaryotes."
"...eukaryotic signal systems have prokaryotic roots...the signal transduction systems seen in unicellular eukaryotes represent a transitional stage in the evolution of chemosignaling systems between prokaryotes and higher eukaryotes." Note: the expression "higher eukaryotes" refers to more advanced animals including humans.
Although this site is 9 years old and doesn't have active links, it nevertheless provides much evolutionary information based on genomics and is well worth looking at. "The genome of the nematode worm contains an estimated 1049 G-protein coupled receptors. "... the archaebacterial ancestor of eukaryotes may have contributed a seven transmembrane precursor of modern seven transmembrane receptor proteins."
This article from 1991 conflates transmembrane transport with transmembrane signaling. In particular, it considers transmembrane transport to be a form of transmembrane signaling, and there's nothing illogical about this. However, I think it's helpful to distinguish between the two, which I've done.
It also does not distinguish receptors from transporters and signalers, as I have done. Again, there's nothing logically inconsistent about this, but it lumps together three different aspects of a cells relationship with its environment which are more easily understood when one considers them separately.

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic mRNA is most of the times polycistronic, while the eukaryotic mRNA is monocistronic. The 5′-7 methyl guanosine is absent in prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes is present. 3′ poly A tail is absent on prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes it is not. Furthemore, the Ribosome Binding Site (Shine Dalgarno Sequence) is only present on prokaryotes. Also on prokaryotes, the mRNA consists of an exact transcribed copy of DNA, while in eukaryotes mRNA is more elaborate. The prokaryotic mRNA degrades easier, while the eukaryotic one is more stable due to the cap structure and polyA tail. Eukaryotic mRNA is composed of small templates of the original gene that is cleaved and rejoined by assistance of pre-mRNA. Their similarities include the fact they contain the same nucleotides and use the same start codon AUG. The codons needed for the termination of the translation are also the same: UAG,UGA,UAA. There are differences in the mode of translation initiation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The inititation codon is AUG in eukaryotes. Also in 5′ side of eukaryotes, a specific purine-rich sequence is not used for separation of the initiator AUG from the internal ones. Generally the AUG near the 5′ end plays the role of the initiator in eukaryotes assisted by the 40S ribosome that binds the 5′ end and moves toward the 3′ direction to search the AUG codon and by the helicases that hdrolyze ATP. When the Met-tRNAi joins the AUG codon the process can begin. On the other hand in the prokaryotes, mRNA has several Shine-Dalgarno sequences that serve

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate by binary fission. For unicellular organisms, cell division is the only method to produce new individuals. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the outcome of cell reproduction is a pair of daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. In unicellular organisms, daughter cells are individuals.
To achieve the outcome of identical daughter cells, some steps are essential. The genomic DNA must be replicated and then allocated into the daughter cells; the cytoplasmic contents must also be divided to give both new cells the machinery to sustain life. In bacterial cells, the genome consists of a single, circular DNA chromosome; therefore, the process of cell division is simplified. Mitosis is unnecessary because there is no nucleus or multiple chromosomes. This type of cell division is called binary fission.
The cell division process of prokaryotes, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much quicker process than cell division in eukaryotes. Because of the speed of bacterial cell division, populations of bacteria can grow very rapidly. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell. As in eukaryotes, the DNA of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size. The packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to some of the proteins involved in the chromosome compaction of eukaryotes.
The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the plasma membrane (Figure

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Retrieved Text: Life on earth consists of three main groups. Two of these groups are represented by microbial life forms, the bacteria and the archaea. These are collectively known as the prokaryotes. The cells of these prokaryotes are generally small and simple. The third group of organisms concerns all visible life forms, such as people, animals and fungi. This group is known as the eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The origin of the eukaryotic cell is one of the most fundamental riddles in the evolution of life on earth. Now, through the work of an international collective of researchers, led by Thijs Ettema (Wageningen University & Research and the University of Uppsala in Sweden), there has been more clarity about the evolutionary transition from simple prokaryotic to more complex eukaryotic cell types.
Previous research has shown that the eukaryotic cell originated from an archaea cell and a bacterial cell. The bacterium was absorbed into the archaea cell at some point. There is a general consensus that the cells came together because of a mutually beneficial interaction, called symbiosis. The most plausible hypotheses about the origin of eukaryotes are based on a symbiosis in which one partner produces metabolites that the other partner uses. In recent decades, however, there has been fierce debate in the scientific world about how this metabolic symbiosis actually works.
Recent research in the Ettema laboratory has already provided important information about the identity of the archaea host cell in this scenario. Based on genome research, Ettema’s team has

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes were the first kind of organisms to evolve. They are single-celled organisms that don’t have a well-defined nucleus and also lack other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. The genetic material in prokaryotic cells exists within an irregularly shaped area of the cell known as the nucleoid.
All water-soluble components within prokaryotes such as DNA, proteins and metabolites are found in the cytoplasm, enclosed within the cell membrane and not in separate compartments of the cell. However, bacteria have protein-based micro-compartments that behave like basic organelles within protein shells.
The two types of prokaryotic cell are Archaea and bacteria. Prokaryotes have a cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes, but no nucleus. They have a cell wall that offers an additional layer of protection, prevents dehydration and maintains the shape of the cell. The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Some prokaryotic cells also have a polysaccharide layer, referred to as a capsule, that enables specific attachment of the cell to certain surfaces.
Prokaryotes have a plasma membrane, which separates intracellular components from the external environment. Prokaryotic cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like substance called the cytosol, in which cell components are contained.
As is the case for all cells, bacteria have a cytoskeleton, a network of filaments and tubules that provides structural support and maintains the shape of the cell. The cytoskeleton also forms a whip-like, external structure called the flagella, which the cell uses to move from one place to another (locomotion). Thin, hair- like structures called pili are also found in some bacteria, which aid in adhesion

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Retrieved Text: tek 4A.Could Bacteria-Fighting Viruses Replace Overused Antibiotics?
antibiotics are being overused and are becoming less effective as time goes on because the bacteria is always changing and adapting to survive so the antibiotics could never really stop bacteria only suppress the effects. viruses on the other hand specifically phages kill bacteria not human cells. each phage can only attack a specific bacteria string.
tek 4b For bacteria what is the difference of bacilli, cocci, and spirilla?
the difference between all of these things are their shape.
4a Why are bacteria so different from normal cells?
well for starters human,plant and animals are all eukaryotic cells and most bacteria are prokaryotic. bacteria and more primitive than animal and humans cells and the contents in the cell membrane.
4a Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
4b How do bacteria reproduce?
bacteria produce by binary fission and what this is, is a bacteria strand that is divided and made into 2 exact copies (daughter cells) this can occurs around every 20 minutes if the conditions are a good condition.
4b Can bacteria live without a host organism?

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Retrieved Text: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes which are organisms with a nucleus. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
It is a rather old-fashioned term which includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).
Most protists are very small. They are made up of one or a few cells at most – they are microscopic and usually invisible to the naked eye. Some algae are protists, if they are single-celled. Many protists are part of the plankton and are very important for the ecosystem. The cells found in protists may be extremely complex, and are often little understood. It is now possible to do DNA sequencing, and a number of protists have been analysed. The results show that the Protista is not a monophyletic group. It is paraphyletic, and not a single clade. The taxonomy of the Protista is therefore rather confused.
Some protists cause diseases. Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria; sleeping sickness is also caused by a protist.
An example of a single celled organism in the protist kingdom is the Paramecium or "slipper animalcule." The Paramecium moves using its small, hair-like fibers called cilia, and eats using the cilia to sweep the food into its food vacuole. Other protists can be amoebas, which move by extending pseudopods and flowing into them, or flowing around food particles and engulfing them.
Protists are not a monophyletic clade. The term is a convenient holdall for about 20 different kinds of

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria consist of only a single cell, but don't let their small size and seeming simplicity fool you. They're an amazingly complex and fascinating group of creatures. Bacteria have been found that can live in temperatures above the boiling point and in cold that would freeze your blood. They "eat" everything from sugar and starch to sunlight, sulfur and iron. There's even a species of bacteria—Deinococcus radiodurans—that can withstand blasts of radiation 1,000 times greater than would kill a human being.
Bacteria fall into a category of life called the Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes' genetic material, or DNA, is not enclosed in a cellular compartment called the nucleus. Bacteria and archaea are the only prokaryotes. All other life forms are Eukaryotes , creatures whose cells have nuclei.
Bacteria are among the earliest forms of life that appeared on Earth billions of years ago. Scientists think that they helped shape and change the young planet's environment, eventually creating atmospheric oxygen that enabled other, more complex life forms to develop. Many believe that more complex cells developed as once free-living bacteria took up residence in other cells, eventually becoming the organelles in modern complex cells. The mitochondria that make energy for your body cells is one example of such an organelle.
There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all of them are basically one of three different shapes. Some are rod- or stick-shaped and called bacilli.
Others are shaped like little balls and called cocci.
Others still are helical or spiral in shape, like the Borrelia .
Some bacterial cells exist as individuals while others

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Retrieved Text: The characteristic color of golden algae results from their yellow and brown carotenoids. The cells of golden algae are typically biflagellated, with both flagella attached near one end of the cell. Many golden algae are components of freshwater and marine plankton. While all golden algae are photosynthetic, some species are mixotrophic. These mixotrophs can absorb dissolved organic compounds or ingest food particles, including living cells (eukaryotes and prokaryotes), by phagocytosis. Most species are unicellular, but some, such as those in the freshwater genus Dinobryon, are colonial.

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Retrieved Text: Are you looking for NCERT Class 8 Solution? Download NCERT Solution Class 8 Science Chapter 8 : Cell-Structure and Functions and prepare better for your examinations.
Question 1: Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
Question 2: Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve cells perform?
The function of a nerve cell is to transmit messages to the brain and also to take away messages from the brain to the receptor organs. Thus, it controls the working of different parts of the body.
Question 3: Write short notes on the following.
It is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Cell organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. are suspended in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm helps in the exchange of materials between cell organelles.
It is a double-layered membrane which separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has nuclear pores that allow the transfer of specific substances in and out of the nucleus.
It is a small spherical body that is not bound by any membrane.
These are thread-like structures that carry genes. Genes contain information necessary for the transfer of characteristics from the parents to the offspring. Thus, chromosomes play an important role in the inheritance of characteristics.
Question 4: Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Cytoplasm is the part of the cell that contains various organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. Cytoplasm is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Question

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Retrieved Text: Transcription of protein encoding genes creates a primary transcript of RNA at the place where the gene was located. This transcript can be altered before being translated, this is particularly common in eukaryotes. The most common RNA processing is splicing to remove introns. Introns are RNA segments which are not found in the mature RNA, although they can function as precursors, e.g. for snoRNAs, which are RNAs that direct modification of nucleotides in other RNAs. Introns are common in eukaryotic genes but rare in prokaryotes.
RNA processing, also known as post-transcriptional modification, can start during transcription, as is the case for splicing, where the spliceosome removes introns from newly formed RNA.
Extensive RNA processing may be an evolutionary advantage made possible by the nucleus of eukaryotes. In prokaryotes transcription and translation happen together whilst in eukaryotes the nuclear membrane separates the two processes giving time for RNA processing to occur.

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Retrieved Text: Humans are capable of great charity, taking hits to their bank accounts and bodies to benefit their peers. But such acts of altruism aren’t limited to us; they can be found in the simple colonies of bacteria too.
Bacteria are famed for their ability to adapt to our toughest antibiotics. But resistance doesn’t spring up evenly across an entire colony. A new study suggests that a small cadre of hero bacteria are responsible for saving their peers. By shouldering the burden of resistance at a personal cost, these charitable cells ensure that the entire colony survives.
Read the rest about this eye-popping study here.
This is about whether the cell design – the composition and architecture of the prokaryotic cell – is capable of generating something as structurally complex as a mouse (for a mouse, like all animals, is an assembly of cells). Seen from this angle, the endosymbiotic hypothesis supports my position. That is, in order for prokaryotes to ultimately spawn eukaryotes, they first had to go through a radical re-design of cell structure.
So here is what we have. Prokaryotic cells can be viewed as the highest expression of mutation and selection, for there is no better cellular candidate for a “self-replicator.” Yet after billions of years, the prokaryotic cell plan has failed to achieve anything near the level of structural complexity as exhibited by the eukaryotic cell plan. To reach such structural complexity, the cell design had to be radically retooled, partly through endosymbiotic union, a one-time event given the widely accepted monophyly of eukaryotes. Once the

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Evidence that a high molecular weight replicative DNA polymerase is conserved during evolution.
Evidence that a high molecular weight replicative DNA polymerase is conserved during evolution.
Using a technique developed recently to detect DNA polymerase activity in situ after NaDodSO4 gel electrophoresis (Spanos, A., Sedgwick, S. G., Yarranton, g. T., Hubscher, U. & Banks, G. R. (1981) Nucleic Acids Res. 9, 1825-1839), we present evidence that a high Mr (greater than or equal to 125,000) polypeptide is responsible for chromosomal DNA replication in prokaryotes, lower eukaryotes and high eukaryotes. Not only extracts from Escherichia coli, Ustilago maydis, Drosophila melanogaster, rat neurones, calf thymus, human fibroblast, and HeLa cells possess such high Mr activities, but also highly purified E. coli DNA polymerase III core enzyme, U. maydis DNA polymerase, and D. melanogaster embryo and calf thymus DNA alpha polymerases. The evidence that these activities are responsible for chromosomal DNA replication is genetical (E. coli, U. maydis, and D. melanogaster); also, the high Mr activity disappears from rat neurones during differentiation from an actively dividing precursor cell to a postmitotically mature neurone. Furthermore, when limited proteolysis is allowed to occur, a defined and remarkably similar pattern of intermediate Mr activities is generated in lower eukaryotic and high eukaryotic extracts and, to some extent, in prokaryotic extracts. In higher eukaryotic extracts, a low Mr activity of approximately 35,000 is also generated. Protease inhibitors can retard formation of these catalytically active proteolytic fragments. We propose that the replicative DNA polymerase complex of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes contains a high

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Retrieved Text: Microbiology has undergone radical changes over the past few decades, ushering in an exciting new era in science. In The New Microbiology, Pascale Cossart tells a splendid story about the revolution in microbiology, especially in bacteriology. This story has wide-ranging implications for human health and medicine, agriculture, environmental science, and our understanding of evolution. The revolution results from the powerful tools of molecular and cellular biology, genomics, and bioinformatics, which have yielded amazing discoveries, from entire genome sequences to video of bacteria invading host cells. This book is for both scientists and especially nonscientists who would like to learn more about the extraordinary world of bacteria.
Dr. Cossart&apos;s overview of the field of microbiology research, from infectious disease history to the ongoing scientific revolution resulting from CRISPR technologies, is presented in four parts.
New concepts in microbiology introduces the world of bacteria and some recent discoveries about how they live, such as the role of regulatory RNAs including riboswitches, the CRISPR defense system, and resistance to antibiotics.
Sociomicrobiology: the social lives of bacteria helps us see the new paradigm by which scientists view bacteria as highly social creatures that communicate in many ways, for example in the assemblies that reside in our intestine or in the environment.
The biology of infections reviews some of history’s worst epidemics and describes current and emerging infectious diseases, the organisms that cause them, and how they produce an infection.
Bacteria as tools introduces us to molecules derived from microbes that scientists have harnessed in the service of research and medicine, including the CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing technology.
The

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Retrieved Text: All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, which synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
A prokaryote is a simple, mostly single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell: the nucleoid ( [link] ).
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule ( [link] ). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.
The most effective action anyone can take to prevent the spread of contagious illnesses is to wash his or her hands. Why? Because microbes (organisms so tiny that they can only be seen with microscopes) are ubiquitous. They live on doorknobs, money, your hands, and many other surfaces. If someone sneezes into his hand and touches a doorknob, and afterwards you touch that same doorknob, the

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Retrieved Text: What is the basic mechanism of Glycerophospholipids biosynthesis?
The most abundant phospholipids are made from glycerol. Phospholipids are important components of membranes and help transport triacylglycerols and cholesterol in the body. Typically, they have saturated fatty acids at carbon #1 (more than 90%) and unsaturated fatty acids at carbon #2 (more than 90%).
There are a few differences in the lipids (and metabolic routes to making them) of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. We will not be concerned about distinguishing the routes of their synthesis. For our purposes, the routes are the same.
Additional lipids contained eukaryotes beyond those for prokaryotes include phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidylinositol.
Methylation of phosphatidyl ethanolamine is accomplished with an activated derivative of methionine called S-adenosylmethionine. After the methyl group is donated, S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) is generated. AdoMet and AdoHcy are shown in the top. Formation of AdoMet is depicted in the bottom.
Glycerophospholipids are not metabolically inert compounds, though it is not fully understood how and when substitutions and modifications of them occur. Infants with respiratory distress have a defect in the metabolism of lung surfactant, a phospholipid in lung tissue.
Above it was pointed out that Glycerophospholipids have saturated fatty acids at the #1 position 90% of the time, and unsaturated fatty acids at the #2 position 90% of the time. Lung surfactant is unusual in having a saturated fatty acid (palmitate) at positions 1 and 2.
It is not known how this end result is achieved, but one way it might be made is through the action of one or more phospholipases. Phospholipases hydrolyze specific bonds on phospholipids. Sites

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Retrieved Text: The highly-organized assembly of molecules that is the cell represents the fundamental unit of structure, function, and organization in all living organisms. In the hierarchy of biological organization, the cell is the simplest collection of matter capable of carrying out the processes that distinguish living organisms. As such, cells have the ability to undergo metabolism; maintain homeostasis, including ionic gradients; the capacity to grow; move in response to their local environments; respond to stimuli; reproduce; and adapt to their environment in successive generations.
Life at cellular levels arises from structural order and its dynamic modulation. It does so in response to signals, thereby reflecting properties that result from individual and interactive features of molecular assemblies, their compartmentalization, and their interaction with environmental signals at many spatial and temporal scales.
The content in this category covers the classification, structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes, and the characteristics that distinguish them from eukaryotes. Viruses are also covered here.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Where does a cell convert oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy? " and the following answer choices: 
- Most plants
 - aerobic capacity
 - In the mitochondria
 - the body's largest organ
 - they body they live in
 - Veins and arteries.
 - Organic compounds
 - circulatory systems

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria, choose the best answer.

Target Text: In the mitochondria

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: Unlike internal combustion engines that burn fuel for power, direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) use a polymer electrode membrane to convert chemical energy to electrical energy. Methanol fuel is delivered to the anode side of the membrane, where it is split into protons and electrons. The electrons pass to a circuit and create electrical current, while the protons pass thorough the membrane to the cathode side of the fuel cell. When the electrons are also delivered to the cathode side of the fuel cell, they reunite with the protons and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

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Retrieved Text: You need to be a member of Brock Shores Financial #ImprovingFutures to add comments!
Wheat is a grass, converting sunlight energy into carbohydrates and surprisingly a high percentage of protein and that protein is part of the gluten that many people have an intolerance too. Interesting side bar on protein that I had forgotten about and had no idea about the gluten. We hand grind our own flour from wheat, corn, rice and other grains, so hopefully the lower processing results in a better spectrum of nutrition.
“More than half the supply of palladium and its congenerplatinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

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Retrieved Text: Researchers at Florida State University have developed a new artificial material that functions similar to the process of photosynthesis and can open up new avenues to create a sustainable energy source. According to Jose L Mendoza-Cortes, Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, who led the study, this energy source will be self-sustainable.
He has published his findings in The Journal of Physical Chemistry where it has been mentioned that the material could be installed on your roof in the near future and could create energy from rainwater with the help of the Sun. The energy captured by the material from the Sun is used to decompose water into oxygen and hydrogen, a process commonly referred to as electrolysis of water. The same thing can be seen in photosynthesis wherein a plant can, with the help of the Sun, convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates. Plants hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in the process and use it to break down carbohydrates in order to give them the energy they need.
Mendoza-Cortes’ discovery generates fascinating new approaches on the way this process can be used to create new sources of energy that are absolutely free of carbon. Furthermore, hydrogen could eventually be carried to distant locations and used as fuel. The best part about this is that it is environment-friendly and as such, will not have any unfavourable impacts on the surroundings as the material will not release carbon dioxide or waste as by-products.
To accomplish this, Mendoza-Cortes initially created a multi-layered material

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: Zebec's clients can rely on Zebec to deliver to an agreed scope, on budget and on programme, whilst meeting Health & Safety and Environmental requirements.
Anaerobic Digestion as a resource recovery technology is relevant for a range of industries. It can be applied as a pre-treatment step to reduce the volume of waste and to control odours and pathogens in order to keep final disposal costs down. More often today it is utilised as primary treatment of biomas to produce valuable products such as biogas that can be converted into heat and energy plus digestate which can used as fertiliser.
Anaerobic digestion is the simple, natural breakdown of organic matter into carbon dioxide, methane and water, by two groups of microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. Since many of these are intolerant to oxygen, this process is known as anaerobic.
There are four main stages of the anaerobic digestion process.
Each stage breaks the matter into smaller and smaller parts, until the only remaining substances are methane, carbon dioxide and water, three very simple molecules.
Hydrolysis breaks down the complex organic matter – carbohydrates, fats and proteins – into simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates, long chains of simple sugars, are broken down into single glucose molecules; proteins, long folded chains of amino acids, become individual amino acids; while fats, made up of head groups and fatty acid chains, have the latter part removed from the head groups and cut into smaller and smaller pieces.
Acidogenesis sees those single sugar molecules, fatty acids and amino acids broken down further into alcohols and

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Retrieved Text: Scientists in Switzerland have split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen using a solar reactor. The technology uses a thermochemical process to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful fuels.
Splitting carbon dioxide and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas (syngas) is the first step to producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels for cars and aeroplanes. Current approaches for splitting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen suffer from low mass conversions, poor selectivity and low energy efficiencies.
The solar reactor has a 100mm inner diameter, a 75mm deep receiver with a 4cm diameter circular aperture sealed by a 4mm thick quartz window so it can access the concentrated solar radiation. The cavity contains an octagonal 25mm thick porous ceramic structure made of pure ceria. With this arrangement, the structure is directly exposed to high-flux irradiation, enabling volumetric absorption and uniform heating.
Now, a team led by Aldo Steinfeld at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, has made a 4kW solar reactor containing cerium oxide or ceria, a well-known redox material. The reactor can split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The technology uses a two-step cyclic process based on the reduction and oxidation reactions of ceria and a swing in temperature and pressure to control the oxygen exchange. In the first step, 3000-fold concentrated solar power heats the ceria to 1500°C under reduced pressure to generate oxygen. In the second step, carbon dioxide reoxidises the reduced ceria at 900°C to generate carbon monoxide. This redox cycle can also

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Retrieved Text: Sorry plants, but you just got shown up.
Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have discovered how to harness solar power to turn carbon dioxide into fuel. That’s exactly what plants do every day with photosynthesis, but this newly discovered process does the job even better than nature does.
“It is possible to take sunlight, CO2, and water, and in an artificial system make hydrocarbons with an efficiency that’s greater than that of photosynthesis,” Joel Ager, lead author of the study, tells Inverse. Hydrocarbons are just any molecules made of hydrogen and carbon, and their ability to store energy has made them the main energy source for the planet.
If the system can break out of the lab, it could help fuel the world without relying on high-polluting and globally warming fossil fuels like oil and gas. And there’s plenty of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide around — indeed, far more of the latter these days than there should be.
As the researchers detail Wednesday in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, the researchers used a photovoltaic solar cell to split carbon dioxide in water, producing the desired hydrocarbon fuel molecules like ethanol, as well as oxygen-based molecules.
This is the first time scientists have managed to go straight from carbon dioxide to a finished, basically ready-to-use fuel, without having to do any more costly chemical manipulation. Improvements in the solar cell technology powering the experiment also let the researchers convert the energy at levels plants could only imagine.
A drawing of how the solar-powered fuel system works to convert C02 using

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : After much practice, scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago have created artificial leaves that can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide to fuel ten times more efficiently than natural plants. Artificial leaves mimic the process whereby plants use water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates using energy from the Sun.
But, the state-of-the-art artificial leaves only work in the laboratory because these leaves need pure, pressurised carbon dioxide from tanks.
Researchers from the University of Illinois at Chicago in the US have suggested a design solution that could bring artificial leaves out of the laboratory and into the environment. The artificial leaf which would use carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas from the air, would be at least 10 times more efficient than natural leaves at converting carbon dioxide to fuel.
"So far, all designs for artificial leaves that have been tested in the lab use carbon dioxide from pressurised tanks," said Meenesh Singh, assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago."In order to implement successfully in the real world, these devices need to be able to draw carbon dioxide from much more dilute sources, such as air and flue gas, which is the gas given off by coal-burning power plants," said Singh, corresponding author of the study published in the journal ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.
Unlocking the pressurised carbon dioxide supply from these leaves means that they must have a way to collect and concentrate carbon dioxide from the air to drive their artificial photosynthetic reactions. Singh and Aditya Prajapati, a

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Retrieved Text: All organisms require a continuous supply of energy in order to stay alive. This energy can be obtained by the absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis, the absorption of chemical potential energy from large molecules or obtained by certain chemical reactions, which can be carried out by some specialised bacteria. Almost all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, either directly or indirectly. The process of photosynthesis is vital since it supplies organisms with both an energy supply and useful carbon compounds. Photosynthesis supplies humans with the food they use as an energy source, the oxygen we need to release the energy from this food source, and a huge variety of useful products such as wood, coal and natural gas.
The light-independent stage uses the ATP and NADP made during the first stage to convert carbon dioxide into simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can then be transformed into a large number of other organic molecules.
Investigating Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis.
How plants have adapted or become acclimatised to shade.

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Retrieved Text: A technology to collect, compress and store liquid carbon dioxide, generated from most industrial processes of the electricity generation, petrochemical and steel manufature plants, before emitting into the air.
The wet capture process is to collect carbon dioxide from the general exhaust gas by absorbing it with wet-type absorbents.
The dry capture process is to collect carbon dioxide by absorbing it with dry-type absorbents instead of wet-type ones.
A fuel cell is used to convert the chemical energy which is generated by chemical reactions of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity.
uses phosphoric acid (H3PO4) as electrolytesand is operated at a low temperature of about 150-200℃. It enables water cooling and can be manufactured to be compact in size. And, it uses distributed power sources from hospitals, hotels and buildings.
uses molten carbonate (Li2CO3,K2CO3) as electrolytes and is operated at a high temperature of about 600-700℃. No electro catalyst is required, and it is high in power generation efficiency. And, it uses distributed power sources from apartments and large buildings.

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Retrieved Text: The main end products of respiration are CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water, which are used as the starting material for Photosynthesis, and photosynthesis converts them into glucose and O2 (oxygen).
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all energy rich carbon compounds used by all organisms; it is responsible for the continual supply of atmospheric O2 (oxygen), without which all the aerobic organisms, that use oxygen would not exist.
Green plants, algae, some unicellular green flagellates and 2 bacteria groups are the only organisms that photosynthesize. Each year they release half of all the O2 (oxygen) in the atmosphere.
Plants use CO2 (carbon dioxide) when they produce O2 (oxygen). CO2 is converted to O2 during photosynthesis. At the same time, animals through their respiration process use this O2 from their metabolism and replace it with CO2, which is then used by plants to begin the cycle again.
Photosynthesis is a solar powered process. SUNLIGHT is a key component of the process.
Light is a form of ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY. When light meets matter, it can be reflected, transmitted or ABSORBED.
PIGMENT absorbs light. Plant pigment, CHLOROPHYLL (the main light-absorbing molecule of green plants), is a pigment that absorbs LIGHT ENERGY.
Chlorophyll is found in specialized structures called CHLOROPLAST; they give plants their green color. Each chloroplast contains all the chlorophyll and enzymes needed to complete the complex chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll participates directly in LIGHT REACTIONS.
The site of photosynthesis is typically the leaf of green plants. Each cell has about 30 to 40 chloroplast.
The large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants allows it

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Retrieved Text: Mitochondria are known for generating energy for the cell in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by using nutrients and oxygen. The chloroplast is present in green plants and few algae, they are known as the place, where the process of photosynthesis occurs.
In the cell of the eukaryotes, there are only three organelles, which are bounded by the double membrane structure – the nucleus, the mitochondria, and the chloroplast. There is the higher level of diversity on the surface of the planet. Living things inquisitively, perplexingly uses the sources present here and grow. They have populated the land, water, and molded the surface of the earth.
Living things are not only restricted to the domain of the land, water, instead found in depth of the ocean, in the mud of hot volcanoes, beneath the frozen surface of Antartic and deeply buried in the earth crust. In this section, we will consider the two main units of the eukaryotic cells – The Mitochondria and the Chloroplast.
The first one is the most significant body present in the living cell, they are the producer of energy to the cell, and it’s organelles by the process of cellular respiration. Their shape and function resemble bacteria, even they have their own circular DNA and ribosomes and their tRNA, like that of bacteria.
The latter – Chloroplast, is the another enclosed membrane of the eukaryotic cell. These are found in selective types of the cell as said above. Chloroplast performs the function of the preparation of the food that is photosynthesis, by using the

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Retrieved Text: Plants have oxygen-producing capabilities. In the process of photosynthesis, plants and some species of bacteria possess the ability to use the energy from the sun to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals present in the environment into organic material that is essential for plant growth. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.
To create an ideal tank environment where plants and the fish population can thrive well, there must be a light source of sufficient intensity which will be the source of energy for photosynthesis to take place. There should also be a continuous supply of carbon dioxide when the tank is lit as well as a reliable supply of other essential nutrients needed by plants for photosynthesis to occur.

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: All energy consumed by biological systems ultimately comes from light energy trapped in reduced carbon skeletons by the process of photosynthesis.
This simple net reaction is catalyzed by a very complex enzyme machinery in plants and photosynthetic bacteria. Photosynthesis traps light to convert photon energy into chemical energy in a process reminiscent of oxidative phosphorylation. This membrane bound process is referred to as light reaction and depends on an electron transfer chain powered by reducing equivalents extracted from water. The chemical energy produced - ATP and NADPH - is used for for the synthesis of carbohydrates by carbon fixation (Calvin cycle or dark reaction).
This chapter presents the plant photosynthetic apparatus. It is located in specialized organelles called chloroplasts with a complex membrane system that allows the separation of charges to convert electromagnetic energy (photons) into electrochemical energy (proton gradient) and eventually into chemical energy in the form of ATP (phosphoryltransfer potential) and NADPH (reducing power) and ultimately as carbohydrates, fats and amino acids..
The light reaction is a membrane bound process. The photosynthetic membranes in plants contain two photosystems, photosystems I and II, or PS I and PS II. Photosystem I captures the energy of single photons by excitation of electrons in magnesium ions in green pigments called chlorophyll (chlorophyll a, C05306; see pathway map details below). The color of the chlorophylls indicates the absorption maxima of the system, i.e., the ability to capture light energy of photons at a specific wavelength. Photosystem I is coupled to an NADP+ - reducing enzyme to produce reducing power in the

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Retrieved Text: Fossil fuels such as crude oil and bituminous coal can take more than a million years to form. On the other hand, wood and other types of biomass can be grown in a matter of years, and are available almost anywhere. Properly managed biomass constitutes an important, affordable, and renewable source of energy for the entire planet.
A metal-supported solid oxide fuel cell has been developed that can harness the chemical energy stored in plants to directly produce electricity through a reaction that is essentially a mirror of the plant’s natural process of photosynthesis. Plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbon compounds and oxygen. Solid oxide fuel cells are able to capture these carbon compounds to produce electricity.
A novel application of the technology is an ingenious fuel cell charger that obtains it’s chemical energy from burning wood or charcoal. The charger may be used to power an LED light, radio or even to recharge mobile telephones.
The potential of the fuel cell technology to materially improve the quality of life for people living without grid electricity in the developing nations is difficult to overstate.

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: The present invention is directed generally to electrochemical systems and more particularly to co-production of electricity and hydrogen in a high temperature fuel cell system.
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. A solid oxide regenerative fuel cell (SORFC) is an electrochemical device that converts electrical energy directly into chemical energy and subsequently reconverts chemical energy back to electrical energy. This device differs significantly from rechargeable batteries in that the chemicals are stored outside of the SORFC converter. The SORFC system has many building electrical energy storage applications that cannot be satisfied by batteries. For example, a SORFC system for building power generation is discussed in the Proceedings of the 2001 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-570-30535. A SORFC system which generates hydrogen in the electrolysis mode and which generates electricity in the fuel cell mode is described in Proceedings of the 2002 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-610-32405. This SORFC system may contain a separate electrolyzer unit which operates in the electrolysis mode and which is operatively connected to the fuel cell stack to generate hydrogen. However, these SORFC systems have certain environmental and economic drawbacks.
The SOFC and SORFC are high temperature electrochemical systems. Another high temperature electrochemical system is a molten carbonate fuel cell. Fuel cells often use hydrogen as fuel. For example, fuel cell powered vehicles would require hydrogen refueling stations for operation. However, distribution of hydrogen from centralized hydrogen producing plants to refuel vehicles is not currently economical. Furthermore, hydrogen production is fairly expensive.
A

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Cells converting from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water and energy is a requirement for what?" and the following answer choices: 
- grow
 - plants
 - health
 - life
 - food
 - trees
 - body
 - growth

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and cellular respiration is a requirement for life, choose the best answer.

Target Text: life

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: You need to be a member of Brock Shores Financial #ImprovingFutures to add comments!
Wheat is a grass, converting sunlight energy into carbohydrates and surprisingly a high percentage of protein and that protein is part of the gluten that many people have an intolerance too. Interesting side bar on protein that I had forgotten about and had no idea about the gluten. We hand grind our own flour from wheat, corn, rice and other grains, so hopefully the lower processing results in a better spectrum of nutrition.
“More than half the supply of palladium and its congenerplatinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: The Krebs’ cycle is an eloquent and essential system designed to generate large amounts of cellular energy required for life. Disruption of the Krebs’ cycle, whether caused by deficiencies in energy substrates, stress, age etc. leads to an inhibition of normal energy production and contributes to a wide range of metabolic disturbances, skin damages and ageing.
All cells must produce energy to survive. Hans A. Krebs first elucidated the process of cells converting food into energy, the Citric Acid Cycle, in 1937. Krebs proposed a specific metabolic pathway within the cells to account for the oxidation of the basic components of food – carbohydrates, protein and fats – w for energy. The Krebs’ cycle takes place inside the mitochondria or ‘power plant’ of cells and provides energy required for the organism to function.
Mitochondria are found in all cells in the human body, with the exception of mature red blood cells. The primary function of these tiny organelles (each cell contains between 500 and 2,000 mitochondria) is to convert energy found in nutrient molecules and store it in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the universal energy-yielding molecule used by enzymes to perform a wide range of cellular functions. Humans cannot survive, even for a second, without a constant supply of ATP.
In order to carry out energy conversion, mitochondria require oxygen. The purpose of our respiratory and circulatory systems is to deliver oxygen to the tissues for use by mitochondria, and to eliminate carbon dioxide. The consumption of oxygen by mitochondria is called cellular respiration.
In simple

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: The term sugar is the generic term for any disaccharides and monosaccharides. Sugars are an essential structural component of living cells and a source of energy in many organisms. Sugars are classified based on the number of monomeric units present. The term simple sugars denote to the monosaccharides. The term table sugar or granulated sugar actually refers to sucrose, which is a disaccharide made of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is the form of sugar that many people are familiar with. It is used in food preparation, such as in cakes, pastries, and desserts. It is also used as an ingredient in several beverages, such as sodas, coffee, and juices.
Carbohydrates, especially polysaccharides, are one of the four major groups of biomolecules. The others are proteins, amino acids, and nucleic acids. A carbohydrate refers to any of the group of organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio of 1:2:1, hence the general formula: Cn (H2O) n. Carbohydrates are the most abundant among the major classes of biomolecules. They are one of the major nutrients, providing energy that shall fuel various metabolic processes.
As a nutrient, carbohydrates may be classified based on their structural complexity: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates, sometimes referred to as simply sugar, are those that are readily digested and serve as a rapid source of energy. Complex carbohydrates (such as cellulose, starch, and glycogen) are those that need more time to be digested and metabolized. They often are high in fiber and unlike simple carbohydrates they are less likely

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: A photosystem, showing the absorption of a photon by a pigment molecule and the transfer of this energy to the reaction centre. InRenger expressed the idea of internal changes of water molecules into typical oxides in different S-states during water splitting.
There is simply not enough sunlight to warrant the amount of energy spent in growing the leaves. These organisms make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun.
Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen. At the RC is a pair of P chlorophyll molecules. Vascular bundle — these are tissues that form part of the transport system of the plant.
There is also much room for error in calculating such enormous processes. Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport water, dissolved minerals and food to and from the leaves. The leaves are made up of very small cells.
During these reactions light energy is converted to chemical energy.
These different types of pigment absorb light of different wavelengths. This is an excellent introduction to the subject at an undergraduate level.
It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. And chlorophyll is found in all plants because it is the molecule that absorbs the light that is used to make sugar.
In these light-independent or dark reactions, carbon is broken away from carbon dioxide and combined with hydrogen via the Calvin cycle to create carbohydrates. Numerous research projects are focusing on achieving this with a variety of plant species. The energy that

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Blue and green algae are bacteria (cyanobacteria) that act very much like a plant. Blue and green algae need sunlight, warmth and the proper nutrients to grow and thrive.... This green slime is predominantly composed of blue-green and green algae. In order for algae to grow, they need water, light and fertilizer nutrients, just as plants do. This is why algae are so common in the greenhouse or other areas where plants are grown, especially grown under mist or in cold temperatures.
Algae found in garden ponds comes in a few varieties, including the �blue-green� algae, cyanobacteria, as well as regular green, brown, and red algae. Pond algae, like many other plants, grow through photosynthesis; converting sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and nutrients into materials known as biomass, which is then used for growth.
As the algae begins to grow, take periodic measurements of how much light passes through the tank. Allow students to create a graph over time of the data they collect and have them explain why it might behave in a certain way.
Blue-green algae or Cyanobacteria are microscopic cells that grow naturally in Australian fresh and salt waters. They are a type of bacteria, but in some ways act like plants by using sunlight to manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, a process know as photosynthesis. In doing so, they release oxygen. They grow in dams, rivers, creeks, reservoirs, lakes and even hot springs.
Black and blue-green algae are one and the same. Primarily found in lakes and ponds, it does find a home in unmaintained

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : After much practice, scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago have created artificial leaves that can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide to fuel ten times more efficiently than natural plants. Artificial leaves mimic the process whereby plants use water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates using energy from the Sun.
But, the state-of-the-art artificial leaves only work in the laboratory because these leaves need pure, pressurised carbon dioxide from tanks.
Researchers from the University of Illinois at Chicago in the US have suggested a design solution that could bring artificial leaves out of the laboratory and into the environment. The artificial leaf which would use carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas from the air, would be at least 10 times more efficient than natural leaves at converting carbon dioxide to fuel.
"So far, all designs for artificial leaves that have been tested in the lab use carbon dioxide from pressurised tanks," said Meenesh Singh, assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago."In order to implement successfully in the real world, these devices need to be able to draw carbon dioxide from much more dilute sources, such as air and flue gas, which is the gas given off by coal-burning power plants," said Singh, corresponding author of the study published in the journal ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.
Unlocking the pressurised carbon dioxide supply from these leaves means that they must have a way to collect and concentrate carbon dioxide from the air to drive their artificial photosynthetic reactions. Singh and Aditya Prajapati, a

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: All energy consumed by biological systems ultimately comes from light energy trapped in reduced carbon skeletons by the process of photosynthesis.
This simple net reaction is catalyzed by a very complex enzyme machinery in plants and photosynthetic bacteria. Photosynthesis traps light to convert photon energy into chemical energy in a process reminiscent of oxidative phosphorylation. This membrane bound process is referred to as light reaction and depends on an electron transfer chain powered by reducing equivalents extracted from water. The chemical energy produced - ATP and NADPH - is used for for the synthesis of carbohydrates by carbon fixation (Calvin cycle or dark reaction).
This chapter presents the plant photosynthetic apparatus. It is located in specialized organelles called chloroplasts with a complex membrane system that allows the separation of charges to convert electromagnetic energy (photons) into electrochemical energy (proton gradient) and eventually into chemical energy in the form of ATP (phosphoryltransfer potential) and NADPH (reducing power) and ultimately as carbohydrates, fats and amino acids..
The light reaction is a membrane bound process. The photosynthetic membranes in plants contain two photosystems, photosystems I and II, or PS I and PS II. Photosystem I captures the energy of single photons by excitation of electrons in magnesium ions in green pigments called chlorophyll (chlorophyll a, C05306; see pathway map details below). The color of the chlorophylls indicates the absorption maxima of the system, i.e., the ability to capture light energy of photons at a specific wavelength. Photosystem I is coupled to an NADP+ - reducing enzyme to produce reducing power in the

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: Where does the fat ‘go’ when you lose weight?
Losing weight isn't easy. Here, we look at what happens in your body that causes you to shed those pounds.
Most people are keen to get lean, but with all the talk of ‘burning’ fat and shedding pounds, there are a lot of misconceptions around what actually happens when you lose weight.
In this guide, we’ll take a look at the fascinating process that occurs during weight loss and explain what happens to fat when you lose weight.
How we gain weight and develop fat deposits is all to do with the way our bodies store and use energy.
Gaining weight is the result of three factors – the amount of calories you take in, the metabolic rate at which your body turns these calories into energy and time.
To maintain a healthy weight, it’s recommended that men intake about 2,500 calories a day and women 2,000. However, a range of factors can influence these values, such as the amount of physical activity and age.
How much your body uses is determined by how many calories you take in versus how many you us up through physical activity. Any calories you don’t use are stored in the body as fat, which serves as an additional supply of energy.
We evolved this mechanism to let us cope with food shortages – ensuring that we stocked up in times of plenty and had some stores to rely on when famine hit.
So, if you’re looking to lose weight, your aim should be to use up more calories than

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Retrieved Text: Hydrogen cells are already powering buses in cities such as London.
From turning carbon dioxide into a fuel to enabling cars to run on water, scientific researchers worldwide are unlocking the potential of new energy sources.
LONDON, 14 January, 2016 – Molecular biology has been used by scientists in the US to make a catalyst that can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. It means that a truly renewable biotechnological material could be used to help cars run on water.
In China, chemists have announced a nanofabric – a catalyst put together atoms at a time – that could begin the process of turning the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide back into fuel.
And with what seems like perfect timing, a new technological venture in Switzerland hopes to be the first commercial plant to harvest carbon dioxide from the air.
The first two propositions are still in the laboratory stage, and the third has yet to prove its viability. But the laboratory advances keep alive the hopes of the ultimate in energy recycling.
In the first process, water provides the energy for a chemical reaction that propels a vehicle, and then ends up again as water from the exhaust pipe of a car. And in the second, a gas released as emissions from fossil fuel could get turned back into fuel.
The hydrogen fuel cell long ago began to deliver energy for manned space flight, and is already in use in urban public transport, with a platinum catalyst fusing hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to release electrical energy and water.
But platinum is

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Fertilization occurs when an egg and what join together to form a diploid zygote?" and the following answer choices: 
- rapid expansion
 - testosterone
 - gastropod shells
 - penis
 - peachleaf willow
 - pollen
 - male hormone
 - male gamete

Now knowing that fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid zygote and male gametes are called sperm, choose the best answer.

Target Text: male gamete

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Retrieved Text: Human development begins at fertilization when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual... The zygote divides many times and becomes progressively transformed into a multi-cellular human being.
Last week I watched CNN reporter Chris Cuomo and Marco Rubio have this discussion over the matter of abortion and the meaning of "human life."
RUBIO: No, science has decided when it is human life.
CUOMO: Science has not decided it’s at conception.
RUBIO: No, let me correct you. Science has—absolutely it has.
At this point Cuomo made me want to jump through the flat screen of my TV and slap some scientific sense into him!
The conceptus (fertilized egg) is alive. It is a living thing.
It is not a daisy life or a fish life or a mosquito life or a rhinocerous life. It is a human conceptus, AKA human life.
Just as frog life begins in the frog egg, so does human life begin in the fertilized egg in a mother's womb.
Cuomo accused Rubio of "oversimplifying," and that he was answering the question based on his faith, not science."
Cuomo: "We'll have scientists on the show all morning who will say we cannot say it is definitely human life at conception. It's more faith than science."
Rubio: "They can't say it's human life? What would it become then? A cat? I can tell you that every single one of us started at that same stage, that it can't become anything other than a human

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Retrieved Text: Young to old. A life cycle?
Not in the biological sense. Life cycles describe the amount of DNA present at a specific stage or time in the life of an organism. Is there a haploid or diploid amount of DNA? That is the key question.
Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are represented in Figure below and described following sections.
Life cycles can vary in sexually reproducing organisms. Three types of sexual life cycles are shown here. Do you see how they differ? The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates diploid stages.
The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases, known as alternation of generations. In plants, the life cycle alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte. Spore forming cells in the diploid sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores, a haploid reproductive cell. Spores can develop into an adult without fusing with another cell.

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Retrieved Text: This biphasic life cycle that plants demonstrate is referred to as an?
The life cycle of a plant from?
The leafy green gametophyte is the haploid generation that produces sperm and eggs. The sperm must swim through a film of water to the egg. The zygote develops into a stalked, diploid sporophyte that emerges from the gametophyte plant. The sporophyte is topped by a brown capsule in which haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These are dispersed and germinate, producing another green gametophyte generation.
What is the function and structure of the flower?
Flowers are the part of the sporophyte generation in flowering plants that is dedicated to sexual reproduction.
Insect and vertebrate pollination is ____ efficient than wind pollination.
that put more efforts into mechanisms to attract the animals (i.e. nectar, odoriferous compounds, appearance and etc.) ensured the success of those flowering plant lineages.
Stamens and carpels are composed of two to three distinctly different parts.
1.) To recap pollination is when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower's carpel.
2.) The pollen generates a tube to transfer the sperm from the male gametophyte to the female gametophyte.
3.) In flowering plants we see a double fertilization from the fusion of the sperm to specific cells of female gametophyte.
4.) This double fertilization gives rise to a zygote and endosperm.
5.) When the female gametophyte develops in the manner previously illustrated (polygonum type), which is the most common, the double fertilization gives rise to a (2n) zygote and a (3n) endosperm.
How do seeds germinate and grow?
Seeds need moisture and warmth to germinate. If conditions

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Retrieved Text: Like all plants Toxicodendron diversilobum exhibits an alternation of generations. This means that during the life cycle of the plant it alternates between a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation and a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation. Since the Pacific poison oak is in the phylum Angiosperm it has a dominant sporophyte generation which means that the gametophyte generation will be more dependent on the sporophyte generation.
The first part of the angiosperm life cycle takes place in the flower of the plant. Here in the anther the microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis which produces haploid microspores. Each microspore undergoes one division of mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Together they form an immature pollen grain. The generative cells then go through a second mitotic division which produces two sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule one megaspore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore. Three die off and one remains. The remaining megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions and generates an 8 nucleate embryo sac also known as a megagametophyte.
Next pollination occurs. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma where a pollen tube grows down into the style. Eventually it grows down into the ovary through the micropyle. One sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg which creates a diploid zygote, and the other sperm fuses with the central cell of the egg to form the endospore.
Now that the embryo has formed it grows inside the embryo sac. The ovule creates a protective seed coat around the embryo and embryo sac. Then the seed is dropped from fruit

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Retrieved Text: Download "Rhizarians. Forams. Radiolarians. Cercozoans"
14 Figure 29.3 Exploring Derived Traits of Plants Charophyte algae lack the key traits of plants described in this figure: alternation of generations; multicellular, dependent embryos; walled spores produced in sporangia; multicellular gametangia; and apical meristems. This suggests that these traits were absent in the ancestor common to plants and charophytes but instead evolved as derived traits of plants. Not every plant exhibits all of these traits; certain lineages of plants have lost some traits over time. Alternation of Generations The life cycles of all plants alternate between two generations of distinct multicellular organisms: gametophytes and sporophytes. As shown in the diagram below (using a fern as an example), each generation gives rise to the other, a process that is called alternation of generations. This type of reproductive cycle evolved in various groups of algae but does not occur in the charophytes, the algae most closely related to plants. Take care not to confuse the alternation of generations in plants with the haploid and diploid stages in the life cycles of other sexually reproducing organisms (see Figure 13.6). Alternation of generations is distinguished by the fact that the life cycle Mitosis n Alternation of generations: five generalized steps 5 The spores develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes. n MEIOSIS 1 The gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis. Gametophyte (n) Spore includes both multicellular haploid organisms and multicellular diploid organisms. The multicellular haploid gametophyte ( gamete-producing plant ) is named for its production by mitosis of haploid gametes eggs and sperm that fuse during

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Retrieved Text: Individual organisms come and go, but, to a certain extent, organisms transcend time through producing offspring. Reproduction in animals occurs in two primary ways: through sexual reproduction and through asexual reproduction.
Now let's take a look at sexual reproduction.
In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population.
In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis.
The gametes are haploid (containing only one set of chromosomes) while the zygote is diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes).
In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is nonmotile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.
There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place.
The first is external (the eggs are fertilized outside of the body); the second is internal (the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract).
For example, many animals have estrous cycles that occur during certain parts of the year so that offspring can typically be born under favorable conditions. Humans however, do not undergo estrous cycles but menstrual cycles.

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Retrieved Text: The chick uses its egg tooth to help break out of the egg. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. The wet chick will soon dry and have fluffy soft feathers. Inside the Egg …... Figure 2. Three early vitellogenic follicle from an ovariole such as that in figure 1. Oocytes are opaque due to light scattering by yolk particles and yellow due to the carotenoid conjugates of lipophorin, the second most abundant yolk protein in this species.
Department of Animal Sciencespoultry AS-525-W Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service • West Lafayette IN, 47907 The Process of Egg Formation... The process of cleavage is concerned only with the continuous doubling of the number of blastomeres and not with cellular growth; the result is a ball of cells not larger than the original egg itself.
Commercial egg processing is a quick business that relies on speed to market in order to provide fresh, quality product. Hens are kept in cages that are devised so that when an egg is …... Process of fertilization: (a) Fertilization is the process in which sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote. (b) Acrosomal reactions help the sperm degrade the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allow the sperm to transfer its nucleus.
Describe the process of egg formation in poultry.
The rest of the egg-formation process may then continue as normal, except that an egg without a yolk is laid. Blood Spots and Meat Spots These are rarely seen in commercially produced eggs, as when the eggs are candled, those containing

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Retrieved Text: Internal fertilization is the process when the syngamy (union of male and female gamete) occurs inside the female body after insemination using copulation. In contrast, External fertilization is the syngamy outside the female body, that is in the outer environment especially in water bodies.
Internal fertilization is followed by mammals, birds, while external fertilization is supported by mostly aquatic animals and few amphibians.
We all are aware of the word fertilization, which defines the union of sperm (male gamete) and egg nucleus (female gamete) to produce diploid cell or zygote, which further develops or grow into the young ones of their generation. Internal and External fertilization are the two types of fertilization, which takes place among various groups of animals, and with this content, we will be discussing the diverse features of them.
Meaning The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place inside the body of the female, is called as internal fertilization. The process of fusion of male and female gamete (sperm and egg) taking place in the external environment (in water bodies) and so-called as external fertilization.
Gametes released Less number of gametes (sperms) are released, which gets deposited inside the female body. Numerous gametes (sperms and egg) are released into the environment. These gametes are of male as well as of female.
Process involves Only male gametes are released or discharged into the female genital tract. Both male and female release or discharge their gametes in their external surrounding.
Further process of development (syngamy) occurs inside the body only. Further process of development

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Retrieved Text: The process found in most flowering plants where two male gametes enter the embryo sac and both participate in fertilization. One male gamete fuses with the female gamete or egg nucleus to form a *zygote , which develops into the embryo. The other male gamete fuses with either the *polar nuclei or the *definitive nucleus to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus, which will give rise to the endosperm. A form of double fertilization is also seen in some species of the gymnosperm genus Ephedra, in which one male gamete fuses with the egg cell and the other fuses with the ventral canal cell. However the product of the second fertilization does not undergo further development.

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Retrieved Text: Angiosperm life cycle comprises of two generations, the Sporophytic and the Gametophytic. These two generations alternate with each other in regular sequence. This phenomenon is known as Alternation of Generation.
The angiospermic plant, that is usually differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and flowers, is the Sporophyte as it consists of diploid cells (2n). It is the dominant phase of the angiosperm life cycle. As a result of reduction division, it produces haploid Microspores and Megaspores. The Gametophytic phase (n) is represented by two structures, the Male Gametophyte and the Female Gametophyte. The male gametophyte is represented by the microspores (pollen grains) and the pollen tube with two sperm nuclei and a tube nucleus. The female gametophyte is generally, represented by eight-nucleate embryo sac. Both gametophytes are highly reduced and completely dependent on the sporophyte.
The reduction division occurs at the time of formation of microspores and megaspores and the diploid number is restored when zygote is formed. The zygote, therefore is the first cell of the sporophyte.
Another significant point is the formation of Endosperm. Endosperm in angiosperms is usually triploid as it develops from Primary Endosperm Nucleus formed as a result of the union of two polar nuclei and one sperm nucleus. It is thus formed after the process of fertilization.
During the course of evolution there has been gradual reduction and loss of independence in gametophytic generation whereas sporophytic generation has registered a gradual increase in size to attain even tree like proportions in angiosperms.
The oospore (thick-walled zygote) produces Embryo by segmentation; the ovule produces Seed and the

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Retrieved Text: This sqadia.com short video clip is brief explanation of Zygote by Ms. Sidra Afzal.
The capacitated sperm can freely penetrate through the corona radiata to reach the zone pellucida by the movements of its tail. When the head of sperm meets zona pellucida, the acrosome releases digestive enzymes, which cause lysis of zona pellucida and plasma membrane around the head of the sperm.
The head and tail of sperm enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte. The sperms move forward to come in close contact with the female pronucleus. Its nucleus becomes swollen and forms the male pronucleus. The male and female pronuclei lose their cell membrane and chromosomes of two nuclei mix together to form diploid. The ootid becomes a zygote.

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Retrieved Text: Why don’t cyanobacteria and bacteria reproduce by mitosis?
Damaged cells of an organism are usually ___ by mitosis.
All the chromosomes in a diploid cell are paired.
How many chromosomes are produced by the first division during meiosis?
Which statement(s) correspond(s) correctly to a mutation?
The kind of cell division associated with an increase in size and weight of an organism is called ___.
Gametes have ___ the chromosome number of the parent cell.
Chromosomes are attached to the ___ during the metaphase of mitosis.
The spindle apparatus disintegrates during the ___ of mitosis.
-Plant cells divide by means of a cell plate.
How does mitosis in animal cells differ from mitosis in higher plant cells?
Occasionally asexual reproduction can cause undesirable proliferation of an organism.
Nearly all plants can be reproduced asexually.
The new plant produced by the technique of layering must remain attached to the stem of the original plant.
A successful scion will produce the product of the rootstock with greater quality.
The technique of asexual reproduction most commonly used in the production of fruit trees is ___.
The vigor of a rootstock is usually ___ than that of the root system produced by the scion.
Asexual reproduction is most common in plants growing in ___ climates.
An elongated, horizontal stem that grows at the surface of the ground or just below it is called a rhizome.
Animals have more mechanisms for asexual reproduction than plants.
The stock is inserted into the scion during grafting.
The most commonly used method of asexual reproduction used in gardening is the cutting.
Root cuttings are more commonly used than stem cuttings.
A ___ is a plant structure with enlarged

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Retrieved Text: Cloning: Cloning means creating genetically identical individuals without sexual reproduction. A clone is created when the nucleus of a body (somatic) cell provided by a donor animal or person is removed and placed into an egg cell (oocyte) whose own nucleus has been removed or inactivated (enucleated oocyte). The resulting egg cell, which now contains the nucleus (and genetic material) of the donor, is then electrically stimulated to behave as a fertilized egg cell, or embryo, and thus begin growing. The embryo is a clone and will continue to grow, given the proper conditions, into a genetic twin (monozygotic twin) of the donor of the body cell.
A clone gets its genetic material from a single donor (the donor of the nucleus); whereas a typical fertilized egg cell occurring in nature receives its genetic material from both a male and a female parent.
A clone’s genetic composition is not unique, since it has the exact gene pattern of the individual from which the nucleus was taken. By contrast, normal fertilization creates a singular combination of genes from the two parents, resulting in a new, genetically unique individual.
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT): The scientific name for a specific cloning technique (described above) that involves removing the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell, replacing it with the material from the nucleus of a body or somatic cell (a skin, heart, or nerve cell, for example), and stimulating the newly formed embryo to begin cell division.
Reproductive cloning: Reproductive cloning involves allowing a cloned embryo to develop to term. After several days

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Retrieved Text: Definition - What does Acrosome mean?
The acrosome is a cap that covers the head of the sperm. The acrosome facilitates the acrosomal reaction, which occurs when an egg cell and a sperm cell fuse together, leading to fertilization. Abnormal acrosomes can prevent fertilization and cause male-factor infertility.
The primary role of the acrosome occurs during the earliest stages of fertilization, in a phase known as the acrosomal reaction. During natural conception, sperm travel through a woman’s reproductive system looking for an egg. Once the egg has been located, the sperm attempt fertilization. During this stage, the egg is coated with a thick membrane layering called the zona pellucida. The acrosome releases a digestive enzyme called acrosine, which dissolves the zona pellucida, allowing the sperm to penetrate the egg’s membrane. The head of the sperm then fuses with the egg, and fertilization occurs.
Abnormalities of the acrosome can prevent this process from occurring. Misshapen or dysfunctional acrosomes can impede the penetration, as can acrosomes that do not excrete the appropriate hormones or enzymes needed to break down the zona pellucida. This can be caused by genetic conditions, health disorders that impact sperm quality, or lifestyle choices that damage sperm quality, such as stress, smoking, drug use, or excessive alcohol intake.
There are several tests that evaluate sperm. While a standard sperm analysis can visually test the sperm for the presence of a typical acrosome, it cannot test the acrosome’s ability to function normally when introduced to an egg. However, the acrosome reaction test uses a sperm sample to trigger the

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Retrieved Text: This entry was posted in People, Science, Technology and tagged Dr. Michael Macnamee, ectopic pregnancy, egg, embryo, Gilbert Brown, Greater Manchester, human reporduction, in vitro fertilization, IVF, Leslie Brown, Louise Brown, medicine, Nobel Prize, Oldham, Patrick Steptoe, physiology, pregnancy, Robert G. Edwards, Science, sperm, test tube baby, womb by Delia. Bookmark the permalink.
Of the problems that have been observed in in vitro fertilization procedure, the successful implementation seems to be the weakest link. One possible explanation for this problem is that in the in vitro zygote develops at a slower pace than the embryo in vivo (ie within the body), and therefore, the zygote in vitro growth and development endometrial tissue are not perfectly synchronized.

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Retrieved Text: IVF( In Vitro Fertilization) –In vitro is Latin for ‘ In Glass’. In this process the ovum are picked up from the mother (wife) by laparoscopy. Sperm from the father (husband) is also collected. The two are mixed together in a Petri dish. We wait for about 48 hours after which the ovum are usually fertilized into a single cell called the zygote. The zygote undergoes a number of cell divisions (mitosis) and transforms into a blastocyst. Then 2-3 healthy blastocyst are transferred into the mother’s uterus. Since the process of fertilization takes place in the Petri dish and not in the Fallopian tube where it normally occurs, the procedure gets its name In Vitro Fertilization. IVF is usually performed on women who suffer form unilateral (one sided) or bilateral (two sided) tubal block.
The Long dream of our inferlity team with Dr. Parveen Fatima, the team leader and the pioneer in the field of Assisted Reproductive Technology & the implementer of the test tube babies of Bangladesh "HEERA, MONI, MUKTA" in the year 2001, the first ICSI baby "PERSA" in the year 2001 and the first frozen Embryo baby "SOHRAB" in 2007 is happy to announce the starting of an one stop inferlity services located at 2/1-A Iqbal Road, Mohammadpur, Dhaka-1207. With the completion of the 11 stored hospital building having modern and sopisticated medical equipment the tertiary hospital has building has began its operation in 2008. With capacity of 150 beds CARe Hospital has replaced CARe IVF at Shyamoli and CARe Hospital at Lalmatia has

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Retrieved Text: What is zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)? One of the least often used forms of ART (assisted reproductive technology), zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) is a combination of IVF and GIFT.
ZIFT is an assisted reproductive procedure similar to in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer with the difference being that the fertilized embryo is transferred into the fallopian tube instead of the uterus. Because the fertilized egg is transferred directly into the tubes, the procedure is also referred to as tubal embryo transfer (TET). This procedure can be more successful than gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) because your physician has a greater chance of insuring that the egg is fertilized. The woman must have healthy tubes for ZIFT to work.
The fact that ZIFT transfers a fertilized egg directly into the fallopian tubes versus a mixture of sperm and eggs, is the main difference between ZIFT and GIFT.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer – How is ZIFT performed?
The eggs are fertilized in a laboratory just like in the IVF procedure.
The fertilized eggs are transferred through a laparoscopic procedure. The catheter is placed deep in the fallopian tube and the fertilized eggs are injected.
The last step is to watch for early pregnancy symptoms. The fertility specialist will probably use a blood test to determine if pregnancy has occurred.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer – Who should be treated with ZIFT?
ZIFT is commonly chosen by couples who have failed to conceive after at least one year of trying and who have failed five to six cycles of ovarian stimulation with intrauterine insemination.
What are the similarities and differences between ZIFT

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Retrieved Text: Reproductive Isolation & Speciation Guided Viewing - AP Environmental Science!
1)What happened with Diane Dodd and the fruit flies? How did she create reproductive isolation? Diane Dod took a group of fruit flies and fed them, creating reproductive isolation.
2) What is the definition a species? Species are a group of individual that can interbreed and create fertile offspring.
3) What are the two main types of barriers in reproductive isolation? Physical and pre/post-zygotic.
4) What is gene flow? What is reproductive isolation? Is when the gene within a population are not able to mix.Reproductive isolation is a population not being able to reproduce with rest of the population due to barriers.
5) What is geographic isolation? (Give an example). When there is isolation in the population due to where they exist. Ulmis Pulima is an example because it cannot breed entirely due from the separation by the Great Wall of China.
6) What is allopatric speciation? (Give an example). 2 groups that have different lands. An example would be the meta-lark.
7) What is sympatric speciation? (Give an example). Something just within that population 2 species living together . An example would be in plants.
8) What is peripatric/parapatric speciation? (Give an example). Peripatric/parapatric selection is when 2 groups of a population move to another place and start breeding. An example would be the "forest" elephant that is different to the African elephant.
9) What are pre-zygotic barriers? Name the types of pre-zygotic barriers (Explain each). Pre-zygotic barrier are barriers formed before a zygote is formed. Temporal is a breeding species that breed at

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Retrieved Text: Can you guess what&apos;s special about these puppies — besides the fact that they&apos;re unbelievably adorable and a reminder that there is, in fact, still good in the world?
They&apos;re also some of the world&apos;s first puppies to enter the world via in vitro fertilization, part of a litter of seven that was born last spring. The seven pups come from different sets of parents — a mix of beagles and cocker spaniels — but all were implanted as embryos into the same mother, who eventually delivered them all.
The study, described in full in the journal PLOS ONE, was groundbreaking: For decades, dogs&apos; unique biology had prevented scientists from mastering canine in vitro fertilization.
"Since the mid-1970s, people have been trying to do [IVF] in a dog and have been unsuccessful," co-author Alex Travis, associate professor of reproductive biology at the Baker Institute for Animal Health in Cornell&apos;s College of Veterinary Medicine, said in a release.
IVF is a common fertility treatment used in humans, whereby eggs are removed from a female&apos;s ovaries and fertilized by a male&apos;s sperm in a lab, outside the body. After a few days, the zygote is implanted back into the uterus. Now, with some newly discovered tweaks, that same process works in canines.
Why wouldn&apos;t it work in dogs? A dog&apos;s reproductive cycle is different from those of other mammals, the release explains. Remove a dog&apos;s egg at the same stage of cell maturation as you would in other animals, and you won&apos;t be able to fertilize it. The game-changing solution, the researchers found,

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Retrieved Text: (flowering plants) A class of vascular plants, all characteristically bearing seeds within enclosing car-pellary structures. The sporophyte is the dominant generation and is either herbaceous or woody, the woody habit being considered more primitive. The reproductive axis and its associated, often brightly coloured, sepals and petals, is called a flower. The gametophyte is reduced to the female embryo sac and the male pollen grain. The pollen does not germinate directly on the ovule, as in the *Gymnospermae , but on a specialized extension of the carpel, the stigma. The male gametes, unlike certain gym-nosperm gametes, are never flagellate. Double fertilization to form a zygote and a diploid endosperm nucleus is characteristic.
Secondary vascular tissue is usually but not always present. The xylem contains vessels, except in certain primitive woody forms, and the phloem has distinct companion cells associated with the sieve tube elements. Angiosperms are the most advanced, most abundant, and most widely distributed vascular plants. The group contains some 250 000 species and is subdivided, on the basis of the number of cotyledons in the embryo, into the *Monocotyledonae and the *Dicotyledonae . Beyond these groups further subdivision into superorders and orders is based mainly on the structure of the flower and especially on the form, number, and arrangement of the stamens and carpels. Different classifications recognize various numbers of orders and the names and contents of these often differ widely between various authorities.
From fossil pollen evidence it would seem the angiosperms appeared at the beginning of the Cretaceous. They had replaced the gymnosperms as the

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Retrieved Text: Life is made up of many special events, one of them is fertilization. It ‘a phenomenon of sexual reproduction, in which two gametes from different species bind to bring the formation of a new cell, which later take the name of the zygote.
There are several cases of fertilization: there is the inner one, in which the male gametes are released directly into the female apparatus, and the external one which is that fertilization which mostly takes place in water, in which the individual releases the gametes so that the another individual may collect them in opportune moments. Finally there is the assisted reproduction in which the union of gametes occur via artificial. But what are the stages of fertilization? Firstly million sperm reach the fallopian Faloppio, which are later attracted the oocyte, but only one of them manages to penetrate the egg, and then finally to fertilize the zygote. As a result of this process is followed by others, such as the development of the embryo, placenta and fetus.
The placenta begins to develop at conception.
It is therefore a vital organ to the fetus, with which it is in close relation. The main task of the placenta to the fetus is to ensure the necessary nutrients for proper development.
The fetus is nothing but the product of “mutations” that the embryo undergoes from the third month. Life is made up of many events, processes unknown to us, we begin to know them without dwelling on what’s appearance.
Previous articleWHAT TIME IS IT?

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Retrieved Text: Gametes are specialised haploid cells that are used to combine and when they do they combine to form a new diploid cell. That process of combination is called fertilization.
Now, you are hopefully familiar with sperm and egg, the two most common kinds of gametes that you've heard of. Where sperm they're small specialized for quick delivery of the DNA to the other cell, the other kind of gamete which is called the egg. Eggs are large. Why are they so large? It allows them to accumulate or store up large amounts of resources to provide for their newly developed diploid cell which will eventually become some new offspring like you and I became came from a single fertalized egg.
We take a look over here we can see in this scale, this thing that looks almost like a planet, that's the egg and you can see how much larger the egg is in size comparison to the sperm. Now if they were both the same size, they would be called isogametes.
We take a look at an isogamete. Every isogamete looks like the other. Now how are iso- how are sperm and egg made different? That happens during the process of either spermatogenesis or oogenesis.
Here we see a generic description of meiosis. The process of making gametes where here we have a cell that has let's suppose four chromosomes. Ultimately it can create four haploid cells. So this is a diploid cell. See it has pairs of homologous chromosomes. These are individual haploid cells, no more do they

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Retrieved Text: Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that use photosynthesis to make their own food. There are over 300,000 species of plants; common examples of plants include grasses, trees, and shrubs. Plants have an important role in the world’s ecosystems. They produce most of the world’s oxygen, and are important in the food chain, as many organisms eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants. The study of plants is called botany.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to survive. We couldn’t live without plants.
Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants, protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the

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Retrieved Text: Every time I see the phrase, “the fertilized egg then implants in the uterus,” I’m tempted to tear my hair out. I fully understand why pro-abortion people use this phraseology. But it is beyond my comprehension to understand why so many pro-life people repeat these words. I’m sure the pro-life people who do this mean well, but they must understand that they’re helping the pro-abortion movement when they continue to repeat this kind of biologic nonsense.
First, let’s review our physiology. Conception (fertilization) consists of the union of sperm and ovum. The penetration of the ovum by the sperm, the integration and finally the beginning of the first cell division encompasses approximately twenty-four hours. The medical name for this single cell stage is zygote. Then cell division occurs and, by the end of the first week, this tiny new human consists of several hundred cells. During that first week of life, this new human floats freely down the mother’s tube and, when one week old, give or take a day or two, this new living human implants within the nutrient lining of the womb.
Why does the pro-abortion industry continually speak of fertilized eggs implanting? They say it with something of a sneer. Whoever heard of a fertilized egg being a “full human”? The very words “fertilized egg” do not conjure up in anyone’s mind the full human being that this new biologic entity in fact is. Rest assured, semantically speaking, they know exactly what they are doing when they continue to speak of fertilized eggs. It’s much

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Retrieved Text: Embryo quality, is an important component in the success of an in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure. Assigning a grade to an embryo is one way doctors and embryologists identify the best quality embryos for transfer.
Embryos are graded, or evaluated, by their appearance under a microscope in the IVF lab. In the days leading up to your embryo transfer, your embryologist will assign a grade to each of your embryos at their various stages of development to determine which ones are the most likely to result in a healthy pregnancy.
They are then labeled as good (little to no imperfections), fair (not outstanding quality but not completely imperfect), or poor (having many imperfections).
Stage-dependent grading involves evaluating these characteristics at each stage of embryo development.
Embryo grading methods differ among IVF labs. How one embryologist goes about grading an embryo may be different from how another does it at another lab.
What are the stages of embryo development?
Embryos go through several stages of development after fertilization before they can be transferred to your uterus. These stages are marked by cleavage, or cell division.
Zygote: The sperm and egg (also known as the reproductive celles or the gametes) unite during reproduction to form a single-cell zygote.
Cleavage Stage: Approximately 24 hours after fertilization, the embryo goes through its first cell division (cleavagae) and can have between two and eight blastomeres (cells formed by cleavage).
Morula: This occurs approximately 96 hours after fertilization. As blastomeres continue to divide, they begin to adhere tightly to each other in a process called compaction.
Early blastocyst: On the fourth day,

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Retrieved Text: The process of meiosis creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell. In animals these gametes are called eggs and sperm and in plants they are called eggs and pollen. For meiosis to occur it must go through two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. During Meiosis, the cell goes through the same stages as Mitosis (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase/Cytokinesis), but it goes through these phases twice, but with some minor differences.
Creates 4 haploid gamete cells from a diploid cell.
At this point the DNA is in its chromatin form and the DNA replicates.
Homologous Chromosomes (matching chromosomes from mom and dad) join up together and exchange share genetic information. Happens during Prophase I of meiosis.
Matching chromosomes from mother and father. They are the same size, shape and carry genes for the same traits.
The chromosomes line up down the middle along with their homologous pair.
The homologous chromosomes pull apart from one another and move toward opposite poles.
Chromosomes are now at separate poles, nuclear membranes start to form around the 2 sets of chromosomes, and the chromosomes start to unwind back into chromatin. Cytokinesis occurs and the two cells split. These two cells are haploid at this point since each cell contains only 1 of each homologous pair. The next 4 phases occur to each of these cells.
Notice that we skip interphase this time around because there is no replication of DNA between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
At this point the chromosomes reorganize and the nuclear membranes start to dissolve again. Sister chromatids are joined by

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Retrieved Text: Abortion is a process of terminating a baby while it is in its mothers stomach. People should be allowed to decide for themselves whether or not they want to terminate their child as it may have been accidental or they may think they can't handle the responsibility. The government should not be able to decide if citizens can go through the process of abortion, as the baby is going to be their responsibility and they may not want that.
Lets be on the same page and go through some definitions.
Murder-the unlawful premeditated killing of one human being by another.
Abortion is the murder of a human. The sole reason is for the mothers benefit and or father. That is evil. There are other ways to handle unwanted humans than killing them which is immoral. The justification my opponent presented for murder is " it may have been accidental or they may think they can't handle the responsibility ". Well, killing the human will benefit the mother so the murder is justified. That is the equivalent of a poor person killing a rich person for money. ( without the rich person knowing or without his ability for self defence) My question is - Should we kill humans?
My opponent argued a embryo is not a human being.
When the two haploid cells( sperm and egg) meet, each with 23 chromosomes, they create a 46 chromosome diploid, zygote. This zygote contains DNA patterns that match many of it's parents DNA patterns. This zygote divides with a unique DNA and creates a embryo

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Retrieved Text: (Solved) The union of gametes produces a zygote.
The union of gametes produces a zygote.
Solved If gametes were diploid like somatic cells, how many chromosomes would the zygote contain?

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Retrieved Text: An embryo (irregularly from Greek: ἔμβρυον, plural ἔμβρυα, lit. "that which grows," from en- "in" + bryein "to swell, be full"; the proper Latinate form would be embryum) is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth or hatching. In humans, it is called an embryo from the moment of implantation until the end of the 8th week, whereafter it is instead called a fetus.
In organisms that reproduce sexually, once a sperm fertilizes an egg cell, the result is a cell called the zygote that has all the DNA of two parents. In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism. The term embryo refers to the early stages of this development, after the zygote has divided at least once, but before the process has completed to produce a new individual.
During gastrulation the cells of the blastula undergo coordinated processes of cell division, invasion, and/or migration to form two (diploblastic) or three (triploblastic) tissue layers. In triploblastic organisms, the three germ layers are called endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. However, the position and arrangement of the germ layers are highly species-specific, depending on the type of embryo produced. In vertebrates, a special population of embryonic cells called the neural crest has been proposed as a "fourth germ layer", and is thought to have been an important novelty in the evolution of head structures.
During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions between germ layers, combined with the cells' developmental

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Retrieved Text: Meiosis contributes to genetic variation by creating new groups of genes, according to the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine. The new groups are created when chromosomes passed down from a mother and father share instructions encoded into genes. The process of mixing genes leads to offspring with nearly unlimited possibilities for genetic instructions.
Meiosis is a way in which cells divide that distributes half of the usual 46 human chromosomes to sperm and half to an egg, according to Wikipedia. Together, the egg and sperm result in a fertilized egg, known as a zygote, which contains all 46 chromosomes. Half the chromosomes come from the father, and half come from the mother. The process of meiosis and fertilization result in every generation having the same number of 46 chromosomes. The process also takes place in animals and plants.
Oscar Hertwig, a German biologist, first observed the process of meiosis in 1876 as he studied the eggs of sea urchins, Wikipedia notes. Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden further explained the process, including the relationship to chromosomes, in 1883. American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan expanded on the knowledge in 1911 with the first proof that chromosomes pass genes to offspring.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by what?" and the following answer choices: 
- bacteria
 - human babies
 - food
 - humans
 - lions
 - bamboo
 - Conifers
 - rocks

Now knowing that bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and bamboos are vigorous, rugged plants, choose the best answer.

Target Text: bamboo

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Let’s talk about nitrogen. What is nitrogen, and why does it matter to us?
Nitrogen is chemical element number 7. It’s crucial to living organisms. It’s a necessary component in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. While it’s common knowledge that proteins make up muscles, they also perform a wide variety of functions and are involved in virtually all cell processes that keep you alive.
Nitrogen is also a component of nucleic acids in DNA, the blueprint of life. DNA determines your eye color, your height, your metabolism, even to an extent your intelligence and behavior. Clearly, living organisms require nitrogen to survive.
Eye color is determined by DNA, made from proteins built up with nitrogen.
In many types of ecosystems, however, there is a scarcity of usable nitrogen. Nitrogen has a limited availability for biological use. Yet, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere. 78% of the air around us consists of nitrogen in the form N2.
78% of the atmosphere is composed of N2.
How do you explain this apparent dichotomy between abundant atmospheric nitrogen, and the scarcity of nitrogen in ecological systems?
While abundant, atmospheric nitrogen is in the form N2. Other significant forms of nitrogen in ecosystems are ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen from animal waste is excreted in the form of ammonia. Plants intake nitrogen in the form of nitrate. From N2 in the atmosphere to nitrate absorbed as nutrients by plants, nitrogen is converted through different chemical forms by ecological processes and cycled over and over again.
These processes compose the nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Law of Conservation of Matter - Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
There are two interrelated parts of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen gas forms about 80% of the atmosphere. However, no animals and few plants can utilise nitrogen in this gaseous form.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen to amino acids, which are the components of proteins. Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the cyanobacteria Nostoc, soil bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium, and the legume root bacteria Rhizobium.
Atmospheric nitrogen can also be fixed or converted to a more solid form by lightning.
In reverse, Denitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia, a nitrogenous waste in urine, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen in animals and plants is in the form of amino acids and proteins. As one organism eats another along the food chain, the nitrogen passes from one organism to another.
Animals also excrete nitrogenous wastes in urine as urea, uric acid or ammonia. This passes to the soil.
When animals and plants die, Putrefactive Bacteria in the soil converts the body amino acids and proteins to ammonia in the soil. These decay bacteria also convert urea and uric acid to ammonia in the soil.
Nitrite Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia to nitrites in the soil.
Nitrate Bacteria in the soil convert those nitrites to nitrates in the soil. These are used by the plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus is an essential component of many chemicals within living organisms. Examples include the energy-rich compound ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and the phosphates used by plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus

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Retrieved Text: process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
1. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies or various industrial processes.
2. The conversion by certain soil microorganisms, such as rhizobia, of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that plants and other organisms can assimilate.
the process by which free nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted by biological or chemical means to ammonia and to other forms usable by plants and animals. Biological nitrogen fixation is the more important process and is accomplished by microorganisms in the soil, either free living or in close association with root nodules of certain plants. In contrast, chemical nitrogen fixation, as is used in industry, requires extremely high temperatures and pressures.
the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen in the synthesis of AMINO ACIDS by some bacteria. Such bacteria can be free-living (e.g. Azotobacter, an aerobe; Clostridium, an obligate anaerobe) while others (e.g. Rhizobium) live in association with plants, occupying swellings in the root called root nodules. The latter relationship is one of SYMBIOSIS, in that the plant gains nutrients and thus can live in nitrogen-poor soils, while the nitrogen-fixer obtains a supply of carbohydrates from the plant. The nitrogen is reduced to ammonia in the microbes by action of the enzyme nitrogenase: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, the ammonia then reacting with keto acids to form amino acids.
Nitrogen fixation potential of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Variation in seedling growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia nilotica inoculated with eight rhizobial strains.
Nitrogen fixation and its improvement through genetic engineering.
Nitrogen fixation associated

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Retrieved Text: a. Microorganisms may be unicellular or ___________.
b. __________ bacteria help to make curd from milk.
c. Disease-causing microorganisms are called _______.
d. Ammonium salt in the soil is converted first into nitrites by _________ bacteria.
e. _______ coagulation takes place only when milk is hot.
f. Salting draws out _______ from food.
g. Nitrate in the soil is converted by _________ bacteria into nitrogen gas.
h. The process of preventing food spoilage by chemical or physical methods is called food ________.
Q2: Name any two antibiotics.
Q3: Give the names of any two communicable diseases.
Q4: What are the two common food preservatives used in our homes?
Answer: Salt, sugar and oil.
Q5: Name the bacteria that are present in root nodules of leguminous plants that fix nitrogen.
Q6: Very often we observe greenish pond water in our surroundings. What type of microbes they are likely to be?
Q8: Name any unicellular algae.
Q10: Which organisms are interlinked between living and non-living organisms?
Answer: The process in which milk is heated up to 72°C for 15 to 30 minutes and then chilled and stored is called pasteurization. This prevents the growth of most microorganisms.
Q12: Pasteurisation led to another process, critical to surgery. Name the process.
Q13: What are the advantages of food preservation?
1) This prevents spoilage of food.
2) Food can be preserved for a longer period.
3) Quality of food is ensured for a long time.
4) Variety of food items may be available in faraway places, in any season.
Q14: How do microbes cause food poisoning?
Answer: Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning. e.g. Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella are

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Retrieved Text: are living organisms that consist of one cell.
Bacteria are the smallest of all living things.
Bacteria are the oldest and most diverse life forms.
Some bacteria are used to fight off harmful infections. Where would you find these helpful bacteria in the human body?
What is the significance of scientist Alexander Fleming accidentally finding a single mold growing in a used petri dish?
All petri dishes should be sterilized to prevent cross contamination.
It was the first form of cell mutation.
It was penicillin, a powerful antibiotic that kills bacteria.
He had created a toxic substance without even trying.
In which of these foods might you find E. coli?
What do bacteria in our soils and waterways do to help our environment?
They serve as food for other organisms.
They decompose dead organisms and animal wastes into chemical elements.
Once ingested, they can protect animals from transmitted diseases.
They can protect plants from diseases.
the desert and hot springs.
What has caused some bacteria to become drug-resistant?
What do helpful bacteria do for humans and animals?
They help digest food and destroy harmful organisms in the intestines.
Intestinal bacteria help the body absorb vitamins.
They live in their stomachs to help digest food.
Which of the following is an example of how bacteria can help change a chemical into a form that can be used by plants?
Some bacteria convert carbon monoxide in the air into nutrients for plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in soil into nitrate.
Some bacteria convert oxygen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
اني راح اجاوب حسب منهج السبعينات الي درسنا عليه..

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Retrieved Text: Copy to Clipboard Experienced and driven Compliance Officer with a proven track record of helping to lead companies by ensuring they are functioning in complete compliance with all national and international rules and regulations.
If students can draw a picture of the problem even using simple representations like squares or circles for the units discussed in the problemthen it can help them visualize exactly what's occurring.
Pada tahunkebanyakan dari perangkat lunak yang mereka miliki bebas karena mereka tidak berpikiran untuk membatasinya. Para pengguna hanya menerima berkas berupa deretan angka-angka yang dapat dijalankan.
This template, Velli, is great if you have images of visual work that you'd like to form part of your resume, and there's also space for a cover letter.
For Students: Essay in punjabi on internet and academic success!
Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.
Building capacity in health research in the developing world. The access to the English-speaking reviews is a dominating factor in a scientific community which publishes mainly in English.
A number of explanations are possible.
We should recognize this as a parabola that opens up and has been shifted 2. Completing the Square and Shifting Parabolas getting parabola to vertex form and analyzing the shift of a vertex F-IF.
We may also: Do I need to attend an interview?
Step 4: Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. New vs. The best

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Retrieved Text: N2Africa has received a prestigious prize through the Harvesting Nutrition Contest, sponsored by the World Bank, which aimed at rewarding agricultural projects around the world that have bridged the gaps between nutrition, agriculture and food security. N2Africa was picked among 50 highly-acclaimed projects from around the world, all showcasing efforts to improve the impact of interventions in agriculture and food security on nutritional outcomes.
The contest was organized by the Secure Nutrition Knowledge Platform in partnership with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) and Save the Children.
N2Africa emerged winner alongside two other projects. It was chosen because of its positive impact on the nutrition of its beneficiaries, novelty in its approach to linking agriculture and nutrition, demonstration of an application of old approaches employed in an innovative way, and potential feasibility on a broad-scale basis.
In addition to getting the US$ 5000 prize money, N2Africa will also be documented in a multimedia portrait which will be made available for viewing on the Secure Nutrition website.
The N2Africa project focuses on maximizing benefits for smallholder farmers growing legumes, such as groundnut, cowpea and common bean – generally regarded as women’s crops in Africa – through nitrogen fixation. This is a process that gives soil bacteria the ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms. IITA and Wageningen University are taking the lead in this project that is being implemented with funds from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Howard G. Buffet Foundation.

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Retrieved Text: Most people—even non-gardeners—have a vague idea about the process of nitrogen-fixation. This knowledge usually stems from hearing about planting clover to rejuvenate the soil in between rotations of crops. Clover is a classic “green manure” that acts against soil depletion, but it is merely one of many plants that can remediate worn-out earth.
Most—but not all—of these nitrogen-restorative plants are legumes, meaning they’re in the Fabaceae (pea) family. The nitrogen fixation they exhibit is a process whereby bacteria (called rhizobia) exist in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria live in nodules on the plant’s roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is bioavailable.
Although these symbioses primarily exist on the roots of members of the aforementioned Fabaceae family, there are plants like alders (Alnus spp.), sea buckthorns (Hippophae spp.) and gunneras (Gunnera spp.) that also have symbioses with bacteria or cyanobacteria.
In the garden, you can use these nodule-dwelling rhizobia to your advantage in a single season: Planting peas, beans or alfalfa (all legumes) alongside or between your other crops helps to share the wealth these plants bring to the soil. A classic planting formation that operates on these principles is the Haudenosaunee Three Sisters plot, where maize (corn), beans and squash are grown together.
In between seasons, consider cover-cropping your plots, pots and raised beds with a leguminous seed mix. Or even let a bed lay fallow and unproductive for a season under a cover crop: Your soil will thank you next year. When it comes time to plant again, you can compost the biomass

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria with nitrogen-fixing ability, play a very important rule in the biological cycle. This article provides detailed information about various types of such bacteria.
You must have heard about nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants that enrich the soil where they grow. They have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the ground and make their own fertilizers. Actually, these plants do not pull off this feat on their own. They owe partial credit for this effort to their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The leguminous plants provide nutrients to the bacteria, in return for which they fix atmospheric nitrogen through anaerobic processes (processes that work without oxygen).
The primary function of these bacteria is 'Survival' and in their efforts directed towards this goal, they enter into a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants or some survive on their own. As a part of their metabolic cycle, they fix nitrogen.
There are many complex processes which make this nitrogen fixation possible and the reaction above is a simplified one. The end products are Ammonia (NH3) and water. Nitrogenase, the vital ingredient which make nitrogen fixation possible, is destroyed when it comes in contact with oxygen.
So the process of nitrogen fixation only occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) conditions or the oxygen is neutralized by its combination with chemicals like Leghemoglobin. Nitrogen fixation is one stage in the cycle which maintains the balance of this element in nature.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other micro organisms that fix nitrogen are collectively called 'Diazotrophs'. There are many strains of these bacteria in soil, which perform this function. They

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen fixing bacteria help plants grow.
Custom N2 is a nitrogen fixing product that increases the nitrogen content of the soil. N2 contains a nitrogen fixing bacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa. This beneficial soil bacteria takes atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and converts it to ammonium. The ammonium is then usable to the plant.
Nitrogen fixation is a vital process for the plant as nitrogen is a key element in plant growth.
Custom N2 improves root size and root health. This healthier root allows the plant to take up additional nutrients thereby improving overall yield and quality of the crop.
Green soybean, called edamame in the United States, needs a large quantity of nitrogen to grow and produce crop. In this case study, we added Custom N2 and had a much larger yield of edamame.
Use of Custom N2, improves roots in green soybeans, edamame, and other crops. Notice the case study in the final picture, the root on the right has been treated with Custom N2. The root on the right is the untreated control. The treated root is larger and has more offshoots. Its easy to see why this treated plant will thrive and perform better than the untreated plant.
Custom Biologicals manufactures a number of biological products for use in agriculture, farming and gardening including, biofertilizers, soil inoculants and biological seed treatments. Contact Custom directly at (561) 797-3008 or via email at Bill@Custombio.biz for additional information.
Custom N2 is a liquid concentrate containing the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Paenibacillus polymyxa. N2 is available in two sizes 50ml and 1 L. The 50 ml size treats

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Retrieved Text: Flatulance, while this might be an oversimplification, is essentially the process from which Azospirillum convert nitrogen gas to plant usable, ammonia (NH3). When it comes to nutrition nitrogen is the limiting factor in plant growth, playing a key role in almost every process of a plants life. In effect, azospirillum also affect almost every process of a plant’s life. So yeah, it’s pretty important!
Nitrogen exists in our air and our soil. Actually, 78% of our atmosphere is made of nitrogen (N2). The way it exists in our atmosphere doesn’t do much for our plants unless it can take on a solid form. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria take in nitrogen the way that we do oxygen.
Then they excrete it as a solid form that plants can use. When nitrogen is taken from gas to solid, it is called nitrogen fixation.
There are two main types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: free-living and mutualistic. The free-living bacteria are the self-sufficient, independent radicals of the group. Azospirillum is a mutualistic type of bacteria that creates symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the soil and the roots that grow in it. They are also known as root-colonizing bacteria or rhizobacteria.
The efforts of azospirillum can only be matched by a couple of other rare events in nature that require much more energy than releasing a few little bacteria to do the dirty work. Other natural elements responsible for nitrogen fixation include: ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment and being struck by lightning. We suggest sticking with picking up a bag of Xtreme Gardening Azos for your azospirillum fix.
Are All

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Retrieved Text: Considering last fall’s wet weather and the soggy fields this spring, farmers wonder about using inoculants on soybean seed in 2010. Should you use a rhizobium inoculant? Or, is there enough of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Bradyrhizobia japonicum, remaining in the soil?
True, rhizobial bacteria don’t survive wet conditions very well. But whether it will pay to use an inoculant depends largely on whether soybeans were grown in the field sometime during the last five years or if the field has been flooded for more than a week, says Aaron Saeugling, Iowa State University Extension field agronomist in southwest Iowa.
The presence of rhizobia in the soil is necessary for a legume such as soybeans to be able to convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form usable by the plant, he says. This process, nitrogen fixation, is critical for producing high soybean yields. For nitrogen fixation to occur, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria need to be readily available in the soil or must be applied to the seed.
When soybean seed germinates, the rhizobia bacteria invade the root hairs of the seedling and begin to multiply. Nodules, the structures that house the bacteria, form on the roots. Under field conditions, nodule formation can be seen shortly after emergence, but active nodule fixation of N from the air doesn’t begin until about the V2 to V3 growth stage of beans. After that point, the number of nodules formed and amount of nitrogen fixed increase with time until about midway between the R5 and R6 growth stages; then N fixation decreases sharply.
Applying nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: You are a little tiny nitrogen (N) atom floating around the atmosphere in a gaseous state, the state that you and your nitrogen friends are usually in. You are an element on the periodic table that is very important to life on Earth. You make up DNA, which carries genetic information in organisms.
You also make up about 78% of the air surrounding all living things. The problem is, you like to hang really close to your nitrogen boyfriend in the air, joining together as N2. You have a very strong bond to your nitrogen boyfriend, and the two of you are hard to break apart, which makes you unable to be used by living organisms. That is why you must go through the nitrogen cycle in order to be useful.
The nitrogen cycle is composed of four steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification.
During the first step of the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, you and your boyfriend (N2) are pulled out of the air by bacteria in the soil. The bacteria turns you both into ammonium by mixing you with hydrogen atoms.
In the next step, nitrification, is the transition of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate through oxidation. Look at it this way: you start off as a nitrogen atom in ammonium, surrounded by hydrogen atoms. More bacteria in the soil convert you into nitrite and then nitrate, so you are now surrounded by oxygen atoms. As part of nitrate, you can now be brought into plants through their roots in order to be used. You might

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Retrieved Text: Most corn grows small "prop" roots, but Sierra Mixe corn uses them for nitrogen fixing, too. Photo by Flickr/Ton Rulkens.
A joint research team from the University of California, Davis; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and Mars, Inc. recently described a landrace of corn in the Sierra Mixe region of Mexico that doesn’t just survive in low-nitrogen soil — it thrives. The cultivar looks quite unfamiliar compared with the mass-produced, conventional cultivars in the United States, growing more than 16 feet tall. It grows much more slowly than conventional corn as well, taking about nine months to reach maturity, rather than conventional corn’s three.
However, the most remarkable thing about the Sierra Mixe corn is how it obtains most of its nitrogen.
Sierra Mixe corn grows 8 to 10 aerial roots — rather than the one or two grown by conventional corn — that secrete a sugar-rich mucilage, which attracts nitrogen-fixing bacteria that then convert aerial nitrogen into a more usable form. In a simplified sense, the corn fixes nitrogen from the air, rather than the soil.
Incredibly fascinating in its own right, this corn also holds some serious potential for sustainable agriculture down the line. Nitrogen fertilizers are often financially inaccessible in developing countries, and producing them requires about 2 percent of the world’s energy supply, which contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions. If the Sierra Mixe corn’s nitrogen-fixing trait could be bred into cheap, conventional cultivars, it could dramatically increase yields in nitrogen-poor areas and eliminate the need for costly nitrogen fertilizers. It would also mean a more

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Retrieved Text: Many present-day coffee plantations use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous and phosphatic ones. These types of fertilizers are bad for two main reasons: they are very expensive, and these chemical fertilizers often make use of non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels, which can deplete nature’s precious resources. Furthermore, these synthetic fertilizers can harm Mother Earth due to water pollution. Thus, these chemical fertilizers are disastrous for the fragile ecology of coffee-growing regions.
Many generations of coffee farmers have ignored and abused the soil. The soil imbalance process takes time and the changes in each generation are minute, so no one cared – and many people still don’t care. Now, many farmers need to enrich the soil, so they turn to chemical fertilizers. The core issue for farming is how can we foster development and production without negatively affecting environment?
Faced with a problem of such a enormous magnitude, one can find a easy, yet effective solution for fertilizer needs of Coffee Plantations by just looking at the soil as a major natural resource. Most people think of soil as a dead, inert material. However, from an agricultural standpoint a healthy soil is the lifeline of any nation.
Soil itself is a living system with millions of beneficial microbes, acting as factories that provide biological nitrogen and other nutrients to the plant. Consider that 83.3% of the earth’s atmosphere is made up of inert nitrogen gas. Microorganisims can convert this atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant in the soluble form (such as ammonia) that the plant can absorb

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Provide an example of an ecosystem evolving in a manner that preserves or recycles nutrients.
In tropical environments with stable geological topography, there is very little phosphorus in the soil. This is due to the age and stability of the soil. The soil itself is so old that the clays in it have broken down. Because rain is the only input of water, there is no opportunity for the addition of new minerals. The phosphorus necessary to sustain the ecosystem is stored in the vegetation, and is retained phosphorus during growth. When those plants die, the return the phosphorus to the ecosystem in the form of plant litter detritus, and is quickly taken back up into other organisms in the system. The other organisms in the environment have evolved to pull the phosphorus directly out of the litter instead of the soil.
How is it that a nutrient like nitrogen, which is typically qualified as limiting, is present in such excess in many locations?
Nitrogen is historically not easily obtained in natural systems. It exists primarily as N2 gas in the atmosphere and plants are not able to obtain this form directly. Most plants rely on other organisms to fix nitrogen into usable forms like NH4+ and NO3- which they are able to use. This means that the plants are dependent primarily on microorganisms in the soil or in their root structures thus their growth is limited by the productivity of the microorganisms.
Humans have changed this case in three ways. Humans cultivate a variety of plants such as legumes

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Retrieved Text: The nature balances the elements the plants need to produce amino acids. Carbon and oxygen are abundant in the atmosphere, and hydrogen is available as long as water is present. Nitrogen is recycled mainly through compost and manure with the help of bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen can also be utilized with the help of bacteria.
Organic nitrogen in compost and manure.
Inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and chemical fertilizers.
Modern agriculture focuses on efficiency. But the natural nitrogen balance in the soil is disrupted, because the plants are removed from the site (no decomposition) and animals are prevented from entering the area (no manure). To compensate for this are nitrogen and other elements added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers.
While fertilizers improve plant growth, do they also create problems. Soil health relies on a balance of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as microbial health. It is much more complicated then simply adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.
Increased acid levels in the soil, which is damaging the balance in the soil.
Nitrous oxide, which is a byproduct of nitrogen, is a significant greenhouse gas.
Groundwater contamination, which is linked to several health issues.
Eutrophication. Groundwater contamination also contributes to marine "dead zones". The increase in the water-soluble nitrates creates an influx of plant-life, which eats up oxygen and starves out fish and crustaceans.

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Retrieved Text: Read this article to learn about the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen cycle.
The most abundant element in the atmosphere is nitrogen. In its elemental form it is a colourless and odorless gas which cannot be used by plants or animals. But in combination with oxygen or other elements, nitrogen is available to living organisms as a nutrient. The nitrogen cycle may be defined as the circular flow of nitrogen from free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrates in the soil, and, finally, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
By this process, nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates.
(i) There are some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in the soil or in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. They can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate. Nitrogen fixation is also done by some types of blue-green algae and fungi.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation also occurs in the atmosphere. This is natural nitrogen fixation. It takes place when lightning occurs, because the electrical current that passes through the atmospheric nitrogen converts some of the nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds. These compounds can be used by plants.
(iii) Nitrates are also released from dead and decaying plants and animals and animal wastes.
At the same time, when nitrates are being produced from nitrogen gas, other nitrates are breaking down and releasing nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere. This process of reversal is called de-nitrification.
(ii) When run-off water carry nitrates into surface water which constantly exchanges nitrogen with the atmosphere.
There are some ecosystems where the process of nitrogen fixation and de-nitrification are attuned according to the productivity demands

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Retrieved Text: Fertilizers in the Soil main content.
In the fall man takes crops away, and unless he makes replacements of some sort, the soil becomes poor and useless.
He adds commercial fertilizers such as phosphate, nitrates, and potash, or he may grow clover and alfalfa which he plows back into the soil.
These plants have root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which take nitrogen directly from the air and turn it into usable nitrates.
Bacteria enter roots from the soil and establish themselves in cells of the root tissues. These cells become enlarged and finally nodules are formed. The enclosed bacteria fix nitrogen into nitrates which are released when the roots decay.

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Retrieved Text: Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles.
What is evaporation? Water gets warm and changes from liquid water to water vapor.
Are humans primary consumers of carbon dioxide or secondary consumers? Neither. Humans produce carbon dioxide.
Another method for fixing nitrogen? Lightning converts nitrogen gas into soluble nitrates.
When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.
Some bacteria have the ability to "fix" nitrogen. This means they convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically useful forms of nitrogen.
The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that the reservoir for phosphorous exists in mineral form in rocks rather than in the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.

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Retrieved Text: Does an apple a day really keep the doctor away? Not anymore, according to soil health experts—unless the apple comes from a tree grown in healthy, organic soil.
According to Australian soil scientist Christine Jones, as reported by Courtney White in his book, Grass, Soil, Hope, apples have lost 80 percent of their vitamin C.
And that orange you just ate to help ward off a cold? It’s entirely possible that it contains no vitamin C at all.
A study looking at vegetables from 1930 to 1980, found that iron levels had decreased by 22 percent, and calcium content by 19 percent. In the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1990, copper content in vegetables fell by 76 percent, and calcium by 46 percent. The mineral content in meat was also significantly reduced.
Food forms the building blocks of our bodies and health. Soil forms the basis for healthy food. Unhealthy soil grows poor quality food. And poor quality food means poor health.
Even our mental health is linked to healthy soil, rich in microbes.
So what’s happened to our soil? It’s been under assault since the advent of modern industrial agriculture, with its monocrops, fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
The term “biodiversity” evokes images of a rich variety of plants—trees, flowers, grasses, fruits, vegetables—mixed in with an equally diverse collection of animals, insects and wildlife, all co-existing in a lush environment.
But there’s a whole world of biodiversity that lives beneath the surface of the earth—at least in areas where the soil hasn’t been destroyed. And that biodiversity is essential for the growth of nutrient-rich

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Retrieved Text: Prefers part shady, moderately dry, well-drained, sandy-loam soil to moist areas and stream banks. Can tolerate drought and wind, but not maritime exposure.
Seed or division, though divisions are difficult.
From seed there are several options: Direct sow outdoors in fall; winter sow in vented containers, cold-frame or unheated greenhouse; stratify if sowing indoors and sow before last frost.
Prefers an acid to neutral soil, though can succeed in poor soils. Dislikes root disturbance.
This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen compounds are essential to plant development, but atmospheric nitrogen must be fixed (transformed) into molecules that plants can use. Bacteria are the only organisms able to carry out nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in many environments. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil have the additional ability to live inside the root nodules of certain plants, such as legumes, and provide fixed nitrogen to the plant host.
Most plants utilized for bioenergy production are not capable of hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so they require applications of nitrogen to increase the speed of growth. However, nitrogen application is costly, environmentally damaging, and potentially hazardous to human health.
We received funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop mechanisms to engineer bioenergy crops so that these plants can fix nitrogen via root nodule symbioses. If we are successful, engineered bioenergy crops could be cultivated in marginal lands that have little agricultural value due to poor soil or other characteristics.
Our phylogenomic approach involves obtaining genomic data form 15,000 species. We are collecting tissues of these species from different herbaria across the world.
We will verify the function of candidate genes discovered in Aim One for their effect on root nodule development in Medicago (nodulating) and poplar root organ cultures (non-nodulating).
We will engineer promising genes identified in Aim Two into poplar, evaluate the development of nodules, and test the impact of these introduced genes on N-fixation and whole-plant properties.
This project is funded by the Biosystems Design Program from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Office of Science at the U.S. Department of

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Retrieved Text: Carbon Cycle VIDEO by FUSE SCHOOL!
What in the world is BIOGEOCHEMICAL RECYCLING?
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO..
These cycles are different from the energy cycles of the food chain and food web in whic h the Energy Flow through the ecosystem flows in ONE DIRECTION. Also some of this energy gets lost from “the system” as heat.
These five cycles are particularly important to organisms because these materials make up the chemical compounds of cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE is the global circulation of carbon from the environment to living organisms and from living organisms back to the environment. Carbon EXISTS in the abiotic environment as 1) Carbon dioxide [CO2 (gas)] in the atmosphere, 2) dissolves in H2O to form HCO3 (BICARBONATE) and Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)., 3) Carbonate rocks (limestone & coral = CaCO3 [Calcium Carbonate], 4) Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are derived from once living things (fossil fuels), and 5) Dead organic matter.
The Carbon Cycle Step 1 - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion (burning).
The Carbon Cycle Step 2 - Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.
The Carbon Cycle Step 3 - Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
The Carbon Cycle Step 4 - The dead

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria that able to convert nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrous compound accessible by plants are called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria are found both in the soil and in symbiotic relationships with plants. Their capability to convert nitrogen into ammonium compound is associated with specific enzymes in the cell. This ability completes the Nitrogen Cycle on Earth and it is believed that 90% of nitrogen fixation occurs through biological method.
Two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are recognized. The first kind, the free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria, includes the cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc and genera such as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium. The second kind comprises the mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria; examples include Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants (e.g., various members of the pea family); Frankia, associated with certain dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants); and certain Azospirillum species, associated with cereal grasses.
The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to ammonia, which the host plant utilizes for its development. To ensure sufficient nodule formation and optimum growth of legumes (e.g., alfalfa, beans, clovers, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated with commercial cultures of appropriate Rhizobium species, especially in soils poor or lacking in the required bacterium.
Due to the many positive feedbacks obtained for RealStrong fertilizer formulations, All Cosmos Industries have set up and exclusive research center in Malaysia on the different microorganisms in RealStrong fertilizers. RealStrong fertilizers are manufactured based

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: Why are artificial nitrogen fertilisers used and how do they affect sustainability?
In many natural environments nitrogen is the primary factor in limiting plant growth (provided there is sufficient water supply and an absence of pests and disease). It is an essential macronutrient for plant metabolic pathways, protein synthesis and is a major component of chlorophyll. Although nitrogen accounts for 78% air, plants can only utilise reduced sources of this element such as the inorganic forms of ammonium (NH4–) and nitrate (NO3–) salts from soil. In order to become available for uptake, plants rely on a process of nitrogen fixation which is carried out naturally by fixation microorganisms. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria symbiotically associate with particular plant groups such as rhizobium bacteria and legumes. Despite this only about 2% of soil nitrogen is naturally found in inorganic form.
As with any business, farmers seek to maximise profit and typically in cropping systems this equates to optimising yield. In wheat systems, high yields of high quality grain (i.e. high % nitrogen content) requires high input and uptake of nitrogen (Barraclough et al., 2010). Whilst grain and fertiliser price ratios are favourable, farmers are driven to apply high levels of nitrogen above those that are most efficient for crop stability in an effort to maximise potential yields and returns.
The process of nitrogen fixation is energy intensive since it requires the breaking of the triple covalent bond of N2 and as in nature, the industrial manufacture of nitrogen fertilisers requires significant amounts of energy to break the bonds of N2 molecules.

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Retrieved Text: Azorhizobium caulinodans: A species of AZORHIZOBIUM which forms nodules on the roots of the tropical legume Sesbania rostrata. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Sesbania: A plant genus of the family FABACEAE. Members contain piperidine alkaloids (PIPERIDINES).Rhizobiaceae: A family of gram-negative bacteria which are saprophytes, symbionts, or plant pathogens.Nitrogen Fixation: The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.Fabaceae: The large family of plants characterized by pods. Some are edible and some cause LATHYRISM or FAVISM and other forms of poisoning. Other species yield useful materials like gums from ACACIA and various LECTINS like PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS from PHASEOLUS. Many of them harbor NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria on their roots. Many but not all species of "beans" belong to this family.Azorhizobium: A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped, obligate aerobes which are motile by peritrichous flagella on solid medium and one lateral flagellum in liquid medium. Under microaerobic conditions Azorhizobium fixes nitrogen. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Xanthobacter: A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria found in wet soil containing decaying organic material and in water. Cells tend to be pleomorphic if grown on media containing succinate or coccoid if grown in the presence of an alcohol as the sole carbon source. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)ThioglucosidesPlants, Medicinal: Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.Flavanones: A group of FLAVONOIDS characterized with

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Retrieved Text: Which products do we offer?
What does your crop need?
How can you improve your performance?
Along with carbon, nitrogen is a fundamental component of organic matter. Although 78% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, our nitrogen requirements can only be met with plant or animal protein. Other than legumes, plants only have access to nitrogen at the end of the mineralisation process of organic matter. Agriculture was revolutionised by the discovery, over a century ago, of the ammonia manufacturing process by combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (Haber-Bosch process, 1918 and 1931 Nobel prize-winners). Without such mineral nitrogen, the world’s farming output would be reduced by half.
Along with other elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc.), nitrogen is a constituent of the amino acids that build up proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element for cell constitution and for photosynthesis (chlorophyll). It is the main factor in plant growth. It has an influence on quality, mainly on the protein content of plants.
Nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3-) dissolved in the soil solution. Organic, ammonia or urea nitrogen present in the soil gradually turns into the nitrate form as a result of different microbial and physical-chemical processes. By absorbing water from the soil to make up for evaporation losses, the plant passively absorbs the nitrates present in a flow that rises up to the leaves. Here, the nitrates are reduced and reorganised in organic form, and then redistributed throughout the plant.
Nitrogen is generally the first factor limiting plant growth, with the exception of

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by what?" and the following answer choices: 
- Conifers
 - food
 - rocks
 - humans
 - ice
 - bacteria
 - sharks
 - bamboo

Now knowing that bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and bamboos are among the most useful of all plants, choose the best answer.

Target Text: bamboo

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Let’s talk about nitrogen. What is nitrogen, and why does it matter to us?
Nitrogen is chemical element number 7. It’s crucial to living organisms. It’s a necessary component in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. While it’s common knowledge that proteins make up muscles, they also perform a wide variety of functions and are involved in virtually all cell processes that keep you alive.
Nitrogen is also a component of nucleic acids in DNA, the blueprint of life. DNA determines your eye color, your height, your metabolism, even to an extent your intelligence and behavior. Clearly, living organisms require nitrogen to survive.
Eye color is determined by DNA, made from proteins built up with nitrogen.
In many types of ecosystems, however, there is a scarcity of usable nitrogen. Nitrogen has a limited availability for biological use. Yet, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere. 78% of the air around us consists of nitrogen in the form N2.
78% of the atmosphere is composed of N2.
How do you explain this apparent dichotomy between abundant atmospheric nitrogen, and the scarcity of nitrogen in ecological systems?
While abundant, atmospheric nitrogen is in the form N2. Other significant forms of nitrogen in ecosystems are ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen from animal waste is excreted in the form of ammonia. Plants intake nitrogen in the form of nitrate. From N2 in the atmosphere to nitrate absorbed as nutrients by plants, nitrogen is converted through different chemical forms by ecological processes and cycled over and over again.
These processes compose the nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Law of Conservation of Matter - Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
There are two interrelated parts of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen gas forms about 80% of the atmosphere. However, no animals and few plants can utilise nitrogen in this gaseous form.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen to amino acids, which are the components of proteins. Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the cyanobacteria Nostoc, soil bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium, and the legume root bacteria Rhizobium.
Atmospheric nitrogen can also be fixed or converted to a more solid form by lightning.
In reverse, Denitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia, a nitrogenous waste in urine, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen in animals and plants is in the form of amino acids and proteins. As one organism eats another along the food chain, the nitrogen passes from one organism to another.
Animals also excrete nitrogenous wastes in urine as urea, uric acid or ammonia. This passes to the soil.
When animals and plants die, Putrefactive Bacteria in the soil converts the body amino acids and proteins to ammonia in the soil. These decay bacteria also convert urea and uric acid to ammonia in the soil.
Nitrite Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia to nitrites in the soil.
Nitrate Bacteria in the soil convert those nitrites to nitrates in the soil. These are used by the plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus is an essential component of many chemicals within living organisms. Examples include the energy-rich compound ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and the phosphates used by plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus

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Retrieved Text: process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
1. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies or various industrial processes.
2. The conversion by certain soil microorganisms, such as rhizobia, of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that plants and other organisms can assimilate.
the process by which free nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted by biological or chemical means to ammonia and to other forms usable by plants and animals. Biological nitrogen fixation is the more important process and is accomplished by microorganisms in the soil, either free living or in close association with root nodules of certain plants. In contrast, chemical nitrogen fixation, as is used in industry, requires extremely high temperatures and pressures.
the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen in the synthesis of AMINO ACIDS by some bacteria. Such bacteria can be free-living (e.g. Azotobacter, an aerobe; Clostridium, an obligate anaerobe) while others (e.g. Rhizobium) live in association with plants, occupying swellings in the root called root nodules. The latter relationship is one of SYMBIOSIS, in that the plant gains nutrients and thus can live in nitrogen-poor soils, while the nitrogen-fixer obtains a supply of carbohydrates from the plant. The nitrogen is reduced to ammonia in the microbes by action of the enzyme nitrogenase: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, the ammonia then reacting with keto acids to form amino acids.
Nitrogen fixation potential of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Variation in seedling growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia nilotica inoculated with eight rhizobial strains.
Nitrogen fixation and its improvement through genetic engineering.
Nitrogen fixation associated

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Retrieved Text: a. Microorganisms may be unicellular or ___________.
b. __________ bacteria help to make curd from milk.
c. Disease-causing microorganisms are called _______.
d. Ammonium salt in the soil is converted first into nitrites by _________ bacteria.
e. _______ coagulation takes place only when milk is hot.
f. Salting draws out _______ from food.
g. Nitrate in the soil is converted by _________ bacteria into nitrogen gas.
h. The process of preventing food spoilage by chemical or physical methods is called food ________.
Q2: Name any two antibiotics.
Q3: Give the names of any two communicable diseases.
Q4: What are the two common food preservatives used in our homes?
Answer: Salt, sugar and oil.
Q5: Name the bacteria that are present in root nodules of leguminous plants that fix nitrogen.
Q6: Very often we observe greenish pond water in our surroundings. What type of microbes they are likely to be?
Q8: Name any unicellular algae.
Q10: Which organisms are interlinked between living and non-living organisms?
Answer: The process in which milk is heated up to 72°C for 15 to 30 minutes and then chilled and stored is called pasteurization. This prevents the growth of most microorganisms.
Q12: Pasteurisation led to another process, critical to surgery. Name the process.
Q13: What are the advantages of food preservation?
1) This prevents spoilage of food.
2) Food can be preserved for a longer period.
3) Quality of food is ensured for a long time.
4) Variety of food items may be available in faraway places, in any season.
Q14: How do microbes cause food poisoning?
Answer: Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning. e.g. Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella are

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Retrieved Text: are living organisms that consist of one cell.
Bacteria are the smallest of all living things.
Bacteria are the oldest and most diverse life forms.
Some bacteria are used to fight off harmful infections. Where would you find these helpful bacteria in the human body?
What is the significance of scientist Alexander Fleming accidentally finding a single mold growing in a used petri dish?
All petri dishes should be sterilized to prevent cross contamination.
It was the first form of cell mutation.
It was penicillin, a powerful antibiotic that kills bacteria.
He had created a toxic substance without even trying.
In which of these foods might you find E. coli?
What do bacteria in our soils and waterways do to help our environment?
They serve as food for other organisms.
They decompose dead organisms and animal wastes into chemical elements.
Once ingested, they can protect animals from transmitted diseases.
They can protect plants from diseases.
the desert and hot springs.
What has caused some bacteria to become drug-resistant?
What do helpful bacteria do for humans and animals?
They help digest food and destroy harmful organisms in the intestines.
Intestinal bacteria help the body absorb vitamins.
They live in their stomachs to help digest food.
Which of the following is an example of how bacteria can help change a chemical into a form that can be used by plants?
Some bacteria convert carbon monoxide in the air into nutrients for plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in soil into nitrate.
Some bacteria convert oxygen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
اني راح اجاوب حسب منهج السبعينات الي درسنا عليه..

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Retrieved Text: Copy to Clipboard Experienced and driven Compliance Officer with a proven track record of helping to lead companies by ensuring they are functioning in complete compliance with all national and international rules and regulations.
If students can draw a picture of the problem even using simple representations like squares or circles for the units discussed in the problemthen it can help them visualize exactly what's occurring.
Pada tahunkebanyakan dari perangkat lunak yang mereka miliki bebas karena mereka tidak berpikiran untuk membatasinya. Para pengguna hanya menerima berkas berupa deretan angka-angka yang dapat dijalankan.
This template, Velli, is great if you have images of visual work that you'd like to form part of your resume, and there's also space for a cover letter.
For Students: Essay in punjabi on internet and academic success!
Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.
Building capacity in health research in the developing world. The access to the English-speaking reviews is a dominating factor in a scientific community which publishes mainly in English.
A number of explanations are possible.
We should recognize this as a parabola that opens up and has been shifted 2. Completing the Square and Shifting Parabolas getting parabola to vertex form and analyzing the shift of a vertex F-IF.
We may also: Do I need to attend an interview?
Step 4: Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. New vs. The best

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Retrieved Text: N2Africa has received a prestigious prize through the Harvesting Nutrition Contest, sponsored by the World Bank, which aimed at rewarding agricultural projects around the world that have bridged the gaps between nutrition, agriculture and food security. N2Africa was picked among 50 highly-acclaimed projects from around the world, all showcasing efforts to improve the impact of interventions in agriculture and food security on nutritional outcomes.
The contest was organized by the Secure Nutrition Knowledge Platform in partnership with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) and Save the Children.
N2Africa emerged winner alongside two other projects. It was chosen because of its positive impact on the nutrition of its beneficiaries, novelty in its approach to linking agriculture and nutrition, demonstration of an application of old approaches employed in an innovative way, and potential feasibility on a broad-scale basis.
In addition to getting the US$ 5000 prize money, N2Africa will also be documented in a multimedia portrait which will be made available for viewing on the Secure Nutrition website.
The N2Africa project focuses on maximizing benefits for smallholder farmers growing legumes, such as groundnut, cowpea and common bean – generally regarded as women’s crops in Africa – through nitrogen fixation. This is a process that gives soil bacteria the ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms. IITA and Wageningen University are taking the lead in this project that is being implemented with funds from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Howard G. Buffet Foundation.

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Retrieved Text: Most people—even non-gardeners—have a vague idea about the process of nitrogen-fixation. This knowledge usually stems from hearing about planting clover to rejuvenate the soil in between rotations of crops. Clover is a classic “green manure” that acts against soil depletion, but it is merely one of many plants that can remediate worn-out earth.
Most—but not all—of these nitrogen-restorative plants are legumes, meaning they’re in the Fabaceae (pea) family. The nitrogen fixation they exhibit is a process whereby bacteria (called rhizobia) exist in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria live in nodules on the plant’s roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is bioavailable.
Although these symbioses primarily exist on the roots of members of the aforementioned Fabaceae family, there are plants like alders (Alnus spp.), sea buckthorns (Hippophae spp.) and gunneras (Gunnera spp.) that also have symbioses with bacteria or cyanobacteria.
In the garden, you can use these nodule-dwelling rhizobia to your advantage in a single season: Planting peas, beans or alfalfa (all legumes) alongside or between your other crops helps to share the wealth these plants bring to the soil. A classic planting formation that operates on these principles is the Haudenosaunee Three Sisters plot, where maize (corn), beans and squash are grown together.
In between seasons, consider cover-cropping your plots, pots and raised beds with a leguminous seed mix. Or even let a bed lay fallow and unproductive for a season under a cover crop: Your soil will thank you next year. When it comes time to plant again, you can compost the biomass

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria with nitrogen-fixing ability, play a very important rule in the biological cycle. This article provides detailed information about various types of such bacteria.
You must have heard about nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants that enrich the soil where they grow. They have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the ground and make their own fertilizers. Actually, these plants do not pull off this feat on their own. They owe partial credit for this effort to their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The leguminous plants provide nutrients to the bacteria, in return for which they fix atmospheric nitrogen through anaerobic processes (processes that work without oxygen).
The primary function of these bacteria is 'Survival' and in their efforts directed towards this goal, they enter into a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants or some survive on their own. As a part of their metabolic cycle, they fix nitrogen.
There are many complex processes which make this nitrogen fixation possible and the reaction above is a simplified one. The end products are Ammonia (NH3) and water. Nitrogenase, the vital ingredient which make nitrogen fixation possible, is destroyed when it comes in contact with oxygen.
So the process of nitrogen fixation only occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) conditions or the oxygen is neutralized by its combination with chemicals like Leghemoglobin. Nitrogen fixation is one stage in the cycle which maintains the balance of this element in nature.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other micro organisms that fix nitrogen are collectively called 'Diazotrophs'. There are many strains of these bacteria in soil, which perform this function. They

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen fixing bacteria help plants grow.
Custom N2 is a nitrogen fixing product that increases the nitrogen content of the soil. N2 contains a nitrogen fixing bacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa. This beneficial soil bacteria takes atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and converts it to ammonium. The ammonium is then usable to the plant.
Nitrogen fixation is a vital process for the plant as nitrogen is a key element in plant growth.
Custom N2 improves root size and root health. This healthier root allows the plant to take up additional nutrients thereby improving overall yield and quality of the crop.
Green soybean, called edamame in the United States, needs a large quantity of nitrogen to grow and produce crop. In this case study, we added Custom N2 and had a much larger yield of edamame.
Use of Custom N2, improves roots in green soybeans, edamame, and other crops. Notice the case study in the final picture, the root on the right has been treated with Custom N2. The root on the right is the untreated control. The treated root is larger and has more offshoots. Its easy to see why this treated plant will thrive and perform better than the untreated plant.
Custom Biologicals manufactures a number of biological products for use in agriculture, farming and gardening including, biofertilizers, soil inoculants and biological seed treatments. Contact Custom directly at (561) 797-3008 or via email at Bill@Custombio.biz for additional information.
Custom N2 is a liquid concentrate containing the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Paenibacillus polymyxa. N2 is available in two sizes 50ml and 1 L. The 50 ml size treats

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Retrieved Text: Flatulance, while this might be an oversimplification, is essentially the process from which Azospirillum convert nitrogen gas to plant usable, ammonia (NH3). When it comes to nutrition nitrogen is the limiting factor in plant growth, playing a key role in almost every process of a plants life. In effect, azospirillum also affect almost every process of a plant’s life. So yeah, it’s pretty important!
Nitrogen exists in our air and our soil. Actually, 78% of our atmosphere is made of nitrogen (N2). The way it exists in our atmosphere doesn’t do much for our plants unless it can take on a solid form. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria take in nitrogen the way that we do oxygen.
Then they excrete it as a solid form that plants can use. When nitrogen is taken from gas to solid, it is called nitrogen fixation.
There are two main types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: free-living and mutualistic. The free-living bacteria are the self-sufficient, independent radicals of the group. Azospirillum is a mutualistic type of bacteria that creates symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the soil and the roots that grow in it. They are also known as root-colonizing bacteria or rhizobacteria.
The efforts of azospirillum can only be matched by a couple of other rare events in nature that require much more energy than releasing a few little bacteria to do the dirty work. Other natural elements responsible for nitrogen fixation include: ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment and being struck by lightning. We suggest sticking with picking up a bag of Xtreme Gardening Azos for your azospirillum fix.
Are All

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Retrieved Text: Considering last fall’s wet weather and the soggy fields this spring, farmers wonder about using inoculants on soybean seed in 2010. Should you use a rhizobium inoculant? Or, is there enough of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Bradyrhizobia japonicum, remaining in the soil?
True, rhizobial bacteria don’t survive wet conditions very well. But whether it will pay to use an inoculant depends largely on whether soybeans were grown in the field sometime during the last five years or if the field has been flooded for more than a week, says Aaron Saeugling, Iowa State University Extension field agronomist in southwest Iowa.
The presence of rhizobia in the soil is necessary for a legume such as soybeans to be able to convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form usable by the plant, he says. This process, nitrogen fixation, is critical for producing high soybean yields. For nitrogen fixation to occur, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria need to be readily available in the soil or must be applied to the seed.
When soybean seed germinates, the rhizobia bacteria invade the root hairs of the seedling and begin to multiply. Nodules, the structures that house the bacteria, form on the roots. Under field conditions, nodule formation can be seen shortly after emergence, but active nodule fixation of N from the air doesn’t begin until about the V2 to V3 growth stage of beans. After that point, the number of nodules formed and amount of nitrogen fixed increase with time until about midway between the R5 and R6 growth stages; then N fixation decreases sharply.
Applying nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: You are a little tiny nitrogen (N) atom floating around the atmosphere in a gaseous state, the state that you and your nitrogen friends are usually in. You are an element on the periodic table that is very important to life on Earth. You make up DNA, which carries genetic information in organisms.
You also make up about 78% of the air surrounding all living things. The problem is, you like to hang really close to your nitrogen boyfriend in the air, joining together as N2. You have a very strong bond to your nitrogen boyfriend, and the two of you are hard to break apart, which makes you unable to be used by living organisms. That is why you must go through the nitrogen cycle in order to be useful.
The nitrogen cycle is composed of four steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification.
During the first step of the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, you and your boyfriend (N2) are pulled out of the air by bacteria in the soil. The bacteria turns you both into ammonium by mixing you with hydrogen atoms.
In the next step, nitrification, is the transition of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate through oxidation. Look at it this way: you start off as a nitrogen atom in ammonium, surrounded by hydrogen atoms. More bacteria in the soil convert you into nitrite and then nitrate, so you are now surrounded by oxygen atoms. As part of nitrate, you can now be brought into plants through their roots in order to be used. You might

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Retrieved Text: Most corn grows small "prop" roots, but Sierra Mixe corn uses them for nitrogen fixing, too. Photo by Flickr/Ton Rulkens.
A joint research team from the University of California, Davis; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and Mars, Inc. recently described a landrace of corn in the Sierra Mixe region of Mexico that doesn’t just survive in low-nitrogen soil — it thrives. The cultivar looks quite unfamiliar compared with the mass-produced, conventional cultivars in the United States, growing more than 16 feet tall. It grows much more slowly than conventional corn as well, taking about nine months to reach maturity, rather than conventional corn’s three.
However, the most remarkable thing about the Sierra Mixe corn is how it obtains most of its nitrogen.
Sierra Mixe corn grows 8 to 10 aerial roots — rather than the one or two grown by conventional corn — that secrete a sugar-rich mucilage, which attracts nitrogen-fixing bacteria that then convert aerial nitrogen into a more usable form. In a simplified sense, the corn fixes nitrogen from the air, rather than the soil.
Incredibly fascinating in its own right, this corn also holds some serious potential for sustainable agriculture down the line. Nitrogen fertilizers are often financially inaccessible in developing countries, and producing them requires about 2 percent of the world’s energy supply, which contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions. If the Sierra Mixe corn’s nitrogen-fixing trait could be bred into cheap, conventional cultivars, it could dramatically increase yields in nitrogen-poor areas and eliminate the need for costly nitrogen fertilizers. It would also mean a more

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Retrieved Text: Many present-day coffee plantations use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous and phosphatic ones. These types of fertilizers are bad for two main reasons: they are very expensive, and these chemical fertilizers often make use of non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels, which can deplete nature’s precious resources. Furthermore, these synthetic fertilizers can harm Mother Earth due to water pollution. Thus, these chemical fertilizers are disastrous for the fragile ecology of coffee-growing regions.
Many generations of coffee farmers have ignored and abused the soil. The soil imbalance process takes time and the changes in each generation are minute, so no one cared – and many people still don’t care. Now, many farmers need to enrich the soil, so they turn to chemical fertilizers. The core issue for farming is how can we foster development and production without negatively affecting environment?
Faced with a problem of such a enormous magnitude, one can find a easy, yet effective solution for fertilizer needs of Coffee Plantations by just looking at the soil as a major natural resource. Most people think of soil as a dead, inert material. However, from an agricultural standpoint a healthy soil is the lifeline of any nation.
Soil itself is a living system with millions of beneficial microbes, acting as factories that provide biological nitrogen and other nutrients to the plant. Consider that 83.3% of the earth’s atmosphere is made up of inert nitrogen gas. Microorganisims can convert this atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant in the soluble form (such as ammonia) that the plant can absorb

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Provide an example of an ecosystem evolving in a manner that preserves or recycles nutrients.
In tropical environments with stable geological topography, there is very little phosphorus in the soil. This is due to the age and stability of the soil. The soil itself is so old that the clays in it have broken down. Because rain is the only input of water, there is no opportunity for the addition of new minerals. The phosphorus necessary to sustain the ecosystem is stored in the vegetation, and is retained phosphorus during growth. When those plants die, the return the phosphorus to the ecosystem in the form of plant litter detritus, and is quickly taken back up into other organisms in the system. The other organisms in the environment have evolved to pull the phosphorus directly out of the litter instead of the soil.
How is it that a nutrient like nitrogen, which is typically qualified as limiting, is present in such excess in many locations?
Nitrogen is historically not easily obtained in natural systems. It exists primarily as N2 gas in the atmosphere and plants are not able to obtain this form directly. Most plants rely on other organisms to fix nitrogen into usable forms like NH4+ and NO3- which they are able to use. This means that the plants are dependent primarily on microorganisms in the soil or in their root structures thus their growth is limited by the productivity of the microorganisms.
Humans have changed this case in three ways. Humans cultivate a variety of plants such as legumes

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Retrieved Text: The nature balances the elements the plants need to produce amino acids. Carbon and oxygen are abundant in the atmosphere, and hydrogen is available as long as water is present. Nitrogen is recycled mainly through compost and manure with the help of bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen can also be utilized with the help of bacteria.
Organic nitrogen in compost and manure.
Inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and chemical fertilizers.
Modern agriculture focuses on efficiency. But the natural nitrogen balance in the soil is disrupted, because the plants are removed from the site (no decomposition) and animals are prevented from entering the area (no manure). To compensate for this are nitrogen and other elements added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers.
While fertilizers improve plant growth, do they also create problems. Soil health relies on a balance of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as microbial health. It is much more complicated then simply adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.
Increased acid levels in the soil, which is damaging the balance in the soil.
Nitrous oxide, which is a byproduct of nitrogen, is a significant greenhouse gas.
Groundwater contamination, which is linked to several health issues.
Eutrophication. Groundwater contamination also contributes to marine "dead zones". The increase in the water-soluble nitrates creates an influx of plant-life, which eats up oxygen and starves out fish and crustaceans.

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Retrieved Text: Read this article to learn about the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen cycle.
The most abundant element in the atmosphere is nitrogen. In its elemental form it is a colourless and odorless gas which cannot be used by plants or animals. But in combination with oxygen or other elements, nitrogen is available to living organisms as a nutrient. The nitrogen cycle may be defined as the circular flow of nitrogen from free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrates in the soil, and, finally, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
By this process, nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates.
(i) There are some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in the soil or in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. They can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate. Nitrogen fixation is also done by some types of blue-green algae and fungi.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation also occurs in the atmosphere. This is natural nitrogen fixation. It takes place when lightning occurs, because the electrical current that passes through the atmospheric nitrogen converts some of the nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds. These compounds can be used by plants.
(iii) Nitrates are also released from dead and decaying plants and animals and animal wastes.
At the same time, when nitrates are being produced from nitrogen gas, other nitrates are breaking down and releasing nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere. This process of reversal is called de-nitrification.
(ii) When run-off water carry nitrates into surface water which constantly exchanges nitrogen with the atmosphere.
There are some ecosystems where the process of nitrogen fixation and de-nitrification are attuned according to the productivity demands

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Retrieved Text: Fertilizers in the Soil main content.
In the fall man takes crops away, and unless he makes replacements of some sort, the soil becomes poor and useless.
He adds commercial fertilizers such as phosphate, nitrates, and potash, or he may grow clover and alfalfa which he plows back into the soil.
These plants have root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which take nitrogen directly from the air and turn it into usable nitrates.
Bacteria enter roots from the soil and establish themselves in cells of the root tissues. These cells become enlarged and finally nodules are formed. The enclosed bacteria fix nitrogen into nitrates which are released when the roots decay.

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Retrieved Text: Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles.
What is evaporation? Water gets warm and changes from liquid water to water vapor.
Are humans primary consumers of carbon dioxide or secondary consumers? Neither. Humans produce carbon dioxide.
Another method for fixing nitrogen? Lightning converts nitrogen gas into soluble nitrates.
When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.
Some bacteria have the ability to "fix" nitrogen. This means they convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically useful forms of nitrogen.
The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that the reservoir for phosphorous exists in mineral form in rocks rather than in the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.

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Retrieved Text: Does an apple a day really keep the doctor away? Not anymore, according to soil health experts—unless the apple comes from a tree grown in healthy, organic soil.
According to Australian soil scientist Christine Jones, as reported by Courtney White in his book, Grass, Soil, Hope, apples have lost 80 percent of their vitamin C.
And that orange you just ate to help ward off a cold? It’s entirely possible that it contains no vitamin C at all.
A study looking at vegetables from 1930 to 1980, found that iron levels had decreased by 22 percent, and calcium content by 19 percent. In the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1990, copper content in vegetables fell by 76 percent, and calcium by 46 percent. The mineral content in meat was also significantly reduced.
Food forms the building blocks of our bodies and health. Soil forms the basis for healthy food. Unhealthy soil grows poor quality food. And poor quality food means poor health.
Even our mental health is linked to healthy soil, rich in microbes.
So what’s happened to our soil? It’s been under assault since the advent of modern industrial agriculture, with its monocrops, fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
The term “biodiversity” evokes images of a rich variety of plants—trees, flowers, grasses, fruits, vegetables—mixed in with an equally diverse collection of animals, insects and wildlife, all co-existing in a lush environment.
But there’s a whole world of biodiversity that lives beneath the surface of the earth—at least in areas where the soil hasn’t been destroyed. And that biodiversity is essential for the growth of nutrient-rich

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Retrieved Text: Prefers part shady, moderately dry, well-drained, sandy-loam soil to moist areas and stream banks. Can tolerate drought and wind, but not maritime exposure.
Seed or division, though divisions are difficult.
From seed there are several options: Direct sow outdoors in fall; winter sow in vented containers, cold-frame or unheated greenhouse; stratify if sowing indoors and sow before last frost.
Prefers an acid to neutral soil, though can succeed in poor soils. Dislikes root disturbance.
This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen compounds are essential to plant development, but atmospheric nitrogen must be fixed (transformed) into molecules that plants can use. Bacteria are the only organisms able to carry out nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in many environments. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil have the additional ability to live inside the root nodules of certain plants, such as legumes, and provide fixed nitrogen to the plant host.
Most plants utilized for bioenergy production are not capable of hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so they require applications of nitrogen to increase the speed of growth. However, nitrogen application is costly, environmentally damaging, and potentially hazardous to human health.
We received funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop mechanisms to engineer bioenergy crops so that these plants can fix nitrogen via root nodule symbioses. If we are successful, engineered bioenergy crops could be cultivated in marginal lands that have little agricultural value due to poor soil or other characteristics.
Our phylogenomic approach involves obtaining genomic data form 15,000 species. We are collecting tissues of these species from different herbaria across the world.
We will verify the function of candidate genes discovered in Aim One for their effect on root nodule development in Medicago (nodulating) and poplar root organ cultures (non-nodulating).
We will engineer promising genes identified in Aim Two into poplar, evaluate the development of nodules, and test the impact of these introduced genes on N-fixation and whole-plant properties.
This project is funded by the Biosystems Design Program from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Office of Science at the U.S. Department of

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Retrieved Text: Carbon Cycle VIDEO by FUSE SCHOOL!
What in the world is BIOGEOCHEMICAL RECYCLING?
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO..
These cycles are different from the energy cycles of the food chain and food web in whic h the Energy Flow through the ecosystem flows in ONE DIRECTION. Also some of this energy gets lost from “the system” as heat.
These five cycles are particularly important to organisms because these materials make up the chemical compounds of cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE is the global circulation of carbon from the environment to living organisms and from living organisms back to the environment. Carbon EXISTS in the abiotic environment as 1) Carbon dioxide [CO2 (gas)] in the atmosphere, 2) dissolves in H2O to form HCO3 (BICARBONATE) and Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)., 3) Carbonate rocks (limestone & coral = CaCO3 [Calcium Carbonate], 4) Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are derived from once living things (fossil fuels), and 5) Dead organic matter.
The Carbon Cycle Step 1 - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion (burning).
The Carbon Cycle Step 2 - Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.
The Carbon Cycle Step 3 - Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
The Carbon Cycle Step 4 - The dead

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria that able to convert nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrous compound accessible by plants are called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria are found both in the soil and in symbiotic relationships with plants. Their capability to convert nitrogen into ammonium compound is associated with specific enzymes in the cell. This ability completes the Nitrogen Cycle on Earth and it is believed that 90% of nitrogen fixation occurs through biological method.
Two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are recognized. The first kind, the free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria, includes the cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc and genera such as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium. The second kind comprises the mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria; examples include Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants (e.g., various members of the pea family); Frankia, associated with certain dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants); and certain Azospirillum species, associated with cereal grasses.
The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to ammonia, which the host plant utilizes for its development. To ensure sufficient nodule formation and optimum growth of legumes (e.g., alfalfa, beans, clovers, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated with commercial cultures of appropriate Rhizobium species, especially in soils poor or lacking in the required bacterium.
Due to the many positive feedbacks obtained for RealStrong fertilizer formulations, All Cosmos Industries have set up and exclusive research center in Malaysia on the different microorganisms in RealStrong fertilizers. RealStrong fertilizers are manufactured based

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: Why are artificial nitrogen fertilisers used and how do they affect sustainability?
In many natural environments nitrogen is the primary factor in limiting plant growth (provided there is sufficient water supply and an absence of pests and disease). It is an essential macronutrient for plant metabolic pathways, protein synthesis and is a major component of chlorophyll. Although nitrogen accounts for 78% air, plants can only utilise reduced sources of this element such as the inorganic forms of ammonium (NH4–) and nitrate (NO3–) salts from soil. In order to become available for uptake, plants rely on a process of nitrogen fixation which is carried out naturally by fixation microorganisms. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria symbiotically associate with particular plant groups such as rhizobium bacteria and legumes. Despite this only about 2% of soil nitrogen is naturally found in inorganic form.
As with any business, farmers seek to maximise profit and typically in cropping systems this equates to optimising yield. In wheat systems, high yields of high quality grain (i.e. high % nitrogen content) requires high input and uptake of nitrogen (Barraclough et al., 2010). Whilst grain and fertiliser price ratios are favourable, farmers are driven to apply high levels of nitrogen above those that are most efficient for crop stability in an effort to maximise potential yields and returns.
The process of nitrogen fixation is energy intensive since it requires the breaking of the triple covalent bond of N2 and as in nature, the industrial manufacture of nitrogen fertilisers requires significant amounts of energy to break the bonds of N2 molecules.

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Retrieved Text: Azorhizobium caulinodans: A species of AZORHIZOBIUM which forms nodules on the roots of the tropical legume Sesbania rostrata. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Sesbania: A plant genus of the family FABACEAE. Members contain piperidine alkaloids (PIPERIDINES).Rhizobiaceae: A family of gram-negative bacteria which are saprophytes, symbionts, or plant pathogens.Nitrogen Fixation: The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.Fabaceae: The large family of plants characterized by pods. Some are edible and some cause LATHYRISM or FAVISM and other forms of poisoning. Other species yield useful materials like gums from ACACIA and various LECTINS like PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS from PHASEOLUS. Many of them harbor NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria on their roots. Many but not all species of "beans" belong to this family.Azorhizobium: A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped, obligate aerobes which are motile by peritrichous flagella on solid medium and one lateral flagellum in liquid medium. Under microaerobic conditions Azorhizobium fixes nitrogen. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Xanthobacter: A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria found in wet soil containing decaying organic material and in water. Cells tend to be pleomorphic if grown on media containing succinate or coccoid if grown in the presence of an alcohol as the sole carbon source. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)ThioglucosidesPlants, Medicinal: Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.Flavanones: A group of FLAVONOIDS characterized with

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Retrieved Text: Which products do we offer?
What does your crop need?
How can you improve your performance?
Along with carbon, nitrogen is a fundamental component of organic matter. Although 78% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, our nitrogen requirements can only be met with plant or animal protein. Other than legumes, plants only have access to nitrogen at the end of the mineralisation process of organic matter. Agriculture was revolutionised by the discovery, over a century ago, of the ammonia manufacturing process by combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (Haber-Bosch process, 1918 and 1931 Nobel prize-winners). Without such mineral nitrogen, the world’s farming output would be reduced by half.
Along with other elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc.), nitrogen is a constituent of the amino acids that build up proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element for cell constitution and for photosynthesis (chlorophyll). It is the main factor in plant growth. It has an influence on quality, mainly on the protein content of plants.
Nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3-) dissolved in the soil solution. Organic, ammonia or urea nitrogen present in the soil gradually turns into the nitrate form as a result of different microbial and physical-chemical processes. By absorbing water from the soil to make up for evaporation losses, the plant passively absorbs the nitrates present in a flow that rises up to the leaves. Here, the nitrates are reduced and reorganised in organic form, and then redistributed throughout the plant.
Nitrogen is generally the first factor limiting plant growth, with the exception of

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What does molecules of tRNA bringing amino acids in the correct sequence manufacture?" and the following answer choices: 
- Cooking
 - Energy
 - spectrum
 - lmestone
 - Energy.
 - food
 - protein
 - alleles

Now knowing that molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence and proteins are manufactured at the ribosomes, choose the best answer.

Target Text: protein

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The genetic code specifies the amino acids that are assembled to make polypeptides. The way that DNA codes for polypeptides is central to our understanding of how cells and organisms function.
A polypeptide is coded for by a gene and that a gene is a sequence of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA molecule.
The sequence of bases in a DNA molecule is a code that determines the sequence in which amino acids are linked together when making a protein molecule. A sequence of DNA nucleotldes that codes for 1 polypeptide, or for 1protein, is known as a gene.
The sequence of amino acids in a protein - its primary structure determines its 3-dimensional shape and therefore its properties and functions. For example, the primary structure of an enzyme determines the shape of its active site, and therefore the substrate with which it can bind.
There are 20 amino acids. Because there are 4 bases, there are 43 - 64 different possible combinations of bases in a triplet. Some amino acids therefore are coded for by more than 1 triplet. For example, the triplets AAA and AAG both code for the amino acid phenylalanine. The code is therefore said to be degenerate.
Proteins are made on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, by linking together amino acids through peptide bonds. The sequence in which the amino acids are linked is determined by the sequence of bases on a length of DNA in the nucleus.
The first step in protein synthesis is the transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA gene in

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Retrieved Text: After splicing, the mRNA moves through the pores in the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm. Although the nuclear pores allow the diffusion of small molecules and ions between the nucleus and cytoplasm, they have specific energy-dependent mechanisms for the selective transport of large molecules such as proteins and RNA.
In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds to a ribosome, the cell organelle that contains the enzymes and other components required for the translation of mRNA's coded message into protein. Before describing this assembly process, we will examine the structure of a ri-bosome and the characteristics of two additional classes of RNA involved in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes and rRNA As described in Chapter 3, ri-bosomes are small granules in the cytoplasm, either suspended in the cytosol (free ribosomes) or attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes). A typical cell may contain 10 million ribosomes.
A ribosome is a complex particle composed of about 80 different proteins in association with a class of RNA molecules known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The genes for rRNA are transcribed from DNA in a process similar to that for mRNA except that a different RNA polymerase is used. Ribosomal RNA transcription occurs in the region of the nucleus known as the nucleolus. Ribosomal proteins, like other proteins, are synthesized in the cytoplasm from the mRNAs specific for them. These proteins then move back through nuclear pores to the nucleolus where they combine with newly synthesized rRNA to form two ribosomal subunits, one large and one small. These subunits are then individually transported to the

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Retrieved Text: The struggle to understand the earliest stages of life on Earth is real.
Scientists have long wondered how the complex process of using genetic code to “translate” DNA-based information into proteins arose billions of years ago.
Now, a pair of theoretical biologists are one step closer to solving the mystery.
Biochemistry professors Charles Carter and Peter Wills analyzed modern translational molecules—specifically transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA)—to reveal ancient guidelines for interaction.
Using advanced statistical methods, the team studied the partnership between transfer and messenger RNAs. The science of which is fairly simple (she says, before typing a convoluted explanation).
Cloverleaf-shaped tRNAs carry amino acid onto a sort of assembly line of protein production, housed within molecular factories called ribosomes. Inside, it meets mRNAs—strings of genetic “letters” that spell protein-making instructions.
Each tRNA recognizes and binds to a specific three-letter sequence, called a codon. The ribosome then links its amino acid to the one that came before, creating a growing chain that, once complete, is released as a newborn protein.
Most life forms (including humans) are made from 20 different amino acids, which means there are 20 distinct types of tRNA molecules, and 20 matching synthetases helper enzymes, drifting around inside us.
“You can think of these 20 synthetases and 20 tRNAs collectively as a molecular computer that evolution has designed to make gene-to-protein translation happen,” Carter explained.
But, according to the researchers, that wasn’t always the case.
As described in their study, published by the journal Nucleic Acids Research, organisms once contained just two types of tRNA, which worked with two types of synthetases

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Retrieved Text: LA JOLLA, CA – December 23, 2012 – The mysterious inner workings of Chang Shan—a Chinese herbal medicine used for thousands of years to treat fevers associated with malaria—have been uncovered thanks to a high-resolution structure solved at The Scripps Research Institute (TSRI).
Described in the journal Nature this week, the structure shows in atomic detail how a two-headed compound derived from the active ingredient in Chang Shan works. Scientists have known that this compound, called halofuginone (a derivative of the febrifugine), can suppress parts of the immune system—but nobody knew exactly how.
The new structure shows that, like a wrench in the works, halofuginone jams the gears of a molecular machine that carries out "aminoacylation," a crucial biological process that allows organisms to synthesize the proteins they need to live. Chang Shan, also known as Dichroa febrifuga Lour, probably helps with malarial fevers because traces of a halofuginone-like chemical in the herb interfere with this same process in malaria parasites, killing them in an infected person's bloodstream.
Scripps Research Institute scientists have determined a molecular structure that helps explain how the Chinese herbal medicine Chang Shan works.
Aminoacylation is a crucial step in the synthesis of proteins, the end products of gene expression. When genes are expressed, their DNA sequence is first read and transcribed into RNA, a similar molecule. The RNA is then translated into proteins, which are chemically very different from DNA and RNA but are composed of chains of amino acid molecules strung together in the order called for in the DNA.
Necessary for this translation process

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Retrieved Text: Protein synthesis refers to the construction of proteins by the living cells. Comprising two primary parts (transcription and translation), the process of protein synthesis involves ribonucleic acids (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), enzymes, and ribosomes.
Proteins are important organic compounds present in living organisms. They are essential in almost all cell functions. Specific proteins are involved with particular functions. Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids, which are either arranged in a linear pattern, or folded to form a complex structure. Based on the structural complexity, structure of proteins is classified into four types - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Also, the types of amino acids play a crucial role in determining the expression of genes in this process.
Protein synthesis is a biological procedure performed by living cells to manufacture proteins in a step-by-step manner. Many times, it is used to denote translation, which otherwise is a primary part in the protein synthesis process. When studied in detail, the synthesis process is very complex. The process itself begins with production of different amino acids, out of which some are derived from food sources.
Protein synthesis comprises two major parts - transcription and translation. The process involves ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and a set of enzymes. All types of ribonucleic acids, namely messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), and transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) are required for protein synthesis.
It is the first part in the process of protein synthesis. It takes place in the cell nucleus, where deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is housed in the

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Retrieved Text: A examine the following steps in protein synthesis and place them thesis statement ideas for beowulf rifle in the correct order in which they occur. step 1: either way, the information contained in the dna can also undergo translation to produce a sequence of amino acids. the mrna is then sent out of my favorite subject history essay topics the nucleus and to the ribosomes. status: trna tnct gates homework market reads the mrna f. they must kershaw clash serrated review journal newspaper appreciate capital punishment essay abstract examples how the sequence of bases in steps of protein synthesis in order for kids the dna molecule determines the structure of proteins, including enzymes. each trna attaches steps of protein synthesis in order for kids to only one type of shelby steele essays on friendship amino acid (correct translation of mrna depends on the joining of each mrna codon with the correct trna. this reaction is brought about by proper written essays on a hero …. 1 protein synthesis – elmhurst college. protein synthesis the steps:.

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Retrieved Text: Concept 21 RNA is an intermediary between DNA and protein.
HI! RNA acts as the information bridge between DNA and protein. mRNA is the message that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm. tRNA is the adaptor that reads the mRNA and brings the amino acids to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that makes RNA using a DNA template. Like DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase adds nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction. Let's try an example. If Gene X begins with this T on the DNA, what is the corresponding mRNA sequence? No, this is the DNA sequence of the strand complementary to the gene. The mRNA is a complementary copy of the DNA gene but RNA uses uracil instead of thymine. mRNA is also made in the 5' to 3' direction. What happens if we introduce a point mutation —where one nucleotide is changed to another — in the DNA sequence of the gene? Messenger RNA is a copy of the genetic information on DNA. Any changes in the DNA sequence will be reflected in the mRNA sequence. The tRNA sequence does not change since tRNA does not carry the genetic information. In this case, the single DNA-base change causes the resulting protein sequence to change at one amino acid — — you'll learn more about how the genetic code is translated in the next concept. Another change that could occur in the DNA sequence is a deletion causing one or more bases to be cut

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Retrieved Text: On this page you will learn how DNA is merely an instruction of how to make a protein.
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid there are several different types, and are distinguished by a small letter in front of the RNA. It is similar to DNA, and is made up of nucleotides, but with a few important differences.
It is only a single strand of nucleotides, rather than a double like DNA.
The sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
Where DNA has the base Thymine, RNA has Uracil (U).
The first step is for the DNA to unwind, now RNA polymerase goes along the strand with the genetic code and catalyses the mRNA nucleotides together making a copy of the genetic sequence (like a negative in photography).
The mRNA molecules peel away from the DNA and leave the nucleus and into the cytoplasm. The purpose of transcription was to make a copy of the code since the DNA is the master copy and too previous to leave the nucleus.
At this stage the genetic code in the mRNA molecule is used to build a polypeptide, which can then be used for a protein or enzyme. It could even become one of the enzymes which helps in protein synthesis.
Floating around in the cytoplasm are ribosomes and tRNA molecules. This tRNA is attached to a specific amino acid at the top, and at the bottom is has an anti codon.
The anti-codon is complimentary to the codon on the mRNA, for example, the first codon on the mRNA is AUG, the anti-codon on the tRNA would be

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Retrieved Text: The process by which proteins and peptides are synthesized from messenger RNA.
A nucleic acid composed of deoxyribonucleotides that carries the genetic information of a cell. Generally occurs at two intertwined strands, but these can be seperated.
One of a class of RNA molecules that have a anticodon at one end and an amino acid bonding site at the other. Each tRNA picks up a specific amino acid and binds to the corresponding codon in messenger RNA during translation.
The sequence of three bases (triplets) in a transfer RNA molecule that can bind to a mRNA codon with a complementary sequence.
A small organic molecule with a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side group. Proteins are polymers of 20 common amino acids.
Diffusion of a solute across a semi-permeable cell membrane.
Cell that contains a membrane enclosed nucleus.
Membrane-bound compartments within a cell.
The shrinkage of the cell membrane from the cell wall.
Speed up the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.
Chemicals that bind to the active site to change the conformation of the site so that it cannot bind with the substrate.
Used to detect and measure the amount of light absorption at a specific wavelength.
Wavelength where the substance absorbs most strongly.
The bond between two amino acids.
Large numbers of bonded amino acids.
Substances that donate free H+.
Substances that either donate free OH- or accept free H+.
Substances that prevent dramatic pH shifts in solutions. Consist of a weak acid and its conjugate base.
Special enzymes that cut DNA samples at very specific base

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Retrieved Text: The genetic code shapes the genetic repository. Its origin has puzzled molecular scientists for over half a century and remains a long-standing mystery. Here we show that the origin of the genetic code is tightly coupled to the history of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes and their interactions with tRNA. A timeline of evolutionary appearance of protein domain families derived from a structural census in hundreds of genomes reveals the early emergence of the ‘operational’ RNA code and the late implementation of the standard genetic code. The emergence of codon specificities and amino acid charging involved tight coevolution of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and tRNA structures as well as episodes of structural recruitment. Remarkably, amino acid and dipeptide compositions of single-domain proteins appearing before the standard code suggest archaic synthetases with structures homologous to catalytic domains of tyrosyl-tRNA and seryl-tRNA synthetases were capable of peptide bond formation and aminoacylation. Results reveal that genetics arose through coevolutionary interactions between polypeptides and nucleic acid cofactors as an exacting mechanism that favored flexibility and folding of the emergent proteins. These enhancements of phenotypic robustness were likely internalized into the emerging genetic system with the early rise of modern protein structure.
Copyright: © 2013 Caetano-Anollés et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation grants MCB-0749836 and OISE-1132791 and CREES-United States Department of Agriculture (all to GCA). The funders

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to proteins with the aid of tRNA. In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria. Proteins synthesized in each of these locations serve a different role in the cell. In prokaryotes, ribosomes can be found in the cytosol as well. This protein-synthesizing organelle is the only organelle found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, asserting the fact that the ribosome is a trait that evolved early on, most likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that only bind together during protein synthesis. The purpose of the ribosome is to take the actual message and the charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate the protein. To do so, they have three binding sites. One is for the mRNA; the other two are for the tRNA. The binding sites for tRNA are the A site, which holds the aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and the P site, which binds to the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain.
Peptide synthesis by a ribosome.: The ribosome assembles amino acids into a protein. The specific amino acids are controlled by the mRNA sequence. This is required by all living cells

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Retrieved Text: The widespread use of antibiotics in modern society has led to a sharp rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria. As a result, much research has focused on creating new compounds to fight these bacteria.
Borrelidin was isolated from the bacteria Streptomyces about 50 years ago. The compound has broad antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, anticancer, insecticidal, and herbicidal activities. It works by interfering with a type of essential enzyme called tRNA synthetase. These enzymes help cells make proteins through a process called translation. Their role is to attach amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) to molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs), which help add amino acids to a growing protein chain. Borrelidin blocks the action of threonyl-tRNA synthetase, thereby preventing the amino acid L-threonine from linking to its tRNA. The linking reaction occurs at the enzyme’s active site and also involves the energy molecule ATP.
A research team led by Dr. Min Guo of the Scripps Research Institute investigated how borrelidin interferes with threonyl-tRNA synthetase. They used a technique called X-ray crystallography to decipher the structure of the enzyme when borrelidin interacts with it. The study was funded in part by NIH’s National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS). Results appeared inNature Communications on March 31, 2015.
The researchers found that borrelidin simultaneously occupies the enzyme binding sites for L-threonine, tRNA, and ATP. Thus, the compound blocks all 3 molecules from the synthetase’s active site. As a result, L-threonine can’t be linked to its tRNA, and protein translation fails.
The researchers determined that borrelidin binding also

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Retrieved Text: A gene codes for a protein that is 500 amino acids long. Which of the following mutations is likely to be the most deleterious?
In most bacterial operons, such as the lac operon, which of the following DNA segments is responsible for controlling whether the operon is off or on?
Is the following statement true of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells or both? One gene can encode multiple different proteins (different in amino acid sequence).
Which of the RNA molecules brings the new amino acids to the growing protein chain?
Which of the following terms refers to a region of a chromosome that has a specific function?
Which of these is not used in DNA replication?
there is no change in the condensation level.
They are proteins that regulate translation.
They are regions of the gene that regulate transcription.
They are proteins that regulate transcription.
They are regions of the gene that regulate translation.
The accumulation of mutations in the DNA sequence.
The epigenome refers to changes in DNA expression due to changes in DNA packaging.
Which DNA sequences must a synthetic gene contain in order for the gene to be inserted into the expression plasmid?
Is the following statement true of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells or both? Multiple genes can be transcribed together into a single mRNA.
is responsible for the replication of mRNA.
allows the bacteria to duplicate the plasmid.
Is the position where the base number begins at 1.
allows for growth of plasmid containing bacteria in the presence of antibiotics.
Replication of each strand occurs in which direction.
A codon in the middle of an mRNA strand was mutated from UGU to UGA.

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Retrieved Text: The process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into RNA is called transcription. Here also, the principle of complementarity governs the process of transcription. However, unlike in the process of replication, which once set in, the total DNA of an organism gets duplicated, in transcription only a segment of DNA and only one of the strands is copied into RNA. This necessitates defining the boundaries that would demarcate the region and the strand of DNA that would be transcribed.
Why both the strands are not copied during transcription has the simple answer. First, if both strands act a template, they would code for RNA molecule with different sequences, and in turn, if they code for proteins, the sequence of amino acids in the proteins would be different. Hence, one segment of the DNA would be coding for two different proteins, and this would complicate the genetic information transfer machinery. Second, if two RNA molecules are produced simultaneously, they would be complementary to each other; and would end up forming a double-stranded RNA. This would prevent translation of RNA into protein.
The promoter and terminator flank the structural gene in a transcription unit. The promoter is said to be located towards 5'-end (upstream) of the structural gene. The terminator is located towards 3'-end (downstream) of the coding strand and it usually defines the end of the process of transcription. There are additional regulatory sequences that may be present further upstream or downstream to the promoter.
A gene is defined as the functional unit of inheritance. Though

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Retrieved Text: Translation, or decoding, of the four-nucleotide language of DNA and mRNA into the 20–amino acid language of proteins requires tRNAs and enzymes called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. To participate in protein synthesis, a tRNA molecule must become chemically linked to a particular amino acid via a high-energy bond, forming an aminoacyl-tRNA; the anticodon in the tRNA then base-pairs with a codon in mRNA so that the activated amino acid can be added to the growing polypeptide chain.
Some 30–40 different tRNAs have been identified in bacterial cells and as many as 50–100 in animal and plant cells. Thus the number of tRNAs in most cells is more than the number of amino acids used in protein synthesis (20) and also differs from the number of amino acid codons in the genetic code (61). Consequently, many amino acids have more than one tRNA to which they can attach ; in addition, many tRNAs can pair with more than one codon.
If perfect Watson-Crick base pairing were demanded between codons and anticodons, cells would have to contain exactly 61 different tRNA species, one for each codon that specifies an amino acid. As noted above, however, many cells contain fewer than 61 tRNAs.
What is the explanation for the smaller number of tRNA than codons codons?
In the table Cricks predictions are compared to the pairings found in experiments.
Watson-Crick base pairing can be violated by wobble base pairing.
The 5' of the anticodon has more freedom in binding, that is why, for many amino acids, the last part of the codon has more possible characters.
Not the

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Retrieved Text: The primary molecules of life exist in one specific form even though ordinary chemical reactions produce equal amount of both mirror forms. Living organisms contain complex enzymes that specifically produce molecules of only one form. This article discusses the problems associated the generation of specific Either of a pair of optical compounds whose molecular structures have a mirror-image relationship to each other.enantiomers of A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acids or sugars within naturalistic origin of life theories. Since the jargon is necessarily specific to the topic, you may want to review the concepts and terminology of introductory The branch of science that studies the structure and activity of macromolecules essential to life (and especially related to their genetic role).molecular biology in order to understand the concepts.
All living organisms are based upon certain "mirror" forms of A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acids and sugars. Although normal chemical reactions produce right and left mirrors in equal amounts ("An optical compound that contains an equal mixture of right- and left-handed forms.racemic" mixtures), life uses specialized molecular machinery to produce only right handed forms of sugars and left handed forms of A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks"

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Retrieved Text: What Are mRNA, rRNA and tRNA?
RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a linear polymer of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and uracil that is created in the cell by a process called transcription, and it differs from DNA in several ways. First, the ribose sugars on DNA nucleotides are short one hydroxyl group compared to RNA, hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid. This key modification makes RNA much more chemically reactive. Second, DNA uses thymine to base pair with cytosine, while RNA uses uracil. Third, DNA tends to form into a helix of double-stranded nucleotides, with base pairs making up the "rungs" of the helical ladder. RNA can be found in single-stranded form, but it more commonly forms complex three-dimensional structures, and this feature usually serves to confer functionality on RNA molecules.
RNA transcription is a process mediated by RNA polymerase, an enzyme that creates an RNA complement to template DNA with the help of a complex of proteins. Transcription is heavily regulated by promoter elements and inhibitors. All three types of RNA are synthesized in this manner.
mRNA, or messenger RNA, is the link between a gene and a protein. The gene is transcribed by RNA polymerase, and the resulting mRNA travels to the cytoplasm, where it is translated by ribosomes into a protein with the help of tRNA. This form of RNA is extensively altered post-transcriptionally with modifications such as methylguanosine caps and polyadenosine tails. Eukaryotic mRNA frequently includes introns which must be spliced out of the message to form the mature mRNA molecule.
rRNA, or ribosomal RNA, is a major

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Retrieved Text: Ambrx is harnessing the power of introducing non-native amino acids through an expanded genetic code to both generate novel bio-therapeutics and to optimize the performance of bio-conjugated peptides, therapeutic proteins, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and bi- and multi-specific medicines.
Our technology platforms combine the power of conventional medicinal chemistry with cutting edge recombinant DNA-based protein biosynthesis. It allows us to incorporate non-native amino acids at selected sites in natural proteins as they are being made within the cells. These amino acids bear selectively linkable and (bioorthogonal) chemical groups that enable the precise and site-specific modification of therapeutic peptides, proteins, mAbs and mAb fragments. This approach, novel in the field, allows us to impart new functionality and empower the properties of cutting-edge biotech drugs.
We have engineered into the cell lines new tRNA/tRNA synthetase pairs (Orthogonal Sets) that specifically recognize and incorporate non-natural amino acids at positions we define in the therapeutic proteins. These amino acids can be specifically chemically modified, allowing us to add functionality and empower the protein. Our protein engineers, working side-by-side with functional biologists, are able to survey the surface of proteins, optimize the site of attachment and create protein conjugates with enhanced therapeutic activity. This Protein Medicinal Chemistry™ can be performed on any therapeutic protein or antibody using one of our proprietary bacterial (ReCODE™), or yeast and mammalian (EuCODE™) expression systems. We use ReCODE™ to create long acting therapeutic peptides and proteins and modified antibody and bi-specific fragments. We use EuCODE™ to create both larger and more complex proteins where the function may be critically

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Retrieved Text: This glossary lists terms you may come across when reading about peptides, peptide synthesis and amino acids.
Two or more amino acids chained together by a bond called a "peptide bond".
A biological or chemical process in which amino acids are added stepwise to a chain by the formation of a peptide bond between a carboxyl group on one amino acid and a free amino group on another amino acid. The formation of each peptide bond is energetically favorable because the growing carboxyl terminus is activated by the covalent attachment of a tRNA molecule.
An organic high polymer that is an amphoteric biopolymer consisting of amino acids joined by peptide linkages. Genetic code determines the order of the twenty possible amino acids used in protein synthesis, and thus the protein's structure and function. Proteins are the principal constituents of cellular material and serve as enzymes, hormones, structural elements, and antibodies. Protein is involved in electron and oxygen transport, muscle contraction, and other bodily activities.
Peptides in which the amino-acid sequence forms a ring structure rather than a straight chain, such as the antibiotics tyrocidin and gramicidin.
An amino acid is any molecule that contains both amine and carboxyl functional groups. Alpha-amino acids are the building blocks from which proteins are constructed.
Synthesis of a protein, directed by the genetic code, which occurs by translation of mRNA into protein via tRNA. The ribosome attaches to the mRNA, using it as a template.
The order in which amino acid residues connected by peptide bonds.
The amide linkage between the alpha-amino group of one amino acid and

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Retrieved Text: HEIDELBERG, Germany, 10 May 2010 – The European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) today announced the award of the EMBO Gold Medal 2010 to Jason W. Chin from the Medical Research Council’s Laboratory of Molecular Biology (MRC-LMB).
Chin receives the award for his pioneering work on reprogramming the genetic code. Chin’s work allows designer amino acids to be encoded at specific, predetermined positions in proteins in vivo, enabling molecular biologists to control and elucidate the functions of proteins in cells with unprecedented precision.
Each year, the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) awards the EMBO Gold Medal - widely regarded as one of the most prestigious life sciences awards in Europe - to recognize the outstanding contributions of young researchers in the molecular life sciences.
Chin’s work “identifies him as an outstanding molecular biologist of his generation,” commented Paul Nurse, President of Rockefeller University. “Jason is one of the most brilliant, original and imaginative scientists I know,” added Venki Ramakrishnan, who is also at MRC-LMB.
Chin’s work centers on reprogramming the genetic code – the code of life that contains the information necessary for synthesizing molecules that allow organisms to survive and replicate. DNA is copied to messenger RNA in cells; triplet codons in the messenger RNA (mRNA) are then decoded in the process of translation to make proteins composed of a canon of 20 naturally occurring amino acids.
With his group of researchers at the MRC-LMB, Chin is rewriting this central dogma to create organisms that synthesize proteins containing designer amino acids. He has developed molecular biology tools to incorporate the designer

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Retrieved Text: Genetic inheritance refers to the passing of genes and traits to offspring from their parents. This is the process by which cells or organism of an offspring obtains or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent organism or cell. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and make some species evolve. In humans, color of eyes is an example of the inherited features (Youngson, 2012). One might inherit the brown-eye trait from one of his or her parents. The inherited traits are controlled be genes. Heritable traits are passed from generation to the next one via DNA. This essay seeks to connect genetic traits to the structure of DNA. The paper will explain how DNA through the process of protein synthesis is responsible for the ultimate expression of the traits in an organism. Additionally, the paper seeks to provide a description of how errors in protein synthesis disrupts various processes in the human body and the relation of enzymes to proper nutrition (Muers, 2012).
The Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) acts as an organism’s instruction manual for making individuals who they are. DNA is present in all living beings. DNA carries the instructions for the synthesis of the body’s structures and materials required for normal functioning. Every organism is comprised of cells with the same DNA. This make every organism unique. Every individual has cells that contain the same DNA. DNA has ability to self-replicate and to generate an identical duplicate of itself. The nucleic acid consists of double long nucleotide chains. The chains are twisted into

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Retrieved Text: Loss of a Conserved tRNA Anticodon Modification Perturbs Plant Immunity.
Home » Topics » Immunology » Research » Loss of a Conserved tRNA Anticodon Modification Perturbs Plant Immunity.
Summary of "Loss of a Conserved tRNA Anticodon Modification Perturbs Plant Immunity."
tRNA is the most highly modified class of RNA species, and modifications are found in tRNAs from all organisms that have been examined. Despite their vastly different chemical structures and their presence in different tRNAs, occurring in different locations in tRNA, the biosynthetic pathways of the majority of tRNA modifications include a methylation step(s). Recent discoveries have revealed unprecedented complexity in the modification patterns of tRNA, their regulation and function, suggesting that each modified nucleoside in tRNA may have its own specific function. However, in plants, our knowledge on the role of individual tRNA modifications and how they are regulated is very limited. In a genetic screen designed to identify factors regulating disease resistance and activation of defenses in Arabidopsis, we identified SUPPRESSOR OF CSB3 9 (SCS9). Our results reveal SCS9 encodes a tRNA methyltransferase that mediates the 2´-O-ribose methylation of selected tRNA species in the anticodon loop. These SCS9-mediated tRNA modifications enhance during the course of infection with the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000, and lack of such tRNA modification, as observed in scs9 mutants, severely compromise plant immunity against the same pathogen without affecting the salicylic acid (SA) signaling pathway which regulates plant immune responses. Our results support a model that gives importance to the control of certain tRNA modifications for mounting an effective immune response in

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Retrieved Text: Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are a central and necessary component for the biological synthesis of new proteins, and they are among the most highly conserved and most frequently transcribed sequences across all of life. Despite their clear significance for fundamental cellular processes, however, the forces governing tRNA evolution are poorly understood. Here, we present evidence that transcription-associated mutagenesis and strong purifying selection are key determinants of patterns of sequence polymorphism and divergence within and surrounding tRNA genes across several diverse model organisms. Remarkably, our results indicate that the mutation rate at broadly expressed tRNA loci is between 8.7 and 13.8 times greater than the genome-wide average. Furthermore, evolutionary analyses provide strong evidence that tRNA loci, but not their flanking sequences, experience strong purifying selection, acting in direct response to this elevated mutation rate. Finally, we also find a highly significant correlation between tRNA expression levels and the mutation rates in their immediate flanking regions, suggesting the possibility of predicting gene expression levels based on relative mutation rates and sequence variation data among tRNA gene loci. Our results provide novel insight into individual tRNA gene evolution, and imply that tRNA loci contribute disproportionately to mutational load in human populations.
Significance Statement tRNAs are essential for the production of all proteins in all tissues across life and are therefore among the most highly transcribed loci in the genome. Our study shows that the frequent transcription of tRNAs results in a highly elevated mutation rate at tRNA loci that is between 8- and 14-fold higher for tRNAs than for the rest

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Retrieved Text: The Ribosomes Are small corpuscles that are responsible for the synthesis of proteins. They are parts of the cell found in large quantities and therefore abundant in those membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, where ergatoplasma forms. Its shape is oblong (longer than wide) and its size is 250 x 150 ångström (equivalent to about 20 or 30 nanometers in diameter).
Looking at the microscope, the ribosomes are shaped like dark grains, both in the endoplasmic reticulum, in the nuclear membrane and in the cytosol. This is indisputable proof of their high number, which can rise (per cell) to several million. The cytoplasmic corpuscles form a component that is constant in the matrix of the cell, which is close to this endoplasmic reticulum and more specifically in the excretory cells in which granular masses are formed.
Therefore, it can be said that ribosomes are never in a state of isolation, but always tend to concentrate, to form very dense accumulations of granules that not in vain cover the rough endoplasmic reticulum (the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, Is free of these corpuscles). However, ribosomes may also wander in the cytoplasm or may be associated with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. This means that ribosomes make up a complex in the cell structure.
This complex is mainly characterized by being ribonucleoproteic, ie, ribosomes are composed of a ribonucleotide that is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and proteins that, in equal parts, are accompanied by minimal amounts of lipids (organic compounds that have Fatty acids, for example cholesterol).
Ribosomes, in themselves, are

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Retrieved Text: New research now explains how 'editing' defects occur during translation of a genetic code and influence the removal of certain amindo acids attached to tRNA. Understanding this underlying mechanism is important as such defects result in disease conditions including neurodegeneration.
Proofreading or editing mechanisms play a crucial role in the faithful flow of information as dictated by the genetic code. The process of 'editing' by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases is an important step in the accurate translation of the genetic code that removes noncognate amino acids attached to tRNA. While editing, the cognate amino acids larger by a methyl group are generally rejected.
Using solution-based direct binding studies, NMR-heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) and isothermal titration calorimetry experiments, the researchers showed that the cognate substrate can bind to the editing pocket. High-resolution crystal structural analyses revealed the key for the mechanism– the amino acids are rejected on the basis of functional positioning of substrates rather than steric exclusion.
The researchers say a strategically positioned 'catalytic water' molecule is excluded to avoid hydrolysis of the cognate substrate using a 'RNA mediated substrate-assisted catalysis mechanism' at the editing site. The critical role of RNA in proofreading activity is a unique solution to the problem of cognate-noncognate selection mechanism.
The study opens up an interesting question on the fundamental mechanism of discrimination of cognate amino acids at the proofreading step.

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Retrieved Text: Y O R K m i n d - b o d y H E A LT H www.yorknutritionaltherapy.co.uk 01904 435 267 Glyn Blackett What Is Protein?
About half the dry weight of your body is We obtain our amino acid building blocks, from protein. There are thousands of different kinds of which our cells build our proteins, from dietaryprotein molecules, performing a variety of protein. Plants and animals like us are built from functions. Most protein is structural – it makes protein. We don’t use dietary protein molecules up skin, hair, bone and teeth. Enzymes – directly - rather they are broken down in the molecules which drive chemical reactions in the process of digestion into the constituent amino body – are mostly proteins. Other examples are: Haemoglobin – found in red blood cells, it is Actually the body can make several amino acids vital for transporting oxygen to cells.
from others, but eight of the twenty-two are Insulin – a hormone or signalling molecule.
acids are semi-essential meaning they can’t be A protein molecule is made up of a sequence of basic building blocks called amino acids, joined Fully meeting the body’s protein needs requires end to end. (The chemical bonds between aminoacids are called peptide bonds.) Protein i You eat adequate amounts of the amino acids, molecules differ in terms of the number of ii Your body can successfully break down the specific sequence. Most proteins are able to protein you eat and absorb the amino acids serve their particular purpose by virtue of the 3D

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Retrieved Text: Deposition Author(s): Singh, A., Gautam, L., Sinha, M., Bhushan, A., Kaur, P., Sharma, S., Singh, T.P.
During the course of protein synthesis in the cell, the translation process is often terminated due to various reasons. As a result, peptidyl-tRNA molecules are released which are toxic to the cell as well reducing the availability of free amino acid and tRNA molecules for the required protein synthesis in the cell. Such a situation is corrected by an enzyme, Pth (peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase), which catalyses the release of free tRNA and peptide moieties from peptidyl-tRNAs. This means that the active Pth is essential for the survival of bacteria. In order to design inhibitors of PaPth (Pth from Pseudomonas aeruginosa), we determined the structures of PaPth in its native and bound states with compounds amino acylate-tRNA analogue and 5-azacytidine. The structure determination of the native protein revealed that the substrate-binding site was partially occupied by Glu161 from the neigh-bouring molecule. The structure of PaPth indicated that the substrate-binding site can be broadly divided into three distinct subsites. The structures of the two complexes showed that the amino acylate-tRNA analogue filled three subsites, whereas 5-azacytidine filled two subsites. The common sugar and the base moieties of the two compounds occupied identical positions in the cleft. Using surface plasmon resonance, the dissociation constants for the amino acylate-tRNA analogue and 5-azacytidine were found to be 3.53×10-8 M and 5.82×10-8 M respectively.
*Department of Biophysics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi, 110029 Delhi, India.

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Retrieved Text: The 20 amino acids that are found within proteins convey a vast array of chemical versatility. The precise amino acid content, and the sequence of those amino acids , of a specific...... • An amino acid contains both a carboxylic group and an amino group. Amino acids that have an amino group bonded directly to the alpha-carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids.
No higher parenteral intakes were reported in the time frame of the literature search. It seems safe to administer amino acids from birth onwards (40,45).... A total of 20 different kinds of amino acids form proteins. The kinds of amino acids determine the shape of the proteins formed. Commonly recognized amino acids include glutamine, glycine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and valine.
When two molecules of amino acids (shown above) condense together to form a bipeptide, a molecule of H 2 O is formed by the combination of OH and H (as shown in the dotted rectangle) and eliminated, and an NC peptide bond is formed. samsung galaxy tab 2 10.1 specifications pdf Then the dilution series of 20 amino acids were analyzed under this LC/MS/MS condition, and the calibration curves obtained excellent sensitivity and the good linearity. In addition, the quantitative analysis of the amino acids contained in sports beverage on the market was carried out.
The hydrophobicity index is a measure of the relative hydrophobicity, or how soluble an amino acid is in water. In a protein, hydrophobic amino acids are likely to be found in the interior, whereas hydrophilic amino acids are likely to be

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Retrieved Text: Table 16.1. Stoichiometric balances for amino acid degradation8.
aTrp was neglected because amounts are small and degradation is usually incomplete. bGlc, glucose; CoA, coenzyme A; 02UP, oxygen uptake; ATAD, total ATP use in animal. cNH4+and NH3 considered identical. dMethyl acceptor neglected.
eSerine inputto path is considered, in program, as in average amino acid. fPT, Phe and Tyr (50:50, wt/wt). 9SAA, sulphur amino acids.
1974). Thus, measurement of the specific radioactivity of an amino acid in this pool is both technically difficult and time consuming.
The vast majority of published rates of protein synthesis are based on the assumption that specific radioactivities (SRA) of amino acids in the aminoacyl-tRNA (SA,), the EC (SAe) and the IC (SA;) pools are similar. Only rarely have investigators measured SAt, or attempted to quantitate the specific radioactivity differences between amino acid pools used for calculation of protein synthetic rates. However, when such measurements have been made, inconsistent results have been obtained. In some in vitro studies, SAt has been shown to be intermediate to SA and SAe, (Airhart et al., 1974, 1981; McKee et al., 1978; Hammer and Rannels, 1981), whereas in others SA, was lower than SAj and SAe (Airhart et al., 1981; Hildebran et al., 1981; Hall and Yee, 1989; Opsahl and Ehrhart, 1987; Schneible and Young, 1984). The interpretation of such data is difficult. Some data support the view that tRNAs are charged by intracellular (IC) amino acids, some that extracellular (EC) amino acids charge tRNAs, and other data that tRNA is acylated by amino acids from protein degrada tion which do

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Retrieved Text: that carry a particular amino acid.
different polypeptides to constitute a functional protein.
nucleosides adenosine, guanosine, cytosine, and uridine.
of the particular RNA molecules.
species of bacterium to another.
the amino acid carried, e.g., tRNAAla for alanine tRNA.
numbered 1 through 76 starting from the 5'-P terminus.
probably contributes to the stability of tRNA.
acid by the cognate synthetase.
. Another loop, containing bases 44-48, is also present.
in the largest tRNA molecule it contains 21 bases.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "animals that begin their lives in what breathe with gills then move elsewhere breathe with lungs" and the following answer choices: 
- breathe
 - water
 - oxygen
 - a fish
 - underground
 - salt flats
 - air
 - jungle

Now knowing that most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults and amphibians begin their lives in the water, choose the best answer.

Target Text: water

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The term "salamander" refers to a collection of amphibian species that keep their tails as adults. Over 380 salamander species are known around the world, and these species vary in many ways. All salamanders go through a four-stage life cycle, from egg to larvae to juvenile to adult. In some species, juvenile salamanders have lungs. However, lungs are not present at the larvae stage of any salamander species.
Salamanders are amphibians, meaning they live part of their lives in water and part of their lives on land. Adult salamanders lay their eggs in water, and these eggs hatch into a larval form that uses gills to breathe underwater. Most amphibian larvae have tails, which are lost during the transition to juvenile or adult; only salamanders keep their tails through maturity. When the larvae change into juveniles, they begin to look similar to their adult versions. In frogs, for example, juveniles begin breathing through lungs and developing legs. The changes between the larval, juvenile and adult stages of salamanders' lives vary by species. However, all of them have gills during the larval stage.
In some salamander species, juveniles lose their gills and develop lungs. The blue-spotted salamander is one example. These salamanders attach their egg masses to twigs or plants that lie in water so when their larvae hatch they are in the water. The larvae have visible gills on the outside of their bodies. When they become juveniles, however, they lose their fins and gills (both are absorbed into their bodies) and they begin to breathe through their

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Retrieved Text: Frogs, like salamanders, newts and toads, are amphibians. Most amphibians begin their life cycles as water-dwelling animals, complete with gills for breathing underwater. As they grow to adulthood, amphibians normally become land-dwelling creatures, lose their gills and develop lungs for breathing. Frogs are no exception to this process and are able to breathe through their lungs once they reach adulthood.
Frogs still in the larval stage, called tadpoles, are very different in outward appearance and internal physiology from their adult counterparts. Most notable is the presence of gills instead of lungs during this stage. Tadpoles can also take in oxygen through their skin, a trait that aids in gas exchange (bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, as with lung respiration) while the tadpole is living completely underwater.
As a frog matures from tadpole to adult, it loses its gills and develops functioning lungs. During this transition, and after maturity, frogs are still able to breathe through their skin. This trait is known as “bimodal breathing,” in which an animal uses two different systems for bringing in oxygen. These two different breathing systems allow adult frogs to shift between aquatic habitats (which require skin respiration) and land habitats (which are more suited to lung respiration) with ease.
An adult frog’s thin and permeable skin allows it to take in oxygen, even when completely submerged. Oxygen readily passes through this thin membrane-like skin, providing the frog with the oxygen it needs to stay alive under water without the need for gills. Because of the permeability of a frog’s skin, moisture

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Retrieved Text: If You Want How Do Fish Gills Work Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Fish use their gills to extract oxygen from the water. So they need them as much as you need your lungs. The main difference between lungs and gills (other than water vs. air) is that lungs are tidal - air flows in one way, and back out the other way.
Why Do Fish Have Gills? Fish have gills because these organs are used to extract oxygen from the surrounding water in which a fish lives. Gills are different from lungs because gills generally work unidirectionally: water moves in one direction across the gills in order for the organs to extract oxygen.
Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called the operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Fish have gills because they need them to survive underwater. Gills absorb oxygen from the water just like we absorb oxygen from the air. At some point way back in time, the ancestors of fish needed to be able to breathe underwater, and those that evolved gills were able to.
A fish breathes by taking water into its mouth and forcing it out through the gill passages. As water passes over the thin walls of the gills, dissolved oxygen moves into the blood and travels to the fish's cells. If fish can breathe underwater, then why

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Life > Fish > How do fish breathe?
"How do fish breathe?." Life, Fish, Q-files Encyclopedia, 4 Nov. 2016.
Life, Fish, s.v. "How do fish breathe?," accessed April 20, 2019.
To breathe, fish open their mouths, and take in water that contains oxygen (1). When they pump it out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over the gills and tiny blood vessels extract the oxygen (2).
Most kinds of fish cannot survive out of water, because they do not have lungs to breathe air. Instead, they are able to filter oxygen from the water around them using slits in their heads called gills. To breathe, fish open their mouths and take in water that contains oxygen. When they pump the water out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over feathery filaments (thread-like fibres) in the gills. These filaments contain blood vessels with thin walls through which oxygen from the water passes into the blood. At the same time, waste carbon dioxide in the blood passes into the water. Bony fish usually have a hard protective flap over their gills, called the operculum. It controls the flow of water through the gills so that the maximum amount of oxygen is absorbed.
Gills removed from a fish’s head. We are looking towards the mouth, which is pointed directly away from us.
Bony fish have a single external gill opening on either side of their heads. Most have five pairs of gills. Sharks and rays—cartilaginous fish—have a separate gill slit for each gill (between

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Retrieved Text: The list of winners and solutions for the second contest have been shared below.
Click here to take part in the ongoing student contest!
Answer the following questions on the basis of this diagram.
In which of the following regions will you find terrestrial animals? Give examples of each.
In which region will you place a fish?
Which of the following animals will you place in region E: Dolphin, Crocodile, Bird?
In which of the following region/s will you find carnivores: A, C, D, F? Give examples of each.
Question: Where will you place a hen in this diagram?
Answer: Hen is an animal which lives on land and lays eggs so it must be in a region common to yellow and blue circle i.e. F and G. But since, hen breathes through lungs and not through gills so they must not be present in a region common to all three circles i.e. G. So, the final answer will be F.
Terrestrial animals are those which are found on land. In area B and F, we will find terrestrial animals. Animals having gills need water to breathe. They can’t survive without water for long. So, animals in E and G will not be called as terrestrial.
In region D, we can place fish, as they have gills and reproduce through laying eggs.
None of them will be placed in region E. Animals on land cannot breathe through gills. Dolphin breathes through lungs but live in water. Crocodile can live both on land and water but breathes through lungs. Birds live on land and breathe through lungs.
Carnivores are

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Retrieved Text: Many sea animals have streamlined bodies to help them move easily in water.
There are some sea animals like squids and octopus, which do not have streamlined shape.
They stay deeper in the ocean, near the seabed and catch any prey that moves towards them.
However, when they move in water they make their body shapes streamlined.
These animals have gills to help them use oxygen dissolved in water.
Some sea animals like dolphins and whales that do not have gills.
They breathe in air through nostrils or blowholes that are located on the upper parts of their heads.
This allows them to breathe in air when they swim near the surface of water. They can stay inside the water for a long time without breathing.
Some of the plants have their roots fixed in the soil below.
In aquatic plants, roots are much reduced in size and their main function is to hold the plant in place.
The stems of these plants are long, hollow and light. The stems grow up to the surface of water while the leaves and flowers, float on the surface of the water.
Some aquatic plants are totally submerged in water.
All parts of such plants grow under water. Some of these plants have narrow and thin ribbon-like leaves. These can bend in the flowing water.
In some submerged plants, leaves are often highly divided, through which the water can easily flow without damaging them.
Next story [CSAT Paper -2] 12. Reasoning – Which should appear as the fifth figure?
Previous story [CSAT Paper -2] 11. Reasoning – Which will appear at the fifth stage?

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Retrieved Text: A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills. Most are cold-blooded, though some, such as some species of tuna and shark, are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a paraphyletic group whose exact relationships are much debated.
Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 metres (52.49 feet) whale shark to a 8 millimetre (just over a quarter of an inch) long stout infant fish. Many types of aquatic animals named ‘fish’, such as jellyfish and cuttlefish, are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like dolphins, while closely resembling fish in outer appearance, are actually mammals.
Fish are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish are often called ‘fish’ when used as food.
Difference between male and female fish: In some species the males and females have different shaped bodies or different colouring; in other species there is no visible difference.
How fish breathe: Some fish have lungs and breathe air, but most breathe through gills. Gills are made up of thin sheets of tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As water passes over them dissolved oxygen is absorbed into the blood and waste products such as carbon dioxide pass out into the water. The gills are protected by a large bony plate called an operculum.
What is a lateral line: Lateral lines are usually visible as faint lines running lengthwise down each side, from the vicinity of the gill covers to the base of the tail

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Retrieved Text: (1) Frogs were not symbols of death but, on the contrary, of rebirth and renewal, because of its remarkable metamorphosis of egg into tadpole and from tadpole into frog.(2) Early in its development a tadpole breathes with gills.(3) Young amphibians, like the larval frog or tadpole pictured here, spend their early years in the water, breathing through gills in the side of their head in much the same way as fish do.(4) One of the characteristics of amphibians is metamorphosis; when the larva or tadpole living in water and breathing with gills develops into an adult, it leaves the aquatic environment and breathes with lungs like a land animal.(5) He'd always bring a jar of the stuff in and we'd have lessons where we'd document the life of the frog by watching the frog spawn hatch and metamorphose from tadpoles to frogs.(6) We have observed that green frog tadpoles react less strongly to predators at very low resource levels.(7) Inside the pouch, the tadpoles live on the yolk leftover from their hatching.(8) These species tend to have shorter larval periods on average when compared to tadpoles that develop in more permanent ponds.(9) Biologists now find that slightly elevated UV exposure reduces the chance that tadpoles will become frogs.(10) Many familiar animals have a larval form: caterpillars turn into butterflies, and tadpoles into frogs.(11) The young snakes prey on recently hatched steelhead trout and chinook salmon and on the tadpoles of yellow-legged frogs.(12) As the tadpoles become frogs, the gills initially used to breathe are replaced with

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Retrieved Text: You may have COPD if you have trouble breathing or you have a cough that will not go away. COPD is a condition that affects the lungs and airways, or bronchial tubes. Read on to learn some quick and easy breathing tips when COPD symptoms act up.
Chronic means it won’t go away – you will have it the rest of your life.
Pulmonary means in your lungs.
Obstructive means partly blocked. The flow of air into and out of your lungs is limited.
COPD cannot be fully reversed. About 15 million people in the North America have COPD. It is the world’s fourth leading cause of death; approximately 130,000 North Americans die each year from COPD – that is one death every 4 minutes. And an additional 12 million Americans and 1.4 million Canadians likely have the disease but don’t know it. If you have been diagnosed with COPD, your first action should be to quit smoking.
If you are suffering from COPD, read below for some helpful breathing tips to manage your breathing.
This breathing tip helps keep your air sacs and smallest airways open longer so that air is not trapped in your lungs. This helps stale air to get out of your lungs so more fresh air with oxygen can get in.
2. Pucker your lips in a whistling position. Now you have pursed lips.
5. Repeat these steps until you no longer feel short of breath. If you get dizzy, rest for a few breaths.Then begin again with Step 1.
Practice this breathing method several times each day so it

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Retrieved Text: Frogs are _______________________, animals that spend part of their lives under water and the remainder on _____________________. They have long, powerful jumping ___________________ and a very short backbone. Most frogs have teeth (but toads do not).
Life cycle: Like all amphibians, frogs spend their lives near water because they must return to the water to lay their _____________________. Frog eggs are laid in the _____________________, and they hatch into _____________________. Tadpoles breathe with gills and swim using a long _____________________. As they mature into adult _____________________, they lose their tail, and they develop _____________________ for breathing air. In harsh climates, frogs bury themselves in sand and _____________________, and _____________________ (sleep very deeply) through the cold _____________________.

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Retrieved Text: Human beings cannot live without air. Their lungs need to fill with air for the body to process and then be released through exhalation. If the air you breathe is polluted, your lungs will react to the pollution. The results can range from chronic infections to lung cancer.
Those with existing chronic respiratory illnesses, such as asthma, often find that they are unable to spend time outdoors during certain times of excess pollution. This is due to an inability to get a sufficient amount of clean air into their lungs.
In a normal exchange during respiration, clean air is breathed in and the oxygen processed. Carbon dioxide is released. Carbon dioxide is harmful to humans. That is why the body uses the gas exchange system, to release the build-up of harmful gases.
A large component of polluted air is carbon dioxide. When you breathe in polluted air, you are breathing in the harmful gas your body is meant to release through exhalation. Breathing polluted air is essentially breathing in the very gas your body is trying to eliminate.
Your lungs are largely made up of exposed membrane. The air you breathe in is filtered through the membrane to air sacs. It is in these air sacs that oxygen is exchanged with carbon dioxide. When you exhale, you release the carbon dioxide.
When the air you breathe in is polluted, the oxygen that is sent throughout your body includes the toxins that polluted the air to begin with. When you breathe in polluted air, the toxins begin breaking down cellular structures in

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Retrieved Text: Amphibians include salamanders, newts, frogs, toads, and caecilians. They are smooth skinned rather than scaly, usually found near water, and most need to keep their skins wet to live. In their larval form they have gills, which some, like the salamanders, keep throughout life; but they also have lungs enabling them to breathe out of water. Amphibians are vertebrates and have four legs. To learn more about these fascinating creatures, browse the articles listed on this page.
Native to the Sonoran desert, the Sonoran desert toad is known for its distinctive features; most interesting among which, is probably the fact that it is a psychoactive species from which certain bufotoxins can be derived.
Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates, which are adapted to live both on the land and in water. The ancestors of these animals were believed to appear on the Earth during the Devonian period.

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Retrieved Text: Fish force water through their gills, past many tiny blood vessels. The gills take oxygen from the water and let water whisk away carbon dioxide. Gill filaments are the red, fleshy part of the gills; they are the smallest division of the gill and they take oxygen into the blood. Each filament has thousands of fine branches which are exposed to the surface of the water. The branches contain a thin epithelium that separates them from the water, allowing oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through easily.
Not all fishes completely rely on their gills to breathe. Some species absorb a large part of their necessary oxygen through the skin, particularly when they're juveniles. Others have lungs that have developed to breathe air in will actually drown if they don't have access to the water's surface.
The gills in fish are like lungs in people: it's the organ responsible for absorbing oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide waste. The gills also regulate levels of ions and the pH of the blood.
The gill filaments of bony fishes are called "primary lamellae." They are intricate structures that have a large surface area. Smaller secondary lamellae are offshoots of the primary filaments. The secondary lamellae contain small blood capillaries and blood flows in the opposite direction of the water. As a result, the water flowing beside the secondary lamella always has a higher oxygen concentration than that in the blood so oxygen is absorbed along the full length of the secondary lamellae.
Active swimming fish have gill filaments that are highly developed

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Retrieved Text: There are so many interesting Fun Frog Facts for Kids!
Let’s learn with facts about frogs for kids!
So I made a life cycle of a frog worksheets a few days ago and I have to admit their life cycle is pretty fascinating, more fascinating than most other animals.
However there are a ton more Frog Facts for Kids about these amphibians that your kids (and you) just need to know (as some are downright odd).
So let’s do some hopping and learn about frogs!
They typically lay their eggs in the water.
A group of eggs is called a frogspawn.
Tadpoles have no lungs, they have gills.
They grow lungs before they mature into a frog.
Frogs don’t drink water – they soak it into their body through their skin.
They breathe through the nose and their skin.
They need to live near water as their skin must constantly be moist. If it dries out the frog dies.
They catch their pray with their tongue.
Their eyeballs assist them in swallowing food – they push the food down their throat by pushing down the eyeballs.
Their vision field is almost 360° so they can see all that is around them all the time!
Their call is called a croak.
Frogs can hibernate. In extreme conditions they can also enter a state called torpor which can last for months.
Free Printable PDF with Ant Facts!
Get your free printable Frog Facts for Kids here.

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Retrieved Text: If You Want Horseshoe Crab Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Find Horseshoe Crab. Examine Now.
Tired of Endless Searching? Find Horseshoe Crab on DealsNow.
How Do Crabs Live Out of Water On Land and Breathe Air With Their Gills When They Have No Lungs? By Karen Hill. True crabs are crustaceans that have a short projecting “tail” or reduced hidden abdomen, while others such as hermit crabs, horseshoe crabs and crab lice, are not true crabs.
There are different types of crabs like hermit crab, king crab, horseshoe crab, etc. Crabs have a flat body and can breathe under the water as well as on the land. The crabs don’t have a nose or any such openings for breathing. This gives rise to a very interesting question: how do the crabs breathe?
Horseshoe crabs are used as bait to fish for eels (mostly in the United States) and whelk, or conch. However, fishing with horseshoe crab was banned indefinitely in New Jersey in 2008 with a moratorium on harvesting to protect the red knot, a shorebird which eats the crab's eggs.

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Retrieved Text: Take a deep breath. Feel your diaphragm lower as your chest rises. Take another breath. Feel the air as it moves past the back of your throat. Right now you’re meditating, that’s all it is. Just focusing on the breath and letting other thoughts fade. The breath plays an important role in our lives even though it often takes a backseat to other thoughts. Well not today! I guarantee you’ll be thinking about your breathing while discovering how and why we breathe in the first place.
Let’s start by looking back at our evolutionary grandparents, the fish. Living in water means you can move in all three dimensions. Fish can adjust their buoyancy (ability to float) by pulling in or letting out gas from their swim bladder. We know that mutations are random which means there were a few individuals who developed multiple swim bladders. Now let’s say a drought hits and some fish living in rivers are stranded in shallow pools. Less water with the same amount of fish means that there is less oxygen for each fish. Those individuals that could gulp air into their extra swim bladders had a better chance of absorbing more oxygen.
Those swim bladders would eventually adapt into what we call lungs. Some of the gulping fish continued life underwater, using a mix of gills and lungs to breathe. Others wandered out of their aquatic environment and onto the land to find more sources of food; those individuals would become the first amphibians.
Over time, muscles developed to surround the lungs to

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Retrieved Text: Are you ready to work more closely with your breath, to help improve your performance? Last month I discussed some of the reasons why athletes should spend time focusing on and training their breath, including that more efficient breathing can lead to measurable improvements in performance.
This month I’m sharing some simple breathing exercises that can help you tune in to and connect with your breath, and control it more.
These are some basic yoga breathing exercises that you may find in a yoga class.
You can do them sitting up or lying down, so long as you are comfortable and relaxed. If it’s not comfortable for you to sit on the floor, try sitting up on a bolster or cushion, or in a chair.
Breathe in and out through your nose as you do these exercises.
In a comfortable seated or lying position, bring your focus to your breath. The idea of this exercise is to objectively observe your breath. Don’t worry about doing something ‘the right way’ – simply make observations.
As you inhale see if you can get a sense of where the breath moves in your body. Where is the origin of your inhalation? Can you get a sense of the air entering through your nostrils, travelling down your windpipe and into your lungs? What movements does this create? See what you can feel through your collarbones, shoulders, all around your ribcage, your back and your belly. Does it feel like you are breathing fully into your whole lungs, or is the breath primarily in the upper region?
How

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Amphibian man is real or not? Can human beings become really amphibious, by adapting themselves to the ocean depths as other mammals have done? Is it possible for human beings to adapt themselves to breathing in water? There are a lot of questions and it seems impossible. However, scientists are studying this possibility.
Observations have shown that lungs can, in fact, absorb oxygen from water just as the fishes’ gills do. Water normally contains about seven cubic centimeters of oxygen per liter, which is enough for fish. To be breathed by animals, water must contain at least 10 times as much oxygen as it normally does.
Scientists found out that oxygen for breathing might be obtained from water algae known as chlorella. This simple plant growing in ponds and lakes has the reputation of being a nutrient factory, producing proteins, fats and vitamins. It also produces huge amounts of oxygen.
Scientists have also found that a man has a markedly slower heartbeat when he is diving. This effect, called bradycardia, is shared by diving animals.
Ichthyander, or Amphibian Man, is one of the most remarkable literary images created by the best Soviet science fiction writer Alexander Romanovich Belyaev (1884-1942). A science-fiction novel about a man who was able to live under water, The Amphibian Man, was written in 1927.
Surgeon Salvator tried to save a child with excessively weak lungs. He transplanted the gills of a young shark and the child not only remained alive, BUT, got the opportunity to live under water.
For several years the film directors were afraid of

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Retrieved Text: BREATHING IS THE FIRST STEP TO EVERYTHING!
Breathing is an automatic function, something we don't have to think about, so we wouldn't be foolish in assuming that we were doing it right!
We are rubbish at the outbreath, we focus on breathing in as the important bit, but breathing out is equally so.
By not breathing out fully we get a build up of toxins and leave stangnant air & carbon dioxide in our systems.
This causes endless physical symptoms.
Our breathing is often too short and too shallow as a result we are not getting enough oxygen into our bodies.
Our cells need oxygen, if they don't get enough they can't do their job properly and begin to break down.
With proper breathing you can achieve a 100% Oxygen saturation rate.
We need to slow it right down and make it much deeper. Allow your breath to really fill your body.
A rule of nature is those animals who breathe slowly live the longest.
Stomach breathing is the technique that you want bring your attention to, right now I bet you are chest breathing.
Most people chest breathe, it is neither the most efficient or healthiest way to breathe nor is it our natural technique.
However modern living has made this our default setting but we can change this just by bringing our awarenss to it and re-training our muscles.
Put your hand on your chest and on your stomach and just breathe normally, notice how your chest rises but your stomach stays flat. Now take a deep breath in as you normally would and notice how your

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Retrieved Text: My son’s very first word was “ribbet.” As his mother, I was hoping that he would say, “Mom” first. Thankfully, his second word was “Mom.” His third word came months later when he learned how to say “Dad.” But, that first word was “ribbet” thanks to his grandmother who was reading a book to him about a frog.
As I was thinking about my son’s first word, my mind drifted to the metamorphosis frogs experience. Frogs lay eggs in moist and damp places and the eggs eventually hatch into tadpoles. They must lay their eggs in the damp because tadpoles breathe through gills. It is only after tadpoles go through metamorphosis that they transform into froglets and develop lungs. Then the froglet grows into an adult frog. This adult frog now looks nothing like the tadpole it once was, it doesn’t even breathe the same way.
When this transformation – or metamorphosis – occurs it changes the frog completely and it is never the same. It is a new creation. Considering the life-cycle of a frog can help us understand Paul’s transformation experience on the road to Damascus.
There was once a man named Saul who was an enemy of the church because he did many terrible things to people who followed Jesus Christ. He was part of a group that stoned a man named Stephen because he was preaching about Jesus.
It is amazing to see what Jesus did in Paul’s life. Paul was a very broken man. With Jesus’ help, Paul was able to turn his brokenness into

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Retrieved Text: Pill Bugs, Armadillidium, Living, Pack 12 is rated 5.0 out of 5 by 2.
Pill bugs are fantastic examples of environmental adaptation. They're crustaceans that live on land - yet breathe through gills! Armadillidium (pill bugs) roll into a protective ball when nudged. Use these easy-care animals to teach topics such as evolution, adaptation, behavior, and much more. Also recommended for use with AP® Lab 11: Animal Behavior. Field collected. Complete with instructions. Will include 12 pill bugs.
Pill bugs are fantastic examples of environmental adaptation. They're crustaceans that live on land - yet breathe through gills! Armadillidium (pill bugs) roll into a protective ball when nudged. Use these easy-care animals to teach topics such as evolution, adaptation, behavior, and much more. Also recommended for use with AP(r) Lab 11: Animal Behavior. Field collected. Complete with instructions. Will include 12 pill bugs.
Rated 5 out of 5 by DarrellM from Satisfied Customer Although I thought I would be able to find these on my own. Reality proved me wrong. I found the best price here and was pleased with the delivery time and quality of specimens. Highly recommend.

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Retrieved Text: Self-care routines make the hustle and bustle of our everyday lives more manageable.
We all have rituals—be it our morning and nightly routines, things we do when we’re traveling, and how and when we clean our instruments. Let’s make wellness a ritual.
Take stock of the rituals that serve you and the ones that don’t. Not everything we do has a positive purpose—some rituals keep us in a perpetual cycle of nonsense. If we look closely at the things we’re doing, we can see which actions we should keep in our lives and which ones we can do away with—just like if we were cleaning out a closet.
We’ve talked a lot in past columns about meditation and taking a moment to relax and recalibrate, but breathwork in particular is important for musicians and athletes to increase lung capacity.
Three-part breathwork is one of my favorite and most calming forms of breathwork.
1. Start by sitting on your knees. If you have knee issues, sitting cross-legged is fine, but make sure to lift up and out of the hips. Position your thumb and first finger around each side of your waist. Breathe deeply for a count of five on both the inhale and the exhale. Notice the temperature of your breath on the way in and the way out. Breathe into the chest, breathe down into the bottom of the lungs, breathe down into your waist and hips. Do a round of 10 breaths.
2. Move the hands up into the armpits. Your thumbs should be in the hollow of your armpits

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Retrieved Text: Another popular project in primary schools is the one about how animals breathe in air, how their lungs then take the oxygen out of the air, how the oxygen is then used to power the animals' muscles, converting it into carbon dioxide in the process, and then how the unwanted carbon dioxide is released into their lungs to be breathed out into the air. (In short, animals turn oxygen into carbon dioxide.) The second half of the story is that plants take in carbon dioxide from the air through pores in their leaves, they use the energy from sunlight to split it into carbon and oxygen, they use the carbon to make new plant material, and then they release the unwanted oxygen back into the air. (in short, plants turn carbon dioxide into oxygen.) This is a good balance - plants make oxygen for animals to breathe, and animals make carbon dioxide for plants to breathe, and the whole thing is powered by the sun. Now, I don't think you need to spend a month of your life doing a project on this or to cover a wall in a giant picture of it. Let's just save ourselves a lot of time and move straight on so that we can learn more.
There is a third part of the story which is very rarely told in primary schools: animals and plants are both made of carbon, plus a lot of other things such as water (which is in turn made of oxygen and hydrogen), but it's mainly

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Retrieved Text: Now that we have gone through the basic structures of the respiratory system.
the system actually moves air, in and out of the lungs.
we're going to deal with basic cons, concepts related to ventilating the lungs.
you don't talk about ventilation, you talk about-.
what it's really doing is moving gases in and out of the lungs.
And there are actually two phases of breathing what are they.
>> Oh, inhalation and exhalation?
>> Excellent inhalation and exhalation we breathe in, we breathe out, right?
either the thoracic body cavity or the abdominal pelvic cavity.
it does a U turn and lines the thoracic cavity itself, okay.
see that that layer of pleura that covers the outer surface of the lungs is called the.
Naomi? >> The visceral pleura.
>> Exactly, the visceral pleura.
And then also you can see the layer of the pleura that lines the thoracic cavity.
And what is that called, Lydia?
>> Exactly, the parietal pleura.
And then notice that in between those two layers of pleura.
There is a space, what looks like a space, in the picture.
It's not really an empty space, but what is that space called?
>> Exactly, Mia the pleural cavity.
fluid which is secreted by the pleural membranes into the cavity.
move against the surface of the thoracic cavity, smoothly, right?
parietal pleura to stick together like this.
the lungs actually moves with the chest wall, okay?
Can you think of anything that might cause a disruption in that adhesive force?
>> Would some sort of traumatic injury cause a disruption?
allow a portion of the lung to collapse that would be a very bad thing, right?
it doesn't happen

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Retrieved Text: A salamander is an amphibian which falls under the animal order Caudata. A typical salamander is characterized by a short nose, a long tail and a slim body. The normal eye may look upon a salamander as another form of lizard; however there are some basic differences in the physical structures of a salamander and a lizard. A salamander is longer in size when compared to a lizard. Moreover, a salamander’s body scales are smooth and glossy as compared to the course skin of lizards. Also, a salamander is always found in and around water bodies, while lizards are typically terrestrial creatures. Like all amphibians, a salamander too has two pairs of limbs. But unlike all amphibians, they have four toes each on the front limbs while the hind limbs show five toes each. Male and female salamanders are usually characterized by very bright skin colors, though some of them may not even show any color due to lack of essential skin pigments. Read on for more interesting facts on salamanders.
If you assumed all salamanders to have same respiratory organ, you are in for a surprise. While some breathe through lungs, others take in air through gills. The difference is essentially between terrestrial and aquatic salamanders respectively. Again, the gills of many salamanders are visible externally as formations on the sides of their heads.
Some salamanders have neither lungs nor gills to breathe through. In this case they breathe in and out of their skins, a process which is known as valerian respiration.
Capillary beds are present all

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Retrieved Text: How Does Nitrogen Enter Our Body?
How Does the Skeletal System Work With the Respiratory System?
As a species, humans require air to survive; a need it shares with most other members of the Kingdom Animalia. After a human breathes in Earth's air (roughly 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), he or she exhales a mixture of compounds similar to the air inhaled: 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent argon, and four percent carbon dioxide. Some scientists suggest that exhaled air contains as many as 3,500 compounds, most of which are in microscopic amounts. There is some variability in this, however. Air quality can affect both the content of what humans both breathe in and breathe out, a concern some conservationists worry about when it comes to industries and automobiles releasing potentially harmful gases. Similarly, some doctors suggest that monitoring the chemical content of an air a human exhales can be a useful diagnostic tool in catching respiratory ailments.
Humans, and many other species, need air to live. They breathe in the combination of elements and compounds and exhale a similar set with different proportions. Exhaled air consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 16 percent oxygen, 4 percent carbon dioxide and potentially thousands of other compounds.
Humans, along with many other animals, breathe in air through their mouth, into their lungs. The chest cavity containing the lungs expands and contracts with the diaphragm as it moves down and up. Inside the lungs, small sacs called the alveoli fill with the air. From there the oxygen in the air

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Retrieved Text: The balance of growing spiritually and managing a busy life can at times seem to be at odds. It can seem as we strive for deeper inner peace life keeps throwing us curve balls that pull us out of internal tranquillity that we are striving to maintain.
Often, we have seen that people’s lives are so busy that they do not have the luxury of spending hours a day practicing various meditative practices.
The core issue with the struggle to feel at peace during a hectic day is not actually in what is unfolding throughout the day. The stress arises from the habit of the mind to resist what is happening.
This resistance arises out of being in a lower state of consciousness which results in the inability to stay present in a state of awareness. When a person is deeply nestled in a good state of awareness the by product is a natural acceptance of the present moment which brings a person into a deep state of inner peace.
There is an extremely powerful and simple practice you could do for simply 7 minutes each day that would bring you into a lasting state of inner awareness resulting in deeper states of inner peace and well-being as well as advancing you forward on your spiritual journey.
Step One: Sit upright in any sitting posture that is most comfortable for you. It is important to make sure your spine is straight.
Step Two: Please your hands palm faced up on your thighs and touch the tips of your index fingers to the

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Retrieved Text: Because certain lung conditions may have similar symptoms to heart failure, and because lung disease may coincide with heart failure, your doctor may ask you to undergo lung function tests. Lung function tests assess how well your lungs are working. The main test is called spirometry. It measures how much and how quickly you can move air in and out of your lungs.
For most of the lung function tests, you will wear a nose clip to make sure that no air passes in or out of your nose during the test. You then will be asked to breathe into a mouthpiece connected to a recording machine (spirometer). You will be given instructions on what to do, such as breathe in as deeply as possible and then breathe out as fast and hard as possible.
The accuracy of the tests depends on your ability to follow all the instructions. The respiratory therapist carrying out the test may strongly encourage you to breathe deeply during some of the tests to get the best results.
You may cough or feel light-headed after some of the tests but you will be given a chance to rest between tests. The testing may take from 5 to 15 minutes, depending on how many tests are done.
monitor the treatment if you are being treated for lung disease.

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Retrieved Text: When an animal sneezes, it’s their way of getting rid of annoying bits and pieces that have floated inside their nose and mouth.
While many animals, including humans, elephants, pandas and even seals, can sneeze, sharks unfortunately cannot. To be able to sneeze, an animal needs to move air (or water) from the lungs through its nose to the outside.
Sharks have two nostrils (called nares) below their snout that are used for smelling, but they don’t join up to the back of the throat like our nose does, so they can’t sneeze like we do. If something floats into their nares, they might try to shake it out.
Sharks breathe through the gills at the back of the mouth. Most of their “smelling” is done using a process called chemoreception, which allows sharks to sense tiny pieces of stuff, called molecules, hiding in the water as they pass through their nares.
Sharks can find and recognise these molecules – like parts of blood – that have been released from wounded animals or other prey, because their sense of smell is much better than ours.
Nares are loaded with powerful sensors. Once a shark has locked onto a smell, it can then work out where it came from by swimming towards it and moving its head slightly from side to side. It’s a bit like us following the smell of a freshly baked cake.
Legend has it that sharks can smell a single drop of blood in the ocean, but that’s an exaggeration. What they can do is detect blood at one

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "The first true tetrapods, or vertebrates with four limbs include" and the following answer choices: 
- Schwinn
 - frogs
 - Man
 - insects
 - mammals
 - bats
 - Birds
 - feet

Now knowing that amphibians are the first true tetrapods, or vertebrates with four limbs and frogs are amphibians and ducks are aves, choose the best answer.

Target Text: frogs

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Photo © Kevin Schafer / Getty Images.
Tetrapods are a group of vertebrates that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Tetrapods include all living land vertebrates as well as some former land vertebrates that have since adopted an aquatic lifestyle (such as whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, sea turtles, and sea snakes). One of the key characteristics of tetrapods is that they have four limbs or, if they lack four limbs, their ancestors had four limbs (for example: snakes, amphisbaneians, caecilians, and cetaceans).
Tetrapods vary greatly in size. The smallest living tetrapod is the Paedophyrine frog, which measures just 8 millimeters long. The largest living tetrapod is the blue whale, which can grow to lengths of up to 30 meters. Tetrapods occupy a wide variety of terrestrial habitats including forests, grasslands, deserts, scrublands, mountains, and polar regions. Although most tetrapods are terrestrial, there are numerous groups that have evolved to live in aquatic habitats. For example, whales, dolphins, seals, walrus, otters, sea snakes, sea turtles, frogs, and salamanders, are all examples of tetrapods that depend on aquatic habitats for some or all of their life cycle. Several groups of tetrapods have also adopted an arboreal or aerial lifestyle. Such groups include birds, bats, flying squirrels, and flying lemurs.
Tetrapods first appeared about 370 million years ago during the Devonian Period. Early tetrapods evolved from a group of vertebrates known as the tetrapodomorph fishes. These ancient fishes were a lineage of lobe-finned fishes whose paired, fleshy fins evolved into limbs with digits. Examples of tetrapodomorph fishes include Tiktaalik and Panderichthys.

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Retrieved Text: "Osteichthyes is divided into the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)." "In most classification systems the Osteichthyes are paraphyletic with land vertebrates. That means that the nearest common ancestor of all Osteichthyes includes tetrapods amongst its descendants. "
"Sarcopterygians and their relatives the actinopterygians ("ray-finned fish") comprise the superclass Osteichthyes, the "bony fish", characterized by their bony skeleton rather than cartilage. There are otherwise vast differences in fin, respiratory, and circulatory structures between the Sarcopterygii and the Actinopterygii."
"In the early–middle Devonian (416 - 385 Ma), while the predatory placoderms dominated the seas, some sarcopterygians came into freshwater habitats.
In the Early Devonian (416 - 397 Ma), the sarcopterygians split into two main lineages — the coelacanths and the rhipidistians. The former never left the oceans and their heyday was the late Devonian and Carboniferous, from 385 to 299 Ma, as they were more common during those periods than in any other period in the Phanerozoic; coelacanths still live today in the oceans (genus Latimeria).
The Rhipidistians, whose ancestors probably lived in the oceans near the river mouths (estuaries), left the ocean world and migrated into freshwater habitats. They in turn split into two major groups : the lungfish and the tetrapodomorphs. The lungfish evolved the first proto-lungs and proto-limbs; they learned in the middle Devonian (397 - 385 Ma) how to live outside a water environment, using their stubby fins (proto-limbs) to walk on land and find new water if their waterhole was depleted, and their lungs to breathe air and get sufficient oxygen. The lungfish's greatest diversity

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Retrieved Text: What are Some Carboniferous Tetrapods?
Swamps flourished during the Carboniferous period.
Carboniferous tetrapods are four-legged animals that lived during the Carboniferous period, between 359 and 299 million years ago. These animals, including amphibians, reptiles, and basal tetrapods, initially evolved about 365 million years ago, at the very end of the Devonian period. They evolved from lobe-finned fish, such as the living coelocanth. At the time, the world was very warm and wet, and covered in shallow, tree-choked swamps. Insect life and foliage was abundant on the land, which the Carboniferous tetrapods could feast on in the essential absence of predators.
The first Carboniferous tetrapods were extremely primitive, and some are called "fishapods" because their characteristics are a mix between fish and tetrapods. These animals include Eusthenopteron, Panderichthys, and Tiktaalik. Panderichthys is the first known fish to have spiracles on the top of its head, structures that would let it breathe from the water while buried in the mud. These spiracles eventually evolved into the stirrup bone of our inner ear. Panderichthys had a variety of other transitional features, such as strong girdles supporting its fins, suggesting that it used them to move through shallow mud. It also had a large, tetrapod-like head. Tikaalik was the first fish fossil to demonstrate arm-like skeletal structures including a shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
Sometime around 365 million years ago, the first tetrapods emerged with recognizable limbs. Unlike the fishapods mentioned before, animals like Acanthostega and Ichthyostega are solidly placed in superclass Tetrapoda -- like all living tetrapods and descendants of tetrapods, such as ourselves

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Retrieved Text: Zebrafish naturally carry hoxd13 but produce less of the protein than tetrapods - all four-limbed vertebrates and birds - do. Casares and his colleagues hoped that by injecting extra copies of the gene into the zebrafish embryos, some of their cells would make more of the protein.
One full day later, all of those fish whose cells had taken up the gene began to develop autopods instead of fins. They carried on growing for four days but then died (Cell, DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2012.10.015).
"Of course, we haven't been able to grow hands," says Casares. He speculates that hundreds of millions of years ago, the ancestors of tetrapods began expressing more hoxd13 for some reason and that this could have allowed them to evolve autopods.

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Retrieved Text: Citation: TARANG KUMAR MEHTA (2013-08-23). Sequencing and Characterization of Hox gene clusters in Japanese Lamprey (Lethenteron Japonicum). ScholarBank@NUS Repository.
Abstract: Cyclostomes (comprising lampreys and hagfishes) are the sister group of living jawed vertebrates and therefore an important group for understanding the origin and diversity of vertebrates. In vertebrates and most metazoans, Hox genes determine positional identities along the developing embryo and are implicated in driving morphological diversity. Invertebrates typically contain a single Hox cluster (either intact or fragmented) whereas elephant shark, coelacanth and tetrapods contain four Hox clusters owing to two rounds (`1R? and `2R?) of whole-genome duplication during early vertebrate evolution. By contrast, most teleost fishes contain up to eight Hox clusters due to an additional genome duplication event (`3R?) in the ray-finned fish lineage. In my project, using a combination of BAC sequences and scaffold sequences from a draft genome assembly, I provide evidence for at least six Hox clusters in the Japanese lamprey. This suggests that the lamprey lineage has experienced an additional round of genome duplication.

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Retrieved Text: Aja Carter, a Ph.D. candidate in paleontology, builds robots based on fossilized animals that crawled out of the sea about 300 million years ago. She’s pioneering a new field that she calls paleo-bio-inspired robotics.
In Peter Dodson’s lab, Aja Carter and Dodson detail the process used to make prehistoric creatures move for the first time in hundreds of millions of years.
Traditional robots have a hard time navigating natural environments, such as a forest floor or a rocky surface. They’re usually designed to perform in a fixed location with extreme accuracy, so their movements often don’t translate well to dynamic areas.
An emerging field called bio-inspired robotics addresses these issues by drawing inspiration from mechanical processes that occur in nature, hoping to mimic the movement that evolution has already developed for dealing with tough terrain.
Carter is carving out a specialty within bio-inspired robotics, which she calls paleo-bio-inspired robotics. She decided to help improve the ability of robots to move successfully on land by analyzing how that same challenge was conquered by the first living creatures to do so: early tetrapods, the ancient four-legged vertebrates that were the first animals to crawl out of water and walk on land.
Archeria and other tetrapods sported unique spinous processes, which Carter plans to analyze to determine which processes enabled the best movement on land.
Carter has borrowed several fossilized spines that belonged to these early tetrapods from the American Museum of Natural History, including one from Archeria, found in the Red Beds of Archer County, Texas. Archeria appeared eel-like and could grow up to

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Retrieved Text: Mammals and reptiles are the two major classes of phylum Chordata. Reptiles were first among true terrestrial vertebrates. Both have inhabited the earth for millions of years. Mammals and reptiles both are tetrapods and have almost same organs.
Mammals are those vertebrates which give birth to live young, however, some egg laying mammals are also found e.g. duckbill platypus.The young ones are not able to get food on their own and need nourishment in the form of milk from the mammary glands of their mother. They have fur or hair on their bodies and also have sweat glands. They can regulate their body heat.
Reptiles are mostly egg-laying vertebrates, however, some of them also give birth to live young e.g. viper snakes. Their eggs have hard-shell which protects the embryos. Most reptiles are carnivores but have a very slow metabolic rate.
The main difference between mammals and reptiles is the way of regulation of body heat. Mammals can regulate their body heat while reptiles cannot. They need an external heat source such as the sun. Mammals have furs on their bodies while reptiles have scales. The newborns of mammals need milk from their mothers while those of reptiles fend for themselves. Reptiles are cold-blooded animals while mammals are warm blooded. The growth of mammals is limited after adulthood while in the case of reptiles growth continues throughout life.

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Retrieved Text: What are Fishes? The fishes include all the vertebrates that are not tetrapods. Most fishes have an elongate body, fins in different arrangements, and some type of body covering like scales or bony plates. Most breathe by means of gills, and all but the agnathans have jaws. All have skeletons composed of bone, except for the sharks and their relatives, whose skeletons are cartilaginous. Fishes have been around since the Cambrian, and different forms have been very diverse throughout the Phanerozoic.

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Retrieved Text: The American paddlefish -- known for its bizarre, protruding snout and eggs harvested for caviar -- duplicated its entire genome about 42 million years ago, according to a new study published in the journal Genome Biology and Evolution. This finding may add a new twist to the way scientists study how fins evolved into limbs since the paddlefish is often used as a proxy for a more representative ancestor shared by humans and fishes.
"We found that paddlefish have had their own genome duplication," said Karen Crow, assistant professor of biology at San Francisco State University. "This creates extra genetic material that adds complexity to comparative studies. It may change the way we interpret studies on limb development."
In order to study how human limbs develop, scientists compare the limb-building genes found in mice with fin-building genes found in fishes. Previous research on paddlefish has suggested that fishes possessed the genetic toolkit required to grow limbs long before the evolution of the four-limbed creatures (tetrapods) that developed into reptiles, birds, amphibians and mammals.
In the last decade, paddlefish have become a useful benchmark in evolutionary studies because their position on the evolutionary tree makes them a reasonably good proxy for the ancestor of the bony fishes that evolved into tetrapods such as humans. However, the fact that paddlefish underwent a genome duplication could complicate what its genes tell us about the fin-to-limb transition, says Crow.
"Our findings suggest that the results of previous studies using paddlefish as a comparative species may need to be re-interpreted," Crow said.
Crow and colleagues sequenced

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Retrieved Text: Although most paleontologists wouldn't recognize them as true fish, the first fish-like creatures to leave an impression on the fossil record appeared during the middle Cambrian period, about 530 million years ago. The most famous of these, Pikaia, looked more like a worm than a fish, but it had four features crucial to later fish (and vertebrate) evolution: a head distinct from its tail, bilateral symmetry (the left side of its body looked like the right side), V-shaped muscles, and most importantly, a nerve cord running down the length of its body. Because this cord wasn't protected by a tube of bone or cartilage, Pikaia was technically a "chordate" rather than a vertebrate, but it still lay at the root of the vertebrate family tree.
During the Ordovician and Silurian periods — from 490 to 410 million years ago — the world's oceans, lakes, and rivers were dominated by jawless fish, so named because they lacked lower jaws (and thus the ability to consume large prey). You can recognize most of these prehistoric fish by the "-aspis" (the Greek word for "shield") in the second parts of their names, which hints at the second main characteristic of these early vertebrates: their heads were covered by tough plates of bony armor.
The most notable jawless fish of the Ordovician period were Astraspis and Arandaspis, six-inch-long, big-headed, finless fish that resembled giant tadpoles. Both of these species made their living by bottom-feeding in shallow waters, wriggling slowly above the surface and sucking up tiny animals and the waste of other

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Retrieved Text: ScienceDaily (July 11, 2011) — Genetic instructions for developing limbs and digits were present in primitive fish millions of years before their descendants first crawled on to land, researchers have discovered.
Genetic switches control the timing and location of gene activity. When a particular switch taken from fish DNA is placed into mouse embryos, the segment can activate genes in the developing limb region of embryos, University of Chicago researchers report inProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The successful swap suggests that the recipe for limb development is conserved in species separated by 400 million years of evolution.
"The genetic switches that drive the expression of genes in the digits of mice are not only present in fish, but the fish sequence can actually activate the expression in mice," said Igor Schneider, PhD, postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the University of Chicago and lead author on the paper. "This tells us how the antecedents of the limb go back in time at every level, from fossils to genes."
The genetic hunt was inspired by a famous fossil find -- the 2004 discovery of the transitional fossil Tiktaalik in the Canadian Arctic by a team led by Neil Shubin of the University of Chicago. A transitional species between fish and the four-legged tetrapods, Tiktaalik possessed fins containing a skeletal structure similar to the limbs of later land-dwelling animals.
Those similarities -- particularly the wrist and hand-like compartments present in the fins of Tiktaalik and its peers -- inspired a laboratory experiment to look at

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Retrieved Text: The Cambrian explosion refers to the period of evolution of most modern animal groups, between 570 and 530 million years ago. The Cambrian explosion is an unparalleled period of evolutionary innovation in the history of our planet. During the Cambrian explosion, early organisms evolved into many different, more complex forms. During this period, almost all of the persistent basic animal body plans came into being. The first batch of back-to-back animals, also known as vertebrates, developed to about 525 million years ago during the Cambrian period. The earliest known vertebrate is considered to be Myllokunmingia, an animal believed to have a skull and bones made of cartilage. Today, there are approximately 57,000 vertebrates, accounting for about 3% of all known species on our planet. The other 97% of the species that are alive today are invertebrates, belonging to animal groups such as sponges, cnidaria, flatworms, mollusks, arthropods, insects, segmented worms and echinoderms, and many other lesser known fauna. . The first terrestrial vertebrates evolved about 360 million years ago. About 360 million years ago, the only organisms that inhabited terrestrial habitats were plants and invertebrates. Then, a group of fish knew that the finfish evolved the necessary adaptability to achieve a transition from water to land. Between 300 million and 150 million years ago, the first terrestrial vertebrates produced reptiles, which in turn produced birds and mammals. The first terrestrial vertebrates were amphibious tetrapods that had been in close contact with their aquatic habitat for some time. In the course of their evolution, early terrestrial vertebrates

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Retrieved Text: Miao D (2018). KUBI Vertebrate Paleontology Collection. Version 8.13. University of Kansas Biodiversity Institute. Occurrence dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/5bcx5a accessed via GBIF.org on 2019-04-21.
The vertebrate paleontology program at the University of Kansas has, for over a century, sustained a national and international reputation. The reputation of the collection has been based more on intensive use than on sheer size. We now hold over 150,000 cataloged specimens (>75,000 are available in digital format) and around 400 publications related to our collections have been published in the last 35 years. Research strengths include: Paleozoic and Mesozoic fishes, Paleozoic tetrapods, Mesozoic marine vertebrates, Cenozoic small mammals and Natural Trap Cave fauna.
We or our students have conducted fieldwork throughout the United States and in Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Germany, Korea, China, and Ethiopia.

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Retrieved Text: The story of the earliest Paleozoic animals is one of life in the sea. Presumably simple fungi and related forms existed in freshwater environments. The Cambrian explosion was a sharp and sudden increase in the rate of evolution, The biota rapidly diversified throughout the Cambrian and Ordovician periods as life-forms adapted to virtually all marine environments. Several different kinds of organisms adapted independently to life on land, primarily during the middle Paleozoic. Vertebrate animals made the transition to land via the evolution of amphibians from air-breathing fish during Devonian times. Further conquest of the land became possible during the Carboniferous Period, when plants and animals evolved solutions to overcome their dependence on moist environments for reproduction: waterborne spores were replaced by seeds in plants of seed-fern origin, and shell-less eggs were replaced by amniote eggs with protective shells in animals of reptilian origin. Flight was first achieved also during the Carboniferous Period as insects evolved wings. It has been estimated that as many as 95 percent of the marine invertebrate species perished during the late Permian Period. Extinction rates were much lower among vertebrates, both aquatic and terrestrial, and among plants. Causes of this extinction event remain unclear, but they may be related to the changing climate and exceptionally low sea levels of the time.
The Cambrian Period marks an important point in the history of life on Earth; it is the time when most of the major groups of animals first appear in the fossil record. Almost every metazoan phylum with hard parts, and many that

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Retrieved Text: Fishes embody one of the greatest paradoxes of vertebrate evolution: While they are phenomenally diverse--accounting for more than half the world's total vertebrate species--they have retained essentially the same anatomical plan for 450 million years. If we could go fishing in the Devonian period, between 360 and 400 million years ago, we would still recognize our catch as fishes, although we would notice several curious features. Familiar categories, such as sharks and rayfinned bony fishes (which are distant relatives of today's paddlefishes, gars, salmon, and perch), would be comparatively rare. But we would discover far greater diversity and ahundance among lobe-finned relatives of the modern coelacanth and lungfishes.
We would also find completely unfamiliar and now-extinct fishes, including small, spiny ones, known as acanthodians, and bone-encrusted monsters, called placoderms, which ould represent the most diverse part ot our catch. Finally, among the finny throng we would also find a few peculiar gilled creatures with toed limbs instead of paired fins, and with no fins at all on their backs. These are the aquatic ancestors of modern tetrapods, or four-limbed creatures, including ourselves. A netful of Devonian fishes would therefore reveal something of our own distant origins, as well as the tandem evolution of fishes and tetrapods.
Since the Devonian, two major groups of fishes--placoderms and acanthodians--have gone extinct, and a third group--the limbed fishes, or tetrapods, including all our terrestrial ancestors--has been displaced onto land. Lungfishes and coelacanths have barely survived, and only two groups, the sharks and the rayfinned bony fishes, are actually more abundant and diverse

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Retrieved Text: Stuff about palaeontology, systematics, general biology, and whatever I feel like ranting about when it comes to news, politics, pop culture, or whatever else.
Well, here it is in all it's beautiful glory, another piece in the tetrapod origins story has just arrived in two articles in Nature today. I'll give you the chance to oggle at some of the beautifal specimens before I get into the details of what, apart from the obvious makes this thing so interesting.
This is Tiktaalik roseae, a lobe-finned fish from the Late Devonian Fram Formation of Arctic Canada. The key features that make this animal a lobe-finned fish are the limbs which clearly have a humerus that branches out to a radius and ulna, like our own limbs. But Tiktaalik is clearly different. It has foregone a lot of the other lobe-finned fish conditions for characteristics that are much more like a tetrapod. In fact, Tiktaalik is without question the most tetrapod-like sarcopterygian known to date, and it fills an important gap in the fossil record. Clearly, it's can no longer be safely jammed into that "fish" category.
a, Dorsal view; b, ventral view. Elements with stipple shading were preserved in articulation in NUFV 109 and prepared in the round. Elements with a dashed outline are reconstructed based on their presence in the articulated distal fin of NUFV 110. It is not known how many radials lie distal to the first, second and fourth in the proximal series. Note the dorsal expansion of the distal articular facets on the ulnare and third

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Retrieved Text: Reverse-engineering the locomotion of a stem amniote.
In: Nature, vol. 565, pp. 351–355.
Reconstructing the locomotion of extinct vertebrates offers insights into their palaeobiology and helps to conceptualize major transitions in vertebrate evolution. However, estimating the locomotor behaviour of a fossil species remains a challenge because of the limited information preserved and the lack of a direct correspondence between form and function. Here we quantitatively examine plausible gaits of the stem amniote Orobates pabsti, a species that is known from a complete body fossil preserved in association with trackways. We reconstruct likely gaits that match the footprints, and investigate whether Orobates exhibited locomotor characteristics that have previously been linked to the diversification of crown amniotes. Our integrative methodology uses constraints derived from biomechanically relevant metrics, which also apply to extant tetrapods. The framework uses in vivo assessment of locomotor mechanics in four extant species to guide an anatomically informed kinematic simulation of Orobates, as well as dynamic simulations and robotics to filter the parameter space for plausible gaits. We provide an accompanying website for the exploration of the filters that constrain our simulations, which will allow revision of our approach using new data, assumptions or methods.

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Retrieved Text: The left hand image shows the late Stan Wood pointing to the place where he found most of the tetrapod fossils from Willlie's Hole near Chirnside, taken in 2010, and the right hand image shows the National Museums Scotland-organised excavation of that site in 2015. Co-authors Walsh and Millward left and centre, with lead author and PI Clack on the right. Credit: Left hand image: Jennifer A. Clack Right hand image: Robert N. G. Clack.
(Phys.org)—A team of researchers working at a dig site in Scotland has found tetrapod fossils dated to approximately 15 million years after the Devonian mass extinction—a time period experts in the field have referred to as "the gap," because so few fossils of creatures from that time period have been found. In their paper published in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution, the team describes the fossils they uncovered and outline their place in the evolution of animal life on our planet.
Planet Earth has experienced several mass extinctions, five of which are considered to be the greatest because of the huge loss of plant and animal life. Over the course of one such extinction event, called the Late Devonian mass extinction, approximately 75 percent of all animal species on the planet were believed to have gone extinct. In the years that followed, some of those species that did survive, such as groups of early tetrapods. eventually evolved into what would become the ancestors of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles. Unfortunately, the fossil record for creatures of this period is very thin—few specimens

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Retrieved Text: 'Missing links' are creationist's favourite gaps in which they try to fit their god. The great thing about them is that no matter how many fossils are found and no matter how complete an evolutionary sequence they make, creationist frauds can always point to the gap between two adjacent fossils in the series and claim it as their 'missing' link. In fact, every fossil ever found is of course part of an evolutionary series and is the 'missing' link of its generation, but it simply serves to double the number of gaps for creationists.
This article in New Scientist from last February, which unfortunately is behind a paywall, goes into great detail about the key stages in the evolution of life which need to be evidenced by the fossil record, and attempts currently being made to find that evidence. Evolutionary biologists, like other scientists, are not at all embarrassed by the "don't know" answer. In fact, it's knowing what you don't know that drives enquiry and makes science such an interesting and fascinating subject for most people who don't need absolute certainty in their lives and who don't need to pretend they have all the answers (or should that be 'answer', because it's always the same one - "God did it!" - which can be glibly and smugly trotted out in the hope of impressing people with your expertise).
What struck me especially was a brief mention of how one of these missing fossils was discovered because it is as good an example as you're likely to find

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Retrieved Text: As you picture the first fish to crawl out of primordial waters onto land, it's easy to imagine how its paired fins eventually evolved into the arms and legs of modern-day vertebrates, including humans. But a new study by researchers from the University of Chicago and the Andalusian Center for Development Biology in Spain shows how these creatures used an even more primitive genetic blueprint to develop their proto-limbs: the single dorsal, or back, fin common to all jawed fish.
"The unpaired dorsal fin is the first one you see in the fossil record," said Neil Shubin, PhD, the Robert R. Bensley Distinguished Service Professor of Anatomy at UChicago and co-author of the new study. "Here we show that the genetic mechanisms that pattern all the fins and other paired appendages originally arose there and were redeployed to others."
In mice, a genetic enhancer or on/off switch called ZRS controls the expression of Shh limbs. If you knock out ZRS in a mouse, its limbs won't develop properly. The researchers used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing tools to knock out ZRS in the medaka, a small, popular aquarium fish also known as a Japanese rice fish. They expected that deleting ZRS in the medaka would affect its paired fins, but instead the fish didn't grow its unpaired dorsal fin. The paired pelvic and pectoral fins developed normally.
That led the team to look for other genetic enhancers that might be involved, and they found a related "shadow enhancer" nearby called sZRS that seems to work in conjunction with the main ZRS

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Retrieved Text: The first evidence lies in the presence of homologous structures (structures with. is a diagram of comparative embryology that shows the relationship between.
Conceptual Glossary of Medical Terms. Site presented by Bill Tillier Use this index to navigate around the glossary: Introduction Sources Other web-based glossaries. A – C D – F G – K L – O P – S T – Z. Created: July 03, 2001.
“I love creating relationships that last for decades. and Germany and Italy and understanding the subtle differences.
Fish anatomy is the study of the form or morphology of fishes.It can be contrasted with fish physiology, which is the study of how the component parts of fish function together in the living fish. In practice, fish anatomy and fish physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be.
Speci es evolve, phyletic lineages are the result of the evolution of species. the forelimb of vertebrates", or "The pectoral flipper of whales and the pectoral fin. on the presumed phylogeny or the relationships of organisms under study, Any.
evolutionary evidence lab – Download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Explain the evolutionary relationship between the fin of a bony fish and the flipper of.
The evolutionary trend among birds has been the reduction of anatomical elements to save weight. The first element to disappear was the bony tail, being reduced to a pygostyle and the tail function taken over by feathers. Confuciusornis is an example of

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Retrieved Text: Freshmarine.com - Sulcata Tortoise - African Spurred Tortoise - Albino Sulcata - Leopard Tortoise - Buy Sulcata Tortoise Now and Save!
Reptiles are Cold Blooded Vertebrates with their Skin having Scales or Feathers all over. These Aerial Breathers are Tetrapods (with four limbs), Oviparous (egg laying), and Amniotes (Amniotic Membrane encloses their Embryos). There are numerous varieties of Reptiles found globally. Some of which can be captivated as well. The ensuing discussion talks about the several types of Reptiles, people fondly raise in their Terrariums. We are dividing the discussion in the keep Reptiles categories. Lets take a look.
Tortoises. Also known as, Land Turtles, Tortoises are Terrestrial (land dwelling) Reptiles of the Family Testudinidae. Equipped with a very protective Shell, Tortoises hide in it during unfavorable times such as, predators attack, adverse weather, etc. The Dorsal surface of their Shell is called Carapace, while the Ventral side is called Plastron. Growing up to a maximum of 2 meters, the very reclusive by nature, Tortoises are Diurnal beings.
Sulcata Tortoises (Geochelone Sulcata). Also called as African Spurred Tortoise and African Spur Thigh Tortoise, these Tortoises are found in the Southern End of the Sahara Desert, North Africa. They have Brown or Yellow colored, broad, & flat Carapaces, and thick skin for fluid retention. Whenever possible, Sulcata Tortoises keep their body cool by covering it with mud or drifting into cool Burrows. As they live in temperate conditions, these very hardy Sulcata Tortoises do not hibernate. Sulcata Tortoises are one of the best Reptile pets. Extremely easy to handle, very

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Retrieved Text: Articulated vertebrae from a baby duck-billed dinosaur, a Edmontosaurus annectus from the Late Cretaceous of Montana.
The Dinosaur Institute houses a world-class collection of tetrapods (vertebrate animals with four limbs) from the Mesozoic Era. This collection includes fine fossil specimens of dinosaurs (including birds), pterosaurs, crocodiles, turtles, mammals, and extinct marine reptiles. Many of these specimens are prominently featured in the Museum's new Dinosaur Hall. In addition to skeletal specimens, the Institute also houses such rare fossil material as skin impressions and eggs. Among the Institute's unique treasures are a number of holotypes–specimens upon which a new species has been founded–as well as one of the few growth series of Tyrannosaurus rex, a series of fossils ranging from young juveniles through adults.
Below are some highlights of the collection from each of the periods of the Mesozoic Era (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous).

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Retrieved Text: Abstract: Vertebrate fossils from the lower Chinle Group housed at the Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA) represent some of the stratigraphically lowest Upper Triassic tetrapods collected on the Colorado Plateau. Unfortunately, many of these fossils were collected decades ago, and the recorded locality data lack crucial geographic and stratigraphic detail. Tetrapods from MNA locality 213, northwest of Cameron, include fragmentary phytosaur teeth and bones and a variety of coprolites that were probably derived from the Shinarump Formation or the lowermost Cameron Formation. MNA locality 491 encompasses all MNA collections made from an area 1/3 to 4 miles" (4.8-6.4 km) east of Cameron as well as those made in the general vicinity of Tanner's Crossing, approximately 2.5 miles (4.0 km) southeast of Cameron. Tetrapods from MNA locality 491 include a well-preserved skull and several pectoral elements assigned to the metoposaurid amphibian Buettneria perfecta and more fragmentary reptile material, at least some of which was probably derived from the Cameron Formation. These fossils appear to represent, at least in part, the first tetrapod records from the Cameron Formation and are among the stratigraphically lowest Chinle tetrapods from the Colorado Plateau.

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Retrieved Text: 1) They drop their tail when threatened by a predator but can be regenerated in 1 month.
2) When a lizard sheds its tail, it will return later to see if it is still there and eat it!
3) They are often mistaken as a type of snake as some species have very small or no legs. You can identify by finding the eyelids and presence of external ears. Lizards possess eyelids and ears.
4) Lizards smell by tasting the air around them. This is why they are often seen with sticking tongues at a rapid pace!
5) There are more than 5,600 different of species.
6) Lizards exist more than 200 million years since the dinosaur’s age.
7) Lizards live everywhere except in Antarctica.
8) They shed their skin as they grow.
9) The Gecko is the only species of lizard with vocal cords to create sound. The other species use body language to communicate instead.
10) Lizard eggs take about 40-60 days to hatch and a year to be mature and mate. Their lifespan is an average of 10 years but some species will live double the lifespan.
Did you know? Lizards are attracted to light. They have toe pads that enable them to crawl on smooth surfaces. Perhaps this is a reason why they are commonly found in your home!
Where else do they like to hide in your home? Behind pictures frames or paintings hung on the wall, among piles of newspapers and garbage or behind book shelves and cupboards.
Wash your dishes and clear away garbage and food crumbs frequently to prevent flies

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Retrieved Text: BACKGROUND: Temnospondyls are one of the earliest radiations of limbed vertebrates. Skeletal remains of more than 190 genera have been identified from late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic rocks. Paleozoic temnospondyls comprise mainly small to medium sized forms of diverse habits ranging from fully aquatic to fully terrestrial. Accordingly, their ichnological record includes tracks described from many Laurasian localities. Mesozoic temnospondyls, in contrast, include mostly medium to large aquatic or semi-aquatic forms. Exceedingly few fossil tracks or trackways have been attributed to Mesozoic temnospondyls, and as a consequence very little is known of their locomotor capabilities on land. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We report a ca. 200 Ma trackway, Episcopopus ventrosus , from Lesotho, southern Africa that was made by a 3.5 m-long animal. This relatively long trackway records the trackmaker dragging its body along a wet substrate using only the tips of its digits, which in the manus left characteristic drag marks. Based on detailed mapping, casting, and laser scanning of the best-preserved part of the trackway, we identified synapomorphies (e.g., tetradactyl manus, pentadactyl pes) and symplesiomorphies (e.g., absence of claws) in the Episcopopus trackway that indicate a temnospondyl trackmaker. Conclusions/Significance Our analysis shows that the Episcopopus trackmaker progressed with a sprawling posture, using a lateral-sequence walk. Its forelimbs were the major propulsive elements and there was little lateral bending of the trunk. We suggest this locomotor style, which differs dramatically from the hindlimb-driven locomotion of salamanders and other extant terrestrial tetrapods can be explained by the forwardly shifted center of mass resulting from the relatively large heads

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Retrieved Text: Neuronal control of muscles associated with the central body axis is an ancient and essential function of the nervous systems of most animal species. Throughout the course of vertebrate evolution, motor circuits dedicated to control of axial muscle have undergone significant changes in their roles within the motor system. In most fish species, axial circuits are critical for coordinating muscle activation sequences essential for locomotion and play important roles in postural correction. In tetrapods, axial circuits have evolved unique functions essential to terrestrial life, including maintaining spinal alignment and breathing. Despite the diverse roles of axial neural circuits in motor behaviors, the genetic programs underlying their assembly are poorly understood. In this review, we describe recent studies that have shed light on the development of axial motor circuits and compare and contrast the strategies used to wire these neural networks in aquatic and terrestrial vertebrate species.
The neuromuscular system of axial skeleton plays crucial roles in basic motor functions essential to vertebrates, including locomotion, breathing, posture and balance. While significant progress has been made in deciphering the wiring and function of neural circuits governing limb control [1, 2], the neural circuits associated with axial muscles have been relatively under studied, particularly in mammals. Despite comprising more than half of all skeletal muscles in mammals, how axial neural circuits are assembled during development is poorly understood.
Although all vertebrates share similar types of axial muscle [3, 4], the nervous systems of aquatic and terrestrial species control these muscle groups in distinct ways. In most aquatic vertebrates, rhythmic contraction of

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Retrieved Text: From crocodiles and penguins to seals and whales, this comprehensive and authoritative synthesis explores the function and evolution of sensory systems in animals whose ancestors lived on land. Together, the contributors explore the dramatic transformation of smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance, mechanoreception, magnetoreception, and electroreception that occurred as lineages of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals returned to aquatic environments. Each chapter integrates data from fields including sensory physiology, anatomy, paleontology, and neurobiology. A one-stop source for information on the sense organs of secondarily aquatic tetrapods, "Sensory Evolution on the Threshold "sheds new light on both the evolution of aquatic vertebrates and the sensory biology of their astonishing transition.
J. G. M. Thewissen, Professor of Anatomy at Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine, is editor of The Emergence of Whales: Evolutionary Patterns in the Origin of Whales and coeditor, with William F. Perrin and B. Wursig, of The Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Sirpa Nummela is Academy Research Fellow at the University of Helsinki in Finland.

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Retrieved Text: Despite being an important tool for understanding ancient species, fossilised hair is five times rarer than feathers, new research has found.
Fossils of body coverings contain unique data on the ecology and lifestyle of extinct animals, including what colour they might have been.
They also might affect our understanding of when kinds of body coverings, such as feathers and hair, evolved.
“This pattern of where and when we do find fossilised feathers and hairs can be used to inform where we look for future fossil discoveries,” said first author Chad Eliason, a researcher at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago who conducted the research while a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas at Austin in the US.
In this study, published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, the researchers used data on fossil type and age to determine that hair probably evolved much earlier than current fossil samples indicate.
Fossil beds that preserve soft tissues like hair and feathers are called lagerstatte and are rare on their own.
The researchers were interested in understanding how frequently different types of body coverings were found preserved in these exceptional sites, which include the Yixian Formation in China and the Green River Formation in the western US.
Eliason and his collaborators assembled the largest known database of fossilised body coverings, or integument, from land-dwelling vertebrates, a group known as tetrapods, collected from lagerstatte. They found that unlike feathers, hairs are extremely rare finds.
“Mammal hair has been around for more than 160 million years yet over that time we

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Retrieved Text: The first vertebrates, or animals with backbones, evolved during the late Cambrian to early Ordovician periods as jawless freshwater fish that looked much like today’s hagfish and lampreys. By the Devonian period (the “age of fishes”), jawed and armored fishes dominated the oceans. Around 380 million years ago, a line of fish with bony skeletons developed air-breathing lungs and “limbs” strong enough to support them. These were the precursors to the amphibians, creatures that made their first move toward land probably in response to the spread of plants to land around the early Silurian period.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "pollen grains are small male reproductive bodies of plants used to pollinate what?" and the following answer choices: 
- male bushes
 - an organism's body
 - in the autumn season
 - scarce resources
 - male flowers
 - female flowers
 - female bees
 - peachleaf willow

Now knowing that pollination is the fertilization step in the sexual reproduction of plants and pollen grains are the small male reproductive bodies of plants that fertilize female flowers, choose the best answer.

Target Text: female flowers

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Pollination of Dill Atlantic Giant pumpkins can take place in three different ways; (1) Cross-Pollination, when a bee or a grower deposits pollen from a male flower of one plant onto a female flower of a different plant, (2) Self-Pollination is possible, since a pumpkin plant has both male and female flowers and can therefore pollinate itself, and (3) Open Pollination, which generally occurs in an open field where bees make numerous visits and supply pollen to the females from many different male flowers from the same or other plants.
What exactly is pollen? If you look inside a newly opened male flower, you will see a yellow dust-like substance inside the flower. Most of the pollen will be clinging to the anthers in the central part of the male flower. Pollen grains are tiny, measuring only 250 microns. As small as they are, pumpkin pollen grains are among the largest in the plant kingdom. There are two parts to a pollen grain; the tube nucleus and the reproductive nucleus, which we will talk more about later.
What actually happens when you pollinate a female flower? For newcomers to pumpkin growing, the female flower has a small pumpkin at the base of the flower, while the male has only a flower on a long stem. When the male pollen touches the stigma (center) of the female flower the pollen grain interacts with the hormones and enzymes on the surface of the female stigma. This reaction triggers the pollen grain to germinate much in the same way as a

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Retrieved Text: Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male to the female part of the flower for the plant's reproduction.
At this time of year, our practical activities in the garden are limited, so it is a good time to plan ahead and also build our knowledge of plants and gardening. I have always been interested in the process of pollination and the development of a flower into a fruit.
‘The fine dustlike grains discharged from the male part of a flower, each containing the gametes that fertilize the female ovule.’ - The Oxford English Reference Dictionary 1996.
The process of pollination is therefore the successful transfer of pollen from the anther on the male flower to the stigma on the female flower.
The primary function of a flower is sexual reproduction. The male nuclei are contained within the pollen grain; discharged by the anther. The female nuclei are contained within the ovule.
Self-pollination is when the pollination process takes place between an anther and stigma on the same flower.
Cross-pollination is when the pollination takes place the anther and stigma on different flowers.
Whilst cross-pollination could occur between two different flowers on the same plant people who breed plants prefer to use different plants. This ensures the introduction of variation into the resulting offspring.
The most important and most common methods of cross-pollination are insects and wind.
Flowers that are pollinated by wind are usually small and often green in colour. They are usually unscented and produce no nectar. However, wind-pollinated flowers do produce large amounts of pollen. Willow (Salix) is an example

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Retrieved Text: Pollination is an important step in producing fresh cucumbers.
Cucumber blossoms can shrivel up without setting fruit even after the gardener plants them in rich soil, waters regularly, and feeds the plants faithfully. One reason is that the early flowers are only males, but in the hybrid varieties the flowers are only females. Without pollination, cucumbers do not form fruit. Honey bees are the main pollinator of cucumber, but if the bee population is low or inactive because of rainy weather the cucumber flowers do not get pollinated. When this occurs, a dedicated gardener must hand pollinate the cucumber plants.
Examine the flowers on the cucumber plants in the early morning. Determine which are the male and which are the female blossoms. The female flowers have a miniature cucumber at the base of the petals. This is actually the ovary on the plant where the fruit forms. You must have at least one male blossom, which contains the pollen on the stamens inside the petals.
Pinch one of the male flowers off the vine and remove all the petals to expose the stamens. Do not shake the blossom vigorously since this knocks off the pollen grains.
Touch the stamens to the stigma inside the female flowers. This leaves pollen stuck to the stamens and the cucumber blossom is fertilized. When the female flower dries up, the fruit grows and develops.
Locate the male flowers on the cucumber vines. Take a small, clean paintbrush and drag it across the stamens to gather the pollen grains.
Brush the collected pollen onto the center portion

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Retrieved Text: A flower is the reproductive organ of those plants classified as angiosperms (flowering plants; Division Magnoliophyta). The function of a flower is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. After fertilization, a flower develops into a fruit containing the seed(s).
calyx – the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
corolla – the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft, and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
androecium (from Greek andros: man) – one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
gynoecium (from Greek gynos: woman) – consisting of a pistil, with one or more carpels, which are the female reproductive organs and contain an ovary with ovules (female gametes). The sticky tip of tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carring the reproductive material.
In the majority of species, individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. However, in some species of plants the flowers are unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In some of these species, an individual plant is either male or female and the species is regarded as dioecious; in others, the unisexual

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Retrieved Text: For the physician, see Stamen Grigorov.
The stamen (plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp") is the male organ of a flower. Each stamen generally has a stalk called the filament (from Latin filum, meaning "thread"), and, on top of the filament, an anther (from Ancient Greek anthera, feminine of antheros "flowery," from anthos "flower"), and pollen sacs, called microsporangia. The development of the microsporangia and the contained haploid gametophytes, (called pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the microsporangia in gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry family (Berberidaceae). It is then dropped, or carried by some external agent — wind, water or some member of the animal kingdom — onto the receptive surface of the carpel of the same or another flower, which is thus pollinated. It is the part that contains the sperm cells.
Typical flowers have six stamens inside a perianth (the petals and sepals together), arranged in a whorl around the carpel (pistil). But in some species there are many more than six present in a flower (see, for example, the spider tree flower, below). Collectively, the stamens are called an androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house). The anthers are bilocular, i.e. they have two locules. Each locule contains a microsporangium. The tissue between the locules and the cells is called the connective. In an

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Retrieved Text: Looks like Sebastian the crab was right — there really is a lot going on under the sea. Researchers recently discovered that invertebrate animals actively pollinate flowers found on seagrass, much like bees do on land. Before this revelation, it was thought that pollen was carried plant to plant by water flow alone. When water flow just isn't happening, however, tiny crustaceans visit the plants when they flower at night and help out with the process.
These "sea bees" might not be building honey-filled hives or ruining picnics, but they're still performing a vital function to the underwater ecosystem. "Seagrasses form extensive meadows in shallow marine waters; and are amongst the world's most productive ecosystems," the researchers write in the study. "They improve water transparency, stabilize coastlines and store carbon, and also provide food and shelter to a diverse faunal community." In other words, by aiding the sexual reproduction of these flowers, the invertebrate crustaceans are doing everyone a major solid.
The scientists figured out that something fishy was going on when they reviewed video of underwater marine activity, and noticed that the male (therefore pollen-bearing) plants were enjoying many more visitors than their lady counterparts. Armed with this observation, they established two tanks, one with only male and female versions of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum, and another with the plants plus tiny invertebrates. The plants in the animal-occupied tank quickly became pollinated, unlike the other tank with plants and no water flow.
The discovery even begat its own new term, "zoobenthophilous pollination," which in layman's terms describes transfer

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Retrieved Text: The fine powderlike material whose individual grains contain the male reproductive cells of seed plants. Pollen is produced in the anther in angiosperms and in the male cone in gymnosperms.
1. the fertilizing element of flowering plants, consisting of fine, powdery, yellowish grains or spores.
pol•lin•ic (pəˈlɪn ɪk) pol•lin′i•cal, adj.
Powdery grains that contain the male reproductive cells of most plants. In flowering plants, pollen is produced by the anthers of stamens.
Spores produced by plants, containing male gametes.
___ count → conteo de ___.
Its application (sprinkling) helps the formation of the pollinic tube, which increases fecundation, and has a relation with the calcium transportation and absorption (MARSCHNER, 1997; WOJCIK et al.
Intraannual variations in the pollinic spectrum of honey from the lower valley of the River Chubut (Patagonia, Argentina).

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Retrieved Text: VegiBee Garden Pollinators are designed to imitate the high frequency vibrations made by a bee's wings during pollination. The VegiBee Garden Pollinator Express creates 38,000 sonic vibrations per minute that gently release pollen from the flower onto a specially designed collection spoon. In a matter of seconds, enough pollen is collected to pollinate 4-5 flowers by dipping the flower stigma from the same plant into the collected pollen. These pollinators will boost the average garden yield by more than 30% annually. The VegiBee 1 speed battery powered pollinator eliminates the need for bees or the wind to pollinate vegetables in a greenhouse, hydroponic, aquaponic as well as home food gardens. These self-pollinating plants possess the "perfect flower", containing both male and female reproductive parts in the same flower. VegiBee helps to overcome low crop yields in these plants, caused by shrinking bee populations and home gardens sheltered from the wind.
Riverstone Vegibee Garden Pollinators -Express ( Battery Operated) VegiBee Garden Pollinators are designed to imitate the high frequency vibrations made by a bee's wings during pollination. The VegiBee Garden Pollinator Express creates 38,000 sonic vibrations per minute that gently release pollen from the flower onto a specially designed collection spoon. In a matter of seconds, enough pollen is collected to pollinate 4-5 flowers by dipping the flower stigma from the same plant into the collected pollen. These pollinators will boost the average garden yield by more than 30% annually. The VegiBee 1 speed battery powered pollinator eliminates the need for bees or the wind to pollinate vegetables

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Retrieved Text: Bees and other beneficial insects pollinate plants, allowing them to reproduce. We learned about this in public school.
That act of pollination occurs when a bee is collecting pollen. Some of the pollen, from the stamens, which are the male reproductive organ of the flower, stick to the hairs of the bee’s body. As the bee travels from flower to flower some of this pollen rubs off onto the stigma, or female reproductive organ of the flower and the magic of fertilization occurs.
This is so important to plants they have evolved to attract bees. This attraction can include the flowers scent, its colour or the shape of a plants flowers.
So why did they teach us about this in public school? Around 1/3 of the vegetables and fruits we eat every day benefit from pollinators like bees.

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Retrieved Text: Seed saving can seem daunting at first, but after learning a few of the basics, you'll be on your way! Read the introduction below, and then check out some books, videos and websites to learn more.
In order to save quality seeds from your plants, you need to understand how each one reproduces.
Luckily, botanists have organized plants into families, based on similarities in their reproductive structures (flowers). This means that all the plants in one family have reproductive structures that function in the same way and, therefore, have very similar seed saving requirements!
Each family is further divided into genera (singular: genus). Plants within the same genus are closely related.
Within genera are individual plant species. Plants of the same species can breed to produce offspring just like themselves.
Cultivars and varieties are variations of the same species. They can readily cross with other cultivars of the same species, but cannot cross with cultivars of other species.
When we save seeds, we're usually trying to preserve a cultivar or variety so that it grows ‘true-to–type,’ meaning that the seeds grow into plants which share the same characteristics as their parents.
Zucchinis, pumpkins, acorn squash and ornamental gourds are all cultivars of the same species, Cucurbita pepo. They've been selectively bred over centuries for their various characteristics and will readily cross with each other if not isolated or hand pollinated. They are like breeds of dogs, also all descended from a common ancestor species, Canis lupus familiaris. If you leave your golden retrievers and your German shepherds out in the garden together, they

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Retrieved Text: Have you ever noticed how pleasant many flowers smell?
They have attractive scents, as well as bright colors, in order to attract insects. Insects use the nectar made by flowers as food.
In the process of getting the food, the insects transfer pollen from flower to flower.
The process of seed formation begins with this transfer of pollen grains from one flower to the stigma of another flower of the same kind.
This transfer is called pollination.
The main insects which pollinate flowers are bees and butterflies.
These insects feed on the sweet, sugar liquid called nectar that is usually produced by special cells in the receptacle.
On its way to the nectar, the insect has to pass the flower’s anthers, which are covered in pollen. Some of the pollen sticks to the insect’s body and then brushes off onto the stigma of the next flower that the insect visits.
A thin tube grows from the pollen grain, down through the style, and into the ovule. A male cell, carried by this pollen tube, unites with an egg, and the ovule starts to develop into a fertile seed.
Some flowering plants, such as grasses and hazel trees, don’t have any nectar in their flowers to attract insects. These plants need the wind to pollinate them. The wind blows the pollen off the anthers of one flower and onto the sticky stigma of another flower.
The stigma of a wind-pollinated plant can be large and feathery, in order to catch the pollen more easily. It’s the wind that takes the pollen from male cones to the ovules

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Retrieved Text: Every flowering plant in the world produces pollen – the male seed that trees, shrubs, bushes and herbs need in order to reproduce themselves. Bees and other insects collect pollen and nectar as they fly from blossom to blossom, and in the process they pollinate hundreds of plants that could not survive without them, even as the pollen is used by the hive for food.
As honey bees carry pollen, it is compressed into granules or grains with a combination of honey, nectar, enzymes and other ingredients that are impossible to recreate artificially. Bees fed laboratory-synthesized pollen granules, instead of their own collected pollen, don't survive for long – there seems to be some missing element in bee pollen that scientists haven't been able to duplicate.
Used as a tonic and an energy supplement in Chinese medicine and in other traditional medicines around the world, bee pollen is said to strengthen immunity and boost metabolism, providing energy and helping with weight loss. Bee pollen is used in health supplements for exercise stamina and energy reserves, to boost libido, and for recovery after illness or stress. Research has also shown Bee pollen supplements can help you control stress in your life and athletes have used bee pollen for centuries to increase their energy and endurance.
Bee pollen has been studied for its effects on cholesterol and cancer. In one study, the growth of tumours in mice was slowed by adding bee pollen to their food, while another study showed that women being treated with chemotherapy for uterine cancer experienced a

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Retrieved Text: Ultimately, all life on Earth depends on plants to provide food, shelter, and oxygen for other living things. Consequently, plant reproduction is crucial to all other life on this planet. The first step in plant reproduction is the intricate process called pollination, which occurs when pollen grains, the male germ cell of a plant, reach the stigma, the female reproductive part of the same species of plant. Depending on the plant species, a flower can produce male, female, or both structures. Pollination can also occur within the same flower.
Most flowering plants (90 percent) depend on animals to make the vital pollen-grain delivery. The remaining flowering plants rely on wind and some-times splashing raindrops to ferry pollen, but this is a less precise method. Pollinating animals do the job for a reward: food, usually in the form of nectar. The lessons in this online unit explore the theme of the National Zoo's Pollinarium exhibition: how plant and animal partners interact to accomplish pollination.

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Retrieved Text: Steeves, T.A.. "Seed Plants". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 04 March 2015, Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seed-plants. Accessed 21 April 2019.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the "seed habit," a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte).
Seed Plants, the most abundant and familiar component of Earth's vegetation, comprise an estimated 250 000-300 000 species. They outnumber all other PLANT groups, dominate the land, thrive in bodies of fresh water and are found to a limited extent in the oceans. They include the largest (giant sequoia) and oldest (bristlecone pine) living things, and encompass tiny water-meal scarcely 1 mm long and ephemeral annuals that survive only a few weeks. Seed plants share with other vascular plants (plants with woody conducting systems) basic organs (root, stem and leaf), cell types and tissues. In response to different environments, they have evolved many forms.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the &QUOT;seed habit,&QUOT; a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte). In seed plants, the spore that produces the female gametophyte is not shed to initiate an independent plant but is retained in the sporangium (reproductive structure), which is surrounded by a protective covering (integument). This is the immature seed or ovule.
Spores that produce male gametophytes are released as the gametophytes begin to develop. These are the pollen grains which are

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Retrieved Text: Cross-pollinate dahlias to develop new cultivars.
Dahlias, a genus of perennial flowering plants, are available in a rainbow of colors and a variety of stunning shapes. Dahlias look delightful in the flower bed or a container and make excellent cut flowers for vases or bouquets. Gardeners typically grow dahlias from tubers, but hand pollination is a way to create your own cultivars. Bees and other flying insects pollinate dahlias; however, this can produce unpredictable results. Hand pollination allows you to control the parent plants, giving you much more reliable results.
Locate a male dahlia flower. Male flowers have centers filled with pollen.
Cut a male dahlia flower off the plant, leaving several inches of stem attached. Remove all the petals.
Place the stem of the male flower in a glass of cool, fresh water. Allow the flower to develop more dry pollen.
Select a female dahlia flower for pollination. Choose a flower with a center that is just starting to open. Do not choose a flower that has already been pollinated. Pollinated flowers have separated disk florets in the center.
Remove all the petals from the female flower. Cover the remaining center of the flower with a small plastic bag. Secure the bag with string or a clip.
Uncover the female flower when the stigmas in the center have opened. The stigmas are the small U-shaped filaments extending out of the tubular structures in the center of the flower.
Dust the stigmas of the female dahlia with the pollen-coated center of the male flower. Brush the stigmas gently in several directions. Cover the female

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Retrieved Text: If you suffer from hay fever or other allergies, then being out in the garden can, at times, be less than enjoyable. But there are some steps you can take to create an allergy-friendly garden so you can spend more time gardening and less time sneezing.
First, make sure you choose plants that are pollinated by birds and insects rather than the wind. Plants that pollinate themselves via wind release millions of tiny pollen grains. These grains are what cause hay fever and the related symptoms such as itchy eyes, sneezing, runny nose and itchy throat.
By choosing low-pollen plants for your garden, you can reduce the amount of pollen in the air. As a general rule, the larger and showier the flowers, the less allergenic they will be.
•	Avoid going outside on days when the pollen count is extremely high.
•	Don’t garden or mow the lawn when it’s really windy.
•	On cool, wet days the pollen count will generally be low.
•	Avoid cutting back trees and shrubs when they are in bloom.
•	Keep your grass cut very low to inhibit seeds.
Grasses and weeds can also trigger allergies so it might be worth considering a synthetic alternative. Synthetic or “fake grass” is not only allergy-free, it’s low maintenance, easy to install yourself and a great way to make sure you have green grass all year round.
While it’s hard to avoid everything that triggers your allergies and hay fever, creating an allergy-friendly garden will certainly help. Check out our huge range of plants to get started.

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Retrieved Text: What are the breeding obstacles to releasing GMO traits in hybrid seed? What are the performance liability issues related to same, and what are the regulatory issues related to such a release into the environment?
First, thank you very much for your series of questions. In terms of regulatory issues for releasing transgenic cultivars that are hybrid (such as corn or maize), versus, I assume, ones that are not (such as soybeans), there are no formal differences in the regulatory process. Questions concerning the nature of the gene, its function, its insertion site in the host genome, effect on plant growth and composition, allergenic properties of the added protein, etc., must be satisfied before the transgene can be “deregulated” and used commercially.
Your question may be getting at the fact that we normally associate hybrid commercial plants with ones that normally outcross in nature, versus ones that normally self-pollinate. In corn, for example, the female and male flowers are separate and pollen from one plant will commonly pollinate an egg born on a different plant. In contrast, soybeans and many other plants have perfect flowers, and the amount of “outcrossing” in male-fertile soybeans is virtually zero. Soybean seeds result from a fusion of a sperm and egg produced on the same plant.
The distance of pollen flow and rates of outcrossing are considered in testing of regulated, experimental transgenic plants not yet commercialized. In corn, for example, experimental transgenic corn must be separated by 660 feet from other conventional corn. This distance greatly minimizes the amount of transgenic pollen

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Retrieved Text: Flowers, also called blooms or blossoms, is the reproductive organs of the stand. The chief affair of a flower is too precipitate the merger of the gentleman sperm with female ovum to construct seeds and breed the species. The basic managed starts with pollination, which in favor causes fertilization, and the leads to the formation of the seeds. There are different habits that the lodge causes diffusion of it’s seeds. It can range it’s seeds by breeze or like the blackberry hide and increase it’s seeds by use of birds and animals.
Seeds are the next generations, or offspring, and are the initial means by which the species ensures it’s continuation. The production of the tiny flora on a song deposit is called inflorescence. Besides being the reproductive organs of peak plants, plants have been used by humans all across the world to revamp their surroundings and as a fund of food.
Every flower has a point which helps the convey of it’s pollen in the most competent way potential. Some types of plants are self pollinated, such as many types of sativas, while others expect pollination by insects. Plants, such as many types of mints or clover, interest and use bees, bats, birds, etc. to removal pollen from one flower to another. Most plants have glands called nectaries on countless parts that fascinate insects such as bees. Some flora had patterns termed nectar guides, that help insects like butterflies where to look for the pleasing nectar. Flowers can also draw pollinators to them by using detect and

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Retrieved Text: Look at the diagram of a flower below. Most flowers form as a series of rings. The outer ring is made up of sepals. Sepals are usually green and look like leaves attached to the stem at the base of the flower. The colorful petals make up the next ring. Inside the ring of petals in the center of the flower are the reproductive parts of the plant. The stamens are the male reproductive organs. Notice that each stamen has an anther on its tip. This is where millions of tiny pollen grains are attached. The solid tube called the pistil is the female part of the flower. The pistil contains the ovary and egg/eggs.
The first step of fertilization is pollination. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anther to the sticky top of the pistil. Birds and insects are responsible for pollinating many flowers. They knock pollen off the anther and onto the pistil. Rain and wind also aid in pollination.
A tube grows out of the pollen grain that is stuck to the pistil. Inside the pollen tube is the sperm. The tube grows down into the ovule, which is at the bottom of the pistil and fertilization occurs. The fertilized egg cell begins to divide and form a young organism called an embryo. The ovule grows into a covering that protects what has now become a seed. As this seed forms in the parent plant, the flower changes. The sepals and petals die and fall off. The ovule grows into a seed with

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Retrieved Text: Plumeria flowers are asexual plants, which means that each flower contains both male and female parts. After the flower blooms fall off, insects, moths and hummingbirds pollinate the stems by shaking the pollen down into the lower stem portion where it fertilizes the plant. If you don't have many natural insect pollinators, or if the flower is in a greenhouse, you can pollinate the plumeria by hand by transferring the pollen.
Grasp one of the flowers and examine the stalk directly beneath it. You will see a raised collar approximately 1 inch below the bloom, which is where the male part of the flower, called the anthers, resides. Cut the stem off just above this collar with hand pruners or a sharp knife. Wait one to three days before proceeding with the pollination process.
Rub the bristles of a new artist's brush over your fingers to separate them slightly. Insert the bristles into the cut stem so that they extend down into the center hole.
Move the brush bristles around gently for five to 10 seconds to knock the pollen off the anthers and into the bottom of the stem, where the ovary is located. Watch the stem closely during the next week until you see a reddish seed pod develop that looks similar to a bean pod.
Place a small piece of clear tape over the end of the stem to cover the hole and prevent additional pollination from other plants. Keep the pod at temperatures above 45 degrees Fahrenheit until the pods dry and fall off, which occurs

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Retrieved Text: Plants either reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on the type of plant. In sexual reproduction, two germ cells, or gametes, fuse to create the beginning of a genetically unique offspring. In asexual reproduction, a plant cell splits in two to create a genetically identical offspring.
During sexual reproduction, a male gamete needs to fertilize a female gamete. Depending on the plant, this is accomplished in a variety of ways. In flowering plants, the male and female gametes are located on different parts of the same flower. The sperm, located in the pollen grains, fall on the carpel of the flower, where the female gametes are located. This process occurs because of wind pollination or insect pollination that transports the pollen grains to the female gametes. As a result of this pollination, a fruit is created, which contains the seeds of offspring. In mosses, sexual reproduction can only occur if the male and female plant gametes combine directly. Conifers have two different cones: a male and a female cone. The male cone gives off pollen that the female cone catches.
Asexual reproduction occurs either through vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Vegetative reproduction occurs when a plant's shoots, roots and, sometimes, leaves fall onto moist dirt and take root. In apomixis, unfertilized plant seeds are used to create more offspring. Although asexual reproduction among plants occurs, sexual reproduction is far more common in most plant species.

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Retrieved Text: It is early July and there are little baby pumpkins forming on the vine. That means it is time to pollinate!
As you may notice there are both female and male flowers on pumpkin and squash plants. The first 8 flowers on a pumpkin plant are usually male flowers. The female flowers will then appear about a week later and can be recognized by the small pumpkin at their base. The female flowers will only bloom for a few hours early in the morning and produce rich nectar that is attractive to pollinators. Unlike tomatoes, beans and peas, pumpkins cannot self pollinate.
Honeybees, Bumblebees, and Squash Bees are the most important species for pollinating pumpkins and squash. The Squash Bee is a solitary bee especially well suited to the job and entirely dependent on the pollen of species in the Cucurbitaceae family. The females build their nests in undisturbed soil and the next generation will emerge as adults the following summer. Here are some beautiful photos of Squash Bees emerging from their nests and visiting flowers.
Since every day counts when you are trying to win the local giant pumpkin contest, you would be wise to provide a little assistance with pollination. The main benefit of hand-pollinating is getting an abundant and early fruit set so that you have the edge on the competition and plenty of pumpkins from which to choose a winner. While many members of the Cucurbitaceae family will cross pollinate, the results of such activity will only become evident in the following generation. While this

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Retrieved Text: Amber fossils containing bugs are nothing new, but the discovery of a beautifully preserved Cretaceous Period beetle with bits of pollen still around it is changing what we know about the planet’s earliest pollinating insects.
Earth’s oldest pollinating insects are a bit of a mystery, but fossilised insect dung containing bits of pollen suggest they first emerged during the Middle Triassic (247 million to 237 million years ago). More convincing evidence of insectoid pollinators dates back 165 million years, to the Middle Jurassic, in the form of fossilised scorpionflies, who likely used their long proboscis to pollinate non-flowering plants. Indeed, a fascinating aspect about early pollinating insects is that they were paired with non-flowering plants (gymnosperms), rather than flowering plants (angiosperms).
Evidence for early pollination is sparse, which is why this new study is so exciting. The new research, published yesterday in Current Biology, is providing the earliest unambiguous fossil evidence of the relationship between gymnosperms and insects. Found in northern Myanmar’s Kachin State, this chunk of 99-million-year-old Cretaceous amber contains a beetle with bits of pollen around it. The pollen is from an unusual group of evergreen gymnosperms known as cycads, which, as this discovery suggests, could represent an early, or even the first, insect-pollinated group of plants.
This Beetle belonged to the boganiid family, which are exceptionally rare in the fossil record, but are known pollinators of cycads. Chenyang Cai, a palaeontologist from the University of Bristol and the lead author of the new study, said it’s the only boganiid beetle out of over 22,000 amber pieces

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Retrieved Text: Explains the process of pollination and its impact on our lives, and includes photographs, illustrations, and electron microscopy images.
A beautiful illustrated guide to the structure and form of pollen investigates pollination and fertilization, its impact our lives, and includes photographs, illustrations and electron microscopy images. The authors are an artist and a plant scientist.
A scientific and artistic collaboration reveals a stunning, even sensual, microscopic world.
Pollen grains have fascinated the scientifically curious since the 17th century. They are minute, almost impossible to see without a high-powered microscope, and remain hidden beyond the beauty o the flower until the moment of release. Then the grains, like alien spaceships, are carried by wind, water or animal to achieve their purpose of procreation.
This beautifully produced and highly original book by an artist and botanical scientist portrays the perfect designs of these microscopic organisms. Special light and scanning electron microscopy are used to obtain astonishing images of pollen grains, which are combined with exquisite photographs of the parent plants.
Pollen describes and illustrates in minute detail the reproductive workings of plants ranging from tulips and lilies to orchids and palms. The structure and form of pollen set the scene for the remarkable events that occur from pollination to fertilization. Also included are literary references to plant reproduction, as well as early botanical illustrations.
Pollen is an intriguing book that is both informative and surprisingly beautiful.
Pictures not as good as "Bizarre and Incredible World" and "Wonders of the Plant Kingdom," but it is a better book because of author Harley's teaching and pictures which

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Retrieved Text: The main forensic application of palynology is in determining the possibility of associative evidence. Forensic palynologists should assess the significance of. PDF | Forensic palynology is an important tool for obtaining trace evidence from victims, suspects, items related with a crime scene, or for. PDF | On Sep 15, , Dallas Mildenhall and others published Forensic Palynology.
The extent of travel can depend on pzlynology variety of factors including the strength and direction of the wind, the weight and shape of the grain, and atmospheric conditions, though the pollen will typically fall within around 2km of the parent plant.
Palynology Forensic disciplines Forensic palynology. If a suspect was present at a particular crime scene at which pollen can be found for instance a field or gardenthey may have picked up pollen on their clothing or in their hair. His body could not be found.
That indicates that the body was moved.
Pollen grains typically have a fairly hard coat to protect them as they pass from one plant to another, making them relatively resilient to destruction. All of these features make them especially ideal for use in a forensic investigation. Pollen and Spores Pollen refers to a powder containing the male gametophytes of seed-producing plants, produced and dispersed in order to pollinate and reproduce.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Civil and criminal investigations.
The morphology of pollen and similar substances is fairly complex, meaning that with the appropriate equipment, expertise and reference materials, it is possible to distinguish between and identify pollen grains. In addition to this, scanning electron microscopy SEM may

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Retrieved Text: Dihybridization experiment includes the inheritance of two characters simultaneously such as the shape of seeds and colour of seeds.
Mendel has selected Pea plants for dihybridization experiment with shape of seeds and color of seeds as a character. The gene for round shape of seeds (R) is dominant over the gene for wrinkled shape of seeds (r). Gene for yellow color of seeds (Y) is dominant over the gene for green color of seed (y).
Mendel has selected patent plants in P generation are homozygous yellow ad round seeded plants and homozygous green and wrinkled seeded plants. As yellow and round seeded genes are dominant, F1 generation are yellow and round seeded. Based on this experiment, Mendel has concluded the law of Independent assortment.
The segregation of gene controlling one character is independent of the segregation of genes controlling another character. In short, Inheritance of one character is independent of inheritance of another character.
Law of Independent Assortment is not true in all the cases. If two pairs of genes controlling two different characters are located on the same pair of homologous chromosomes, they cannot be segregated separately. Such genes are called Linked genes and their inheritance is called Linkage.
Batson and Punnett have performed experiment on Sweet Pea plants (Lathyrus odoratus. L.) to explain the Linkage. They used homozygous purple flower and homozygous long pollen plant as one parent and homozygous red flower and homozygous round pollen plants as another parent. In these plants purple color flower (R) is dominant over red flower color (r). Long shape of pollen grains

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Retrieved Text: Bees latch on to similarly-sized nectarless flowers to unpick pollen - like keys fitting into locks, according to a new study by researchers at the University of Stirling.
The research shows the right size of bee is needed to properly pollinate a flower. The bee fits tightly with the flower's anthers, to vibrate and release the pollen sealed within.
"We found that a pollinator's size, compared to the flower, significantly influences how much pollen is deposited." said Dr Mario Vallejo-Marin, from Stirling's Faculty of Natural Sciences.
"Some plants, particularly those that are buzz-pollinated - a technique where bees hold onto the flower and vibrate to shake out the pollen - require a close physical interaction between their floral sexual organs and their visitors. The closer the bee fits to the flower, allowing it to touch both the male and female sexual organs, the more efficiently the insect can transfer pollen between plants." said Dr Vallejo-Marin.
"Our findings will help understand natural populations of nightshade and whether a visitor acts as a pollinator, or a pollen thief. This is not only relevant in its native range in Mexico, but also in the invasive species which is found right around the world. Surprisingly, visits by smaller bees were associated with more seeds being produced, indicating that more pollen does not necessarily create more seeds. Seed production may also depend on the quality of the pollen and different kinds of pollen grains competing to germinate. However, by identifying whether visiting bees and complex flowers match physically, we can predict whether these bees are

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Retrieved Text: stamen, one of the four basic parts of a flower . The stamen (microsporophyll), is often called the flower's male reproductive organ. It is typically located between the central pistil and the surrounding petals. A stamen consists of a slender stalk (the filament) tipped by a usually bilobed sac (the anther) in which microspores develop as pollen grains. The number of stamens is a factor in classifying plant families, e.g., there are 5 (or multiples of 5) in the rose family and 10 in the pulse family. In most flowers the stamens are constructed so as to promote cross-pollination and to avoid self-pollination; e.g., they may be longer than the pistil or may be so placed in relation to the pistil (as in the mountain laurel and the lady's-slipper) as to prevent the pollinating insect from transferring the pollen of a flower to its own pistil. There may be differing maturation times for the stigma of the pistil and for the anther. In some plants there are some flowers (staminate) that bear stamens and no pistil and others (pistillate) that have a pistil and no stamens; these flowers may be borne on the same or on separate plants of the same species. In some highly developed flowers, especially double ones, and in some horticultural varieties (e.g., the geranium) the stamen may be modified into a sterile petallike organ.

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Retrieved Text: In flower anatomy: The filament is a part of the androecium, the fine hair-like basal sterile portion of a stamen that holds the anther on top.
The filament is the stalk upon which the anther sits; together, the filament and anther make up the stamen, which is the male reproductive organ (in the flower) of a plant.
It is a (usually) slender or thread-like structure that supports the anther (a typically bilobed sac containing the pollen grains) in position for pollen dispersal.
The stamens collectively are normally located between the central pistil (flower's female reproductive organ ) and the surrounding petals.
The flowers has characteristic long filaments.

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Retrieved Text: Want to learn how to make your own feminized marijuana seeds? So far in your growing process you have probably only worried about the ways to keep your plants happy and healthy – to both survive and thrive. Chances are, this has taken up most of your time. It has probably used up more of your time than you ever expected. How could you even think about doing something extra for your next time around?
Plenty of growers who only want the marijuana for their personal use will simply allow the males to pollinate the females, and will remove the marijuana seeds from the harvest later.
Meanwhile, keep your female plants in their vegetation phase for as long as possible. Once it is time for the flowering phase to begin, it’s time to use the pollen that has been stored in the freezer. Decide carefully which females you will want to pollinate. It could be because she exhibits specific qualities you like, or maybe she comes from the same strain as the male plant and it happened to be a great strain, so you want to keep the strain completely pure. Place the pollen in one cola of the female plant(s). Don’t pollinate flowers on that same plant, and don’t get the pollen in the flowers of the other plants, either.
The process of pollinating your plants must be done carefully. For best results, separate the whole female plant to avoid contaminating the other plants around it. First, put the frozen pollen into a little bowl, and get a

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what is cells converting oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy?" and the following answer choices: 
- not necessary for life
 - requirement for life
 - Most plants
 - one celled organisms
 - digestion
 - they body they live in
 - h2o
 - circulatory systems

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and cellular respiration is a requirement for life, choose the best answer.

Target Text: requirement for life

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: You need to be a member of Brock Shores Financial #ImprovingFutures to add comments!
Wheat is a grass, converting sunlight energy into carbohydrates and surprisingly a high percentage of protein and that protein is part of the gluten that many people have an intolerance too. Interesting side bar on protein that I had forgotten about and had no idea about the gluten. We hand grind our own flour from wheat, corn, rice and other grains, so hopefully the lower processing results in a better spectrum of nutrition.
“More than half the supply of palladium and its congenerplatinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: The Krebs’ cycle is an eloquent and essential system designed to generate large amounts of cellular energy required for life. Disruption of the Krebs’ cycle, whether caused by deficiencies in energy substrates, stress, age etc. leads to an inhibition of normal energy production and contributes to a wide range of metabolic disturbances, skin damages and ageing.
All cells must produce energy to survive. Hans A. Krebs first elucidated the process of cells converting food into energy, the Citric Acid Cycle, in 1937. Krebs proposed a specific metabolic pathway within the cells to account for the oxidation of the basic components of food – carbohydrates, protein and fats – w for energy. The Krebs’ cycle takes place inside the mitochondria or ‘power plant’ of cells and provides energy required for the organism to function.
Mitochondria are found in all cells in the human body, with the exception of mature red blood cells. The primary function of these tiny organelles (each cell contains between 500 and 2,000 mitochondria) is to convert energy found in nutrient molecules and store it in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the universal energy-yielding molecule used by enzymes to perform a wide range of cellular functions. Humans cannot survive, even for a second, without a constant supply of ATP.
In order to carry out energy conversion, mitochondria require oxygen. The purpose of our respiratory and circulatory systems is to deliver oxygen to the tissues for use by mitochondria, and to eliminate carbon dioxide. The consumption of oxygen by mitochondria is called cellular respiration.
In simple

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: The term sugar is the generic term for any disaccharides and monosaccharides. Sugars are an essential structural component of living cells and a source of energy in many organisms. Sugars are classified based on the number of monomeric units present. The term simple sugars denote to the monosaccharides. The term table sugar or granulated sugar actually refers to sucrose, which is a disaccharide made of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is the form of sugar that many people are familiar with. It is used in food preparation, such as in cakes, pastries, and desserts. It is also used as an ingredient in several beverages, such as sodas, coffee, and juices.
Carbohydrates, especially polysaccharides, are one of the four major groups of biomolecules. The others are proteins, amino acids, and nucleic acids. A carbohydrate refers to any of the group of organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio of 1:2:1, hence the general formula: Cn (H2O) n. Carbohydrates are the most abundant among the major classes of biomolecules. They are one of the major nutrients, providing energy that shall fuel various metabolic processes.
As a nutrient, carbohydrates may be classified based on their structural complexity: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates, sometimes referred to as simply sugar, are those that are readily digested and serve as a rapid source of energy. Complex carbohydrates (such as cellulose, starch, and glycogen) are those that need more time to be digested and metabolized. They often are high in fiber and unlike simple carbohydrates they are less likely

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: A photosystem, showing the absorption of a photon by a pigment molecule and the transfer of this energy to the reaction centre. InRenger expressed the idea of internal changes of water molecules into typical oxides in different S-states during water splitting.
There is simply not enough sunlight to warrant the amount of energy spent in growing the leaves. These organisms make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun.
Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen. At the RC is a pair of P chlorophyll molecules. Vascular bundle — these are tissues that form part of the transport system of the plant.
There is also much room for error in calculating such enormous processes. Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport water, dissolved minerals and food to and from the leaves. The leaves are made up of very small cells.
During these reactions light energy is converted to chemical energy.
These different types of pigment absorb light of different wavelengths. This is an excellent introduction to the subject at an undergraduate level.
It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. And chlorophyll is found in all plants because it is the molecule that absorbs the light that is used to make sugar.
In these light-independent or dark reactions, carbon is broken away from carbon dioxide and combined with hydrogen via the Calvin cycle to create carbohydrates. Numerous research projects are focusing on achieving this with a variety of plant species. The energy that

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Blue and green algae are bacteria (cyanobacteria) that act very much like a plant. Blue and green algae need sunlight, warmth and the proper nutrients to grow and thrive.... This green slime is predominantly composed of blue-green and green algae. In order for algae to grow, they need water, light and fertilizer nutrients, just as plants do. This is why algae are so common in the greenhouse or other areas where plants are grown, especially grown under mist or in cold temperatures.
Algae found in garden ponds comes in a few varieties, including the �blue-green� algae, cyanobacteria, as well as regular green, brown, and red algae. Pond algae, like many other plants, grow through photosynthesis; converting sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and nutrients into materials known as biomass, which is then used for growth.
As the algae begins to grow, take periodic measurements of how much light passes through the tank. Allow students to create a graph over time of the data they collect and have them explain why it might behave in a certain way.
Blue-green algae or Cyanobacteria are microscopic cells that grow naturally in Australian fresh and salt waters. They are a type of bacteria, but in some ways act like plants by using sunlight to manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, a process know as photosynthesis. In doing so, they release oxygen. They grow in dams, rivers, creeks, reservoirs, lakes and even hot springs.
Black and blue-green algae are one and the same. Primarily found in lakes and ponds, it does find a home in unmaintained

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: All energy consumed by biological systems ultimately comes from light energy trapped in reduced carbon skeletons by the process of photosynthesis.
This simple net reaction is catalyzed by a very complex enzyme machinery in plants and photosynthetic bacteria. Photosynthesis traps light to convert photon energy into chemical energy in a process reminiscent of oxidative phosphorylation. This membrane bound process is referred to as light reaction and depends on an electron transfer chain powered by reducing equivalents extracted from water. The chemical energy produced - ATP and NADPH - is used for for the synthesis of carbohydrates by carbon fixation (Calvin cycle or dark reaction).
This chapter presents the plant photosynthetic apparatus. It is located in specialized organelles called chloroplasts with a complex membrane system that allows the separation of charges to convert electromagnetic energy (photons) into electrochemical energy (proton gradient) and eventually into chemical energy in the form of ATP (phosphoryltransfer potential) and NADPH (reducing power) and ultimately as carbohydrates, fats and amino acids..
The light reaction is a membrane bound process. The photosynthetic membranes in plants contain two photosystems, photosystems I and II, or PS I and PS II. Photosystem I captures the energy of single photons by excitation of electrons in magnesium ions in green pigments called chlorophyll (chlorophyll a, C05306; see pathway map details below). The color of the chlorophylls indicates the absorption maxima of the system, i.e., the ability to capture light energy of photons at a specific wavelength. Photosystem I is coupled to an NADP+ - reducing enzyme to produce reducing power in the

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : After much practice, scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago have created artificial leaves that can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide to fuel ten times more efficiently than natural plants. Artificial leaves mimic the process whereby plants use water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates using energy from the Sun.
But, the state-of-the-art artificial leaves only work in the laboratory because these leaves need pure, pressurised carbon dioxide from tanks.
Researchers from the University of Illinois at Chicago in the US have suggested a design solution that could bring artificial leaves out of the laboratory and into the environment. The artificial leaf which would use carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas from the air, would be at least 10 times more efficient than natural leaves at converting carbon dioxide to fuel.
"So far, all designs for artificial leaves that have been tested in the lab use carbon dioxide from pressurised tanks," said Meenesh Singh, assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago."In order to implement successfully in the real world, these devices need to be able to draw carbon dioxide from much more dilute sources, such as air and flue gas, which is the gas given off by coal-burning power plants," said Singh, corresponding author of the study published in the journal ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.
Unlocking the pressurised carbon dioxide supply from these leaves means that they must have a way to collect and concentrate carbon dioxide from the air to drive their artificial photosynthetic reactions. Singh and Aditya Prajapati, a

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Definition of a C4 Pathway?
The C4 pathway is a method plants use to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into a chemical compound containing four carbons. About.com explains that plans that utilize this pathway usually originate in subtropical areas. Examples include maize, sugarcane, sorghum, millet and papyrus. These plants commonly grow at latitudes below 45 degrees, in the tropics.
While photosynthesis normally takes place in the leaves of plants, in those plants using the C4 pathway, it takes place in a special leaf structure, the Kranz anatomy, which includes vascular bundles surrounded by sheath cells. Once the fixation of carbon dioxide completes, transforming it into the four-carbon compound through tehmesophyll cells, the plant transports it to the sheath cells where ribosco, the enzyme necessary for photosynthesis, is stored. This process prevents exposing the enzyme to oxygen and conserves energy for the plant.
Reference.com says that C4 photosynthesis gives plants an advantage over those using the classic C3 type of photosynthesis in drought conditions as well as in locations where carbon dioxide and nitrogen are limited. In C3 plants, as much as 97 percent of the water is lost due to transpiration. C4 plants make up approximately 5 percent of the world's biomass yet fix 30 percent of terrestrial carbon.

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: Zebec's clients can rely on Zebec to deliver to an agreed scope, on budget and on programme, whilst meeting Health & Safety and Environmental requirements.
Anaerobic Digestion as a resource recovery technology is relevant for a range of industries. It can be applied as a pre-treatment step to reduce the volume of waste and to control odours and pathogens in order to keep final disposal costs down. More often today it is utilised as primary treatment of biomas to produce valuable products such as biogas that can be converted into heat and energy plus digestate which can used as fertiliser.
Anaerobic digestion is the simple, natural breakdown of organic matter into carbon dioxide, methane and water, by two groups of microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. Since many of these are intolerant to oxygen, this process is known as anaerobic.
There are four main stages of the anaerobic digestion process.
Each stage breaks the matter into smaller and smaller parts, until the only remaining substances are methane, carbon dioxide and water, three very simple molecules.
Hydrolysis breaks down the complex organic matter – carbohydrates, fats and proteins – into simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates, long chains of simple sugars, are broken down into single glucose molecules; proteins, long folded chains of amino acids, become individual amino acids; while fats, made up of head groups and fatty acid chains, have the latter part removed from the head groups and cut into smaller and smaller pieces.
Acidogenesis sees those single sugar molecules, fatty acids and amino acids broken down further into alcohols and

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What are not cells, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes?" and the following answer choices: 
- microorganisms
 - members of their own species
 - death and devastation
 - Influenza orthomyxoviruses
 - Something that tapeworms do not have
 - Leptospirosis
 - tectonic plates being pushed together
 - remains of prehistoric life

Now knowing that viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes and influenza viruses are classified as orthomyxoviruses, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Influenza orthomyxoviruses

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What is a virus? Is it even a living organism?
This alien-looking thing is a virus. But is it prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Or neither? Or both? A virus is essentially genetic material surrounded by protein. That's it. So, is a virus prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Or neither? Or both?
Viruses, like the one depicted in Figure below, are tiny particles that may cause disease. Human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold and flu. Do you think viruses are prokaryotes or eukaryotes? The answer may surprise you. Viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes.
Cartoon of a flu virus. The flu virus is a tiny particle that may cause illness in humans. What is a virus? Is it a cell? Is it even alive?
Viruses contain DNA but not much else. They lack the other parts shared by all cells, including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Therefore, viruses are not cells, but are they alive? All living things not only have cells; they are also capable of reproduction. Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves. Instead, they infect living hosts, and use the hosts’ cells to make copies of their own DNA. Viruses also do not have their own metabolism or maintain homeostasis. For these reasons, most scientists do not consider viruses to be living things.
An overview of viruses can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0h5Jd7sgQWY(23:17).
Viruses are neither prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Viruses are not made of cells. Viruses cannot replicate on their own.
Most scientists do not consider viruses to be living.
Why are viruses considered parasites?
Describe the outside covering

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Retrieved Text: Browse Relevant Sites & Find Eukaryotes Vs Prokaryotes. All Here!
What are some examples of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotic- bacteria Eukaryotic- protist, amoeba, etc. An example of a prokaryote would be bacteria or any single cellular organism and an example of a eukaryote would be any multicellular organism.
Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things. However, due to their generally much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is estimated to be about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes evolved approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago, during the Proterozoic eon.
The eukaryotic cells are identified by the presence of a distinct nucleus with the genetic material enclosed inside it. They also have differences in the process of protein synthesis, RNA structures, etc. See for more details the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Examples of eukaryotic cells include: 1.
The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide.
Start studying Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

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Retrieved Text: Animals (kingdom Animalia) are distinguished from protests because animals are composed of many cells arranged into tissues. Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts, which are present in most plants.
Exactly what is a plant and how is it different from other life-forms? This may initially seem like a simple question. Everyone knows that an elm tree is a plant, whereas a dog is not. Nevertheless, the precise definition of plants is still a matter of debate among some scientists. All living things are made up of protoplasm, a complex material composed of organic substances such as sugars, proteins, and fats. Protoplasm is arranged in tiny units called cells. All living things are composed of cells.
As recently as the late 1960s, scientists believed that all organisms could be classified as members of either the plant or the animal kingdom. Life-forms that are green and that can synthesize their own food using light energy were put in the plant kingdom. Those organisms that lack green pigment and are able to move about were considered to be animals. Researchers now agree that living things are more properly divided into two groups—prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These major groups comprise five kingdoms. Major differences between cells are used to distinguish between these groups and kingdoms.
Prokaryotes are very small, single-celled organisms that constitute a single kingdom, the Monera. They include bacteria. Some prokaryotes can produce food using light energy much as plants do. Prokaryote cells are very simple. The protoplasm within the cell, called the cytoplasm, lacks many of the structures found in

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Retrieved Text: Eukaryotes are organisms having very complex cellular structure. This article deals with eukaryotic cell cycle along with its phases and regulation.
Let's get to the roots of what eukaryotes are before we proceed upon discussing life cycle of a eukaryotic cell. Cells are the building blocks of life as a single cell, in itself, is a functional unit of life. Sometimes a single cell can compose an entire organism (lesser, unicellular life forms like bacteria) while on other occasions, a cluster, sometimes reaching a count of millions, of cells may combine together to take the shape of a higher organism like mammals, reptiles, etc. With regards to cell biology, based upon their structures and corresponding functions, cells can be classified under two broad categories - prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Let's take a brief look at each of these cell types and follow it up with a detailed study of the cycle of eukaryotic cells.
A prokaryotic cell is composed of a cell envelop which consists of a cell wall and a plasma membrane beneath the cell wall. Enclosed within this cell envelop is the cytoplasmic area that houses the cell genome (DNA or RNA, as the case may be) along with ribosomes and various other material. Although there exists a nuclear region in the cytoplasmic are, prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus. This is the most significant aspect that differentiates prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells. Archaebacteria and eubacteria are the two chief prokaryote life forms.
Eukaryotic cells are greater in dimension than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotes have a

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Retrieved Text: Cells will not grow unless conditions allow them to do so. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are subject to these constraints. The fundamental requirements for cells to grow in size or to divide are the availability of food, the temperature and pH of the environment, a properly functioning internal status, and physical space in which to grow. These factors are interconnected and often go hand-in-hand as they influence a cell’s decision to grow or not.
Cells are microscopic factories that contain many protein machines. Machines run on fuel. For a cell, the fuel is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is considered the $20 bill of the cell, since one ATP is enough for a protein machine to do one task, just as a $20 bill is usually enough to buy a typical meal in America. For most cells, the sugar molecule glucose is a common food source. Glucose is broken down to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration, which is also why animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.
Each organism, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, has a preferred temperature and pH range within which it lives. This is because the enzymes within cells only function within certain temperature and pH ranges. Extremes temperature and pH, too high or too low, causes enzymes to denature, meaning they lose the 3D shape that is essential to their function. Human body temperature is 37.5 degrees Celsius. Most enzymes in the body will denature starting at 40 degrees Celsius.
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in

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Retrieved Text: What is a Unicellular Eukaryote?
Life on Earth consists of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with no defined nucleus; their DNA floats in a circle inside them, and they have no organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular. Eukaryotes carry a defined nucleus, which houses DNA and organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and in the case of plants, chloroplasts. Unicellular eukaryotes comprise the majority of species, and have existed on Earth for billions of years.
Unicellular eukaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with a defined nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles. They include phytoplankton, or algae, and zooplankton, or protozoa. Unicellular eukaryotes originated billions of years ago.
Eukaryotes likely descended from prokaryotes. Mitochondria may actually be an example of an amalgam of two prokaryotes, one consuming the other. The smaller bacterium could have survived after consumption and produced energy while the larger bacterium provided nutrients, and one theory holds that this symbiotic relationship led to eukaryotes. As for genomics, scientists continue to tease out at what point Superkingdom (or Domain) Eukaryota split off from the others, Bacteria and Archaea, as tiny protists prove to be more diverse than originally thought. Examining the microfossil record indicates that ancient unicellular eukaryotes evolved some time between 2 billion and 3.5 billion years before the present day.
Most algae are unicellular plants and are also known as phytoplankton. Phytoplankton, as tiny plants, generate their energy from the sun via photosynthesis. They possess a cell wall. Since they perform photosynthesis, phytoplankton are sensitive to the position of the sun and the length

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Retrieved Text: Ans: The structural and functional unit of the living organism is called cell.
Ques: Name the instrument by which cell can be seen.
Ques: What is unicellular organism?
Ans: The organism which is made of only one cell that is called unicellular organism. Ex – amoeba and paramecium.
Ques: What are multi cellular organisms?
Ans: The organism which is made of more than one cell are called multi cellular organism. Ex – human and tree.
Ques:Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Ques:Distinguish between plant cell and animal cell.
cell wall is present in it.
Cell wall is absent in it.
Ques: Name the projection in amoeba by which it take food.
Ans: A tissue is a group of similar cells having a specific function.
Ques:What are the basic components of a cell?
Ans: The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Ques:Name the components of cell which are enclosed within the cell membrane.
Ques:State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The organisms which cells have a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
Ex. Onion and other animals’ cells.
The organisms which cells do not have nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes.
Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic symbionts are common in invertebrates and play an essential metabolic role in deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities.
This basic difference in how prokaryotes and eukaryotes function allows for the isolation of natural products or development of new materials that inhibit the growth of prokaryotes, yet have no toxic effects on eukaryotes .
A cross-section of a prokaryotic cell, as depicted in the upcoming scientific journal Invisible Monsters: Man's Struggle Against a Miniature Nemesis.
Whatever the case, the interim "B" might be a prokaryote version of the proposed Oakland Streetcar Project, which would run all the way from Jack London Square to Piedmont Avenue, near Kaiser Hospital.
Multiple coding regions in prokaryotic translation (Shine-Dalgarno sequences) can be modeled as a sequence of initiation (sinks) and termination (sources) sites.
Though there have been a variety of insights into the combinatorial aspects of transcriptional control, the mechanism of DNA looping as an agent of combinatorial control in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes remains unclear.
In the setting of transcriptional regulation, there are a host of regulatory architectures both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes which require the interaction of sequences on the DNA that are not adjacent [4, 5, 6, 7].
Martin W, Russell MJ (2003) On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells.
As discussed at length by Zeh et al. (2009), eukaryotic genomes contrary to prokaryotic ones have a very low relative amount of sequences coding for RNA or proteins: non-coding ones cover the vast majority of DNA.
ISBN 9780387254937. b. Dworkin M, Falkow

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Retrieved Text: Have LGT of prokaryotic origin significantly contributed to current eukaryotic genes sets?
Lateral gene transfer in eukaryotes: tip of the iceberg or of the ice cube?
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the transmission of genes, sometimes across species barriers, outwith the classic vertical inheritance from parent to offspring. LGT is recognized as an important phenomenon that has shaped the genomes and biology of prokaryotes. Whether LGT in eukaryotes is important and widespread remains controversial. A study in BMC Biology concludes that LGT in eukaryotes is neither continuous nor prevalent and suggests a rule of thumb for judging when apparent LGT may reflect contamination.
Lateral (or horizontal) gene transfer (LGT) refers to the transmission of genes between individuals without direct vertical inheritance from parents to their offspring. In contrast to vertical inheritance, LGT can cross species barriers and may even allow transmission of genes across the kingdoms of life. In prokaryotes, LGT is well documented and the supporting mechanisms have been widely described .
The high prevalence of LGT in prokaryotes has even challenged the validity of a bifurcating Darwinian tree of life and led to the suggestion that an interconnected rhizome of life would be a more realistic representation of relations between species . The model bacterium Escherichia coli is a good illustration of the plasticity of bacterial gene repertoires due to gene acquisition via LGT and differential loss. While a typical E. coli genome contains ~5000 protein-coding genes, the pan-genome of E. coli, taking into account more than 60 different strains, is estimated to contain more than 15,700 genes

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Retrieved Text: A cell is a pool of controlled chemical composition bounded by an outer membrane. It is the main structure of undifferentiated single-celled organisms and the essential building block of highly complex multicellular animals composed of many different cell types. A cell (1) sequesters biological resources relative to the outside world, and also internally; (2) maintains the necessary concentrations of chemical components, pH, and so forth; (3) localizes, transports, exports, and imports select molecules; (4) uses selected, controlled, context-dependent subsets of its genes and controls whether gene products are kept local, for use by this cell, or are sent outside the cell; (5) allows differentiation from the surrounding medium, and (6) provides a building-block mechanism by which life can evolve more complex traits.
Although there is extensive variation in cells found in the biosphere, generalizations can be made about them and hence about life, a fact basic to our understanding of how life works and evolved. These generalizations have placed at least some constraints on what has evolved and on what can or will evolve in the future. All known organisms (except very primitive "life" forms like viruses and prions, which, although not cells themselves, depend on cells to replicate and to continue to exist) are composed of one of two basic cell types, prokaryote and eukaryote, shown schematically in Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2 provides a detail of the cell membrane. See Table 6-1 for details of the structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
All cells use the DNA-RNA coding system for replication and for coding proteins. All cells are

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic mRNA is most of the times polycistronic, while the eukaryotic mRNA is monocistronic. The 5′-7 methyl guanosine is absent in prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes is present. 3′ poly A tail is absent on prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes it is not. Furthemore, the Ribosome Binding Site (Shine Dalgarno Sequence) is only present on prokaryotes. Also on prokaryotes, the mRNA consists of an exact transcribed copy of DNA, while in eukaryotes mRNA is more elaborate. The prokaryotic mRNA degrades easier, while the eukaryotic one is more stable due to the cap structure and polyA tail. Eukaryotic mRNA is composed of small templates of the original gene that is cleaved and rejoined by assistance of pre-mRNA. Their similarities include the fact they contain the same nucleotides and use the same start codon AUG. The codons needed for the termination of the translation are also the same: UAG,UGA,UAA. There are differences in the mode of translation initiation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The inititation codon is AUG in eukaryotes. Also in 5′ side of eukaryotes, a specific purine-rich sequence is not used for separation of the initiator AUG from the internal ones. Generally the AUG near the 5′ end plays the role of the initiator in eukaryotes assisted by the 40S ribosome that binds the 5′ end and moves toward the 3′ direction to search the AUG codon and by the helicases that hdrolyze ATP. When the Met-tRNAi joins the AUG codon the process can begin. On the other hand in the prokaryotes, mRNA has several Shine-Dalgarno sequences that serve

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Retrieved Text: On the evolution of neurochemical transmission.
"The roots of chemosignalling systems are likely to be found in prokaryotes."
"...eukaryotic signal systems have prokaryotic roots...the signal transduction systems seen in unicellular eukaryotes represent a transitional stage in the evolution of chemosignaling systems between prokaryotes and higher eukaryotes." Note: the expression "higher eukaryotes" refers to more advanced animals including humans.
Although this site is 9 years old and doesn't have active links, it nevertheless provides much evolutionary information based on genomics and is well worth looking at. "The genome of the nematode worm contains an estimated 1049 G-protein coupled receptors. "... the archaebacterial ancestor of eukaryotes may have contributed a seven transmembrane precursor of modern seven transmembrane receptor proteins."
This article from 1991 conflates transmembrane transport with transmembrane signaling. In particular, it considers transmembrane transport to be a form of transmembrane signaling, and there's nothing illogical about this. However, I think it's helpful to distinguish between the two, which I've done.
It also does not distinguish receptors from transporters and signalers, as I have done. Again, there's nothing logically inconsistent about this, but it lumps together three different aspects of a cells relationship with its environment which are more easily understood when one considers them separately.

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to proteins with the aid of tRNA. In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria. Proteins synthesized in each of these locations serve a different role in the cell. In prokaryotes, ribosomes can be found in the cytosol as well. This protein-synthesizing organelle is the only organelle found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, asserting the fact that the ribosome is a trait that evolved early on, most likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that only bind together during protein synthesis. The purpose of the ribosome is to take the actual message and the charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate the protein. To do so, they have three binding sites. One is for the mRNA; the other two are for the tRNA. The binding sites for tRNA are the A site, which holds the aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and the P site, which binds to the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain.
Peptide synthesis by a ribosome.: The ribosome assembles amino acids into a protein. The specific amino acids are controlled by the mRNA sequence. This is required by all living cells

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Retrieved Text: (eucaryotic) Describing cells that have a nucleus, or organisms made up of such cells (compare prokaryotic). The genetic material of eukaryotes consists of *chromatin and is divided into a number of chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells usually divide either by mitosis or meiosis while division in prokaryotes is amitotic. In certain classifications all eukaryotic organisms are placed in the kingdom Eukaryota, to emphasize the difference between these and the prokaryotes, or Prokaryota.

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is the process by which the information in DNA is copied to make RiboNucleic Acid (RNA). RNA in turn synthesizes proteins through a process called translation. These two steps are together the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
There are mainly three kinds of RNA that are produced by transcription.
RNA are single stranded molecules that are synthesized in the nucleus, but are mainly found in the cytoplasm and ribosomes in all the cells of every living organism.
RNA has a chemical make-up similar to DNA, but is less stable than DNA. RNA, like DNA is composed of nucleotides, with the same phosphate group, but the sugar is a five-carbon compound. The two complementary pairs of bases are adenine and uracil (instead of thymine), and guanine and cytosine.
The process is basically the same in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One of the DNA strands is used as the template by RNA polymerase to form the RNA strand that is complementary to the template strand. Thus the base sequence in the RNA strand is the same as the non template DNA strand which is called coding strand or sense strand. The template DNA strand is also called anti-sense strand.
In prokaryotes, there is only one RNA polymerase that produces all the three types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are three groups. RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA, RNA polymerase II transcribes mRNA, while RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA.
During transcription, only sections of the DNA with the gene to be expressed are involved. There can be different genes that are transcribed at any given time.

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate by binary fission. For unicellular organisms, cell division is the only method to produce new individuals. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the outcome of cell reproduction is a pair of daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. In unicellular organisms, daughter cells are individuals.
To achieve the outcome of identical daughter cells, some steps are essential. The genomic DNA must be replicated and then allocated into the daughter cells; the cytoplasmic contents must also be divided to give both new cells the machinery to sustain life. In bacterial cells, the genome consists of a single, circular DNA chromosome; therefore, the process of cell division is simplified. Mitosis is unnecessary because there is no nucleus or multiple chromosomes. This type of cell division is called binary fission.
The cell division process of prokaryotes, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much quicker process than cell division in eukaryotes. Because of the speed of bacterial cell division, populations of bacteria can grow very rapidly. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell. As in eukaryotes, the DNA of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size. The packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to some of the proteins involved in the chromosome compaction of eukaryotes.
The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the plasma membrane (Figure

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes were the first kind of organisms to evolve. They are single-celled organisms that don’t have a well-defined nucleus and also lack other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. The genetic material in prokaryotic cells exists within an irregularly shaped area of the cell known as the nucleoid.
All water-soluble components within prokaryotes such as DNA, proteins and metabolites are found in the cytoplasm, enclosed within the cell membrane and not in separate compartments of the cell. However, bacteria have protein-based micro-compartments that behave like basic organelles within protein shells.
The two types of prokaryotic cell are Archaea and bacteria. Prokaryotes have a cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes, but no nucleus. They have a cell wall that offers an additional layer of protection, prevents dehydration and maintains the shape of the cell. The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Some prokaryotic cells also have a polysaccharide layer, referred to as a capsule, that enables specific attachment of the cell to certain surfaces.
Prokaryotes have a plasma membrane, which separates intracellular components from the external environment. Prokaryotic cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like substance called the cytosol, in which cell components are contained.
As is the case for all cells, bacteria have a cytoskeleton, a network of filaments and tubules that provides structural support and maintains the shape of the cell. The cytoskeleton also forms a whip-like, external structure called the flagella, which the cell uses to move from one place to another (locomotion). Thin, hair- like structures called pili are also found in some bacteria, which aid in adhesion

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Retrieved Text: tek 4A.Could Bacteria-Fighting Viruses Replace Overused Antibiotics?
antibiotics are being overused and are becoming less effective as time goes on because the bacteria is always changing and adapting to survive so the antibiotics could never really stop bacteria only suppress the effects. viruses on the other hand specifically phages kill bacteria not human cells. each phage can only attack a specific bacteria string.
tek 4b For bacteria what is the difference of bacilli, cocci, and spirilla?
the difference between all of these things are their shape.
4a Why are bacteria so different from normal cells?
well for starters human,plant and animals are all eukaryotic cells and most bacteria are prokaryotic. bacteria and more primitive than animal and humans cells and the contents in the cell membrane.
4a Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
4b How do bacteria reproduce?
bacteria produce by binary fission and what this is, is a bacteria strand that is divided and made into 2 exact copies (daughter cells) this can occurs around every 20 minutes if the conditions are a good condition.
4b Can bacteria live without a host organism?

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Retrieved Text: Life on earth consists of three main groups. Two of these groups are represented by microbial life forms, the bacteria and the archaea. These are collectively known as the prokaryotes. The cells of these prokaryotes are generally small and simple. The third group of organisms concerns all visible life forms, such as people, animals and fungi. This group is known as the eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The origin of the eukaryotic cell is one of the most fundamental riddles in the evolution of life on earth. Now, through the work of an international collective of researchers, led by Thijs Ettema (Wageningen University & Research and the University of Uppsala in Sweden), there has been more clarity about the evolutionary transition from simple prokaryotic to more complex eukaryotic cell types.
Previous research has shown that the eukaryotic cell originated from an archaea cell and a bacterial cell. The bacterium was absorbed into the archaea cell at some point. There is a general consensus that the cells came together because of a mutually beneficial interaction, called symbiosis. The most plausible hypotheses about the origin of eukaryotes are based on a symbiosis in which one partner produces metabolites that the other partner uses. In recent decades, however, there has been fierce debate in the scientific world about how this metabolic symbiosis actually works.
Recent research in the Ettema laboratory has already provided important information about the identity of the archaea host cell in this scenario. Based on genome research, Ettema’s team has

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Retrieved Text: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes which are organisms with a nucleus. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
It is a rather old-fashioned term which includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).
Most protists are very small. They are made up of one or a few cells at most – they are microscopic and usually invisible to the naked eye. Some algae are protists, if they are single-celled. Many protists are part of the plankton and are very important for the ecosystem. The cells found in protists may be extremely complex, and are often little understood. It is now possible to do DNA sequencing, and a number of protists have been analysed. The results show that the Protista is not a monophyletic group. It is paraphyletic, and not a single clade. The taxonomy of the Protista is therefore rather confused.
Some protists cause diseases. Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria; sleeping sickness is also caused by a protist.
An example of a single celled organism in the protist kingdom is the Paramecium or "slipper animalcule." The Paramecium moves using its small, hair-like fibers called cilia, and eats using the cilia to sweep the food into its food vacuole. Other protists can be amoebas, which move by extending pseudopods and flowing into them, or flowing around food particles and engulfing them.
Protists are not a monophyletic clade. The term is a convenient holdall for about 20 different kinds of

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria consist of only a single cell, but don't let their small size and seeming simplicity fool you. They're an amazingly complex and fascinating group of creatures. Bacteria have been found that can live in temperatures above the boiling point and in cold that would freeze your blood. They "eat" everything from sugar and starch to sunlight, sulfur and iron. There's even a species of bacteria—Deinococcus radiodurans—that can withstand blasts of radiation 1,000 times greater than would kill a human being.
Bacteria fall into a category of life called the Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes' genetic material, or DNA, is not enclosed in a cellular compartment called the nucleus. Bacteria and archaea are the only prokaryotes. All other life forms are Eukaryotes , creatures whose cells have nuclei.
Bacteria are among the earliest forms of life that appeared on Earth billions of years ago. Scientists think that they helped shape and change the young planet's environment, eventually creating atmospheric oxygen that enabled other, more complex life forms to develop. Many believe that more complex cells developed as once free-living bacteria took up residence in other cells, eventually becoming the organelles in modern complex cells. The mitochondria that make energy for your body cells is one example of such an organelle.
There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all of them are basically one of three different shapes. Some are rod- or stick-shaped and called bacilli.
Others are shaped like little balls and called cocci.
Others still are helical or spiral in shape, like the Borrelia .
Some bacterial cells exist as individuals while others

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Retrieved Text: The characteristic color of golden algae results from their yellow and brown carotenoids. The cells of golden algae are typically biflagellated, with both flagella attached near one end of the cell. Many golden algae are components of freshwater and marine plankton. While all golden algae are photosynthetic, some species are mixotrophic. These mixotrophs can absorb dissolved organic compounds or ingest food particles, including living cells (eukaryotes and prokaryotes), by phagocytosis. Most species are unicellular, but some, such as those in the freshwater genus Dinobryon, are colonial.

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Retrieved Text: Are you looking for NCERT Class 8 Solution? Download NCERT Solution Class 8 Science Chapter 8 : Cell-Structure and Functions and prepare better for your examinations.
Question 1: Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
Question 2: Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve cells perform?
The function of a nerve cell is to transmit messages to the brain and also to take away messages from the brain to the receptor organs. Thus, it controls the working of different parts of the body.
Question 3: Write short notes on the following.
It is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Cell organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. are suspended in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm helps in the exchange of materials between cell organelles.
It is a double-layered membrane which separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has nuclear pores that allow the transfer of specific substances in and out of the nucleus.
It is a small spherical body that is not bound by any membrane.
These are thread-like structures that carry genes. Genes contain information necessary for the transfer of characteristics from the parents to the offspring. Thus, chromosomes play an important role in the inheritance of characteristics.
Question 4: Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Cytoplasm is the part of the cell that contains various organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. Cytoplasm is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Question

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Retrieved Text: Transcription of protein encoding genes creates a primary transcript of RNA at the place where the gene was located. This transcript can be altered before being translated, this is particularly common in eukaryotes. The most common RNA processing is splicing to remove introns. Introns are RNA segments which are not found in the mature RNA, although they can function as precursors, e.g. for snoRNAs, which are RNAs that direct modification of nucleotides in other RNAs. Introns are common in eukaryotic genes but rare in prokaryotes.
RNA processing, also known as post-transcriptional modification, can start during transcription, as is the case for splicing, where the spliceosome removes introns from newly formed RNA.
Extensive RNA processing may be an evolutionary advantage made possible by the nucleus of eukaryotes. In prokaryotes transcription and translation happen together whilst in eukaryotes the nuclear membrane separates the two processes giving time for RNA processing to occur.

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Evidence that a high molecular weight replicative DNA polymerase is conserved during evolution.
Evidence that a high molecular weight replicative DNA polymerase is conserved during evolution.
Using a technique developed recently to detect DNA polymerase activity in situ after NaDodSO4 gel electrophoresis (Spanos, A., Sedgwick, S. G., Yarranton, g. T., Hubscher, U. & Banks, G. R. (1981) Nucleic Acids Res. 9, 1825-1839), we present evidence that a high Mr (greater than or equal to 125,000) polypeptide is responsible for chromosomal DNA replication in prokaryotes, lower eukaryotes and high eukaryotes. Not only extracts from Escherichia coli, Ustilago maydis, Drosophila melanogaster, rat neurones, calf thymus, human fibroblast, and HeLa cells possess such high Mr activities, but also highly purified E. coli DNA polymerase III core enzyme, U. maydis DNA polymerase, and D. melanogaster embryo and calf thymus DNA alpha polymerases. The evidence that these activities are responsible for chromosomal DNA replication is genetical (E. coli, U. maydis, and D. melanogaster); also, the high Mr activity disappears from rat neurones during differentiation from an actively dividing precursor cell to a postmitotically mature neurone. Furthermore, when limited proteolysis is allowed to occur, a defined and remarkably similar pattern of intermediate Mr activities is generated in lower eukaryotic and high eukaryotic extracts and, to some extent, in prokaryotic extracts. In higher eukaryotic extracts, a low Mr activity of approximately 35,000 is also generated. Protease inhibitors can retard formation of these catalytically active proteolytic fragments. We propose that the replicative DNA polymerase complex of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes contains a high

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Retrieved Text: Humans are capable of great charity, taking hits to their bank accounts and bodies to benefit their peers. But such acts of altruism aren’t limited to us; they can be found in the simple colonies of bacteria too.
Bacteria are famed for their ability to adapt to our toughest antibiotics. But resistance doesn’t spring up evenly across an entire colony. A new study suggests that a small cadre of hero bacteria are responsible for saving their peers. By shouldering the burden of resistance at a personal cost, these charitable cells ensure that the entire colony survives.
Read the rest about this eye-popping study here.
This is about whether the cell design – the composition and architecture of the prokaryotic cell – is capable of generating something as structurally complex as a mouse (for a mouse, like all animals, is an assembly of cells). Seen from this angle, the endosymbiotic hypothesis supports my position. That is, in order for prokaryotes to ultimately spawn eukaryotes, they first had to go through a radical re-design of cell structure.
So here is what we have. Prokaryotic cells can be viewed as the highest expression of mutation and selection, for there is no better cellular candidate for a “self-replicator.” Yet after billions of years, the prokaryotic cell plan has failed to achieve anything near the level of structural complexity as exhibited by the eukaryotic cell plan. To reach such structural complexity, the cell design had to be radically retooled, partly through endosymbiotic union, a one-time event given the widely accepted monophyly of eukaryotes. Once the

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Retrieved Text: All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, which synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
A prokaryote is a simple, mostly single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell: the nucleoid ( [link] ).
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule ( [link] ). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.
The most effective action anyone can take to prevent the spread of contagious illnesses is to wash his or her hands. Why? Because microbes (organisms so tiny that they can only be seen with microscopes) are ubiquitous. They live on doorknobs, money, your hands, and many other surfaces. If someone sneezes into his hand and touches a doorknob, and afterwards you touch that same doorknob, the

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Retrieved Text: Both Fimbria (plural Fimbriae) and Flagellum (plural flagella) are the filamentous proteinaceous structures found on the surface of some bacterial cells.
Fimbriae definition: Fimbriae are bristle like short fibres occurs on the surface of some Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Fimbriae enable the bacterial cell to stick to the surface of host cells. They also help in the formation of pellicles or biofilms. (Pellicle: thin sheet of cells on the surface of a liquid).
Flagella definition: Bacterial flagella are long whip like filamentous structures present in some bacteria. The most important function of flagella is to assist in locomotion. Flagella can also act as a sensory organ to detect temperature and the presence of certain chemicals in the external environment of the cell. Even though the flagella are present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, both are entirely different in their structure and formation and mechanism of propulsion.
The present post describes the Similarities and Differences between Fimbriae and Flagella of bacteria with a Comparison Table.
Ø Both fimbriae and flagella are filamentous structures.
Ø Both are present in Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
Ø Both are cell surface appendages, present on the cell surface of bacteria.

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Retrieved Text: Microbiology has undergone radical changes over the past few decades, ushering in an exciting new era in science. In The New Microbiology, Pascale Cossart tells a splendid story about the revolution in microbiology, especially in bacteriology. This story has wide-ranging implications for human health and medicine, agriculture, environmental science, and our understanding of evolution. The revolution results from the powerful tools of molecular and cellular biology, genomics, and bioinformatics, which have yielded amazing discoveries, from entire genome sequences to video of bacteria invading host cells. This book is for both scientists and especially nonscientists who would like to learn more about the extraordinary world of bacteria.
Dr. Cossart&apos;s overview of the field of microbiology research, from infectious disease history to the ongoing scientific revolution resulting from CRISPR technologies, is presented in four parts.
New concepts in microbiology introduces the world of bacteria and some recent discoveries about how they live, such as the role of regulatory RNAs including riboswitches, the CRISPR defense system, and resistance to antibiotics.
Sociomicrobiology: the social lives of bacteria helps us see the new paradigm by which scientists view bacteria as highly social creatures that communicate in many ways, for example in the assemblies that reside in our intestine or in the environment.
The biology of infections reviews some of history’s worst epidemics and describes current and emerging infectious diseases, the organisms that cause them, and how they produce an infection.
Bacteria as tools introduces us to molecules derived from microbes that scientists have harnessed in the service of research and medicine, including the CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing technology.
The

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryote, also spelled procaryote, any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes. Bacteria are among the best-known prokaryotic organisms. The lack of internal membranes in prokaryotes distinguishes them from eukaryotes. The prokaryotic cell membrane is made up of phospholipids and constitutes the cell’s primary osmotic barrier. The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, which carry out protein synthesis, and a double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome, which is usually circular. Many prokaryotes also contain additional circular DNA molecules called plasmids, with additional dispensable cell functions, such as encoding proteins to inactivate antibiotics. Some prokaryotes have flagella. Prokaryotic flagella are distinct in design and movement from the flagella found on some eukaryotes. See also eukaryote; bacteria.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a chain of amino acids?" and the following answer choices: 
- animals
 - it needs them
 - A computer
 - translation
 - A Greek letter
 - peachleaf willow
 - more abundant
 - humans

Now knowing that translation reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a protein and protein is a chain of amino acids , choose the best answer.

Target Text: translation

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Concept 21 RNA is an intermediary between DNA and protein.
HI! RNA acts as the information bridge between DNA and protein. mRNA is the message that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm. tRNA is the adaptor that reads the mRNA and brings the amino acids to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that makes RNA using a DNA template. Like DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase adds nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction. Let's try an example. If Gene X begins with this T on the DNA, what is the corresponding mRNA sequence? No, this is the DNA sequence of the strand complementary to the gene. The mRNA is a complementary copy of the DNA gene but RNA uses uracil instead of thymine. mRNA is also made in the 5' to 3' direction. What happens if we introduce a point mutation —where one nucleotide is changed to another — in the DNA sequence of the gene? Messenger RNA is a copy of the genetic information on DNA. Any changes in the DNA sequence will be reflected in the mRNA sequence. The tRNA sequence does not change since tRNA does not carry the genetic information. In this case, the single DNA-base change causes the resulting protein sequence to change at one amino acid — — you'll learn more about how the genetic code is translated in the next concept. Another change that could occur in the DNA sequence is a deletion causing one or more bases to be cut

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Retrieved Text: Assignment 10 – Converting your name into a proteinThis assignment is worth 15 points. It does not require that you purchase any materials.
Important note: Do not attempt this activity until after you have completed the lessons on transcription, translation, and the genetic code (Lessons 10C-10E). They provide the necessary background.
• Be able to transcribe a given DNA sequence into mRNA, and translate the mRNA codons into amino acids.
• Identify the start and stop codons in the mRNA sequence.
In this activity, you will create a DNA strand from a set of names, transcribe it into a complementary strand of mRNA, and then translate it into a chain of amino acids (e.g. a protein). It will be very similar to the transcription and translation practice that you did in your lessons, except this time you will use a real genetic code chart to determine the actual amino acids.
Use your own first and last names, followed by the first and last names of two celebrities (e.g. actors, actresses, musicians, politicians, etc.) of your choice. Do not use a celebrity who goes by a single name (e.g. “Madonna”). In other words, your two celebrities must have both first and last names. Following the example below, write down the names of the three people, starting with yourself, in a computer document. You will be submitting your document in the assignment dropbox when it is complete.
Add “Hey” to the beginning your series of names. Put your updated sequence of names into your computer document.
Next, combine all of your words and take away

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Retrieved Text: A substitution is more likely to occur between amino acids with similar biochemical properties. For example the hydrophobic amino acids Isoleucine(I) and valine(V) are more likely to substitute for one another than the hydrophilic amino acid cystine would with one of these. Amino acids come in the following types.
The hydrophobic side chains of these amino acids will not form hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds with other groups. These hydrophobic amino acids tend to be buried in the centre of proteins away from the surrounding aqueous environment.
Ala, Val, Leu, lle, Met, Pro, Phe, Trp.
The side chains of these amino acids are uncharged at physiological pH.
Ser, Tyr, Asp, Gln, Cys.
These have a carboxylic acid group in their side chain and are very hydrophilic.
The single hydrogen atom side chain has no strong hydrophobic or hydrophilic properties.
Nucleotide bases fall into two categories depending on the ring structure of the base. Purines (Adenine and Guanine) are two ring bases, pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine) are single ring bases. Mutations in DNA are changes in which one base is replaced by another. A mutation that conserves the ring number is called a transition (e.g., A -> G or C -> T) a mutation that changes the ring number are called transversions. (e.g. A -> C or A -> T and so on).
The genetic code in the table above has also been called "The Universal Genetic Code". It is known as "universal", because it is used by all known organisms as a code for DNA, mRNA, and tRNA. The universality of the genetic code

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Retrieved Text: On this page you will learn how DNA is merely an instruction of how to make a protein.
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid there are several different types, and are distinguished by a small letter in front of the RNA. It is similar to DNA, and is made up of nucleotides, but with a few important differences.
It is only a single strand of nucleotides, rather than a double like DNA.
The sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
Where DNA has the base Thymine, RNA has Uracil (U).
The first step is for the DNA to unwind, now RNA polymerase goes along the strand with the genetic code and catalyses the mRNA nucleotides together making a copy of the genetic sequence (like a negative in photography).
The mRNA molecules peel away from the DNA and leave the nucleus and into the cytoplasm. The purpose of transcription was to make a copy of the code since the DNA is the master copy and too previous to leave the nucleus.
At this stage the genetic code in the mRNA molecule is used to build a polypeptide, which can then be used for a protein or enzyme. It could even become one of the enzymes which helps in protein synthesis.
Floating around in the cytoplasm are ribosomes and tRNA molecules. This tRNA is attached to a specific amino acid at the top, and at the bottom is has an anti codon.
The anti-codon is complimentary to the codon on the mRNA, for example, the first codon on the mRNA is AUG, the anti-codon on the tRNA would be

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Retrieved Text: (PhysOrg.com) -- Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have for the first time captured elusive nanoscale movements of ribosomes at work, shedding light on how these cellular factories take in genetic instructions and amino acids to churn out proteins.
Ribosomes, which number in the millions in a single human cell, have long been considered the "black boxes" in molecular biology. "We know what goes in and what comes out of ribosomes, but we're only beginning to learn about what is going on in between," said the study's principal investigator, Jamie Cate, UC Berkeley associate professor in chemistry and molecular and cell biology, and a faculty scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
The achievement, described in the Aug. 21 issue of the journal Science, could eventually lead to significant advances in the fight against human disease, the researchers said.
They point out that many infectious diseases involve ribosomal warfare between humans and our bacterial or viral invaders. Important antibiotic drugs, like spectinomycin, capreomycin and aminoglycosides, exploit the structural differences between human and bacterial ribosomes to selectively attack the bacteria. Some viruses, like polio and hepatitis C, hijack human ribosomes, forcing them to pump out proteins that are beneficial for the viruses.
"Inside the ribosome, antibiotics and viruses are using chemistry to either fight or promote disease," said Cate, who conducted the work with research specialist Wen Zhang and graduate student Jack Dunkle, both co-lead authors of the study, in his lab at UC Berkeley. "But what sort of chemistry? The short answer is that we have a lot still to

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Retrieved Text: The genetic code is the set of instructions cells use to translate information from genetic material (DNA or mRNA) into amino acids. In turn, amino acids are strung together and modified to build proteins. The genetic code is sometimes called the universal code because it is used by nearly all living organisms on Earth.
There are 64 codons in the mRNA code, each consisting of three nucleotides. Most of the codons specify an amino acid. However, there is one “start” codon that encodes methionine and marks a protein’s beginning and three “stop” codons than mark the end of a protein. The nucleotides are abbreviated by the letters A, U, G, and C for adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine. Organisms that translate proteins directly from DNA use T for thymine rather than U for uracil. Codons are read from the 5′ terminal of mRNA to the 3′ end. Proteins are built from the N-terminus at methionine to the C-terminus.
This table summarizes the genetic code, which you may need to memorize for a genetics or biochemistry class. You can right-click the table to download its image file or print the PDF to use as a study guide.
Useful study sheet showing the genetic code chart and color coded to show the amino acids, their charge, and start/stop codons.
Read the nucleotides of the genetic code from left to right. The amino acids are indicated using their three letter abbreviations. If you would like to study the amino acids, a printable amino acid study sheet is available.
There’s more than one codon for

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Retrieved Text: The genetic code specifies the amino acids that are assembled to make polypeptides. The way that DNA codes for polypeptides is central to our understanding of how cells and organisms function.
A polypeptide is coded for by a gene and that a gene is a sequence of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA molecule.
The sequence of bases in a DNA molecule is a code that determines the sequence in which amino acids are linked together when making a protein molecule. A sequence of DNA nucleotldes that codes for 1 polypeptide, or for 1protein, is known as a gene.
The sequence of amino acids in a protein - its primary structure determines its 3-dimensional shape and therefore its properties and functions. For example, the primary structure of an enzyme determines the shape of its active site, and therefore the substrate with which it can bind.
There are 20 amino acids. Because there are 4 bases, there are 43 - 64 different possible combinations of bases in a triplet. Some amino acids therefore are coded for by more than 1 triplet. For example, the triplets AAA and AAG both code for the amino acid phenylalanine. The code is therefore said to be degenerate.
Proteins are made on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, by linking together amino acids through peptide bonds. The sequence in which the amino acids are linked is determined by the sequence of bases on a length of DNA in the nucleus.
The first step in protein synthesis is the transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA gene in

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Retrieved Text: This glossary lists terms you may come across when reading about peptides, peptide synthesis and amino acids.
Two or more amino acids chained together by a bond called a "peptide bond".
A biological or chemical process in which amino acids are added stepwise to a chain by the formation of a peptide bond between a carboxyl group on one amino acid and a free amino group on another amino acid. The formation of each peptide bond is energetically favorable because the growing carboxyl terminus is activated by the covalent attachment of a tRNA molecule.
An organic high polymer that is an amphoteric biopolymer consisting of amino acids joined by peptide linkages. Genetic code determines the order of the twenty possible amino acids used in protein synthesis, and thus the protein's structure and function. Proteins are the principal constituents of cellular material and serve as enzymes, hormones, structural elements, and antibodies. Protein is involved in electron and oxygen transport, muscle contraction, and other bodily activities.
Peptides in which the amino-acid sequence forms a ring structure rather than a straight chain, such as the antibiotics tyrocidin and gramicidin.
An amino acid is any molecule that contains both amine and carboxyl functional groups. Alpha-amino acids are the building blocks from which proteins are constructed.
Synthesis of a protein, directed by the genetic code, which occurs by translation of mRNA into protein via tRNA. The ribosome attaches to the mRNA, using it as a template.
The order in which amino acid residues connected by peptide bonds.
The amide linkage between the alpha-amino group of one amino acid and

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Retrieved Text: Two Main Process: Transcription and Translation DNA copy itself: Replication DNA synthesize RNA Transcription RNA synthesize protein Translation DNA replication: to transmit the genetic information between parents and progeny, the DNA must be replicated faithfully. Replication is carried out by a complex group of proteins that unwind the superhelix, unwind the double-stranded DNA helix, and, using DNA polymerase and its associated proteins, copy or replicate the master template itself. DNA Transcription: Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is transferred to a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). It is facilitated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors. DNA Translation: Eventually, this mature mRNA finds its way to a ribosome, where it is translated. In prokaryotic cells, which have no nuclear compartment, the process of transcription and translation may be linked together. In eukaryotic cells, the site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes.
6 3.5.2 DNA Transcription RNA polymerase forms covalent bonds between nucleotides. Transcription continues until one entire gene has converted to RNA. The single-stranded messenger RNA separate and the DNA strands rejoin.
7 3.5.3The Genetic Code How do nucleotides specify 20 amino acids?
4 different nucleotides (A, G, C, T) Possible codes: 1 letter code 	4 AAs	<20 2 letter code 	4 x 4 = 16 AAs	<20 3 letter code 	4 x 4 x 4 = 64 AAs >>20 Three letter code

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Retrieved Text: Translation, or decoding, of the four-nucleotide language of DNA and mRNA into the 20–amino acid language of proteins requires tRNAs and enzymes called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. To participate in protein synthesis, a tRNA molecule must become chemically linked to a particular amino acid via a high-energy bond, forming an aminoacyl-tRNA; the anticodon in the tRNA then base-pairs with a codon in mRNA so that the activated amino acid can be added to the growing polypeptide chain.
Some 30–40 different tRNAs have been identified in bacterial cells and as many as 50–100 in animal and plant cells. Thus the number of tRNAs in most cells is more than the number of amino acids used in protein synthesis (20) and also differs from the number of amino acid codons in the genetic code (61). Consequently, many amino acids have more than one tRNA to which they can attach ; in addition, many tRNAs can pair with more than one codon.
If perfect Watson-Crick base pairing were demanded between codons and anticodons, cells would have to contain exactly 61 different tRNA species, one for each codon that specifies an amino acid. As noted above, however, many cells contain fewer than 61 tRNAs.
What is the explanation for the smaller number of tRNA than codons codons?
In the table Cricks predictions are compared to the pairings found in experiments.
Watson-Crick base pairing can be violated by wobble base pairing.
The 5' of the anticodon has more freedom in binding, that is why, for many amino acids, the last part of the codon has more possible characters.
Not the

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Retrieved Text: Tool to translate DNA/RNA codons. A codon is a group of 3 nucleotides A, C, G, T, U. Codons are extracted from RNA or DNA (genetic code).
Team dCode likes feedback and relevant comments; to get an answer give an email (not published). It is thanks to you that dCode has the best Codons (Genetic Code) tool. Thank you.
> [News]: Discover the next version of dCode Codons (Genetic Code)!
How to encrypt using the codon table?
Encryption the table of codons and transforms RNA codons into their amino acid codes according to official abbreviations IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) and IUBMB (Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology).
There are 22 amino acids, it is then possible to encode only 22 letters.
How to recognize a codon based ciphertext?
The message is composed of letters A, C, G, T and U, often by group of 3.
What are the names of amin acids?
What does DNA and RNA means?
DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid and RNA stands for RiboNucleic Acid, they are among the most important molecules of living beings biology because they contain hereditary genetic information.
Abbreviation mRNA mean messenger RNA.
What are the variants of the codon based cipher?
It is possible to encode either RNA codons or DNA codons.
Improve the Codons (Genetic Code) page!
What does DNA codons and RNA/mRNA codons means?

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Retrieved Text: This is “End-of-Chapter Material”, section 19.7 from the book Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological (v. 1.0). For details on it (including licensing), click here.
Viruses are infectious agents composed of a tightly packed central core of nucleic acids enclosed by a protective shell of proteins. Viruses contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material but not both. Some RNA viruses, called retroviruses, synthesize DNA in the host cell from their RNA genome. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
classify this segment as RNA or DNA and justify your choice.
determine the sequence of this segment, labeling the 5′ and 3′ ends.
One of the key pieces of information that Watson and Crick used in determining the secondary structure of DNA came from experiments done by E. Chargaff, in which he studied the nucleotide composition of DNA from many different species. Chargaff noted that the molar quantity of A was always approximately equal to the molar quantity of T, and the molar quantity of C was always approximately equal to the molar quantity of G. How were Chargaff’s results explained by the structural model of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick?
Suppose Chargaff (see Exercise 3) had used RNA instead of DNA. Would his results have been the same; that is, would the molar quantity of A approximately equal the molar quantity of T? Explain.
What products would be formed from the segment’s replication?
Write the mRNA sequence that would be obtained from the segment’s transcription.
What is the amino acid sequence of the peptide produced from the

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Retrieved Text: The process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into RNA is called transcription. Here also, the principle of complementarity governs the process of transcription. However, unlike in the process of replication, which once set in, the total DNA of an organism gets duplicated, in transcription only a segment of DNA and only one of the strands is copied into RNA. This necessitates defining the boundaries that would demarcate the region and the strand of DNA that would be transcribed.
Why both the strands are not copied during transcription has the simple answer. First, if both strands act a template, they would code for RNA molecule with different sequences, and in turn, if they code for proteins, the sequence of amino acids in the proteins would be different. Hence, one segment of the DNA would be coding for two different proteins, and this would complicate the genetic information transfer machinery. Second, if two RNA molecules are produced simultaneously, they would be complementary to each other; and would end up forming a double-stranded RNA. This would prevent translation of RNA into protein.
The promoter and terminator flank the structural gene in a transcription unit. The promoter is said to be located towards 5'-end (upstream) of the structural gene. The terminator is located towards 3'-end (downstream) of the coding strand and it usually defines the end of the process of transcription. There are additional regulatory sequences that may be present further upstream or downstream to the promoter.
A gene is defined as the functional unit of inheritance. Though

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Retrieved Text: Gene mutations affect only one gene DNA sequence Transcription ↓ mRNA sequence Translation ↓ Polypeptide © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
Normal gene DNA (antisense strand) GGTCTCCTCACGCCA ↓ mRNA CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU Codons ↓ Polypeptide Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Amino acids The antisense strand is the DNA strand which acts as the template for mRNA transcription © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
Mutations: Substitutions Normal gene Substitution mutation GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCACCTCACGCCA ↓ ↓ CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGUGGAGUGCGGU Codons ↓ ↓ Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Val-Glu-Cys-Gly Amino acids Substitutions will only affect a single codon Their effects may not be serious unless they affect an amino acid that is essential for the structure and function of the finished protein molecule (e. sickle cell anaemia) © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .g.
The genetic code is degenerate A mutation may have no effect on the phenotype Changes in the third base of a codon often have no effect. © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
No change Normal gene Substitution mutation GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCTTCTCACGCCA ↓ ↓ CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGAAGAGUGCGGU Codons ↓ ↓ Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Amino acids © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
Disaster Normal gene Substitution mutation GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCTCCTCACTCCA ↓ ↓ CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGAAGAGUGAGGU Codons ↓ ↓ Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Glu-Glu-STOP Amino acids © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
only affect a small part of the gene Normal gene Inversion mutation GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCCTCTCACGCCA ↓ ↓ CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGGAGAGUGCGGU Codons ↓ ↓ Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Gly-Glu-Cys-Gly Amino acids © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS . also.Mutations: Inversion Inversion mutations.
Mutations: Additions A frame shift mutation Normal gene Addition mutation GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTGCTCCTCACGCCA ↓ ↓ CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCACGAGGAGUGCGGU Codons ↓ ↓ Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Arg-Gly-Val-Arg Amino acids © 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS .
Mutations:

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Retrieved Text: 1) If you are able to find out the mRNA sequence of an AA, then don't you automatically know the DNA sequence?
2) When determining the mRNA sequence of an AA, how do you account for the various permutations in the genetic code for a given AA. Ex. Leucine is CUU and CUC. Or does it not matter?
For 1, that is how retroviruses such as HIV work, and of which scientists have utilised to use in gene therapy. It requires a process called reverse transcription. However, this would only show you the gene the mRNA was from, but no information about its location, or if it is repeated elsewhere.
As for 2, this is to do with the fact that one base cannot code for one amino acid; as there are 20 common amino acids used to make proteins. With 2 bases, you are only getting 16 possible codes from the various base pairs you can create. However, with 3 bases, 64 possible combinations are possible, more than enough to suffice for the 20 needed. This is called the triplet code; and therefore, there are more possible combinations of the base pairs in DNA than there are amino acids to be made from them. The 'left over' combinations can code for the same amino acids as other combinations, making it the code degenerate. Therefore, it doesn't matter, as the combination is always read in 3s (non-overlapping), and if it codes for a particular amino acid, then that amino acid will be produced at the ribosomes when its corresponding

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Retrieved Text: A start codon is the starting point of translation in a cell. Read the following article to gain more information about this subject.
A codon is a kind of genetic code, which is a set of rules, by which certain information is encoded in the genetic material that may be either DNA or mRNA sequences, from where it is translated into proteins. These proteins consist of amino acids that are strung together in a specific sequence. Any change in this sequence signifies a change in the coding; this is normally seen in cases of genetic mutations. Each codon is made up of three bases, which are codes for a single amino acid, and they form a mapping that is encoded in the tRNA of the organism. Altogether, there are four bases that are present in the DNA: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.
A start codon in DNA initiates the translation of the first amino acid in the polypeptide chain. The first three bases of the coding sequence of mRNA to be translated into proteins, is where the initiation codon is located. This is an important structure, because the actual protein sequence that is translated is defined by a start codon. The initiation codon is almost always preceded by an untranslated region called 5' UTR, which is also known as the leader sequence. It is a particular section of mRNA, which starts at the +1 position. This is the region where transcription begins and ends, just before the codon start of the coding region.
This is usually the first AUG

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Retrieved Text: The struggle to understand the earliest stages of life on Earth is real.
Scientists have long wondered how the complex process of using genetic code to “translate” DNA-based information into proteins arose billions of years ago.
Now, a pair of theoretical biologists are one step closer to solving the mystery.
Biochemistry professors Charles Carter and Peter Wills analyzed modern translational molecules—specifically transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA)—to reveal ancient guidelines for interaction.
Using advanced statistical methods, the team studied the partnership between transfer and messenger RNAs. The science of which is fairly simple (she says, before typing a convoluted explanation).
Cloverleaf-shaped tRNAs carry amino acid onto a sort of assembly line of protein production, housed within molecular factories called ribosomes. Inside, it meets mRNAs—strings of genetic “letters” that spell protein-making instructions.
Each tRNA recognizes and binds to a specific three-letter sequence, called a codon. The ribosome then links its amino acid to the one that came before, creating a growing chain that, once complete, is released as a newborn protein.
Most life forms (including humans) are made from 20 different amino acids, which means there are 20 distinct types of tRNA molecules, and 20 matching synthetases helper enzymes, drifting around inside us.
“You can think of these 20 synthetases and 20 tRNAs collectively as a molecular computer that evolution has designed to make gene-to-protein translation happen,” Carter explained.
But, according to the researchers, that wasn’t always the case.
As described in their study, published by the journal Nucleic Acids Research, organisms once contained just two types of tRNA, which worked with two types of synthetases

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Retrieved Text: 3/05/2018 · The 3 d the nucleotide sequence of a gene, through medium mrna, is translated into amino acid protein by rules that are known as codons in an mrna molecule do not directly recognize acids they... This is when the RNA is converted (or "translated") into a sequence of amino acids that makes up the protein. The translation process of making the new protein from the RNA instructions takes place in a complex machine in the cell called the ribosome.
Scoring protein sequence alignments II PAM1 matrix: answers question, “if 1% of the amino acids in a sequence change, at what rates would each amino acid be substituted for each other one?” Scoring protein sequence alignments II Substitution matrices PAM (Accepted Point Mutation, but “PAM” easier to say than “APM”) matrix PAM1 matrix: answers question, “if 1% of the amino... Proteins are made up of a sequence of 20 amino acids. These amino acids link together to form a polypeptide chain, and then folds into a three dimensional structure. This conformation is vital, because the protein cannot function until it is a certain shape. Their shapes determine their function.
As in say a protein sequence consisting of a chain of amino acids MK... Stack Exchange Network Stack Exchange network consists of 174 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow , the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers.... A protein's amino acid sequence determines its shape which determines it functions. The amino acids in a protein are arranged in such

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Retrieved Text: According to researchers, our genetic code stopped evolving 3 billion years ago, but why? When Francis Crick described the Genetic code back in the 1960s, the mysterious halt in the evolution of the Genetic Code was referred to him as a frozen accident.
Scientists might have solved the question of the century. According to experts, the genetic code’s limit was reached 3 billion years ago when evolution came to a sudden halt.
Even though life on our planet continues to evolve, the genetic code, that mystery machine which drives life has remained static using the same ‘commands’ and components in the same way it did in the distant past, billions of years ago.
It is known that at a certain point in our planet’s long history, our genetic code’s evolution came to a halt when it reached its plateau, thus preventing further development of the code. For decades, Scientists had no clue why, but now, thanks to a new study, researchers believe that the evolution of our genetic code came to a halt because of limitations in the way our DNA is translated to make proteins.
In order to understand it, researchers from Spain focuses on a molecule called transfer RNA (tRNA).
Basically, tRNA has the job to move the building blocks of proteins to the assembly line in order for them to be linked together in an appropriate way.
Interestingly when Francis Crick described the Genetic code back in the 1960s, the mysterious halt in the evolution of the Genetic Code was referred to him as a frozen accident.
Scientists believe this

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Retrieved Text: A cell’s hereditary information is encoded in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus. Each chromosome is composed of proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The chromosomes contain smaller hereditary units called genes, which are relatively short segments of DNA. The hereditary information is expressed or used through the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both nucleic acids—DNA and RNA—are polymers composed of monomers known as nucleotides, which in turn consist of phosphoric acid (H3PO4), a nitrogenous base, and a pentose sugar.
The two types of nitrogenous bases most important in nucleic acids are purines—adenine (A) and guanine (G)—and pyrimidines—cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). DNA contains the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, while the bases in RNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil. The sugar in the nucleotides of RNA is ribose; the one in DNA is 2-deoxyribose. The sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid defines the primary structure of the molecule.
RNA is a single-chain nucleic acid, whereas DNA possesses two nucleic-acid chains intertwined in a secondary structure called a double helix. The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the outside the double helix, with the purine and pyrimidine bases tucked inside. Hydrogen bonding between complementary bases holds the two strands of the double helix together; A always pairs with T and C always pairs with G.
Cell growth requires replication, or reproduction of the cell’s DNA. The double helix unwinds, and hydrogen bonding between complementary bases breaks so that there are two single strands of DNA, and each strand is a template for the synthesis of a new strand.

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Retrieved Text: Protein synthesis refers to the construction of proteins by the living cells. Comprising two primary parts (transcription and translation), the process of protein synthesis involves ribonucleic acids (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), enzymes, and ribosomes.
Proteins are important organic compounds present in living organisms. They are essential in almost all cell functions. Specific proteins are involved with particular functions. Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids, which are either arranged in a linear pattern, or folded to form a complex structure. Based on the structural complexity, structure of proteins is classified into four types - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Also, the types of amino acids play a crucial role in determining the expression of genes in this process.
Protein synthesis is a biological procedure performed by living cells to manufacture proteins in a step-by-step manner. Many times, it is used to denote translation, which otherwise is a primary part in the protein synthesis process. When studied in detail, the synthesis process is very complex. The process itself begins with production of different amino acids, out of which some are derived from food sources.
Protein synthesis comprises two major parts - transcription and translation. The process involves ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and a set of enzymes. All types of ribonucleic acids, namely messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), and transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) are required for protein synthesis.
It is the first part in the process of protein synthesis. It takes place in the cell nucleus, where deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is housed in the

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Retrieved Text: What produces the unique phenotype associated with a specific allele?
Answers from physics, chemistry, and the study of infectious disease gave rise to the field of molecular biology. Biochemical reactions are controlled by enzymes, and often are organized into chains of reactions known as metabolic pathways. Loss of activity in a single enzyme can inactivate an entire pathway.
Archibald Garrod, in 1902, first proposed the relationship through his study of alkaptonuria and its association with large quantities "alkapton". He reasoned unaffected individuals metabolized "alkapton" (now called homogentistic acid) to other products so it would not buildup in the urine. Garrod suspected a blockage of the pathway to break this chemical down, and proposed that condition as "an inborn error of metabolism". He also discovered alkaptonuria was inherited as a recessive Mendelian trait.
George Beadle and Edward Tatum during the late 1930s and early 1940s established the connection Garrod suspected between genes and metabolism. They used X rays to cause mutations in strains of the mold Neurospora. These mutations affected a single genes and single enzymes in specific metabolic pathways. Beadle and Tatum proposed the "one gene one enzyme hypothesis" for which they won the Nobel Prize in 1958.
Since the chemical reactions occurring in the body are mediated by enzymes, and since enzymes are proteins and thus heritable traits, there must be a relationship between the gene and proteins. George Beadle, during the 1940s, proposed that mutant eye colors in Drosophila was caused by a change in one protein in a biosynthetic pathway.
In 1941 Beadle and coworker Edward L. Tatum

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Retrieved Text: The two-stranded, double helix-shaped molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stores the genetic code for most organisms. DNA not only contains genetic instructions for cell division and reproduction, but it also functions as the basis for thousands of proteins. This entails two processes: transcription and translation.
For protein synthesis, messenger RNA must be made from one strand of DNA called the template strand. The other strand, called the coding strand, matches the messenger RNA in sequence except for its use of uracil in place of thymine.
For protein synthesis, DNA must first be copied to messenger ribonucleic acid, or mRNA. This process is called transcription. The mRNA holds the coding information to make proteins. Unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded and not helical in shape. It contains ribose instead of deoxyribose, and its nucleotide bases differ by having uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Initially, the enzyme RNA polymerase must assemble the pre-mRNA molecule that complements a section of one DNA’s two strands. Since the goal is not replication but protein synthesis, only one strand of DNA needs copying. The RNA polymerase first attaches to the double helix of DNA and works with proteins called transcription factors to determine what information needs transcribing. The RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to this DNA strand, called the template strand.
The unit of RNA polymerase and transcription factors moves along the strand in a 3’ to 5’ (3 prime to 5 prime) direction and makes a new strand of mRNA with complementary base pairs. RNA polymerase builds the mRNA with additional nucleotides in elongation. The

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Retrieved Text: A second code hiding within DNA has been discovered by University of Washington scientists, containing information that changes how scientists read the instructions contained in DNA and interpret mutations to make sense of health and disease.
Some scientists are skeptical about “hype” regarding the announcement.
One describes how proteins are made, and the other instructs the cell on how genes are controlled. One language is written on top of the other, which is why the second language remained hidden for so long.
The genetic code uses a 64-letter alphabet called codons. The UW team discovered that some codons, which they called “duons,” can have two meanings, one related to protein sequence, and one related to gene control. These two meanings seem to have evolved in concert with each other. The gene control instructions appear to help stabilize certain beneficial features of proteins and how they are made.
The discovery of duons has major implications for how scientists and physicians interpret a patient’s genome and will open new doors to the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
“The fact that the genetic code can simultaneously write two kinds of information means that many DNA changes that appear to alter protein sequences may actually cause disease by disrupting gene control programs or even both mechanisms simultaneously,” said Stamatoyannopoulos.
Grants from the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases funded the research. Researchers at Benaroya Research Institute and Twist Bioscience where also involved.
Genomes contain both a genetic code specifying amino acids and a regulatory code specifying transcription factor (TF)

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Retrieved Text: Brazilian researchers explored mRNA and protein public databases and found out how gene sequence choice can predict different aspects of protein synthesis, such as protein production efficiency.
The genetic information contained in the cell nucleus in the form of DNA is copied in messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Different from the DNA, mRNAs are dynamic and unstable molecules that leave the nucleus and are translated by the ribosomes, the molecular machines able to convert a sequence of nucleotides that make RNA (and DNA) into a sequence of amino acids that form proteins. Each amino acid corresponds to one or more combinations of 3 nucleotides – or codon. Because the same amino acid can be translated from different codons, the genetic code is described as degenerate (or redundant).
Scientists already know that even though the same protein can be produced from alternative gene sequences, some combinations result in higher protein yields. They also know that optimal codons and non-optimal codons can decrease or enhance mRNA degradation, respectively. Different groups have measured mRNA production and degradation rates, but, surprisingly, there are many deviations in the data.
The team of scientists synthesised apparently disparate pieces of data and extended our knowledge of how gene sequence choice can predict different aspects of protein synthesis, such as mRNA stability and production efficiency.
A research group led by Dr Fernando Palhano and Dr Tatiana Domitrovic at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro used a metric derived from mRNA codon composition to compare the existing data to different cellular parameters. They found that this metric correlated well with

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Retrieved Text: We have isolated the bovine and human genes for Müllerian inhibiting substance (MIS), a testicular glycoprotein that causes regression of the Müllerian duct during development of the male embryo. The mRNA sequence of bovine MIS, determined from an analysis of cDNA and genomic clones, codes for a protein of 575 amino acids containing a 24 amino acid leader peptide. The human gene has five exons that code for a protein of 560 amino acids. A comparison of the bovine and human MIS proteins reveals a highly conserved C-terminal domain that shows marked homology with human transforming growth factor-beta and the beta chain of porcine inhibin. Animal cells transfected with the human gene secrete biologically active MIS, which causes regression of the rat Müllerian duct in vitro.

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Retrieved Text: Macromolecules in the cell such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are interdependent for mutual synthesis. Within the cell, proteins used for enzyme catalysis, structural components, energy generation, and digestion of food, are produced through an amazing manufacturing process, involving DNA as a template for the three types of RNA (MRNA, TRNA, and RRNA), which in turn act as different components in the synthesis and coding of each protein molecule. But, each step in this complicated synthesis is catalyzed by an enzyme, which, since it is a protein, would have had to be synthesized by the same process! In other words, the end products of this reaction aid in the synthesis of the starting components and catalyzes each reaction along,the way, making up a complicated series of interrelationships. In order to explain life, then, the appearance of this entire machinery must be explained.
Macromolecule synthesis in the cell is a very efficient process, far exceeding the efficiency of laboratory synthesis. This difference is due to the enzymatic activity of proteins in the cell. A reaction that takes many minutes or hours with low yield in the absence of an enzyme occurs in a split second with high yield in the presence of an enzyme which acts as a catalyst.
form van der Waals bonds.
The importance of each amino acid side chain is illustrated by the fact that mutations which change the structure of the enzyme by placing a different amino acid in the enzyme usually render it inactive, although it is true that sometimes one amino acid may replace

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Retrieved Text: These two hands-on activities engage students in exploring the genetic basis of cancer using cards and posters.
(2 min 14 sec) This animation shows why a mutant BCR-ABL protein is resistant to the cancer treatment drug Gleevec, and how a new drug can overcome this resistance.
(3 min 31 sec) This animation shows how the cancer treatment Gleevec inhibits the cancer-causing protein BCR-ABL.
(46 sec) This animation shows how a mutation that allows adult humans to digest milk can be lost or spread under different circumstances.
(2 min 25 sec) This animation explores the LUX operon, a set of five genes that are involved in bacterial bioluminescence.
(3 min 4 sec) Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries DNA's genetic information to the ribosome, where it is translated into a sequence of amino acids. mRNA is fed into the ribosome, and it is positioned so that it can be read in groups of three letters, known as codons. Each mRNA codon is matched against the transfer RNA molecule's anti-codon. If there is a match, the amino acid carried by the transfer RNA is added to the growing protein chain. Also available in Spanish.
(39 sec) This animation shows how mRNA is edited to remove noncoding regions.
This tutorial explores the many types of RNA molecules that exist and their functions.
(19 min 4 sec) Listen to past HHMI President Dr. Thomas Cech discussing his Nobel Prize-winning discovery of RNA's catalytic properties.
(33 sec) This animation shows how RNA molecules can form different structures, including ones that look and act like proteins.

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Retrieved Text: Molecular genetics laboratories employ multiple different methods to detect the variety of genetic alterations that are therapeutically relevant in cancers. For solid tumors, most of these tests are performed on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) cancer tissues. Therefore, we review here practical techniques for detection from FFPE tissues.
The main types of tests fall into three major classes: those that analyze DNA, those that analyze mRNA expression, and those that analyze protein expression. Results from DNA, mRNA, and protein analyses can have different implications. Furthermore, although all three classes of tests can analyze the same target in a tissue, the clinical significance can vary. For example, in lung cancer, EGFR DNA mutations predict very well sensitivity to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, while EGFR DNA copy number levels, mRNA expression levels, or protein levels have little or no predictive value.
Genetic information is passed from one cell to another in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA encodes messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), which is then transcribed into protein. The building blocks of DNA involve four nucleotides, including adenosine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymidine (T). The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, of which there are 20. The human genome is comprised of about 3 billion nucleotides. Of these 3 billion nucleotides, only ~5% encodes for genes which are translated into proteins within a cell. A gene is further divided into exons, which contain the actual information used in coding for protein synthesis, and introns, which are segments between exons that are removed before the protein is translated (introns

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Retrieved Text: After splicing, the mRNA moves through the pores in the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm. Although the nuclear pores allow the diffusion of small molecules and ions between the nucleus and cytoplasm, they have specific energy-dependent mechanisms for the selective transport of large molecules such as proteins and RNA.
In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds to a ribosome, the cell organelle that contains the enzymes and other components required for the translation of mRNA's coded message into protein. Before describing this assembly process, we will examine the structure of a ri-bosome and the characteristics of two additional classes of RNA involved in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes and rRNA As described in Chapter 3, ri-bosomes are small granules in the cytoplasm, either suspended in the cytosol (free ribosomes) or attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes). A typical cell may contain 10 million ribosomes.
A ribosome is a complex particle composed of about 80 different proteins in association with a class of RNA molecules known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The genes for rRNA are transcribed from DNA in a process similar to that for mRNA except that a different RNA polymerase is used. Ribosomal RNA transcription occurs in the region of the nucleus known as the nucleolus. Ribosomal proteins, like other proteins, are synthesized in the cytoplasm from the mRNAs specific for them. These proteins then move back through nuclear pores to the nucleolus where they combine with newly synthesized rRNA to form two ribosomal subunits, one large and one small. These subunits are then individually transported to the

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What is the most durable species that breathes with gills as larvae and lungs as adults?" and the following answer choices: 
- Snakes
 - Salamanders
 - edible
 - salmon
 - Oak
 - Frogs
 - Lizards
 - a fish

Now knowing that most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults and frogs are the most durable of the amphibians, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Frogs

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Retrieved Text: The term "salamander" refers to a collection of amphibian species that keep their tails as adults. Over 380 salamander species are known around the world, and these species vary in many ways. All salamanders go through a four-stage life cycle, from egg to larvae to juvenile to adult. In some species, juvenile salamanders have lungs. However, lungs are not present at the larvae stage of any salamander species.
Salamanders are amphibians, meaning they live part of their lives in water and part of their lives on land. Adult salamanders lay their eggs in water, and these eggs hatch into a larval form that uses gills to breathe underwater. Most amphibian larvae have tails, which are lost during the transition to juvenile or adult; only salamanders keep their tails through maturity. When the larvae change into juveniles, they begin to look similar to their adult versions. In frogs, for example, juveniles begin breathing through lungs and developing legs. The changes between the larval, juvenile and adult stages of salamanders' lives vary by species. However, all of them have gills during the larval stage.
In some salamander species, juveniles lose their gills and develop lungs. The blue-spotted salamander is one example. These salamanders attach their egg masses to twigs or plants that lie in water so when their larvae hatch they are in the water. The larvae have visible gills on the outside of their bodies. When they become juveniles, however, they lose their fins and gills (both are absorbed into their bodies) and they begin to breathe through their

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Retrieved Text: If You Want How Do Fish Gills Work Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Fish use their gills to extract oxygen from the water. So they need them as much as you need your lungs. The main difference between lungs and gills (other than water vs. air) is that lungs are tidal - air flows in one way, and back out the other way.
Why Do Fish Have Gills? Fish have gills because these organs are used to extract oxygen from the surrounding water in which a fish lives. Gills are different from lungs because gills generally work unidirectionally: water moves in one direction across the gills in order for the organs to extract oxygen.
Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called the operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Fish have gills because they need them to survive underwater. Gills absorb oxygen from the water just like we absorb oxygen from the air. At some point way back in time, the ancestors of fish needed to be able to breathe underwater, and those that evolved gills were able to.
A fish breathes by taking water into its mouth and forcing it out through the gill passages. As water passes over the thin walls of the gills, dissolved oxygen moves into the blood and travels to the fish's cells. If fish can breathe underwater, then why

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Retrieved Text: (1) Frogs were not symbols of death but, on the contrary, of rebirth and renewal, because of its remarkable metamorphosis of egg into tadpole and from tadpole into frog.(2) Early in its development a tadpole breathes with gills.(3) Young amphibians, like the larval frog or tadpole pictured here, spend their early years in the water, breathing through gills in the side of their head in much the same way as fish do.(4) One of the characteristics of amphibians is metamorphosis; when the larva or tadpole living in water and breathing with gills develops into an adult, it leaves the aquatic environment and breathes with lungs like a land animal.(5) He'd always bring a jar of the stuff in and we'd have lessons where we'd document the life of the frog by watching the frog spawn hatch and metamorphose from tadpoles to frogs.(6) We have observed that green frog tadpoles react less strongly to predators at very low resource levels.(7) Inside the pouch, the tadpoles live on the yolk leftover from their hatching.(8) These species tend to have shorter larval periods on average when compared to tadpoles that develop in more permanent ponds.(9) Biologists now find that slightly elevated UV exposure reduces the chance that tadpoles will become frogs.(10) Many familiar animals have a larval form: caterpillars turn into butterflies, and tadpoles into frogs.(11) The young snakes prey on recently hatched steelhead trout and chinook salmon and on the tadpoles of yellow-legged frogs.(12) As the tadpoles become frogs, the gills initially used to breathe are replaced with

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Retrieved Text: Most salamanders start life as aquatic larvae and metamorphose to become terrestrial adults, returning to the water only to lay eggs. But mudpuppy salamanders (Necturus maculosus) remain aquatic throughout life. By retaining their juvenile features, along with other adaptations, they are able to inhabit rivers, perennial streams, ponds and lakes throughout eastern North America, from southern Canada to Georgia. They can even be found in the Midwest.
Mudpuppies, also called waterdogs, have gray-brown to black, spotted skin, which helps them merge with the muddy river bottoms where they live. Their long, flattened bodies -- 8 to 20 inches in length -- make it easy for these aquatic salamanders to hide during the day under rocks and logs. They come out at night to feed on fish, other amphibians and invertebrates.
Larval salamanders usually absorb their gills during metamorphosis, but mudpuppies retain large, feathery reddish brown gills positioned on both sides of their heads. External gills more efficiently extract oxygen from water than internal lungs. In habitats in which the water is well-oxygenated, mudpuppies have shorter gills than those inhabiting poorly oxygenated waters. As they can absorb oxygen through their skin and rise to the water's surface to breathe using their internal lungs, mudpuppies can survive when oxygen levels are low. They also use their lungs for buoyancy in the water, just as fish use their swim bladders.
Mudpuppies walk about the bottoms of ponds and rivers. Their short, flattened limbs make this easy. They can swim well, too. Their short, laterally compressed tails -- high and narrow, rather than

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Retrieved Text: A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills. Most are cold-blooded, though some, such as some species of tuna and shark, are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a paraphyletic group whose exact relationships are much debated.
Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 metres (52.49 feet) whale shark to a 8 millimetre (just over a quarter of an inch) long stout infant fish. Many types of aquatic animals named ‘fish’, such as jellyfish and cuttlefish, are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like dolphins, while closely resembling fish in outer appearance, are actually mammals.
Fish are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish are often called ‘fish’ when used as food.
Difference between male and female fish: In some species the males and females have different shaped bodies or different colouring; in other species there is no visible difference.
How fish breathe: Some fish have lungs and breathe air, but most breathe through gills. Gills are made up of thin sheets of tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As water passes over them dissolved oxygen is absorbed into the blood and waste products such as carbon dioxide pass out into the water. The gills are protected by a large bony plate called an operculum.
What is a lateral line: Lateral lines are usually visible as faint lines running lengthwise down each side, from the vicinity of the gill covers to the base of the tail

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Retrieved Text: Frogs, like salamanders, newts and toads, are amphibians. Most amphibians begin their life cycles as water-dwelling animals, complete with gills for breathing underwater. As they grow to adulthood, amphibians normally become land-dwelling creatures, lose their gills and develop lungs for breathing. Frogs are no exception to this process and are able to breathe through their lungs once they reach adulthood.
Frogs still in the larval stage, called tadpoles, are very different in outward appearance and internal physiology from their adult counterparts. Most notable is the presence of gills instead of lungs during this stage. Tadpoles can also take in oxygen through their skin, a trait that aids in gas exchange (bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, as with lung respiration) while the tadpole is living completely underwater.
As a frog matures from tadpole to adult, it loses its gills and develops functioning lungs. During this transition, and after maturity, frogs are still able to breathe through their skin. This trait is known as “bimodal breathing,” in which an animal uses two different systems for bringing in oxygen. These two different breathing systems allow adult frogs to shift between aquatic habitats (which require skin respiration) and land habitats (which are more suited to lung respiration) with ease.
An adult frog’s thin and permeable skin allows it to take in oxygen, even when completely submerged. Oxygen readily passes through this thin membrane-like skin, providing the frog with the oxygen it needs to stay alive under water without the need for gills. Because of the permeability of a frog’s skin, moisture

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Retrieved Text: Larval members of this family tend to be found in small streams and rivers in areas of slow flow; however, they can be found in lentic-littoral habitats as well. They are often found sprawling on many different substrates, such as sand, silt, or even gravel, as well as clinging to root masses, woody debris, or among various plants. They usually collect and gather small bits of organic particles for food, or some taxa also filter feed. The larvae in this family have gills well-adapted to their environment; the gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate, covering the rest of the abdominal gills to prevent them from getting damaged by sediment. Larvae also fan their gills in order to increase the flow of water across their surface area, increasing the amount of oxygen they can absorb. Adults and duns (sub-adults) in the genus Trycorythodes (Dark Brown Spinner, Pale Olive Dun, and Reverse Jenny Spinner) are especially important to the fly-fishing community due to their extremely large emergences.
Family: The gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate or semioperculate, roughly triangular or oval, and not touching or fusing medially. Abdominal segments 3–6 with lamelliform (plate-like) portion of gills simple or with two lobes, never with fringed margins.

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Retrieved Text: Michele’s PhD study is part of the Cultural Keystone Species research programme, which is funded by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Michele's research focusses on the reproductive biology of the two freshwater mussel species that coexist in Waikato streams, the more common Echyridella menziesii and the rare and threatened Echyridella aucklandica.
Michele has discovered that the different mussel species have different reproductive strategies and that the population of one species is declining faster than its counterparts. This clue could essentially help prevent the species decline.
Kakahi need the assistance of fish in order to reproduce, says Melchior.
"While some adult freshwater mussel species broadcast their larvae into the water column like their marine counterparts, others may lure in nearby fish—often by spitting out hundreds of mucus packages (conglutinates) containing larvae into the overlying stream water.
"These little packages are camouflaged to look like fish food, most often like worms and leeches. When the larvae are close to a fish, they may either attach passively or get eaten by the host fish who then carry the juveniles around on their fins or gills until they’re big enough to drop from the fish. The juveniles then survive on their own hidden deep within the sandy bottoms of our streams."
Melchior's research revealed that one of the Kākahi species, Echyridella auckladica, releases larvae in a way that mimics fish food and lures suitable carrier fish close enough for the larvae to attach to the fish gills. This is the first report of freshwater mussels using type of behaviour outside of North America.
The

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Retrieved Text: Following on from my last article, spring migration is gaining momentum. In the amphibian world, these cold-blooded vertebrates have made their way from their overwintering underground refuges to their breeding waterbodies where many have already mated.
The mating process in amphibians takes place in water and is called amplexus, which is the Latin word for embrace.
This is when the male clasps the female and they deposit eggs and sperm externally together.
The fertilised eggs (in newts) or spawn (in frogs and toads) hatch and larvae or tadpoles emerge.
These have gills enabling them to breathe underwater where they stay for about 4-5 months until they have grown legs, absorbed their gills, developed lungs and resemble small adults.
Once they have undergone this metamorphosis, they then leave the water and live on land for the rest of the year where they feed on invertebrates such as insects, slugs and worms.
Amphibians that are native to the UK are common frog (Rana temporaria), common toad (Bufo bufo), smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus), great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), native pool frog (Pelophylax lessonae) and natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita).
The latter two species are not known in Yorkshire.
This species which has been around for approximately 40 million years, has suffered a large decline due to habitat loss and changes in farming practices.
As such great crested newts and their eggs, breeding and resting places are fully protected by European and UK law.
In my consultancy work the season for surveying for our rarest and largest newt, the great crested newt, runs between mid-March to mid-June

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Retrieved Text: Salamanders and newts comprise the order of amphibians known as the Urodela (or Caudata). They typically have elongated bodies, long tails and two pairs of legs of roughly similar size, although some forms have lost one pair of limbs. They thus resemble more closely the earliest fossil amphibians in terms of overall body shape than any other present-day group.
Salamanders and newts live in a variety of habitats and include fully aquatic and fully terrestrial forms, as well as species that divide their time between water and land. Aquatic forms are found in rivers, lakes, mountain streams, ponds, swamps and underground caves. Terrestrial species burrow deep into the soil and some may climb to considerable heights in trees. Because salamanders and newts have a skin that is permeable to water, they cannot tolerate hot, dry conditions and, for many species, the summer is a time when they retreat into damp refuges, emerging only on cool nights.
The term "salamander" derives from the Latin Salamandra, in turn derived from the Greek for "fire-lizard." Salamanders were associated with fire because they crawled out of logs thrown onto the fire and it was thought they could crawl through fire. "Salamander" is applied generally to any tailed amphibian, but more especially to those with terrestrial habits. The term "newt," derived from the Anglo-Saxon evete which became ewt, refers only to the European genus Triturus and the North American genera Taricha and Notophthalmus, all animals that return to water each spring to breed.
In common with most other amphibians, salamanders and newts have a

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Retrieved Text: Salamanders are any of the species of amphibians that belong to the taxonomic order of Caudata. There are more than 500 different species of salamander found throughout the world.
Salamanders are amphibious creatures meaning they have the ability to live in both water, and on land. Internal or external gills, lungs, simple airs sacks, and valerian respiration ( respiration through the skin) enable them to do so. Depending on the specie, they might have a combination of the respiration processes or just one. Some think lizards are the closest relative because of the similarities in looks, but really the frog is the closest relative. Salamanders have a slender body and a slender tail which usually ends up growing the same length as the body. They have two arms and two legs which makes up the four limbs for locomotion. Most species have an interesting toe count because the front legs( or arms ) have four toes on each limb and the back legs have five on each limb. Color and length also vary between species. Color depends on habitat, if venomous, or if it is mating season. In length, Salamanders are relatively small and stay around 3- 7 inches, but some can get as small as 2.7 cm long, or can get as long as 5.9 ft, and weight 140 lb.
For reproduction, depending on the species, salamanders can lay there eggs either in water or on land. The salamanders that live mostly in water can have up to 450 eggs. Land only produces 7 to 30 eggs

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Retrieved Text: A variety of insect pests, as well as mites and snails, attack water garden plants. Many are the same kinds of pests that attack other ornamental, garden, and vegetable plants, pests such as spider mites, aphids, beetles, borers, leaf miners, leaf rollers, whiteflies, leafhoppers, and moth larvae. Other pests, such as caddis fly larvae and water snails, are peculiar to water plants.
All of these pests, familiar and otherwise, present special treatment challenges when found in or adjacent to water features. Many ponds include fauna as well as flora. Fish, amphibians, and other desirable fauna, including desirable insects, may be harmed or killed by some pesticides normally used for pest control. Some water plants also can be damaged or killed by pesticides commonly used on non water-garden plants.
While most ponds and water gardens, once established, can do quite well with minimum pest management intervention, all aquatic, shoreline and marginal water side plants are subject to attack. Newly established ponds and those that have been cleaned and refilled are most vulnerable.
Since most pests we deal with are not purely aquatic, a close examination of non-submerged surfaces can reveal the culprits. Various leaf miners tunnel between leaf layers. Some tunnels resemble those of the boxwood leaf miner, others are more characteristically serpentine. False leaf-mining midges and some caterpillars chew trails along the leaf surface or water lilies. These trails eventually rot through the leaf.
Leaf rollers roll up entire leaves or cut portions and roll up edges to form homes. Iris sawfly larvae take out chunks of iris leaves, sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Fish force water through their gills, past many tiny blood vessels. The gills take oxygen from the water and let water whisk away carbon dioxide. Gill filaments are the red, fleshy part of the gills; they are the smallest division of the gill and they take oxygen into the blood. Each filament has thousands of fine branches which are exposed to the surface of the water. The branches contain a thin epithelium that separates them from the water, allowing oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through easily.
Not all fishes completely rely on their gills to breathe. Some species absorb a large part of their necessary oxygen through the skin, particularly when they're juveniles. Others have lungs that have developed to breathe air in will actually drown if they don't have access to the water's surface.
The gills in fish are like lungs in people: it's the organ responsible for absorbing oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide waste. The gills also regulate levels of ions and the pH of the blood.
The gill filaments of bony fishes are called "primary lamellae." They are intricate structures that have a large surface area. Smaller secondary lamellae are offshoots of the primary filaments. The secondary lamellae contain small blood capillaries and blood flows in the opposite direction of the water. As a result, the water flowing beside the secondary lamella always has a higher oxygen concentration than that in the blood so oxygen is absorbed along the full length of the secondary lamellae.
Active swimming fish have gill filaments that are highly developed

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Retrieved Text: These frogs are found in warm humid rainforest areas surrounded by dry savannah and always near small streams among moss covered rocks.
Blue poison arrow frogs are found only in the Sipaliwini savannah in the South American country of Suriname.
Although many frogs are green or have muted colors and patterns that help them hide from potential predators, some frogs like the blue poison arrow frog use bright colors as a means of defense. The brilliant blue color of these frogs serves as a warning to potential predators not to eat it. Often the more vibrant and colorful a frog is, the more poisonous it may be.
The most amazing adaptation these frogs have is their ability to produce toxins. The toxins in the skin of these frogs are found in high concentrations in the prey they eat, especially ants. After eating the ants, these toxic compounds are secreted by glands in the frog’s skin providing them with a powerful means of defense. The toxin is capable of paralyzing or even killing potential predators. The blue poison arrow frog contains an average of 200 micrograms of poison which would cause harm and could possibly prove fatal even to a human.
The blue poison arrow frog is 1.2 to 1.8 inches (3-4.5 cm) long; females are larger than males.
These frogs weigh about one-tenth of an ounce (3 grams).
These frogs have azure blue on their legs, sky blue on the back and darker blue on the belly with an irregular pattern of dark blue and black spots covering their back and head.
In

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Retrieved Text: Scanning electron micrograph of an adult Ancylostoma duodenale.
Among parasitic worm infections, hookworm stands out as perhaps the most insidious and dangerous for those living with poverty. As much as 10% of the world's population is infected with one of two species, Anyclostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. These parasites are associated with extreme poverty and thrive in unsanitary environments polluted by human waste. Often infection is mild or asymptomatic, but for many, the chronic loss of blood causes iron-deficient anemia, which robs children and adults of their physical and mental vitality, and poses serious health risks during pregnancy to both mother and child. Treatment primarily employs benzimidazole drugs (albendazole and mebendazole) which are given as single oral doses - convenient and efficient in terms of treating as many people as possible. However, these drugs rarely provide complete cure and there are strong concerns regarding the emergence of drug resistance - a phenomenon that has already occurred for benzimidazole drugs in the animal health sector.
Infective larvae found in contaminated human waste actively infect skin and pass through the heart and into the lungs. Larvae are coughed up, swallowed and eventually grow to adulthood in the GI tract. Adult worms attach to the intestinal mucosa and feed on blood. The loss of blood in heavy infestations directly causes or exacerbates existing iron-deficient anemia. Male and female worms pair and generate thousands of eggs per day. These eggs are passed out in the feces and hatch to eventually develop as infective larvae.
Hookworm is most prevalent in a zone girdling the

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Retrieved Text: live in one-way flow, downstream. Broadcast spawning would send their larvae to inhospitable salty water. Instead, most mussel species employ their streams’ fish communities to spread their larvae. Some infect multiple species of fish; others specialize in one or two kinds of host. “These relationships are extraordinarily complex,” Dr. Wood told me.
“They’re absolutely fascinating.” First, a female draws in sperm emitted by nearby males, fertilizing the eggs inside her. The larvae develop in a sac, which she allows to hang outside her shell when they reach appropriate size. This sac can take a detailed shape, designed to lure a specific fish variety to bite it. In fact, lure is the operative word. To attract a predator like a smallmouth bass, the sac may be shaped like a minnow, even down to an eyespot, a stripe or two, and a forked tail that waves in the current. Other, less specific lures may simply be worm-like projections that loosely simulate insect larvae or other stream invertebrates that sunfish or catfish eat, or a spider-like web of larvae-filled mucus strands through which river herring or shad might swim.
Once the fish strikes and breaks the lure or web, glochidia (parasitic larvae) attach to its gills, fins, or skin with traplike mouths, some including tiny hooks. The fish’s skin grows over these little hitchhikers, turning them into cysts. If by chance larvae latch onto an incompatible species, the fish’s immune system rejects them, and they die. If the species is correct, the fish’s immune system accepts them, so they grow as

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Retrieved Text: A quick shower of warm summer rain moved over an island in the Green River, but the small group of biologists and others who had just arrived by boat didn’t mind.
They were there to witness a Kentucky environmental milestone: The first major release of an endangered freshwater mussel back into a river in the state.
Monte McGregor, who was wearing a wetsuit, was soon off the island and in the river. He moved around in shallow riffles, carefully distributing 1,000 pink mucket pearly mussels on the sandy river bottom where that species hadn’t been seen for a couple of decades.
The date was July 5, 2007. The big national news around the Fourth of July holiday that year was that the bald eagle had recovered to the point that the birds had been taken off the endangered species list.
But the eagle, the national symbol, is a majestic creature that soars through the sky and was the poster animal for the federal Endangered Species Act. The mussel—which lives most of its life underwater partially covered with sand and gravel, often has a funny name and looks like a rock—gets less love.
McGregor, a malacologist, or mussel expert, is director of the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources Center for Mollusk Conservation. He has made working with endangered mussels his life’s work.
McGregor, 50, grew up in Dawson Springs in western Kentucky and was a biology student at Murray State University when a professor offered him a job working with mussels at MSU’s Hancock Biological Station on Kentucky Lake. He went

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Retrieved Text: All about Tadpoles for your smartphone, your iPhone or any phone.Animations of anuran amphibian larvae. The frogs and toads larvae have a long tail and no legs.
Animated gifs and animations of Tadpoles to share on social networks, download or send to other phones for Whatsapp, Line or Skype. Tadpoles are hatchlings or larvae of frogs and toads. Their main physical characteristics are their oval body, lack of legs and a long tail with which they swim. Tadpoles vary greatly in size, in their development and between species. The larvae of frogs breathe through external gills, so they always live in the water. When they reach adulthood spend a process of metamorphosis (they grow four legs and their tails disappear). Most tadpoles are herbivorous, feeding on plants and algae.

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Retrieved Text: All dogs are at risk for potentially deadly heartworm disease. Heartworms live in the heart and blood vessels of the lungs of dogs, cats and other mammals like wolves, foxes and coyotes. Heartworms cannot be spread directly from animal to animal without a mosquito as an intermediary.
Heartworms are spread when a mosquito bites an infected dog and picks up tiny larvae called microfilariae from the bloodstream. Then that mosquito bites another dog infecting it with the heartworm larvae.
Over the next several months the heartworm larvae grow and migrate to the heart and lungs. These larvae mature into adults, which can be a foot in length, and they produce microfilariae that circulate in the bloodstream. Now this dog is a reservoir of heartworms and is ready for another mosquito to bite and infect yet another dog.
Untreated, heartworm disease can lead to severe problems with the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys and may result in death.

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Retrieved Text: The scaleshell is a freshwater clam approximately 4-5 inches in length. Its shell is thin and elongated, with various shades of brown. Males and females can be distinguished by the shell shape, a characteristic this species shares with many other mussels.
In Oklahoma, the scaleshell historically occurred in the Kiamichi, Little, and Mountain Fork rivers. The species may remain in the Kiamichi River, but is thought to be gone from the Little and Mountain Fork rivers. Although empty scaleshell shells have been found, a live specimen has never been found in Oklahoma.
This mussel filters microscopic organisms and organic particles from the surrounding water. After the eggs are fertilized from upstream males, they develop into larvae known as glochidia. These glochidia are released into the water column by the females and must attach to the gills of a host fish, usually a freshwater drum. After several days on the gills of the fish, the glochidia transform into young mussels and detach from the fish, eventually landing on the river bottom.
The primary driver of scaleshell decline is habitat degradation. Alteration of river flows caused by reservoirs and impoundments have had the most influence. Other threats include river channelization, pollution, sedimentation, agricultural runoff, and direct disturbance of mussel beds by human activity.

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Retrieved Text: Dirofilaria immitis (heartworms) are one of the most insidious and deadly worms. Heartworms can infect many species, including cats and humans, but dogs are particularly susceptible. Detecting heartworms can be difficult in the initial stages as many dogs show no symptoms.
Heart worms are introduced into the host through mosquitoes that are infected with heartworm larvae. Once a mosquito has biten the dog the larvae take 6 - 7 months to develop into sexually mature male or female worms. Even as immature adults they can begin to reproduce and the females release microfilariae into the bloodstream. Microfilariae are a pre-larval stage of heartworms (pronounced: micro fil ar ee).
This is how the life cycle continues. At this point if the dog were to be bitten by a mosquito the mosquito would become infected with microfilariae in the blood. That mosquito could then go on to infect another animal.
Heartworms take about a year to become fully mature adults. Males grow to 4 - 6 inches while females get to be 10 - 12 inches long.
This is my blue merle Aussie, Jackson, at Walchensee in Germany. He loves to swim at Walchensee Lake.
Detecting the presence of heartworms can be difficult in the initial stages as many dogs show no symptoms. This is more true of dog breeds that are less active. This is because the heartworm works its way into the lower lungs and eventually the right ventricle of the heart.
Since Australian Shepherds are so active changes caused by heartworms to the functioning of lungs and heart will show up

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Retrieved Text: Beautiful Firefly Wallpaper Graphics HD Backgrounds Free!
The Lampyridae are a family of insects in the beetle order Coleoptera. They are winged beetles commonly called fireflies or lightning bugs for their conspicuous use of bioluminescence during twilight to attract mates or prey. Fireflies produce a cold light with no infrared or ultraviolet frequencies. This chemically produced light from the lower abdomen may be yellow green or pale red with wavelengths from 510 to 670 nanometers.
About 2,000 species of fireflies are found in temperate and tropical climates. Many are in marshes or in wet wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. Their larvae emit light and often are called glowworms in Eurasia and elsewhere. In the Americas, glow worm also refers to the related Phengodidae. In many species both male and female fireflies have the ability to fly but in some species the females are flightless.
Fireflies tend to be brown and soft-bodied often with the elytra or front wings more leathery than those of other beetles. Although the females of some species are similar in appearance to males larviform females are found in many other firefly species. These females can often be distinguished from the larvae only because they have compound eyes. The most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal although numerous species are diurnal. Most diurnal species are not luminescent however some species that remain in shadowy areas may produce light.
A few days after mating, a female lays her fertilized eggs on or just below the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch three to

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Retrieved Text: Tineola bisselliella, known as the common clothes moth, webbing clothes moth, or simply clothing moth, is a species of fungus moth (family Tineidae, subfamily Tineinae). It is the type species of its genus Tineola.
Look for 1/2-inch long buff-colored moths with narrow wings that have hairs along the edges. These are adult clothes moths. The adults do not eat fabric, but their presence means that eggs will be laid that will produce fabric-eating larvae.
Check for the clothes moth larvae if adult moths are present. The larvae are creamy-white colored caterpillars, which can be as much as a 1/2 inch in length. Identify webbing clothes moth larvae by their feeding tunnels of silk, or webbing patches left behind on the fabric as they move around.
The larvae (caterpillars) of this moth are considered a serious pest, as they can derive nourishment from clothing – in particular wool, but many other natural fibers – and also, like most related species, from stored foods, such as grains.

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Retrieved Text: Genera and species identification can be performed by standard entomological aspects such as exterior, arrangement of eggs, habitus etc. Further and newer techniques include biochemical techniques such as enzyme electrophoresis and gas chromatography of cuticular carbons, and DNA probes. Those have been successfully used to distinguish between morphologically similar species in a species complex (e.g. Anopheles gambiae-complex, Culex pipiens-complex).
Eggs are black, laid on the water surface and possess lateral floats. They cannot withstand desiccation and hatch within 2-3 days, although hatching can take up to 2-3 weeks in colder climates.
The larvae lack a siphon and lay parallel to the water surface where they breathe and feed. They only descend, when they are disturbed.
Larval habitats range from small water aggregations (hoofprints, puddles) to rice-fields and marshy areas, including salt-water marshes and mangrove swamps. Very few species breed in water-filled tree holes and some in leaf axils (of bromeliad plants). Generally clean water without animal or vegetable matter is preferred.
The maxillary palps of adults are long in both sexes, and clubbed in the male (instead of short maxillary palps in females of culicines). Adult Anopheles wings are usually spotted, due to groups of differently coloured scales on the wings. In a resting position adults of this genus have the body and proboscis in a straight line and at an angle to the surface on which they rest. Some species almost seem to "stand on their head". Adults mainly feed in the evenings and at night.
Eggs of Aedes and Ochlerotatus species are black and usually deposited on damp substrate

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Retrieved Text: Frogs and toads are cold-blooded vertebrates. The colour of frogs varies. Generally, frogs are brown, light brown or olive green. The underside of frogs is generally white, and at the tops of their legs they are often yellow.
The frog normally spawns in April but in Lapland not until June. Males wait for females in the spawning grounds in large groups, and they attract them by croaking. In frogspawn, there is a transparent jelly that surrounds the eggs and acts like a small greenhouse. The black core warms up during the daytime in the sun, and the blanket of jelly provides insulation and stops heat from escaping. A frog will lay 1,500-3,000 eggs at a time. The eggs develop into larvae, which are called tadpoles. Initially, the tadpoles have gills, but gradually they metamorphose so that they ultimately breathe using lungs. During metamorphosis, the frogs develop hind legs first.
The female frog is often larger than the male. Frogs are generally 5-9 cm long, seldom more. They spend the winter in hibernation in the mud at the bottom of ditches, lakes and bays. Some individuals also hibernate on dry land or in other drier places. Often on a good winter site you can find dozens, if not hundreds, of individuals. During hibernation, frogs move every now and then. Frogs are at their most active when it is dark. They are common across the whole of Finland, but they have become rarer in recent years due to the loss of wetlands. The European common frog is a protected species.

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Retrieved Text: 11 Worst PARASITES in the Water!
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WARNING: Some of the most vile parasites lurk below our waters.
These parasitic pests will invade a living body, drink its blood, manipulate one’s gender and even replace vital organs with their own.
The Trematoda are a class of foul flatworms found in the innards of lancetfish and mollusks such as sea snails. The parasitic pests are known as Botulus microporus, also the Trematoda, and are a species that infest the intestines of its victims, typically infecting two different hosts in the course of their life.
Next is the Glugea stephani, a fungal parasite commonly found in flatfish species. Going straight for the gut, these guys are classified as a class of microsporidian parasite— infecting the cells of their hosts and invading organs and tissues. Results of a parasitic infection appear as a hideous and bulging growth of matter on the sides of unsuspecting ocean swimmers.
These organisms known as the ‘Eye Maggot of Sprat’ sound more noble landowners than they do a disease-ridden parasite. As the name suggests, these vile invertebrates live on the eye of sprat fish and carry with them two egg sacs— protruding like blue appendages from the eye of its beholder.
The wrath of the Schistocephalus solidus comes in threefold. The horrific looking hermaphroditic tapeworm inhibits three victims and is even capable of mind-alteration. This parasite species first forages for copepods— tiny crustaceans that dwell on ocean floors. These underwater creatures exist passively unaware of the dangers awaiting, as they consume the parasitic larvae inhabiting like waters.
If

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Retrieved Text: The iconic Mexican salamander, or axolotl, may look like a Pixar Studios creation, but it is actually one of the most scientifically studied amphibians in the world. Known colloquially as a “Mexican Walking Fish,” the axolotl (pronounced ACK-suh-LAH-tuhl) can reach up to a foot in length and survive up to 15 years in the wild. The species is now facing extinction and the preservation of wild axolotl has become a major concern for Mexican conservationists. Here are 10 surprising facts about these incredible creatures.
Axolotls are the oddballs of the amphibian world and become adults without undergoing metamorphosis. Instead of using their lungs and heading to dry land, axolotls spend their entire lives underwater.
The strange-looking creatures have external gills—the brightly colored whiskers that poke out from their heads. These gills are used to absorb oxygen and often flare up when the axolotl feels threatened.
As if undecided whether to live in the sea or on land, axolotls also have a pair of lungs, just in case. Although they usually remain undeveloped, these lungs grow if the axolotl is placed in shallow water. In extremely rare cases, such as when their habitat dries up, an axolotl will emerge from the water to become a fully-adult Mexican salamander.
True to eccentric form, axolotl have pretty freaky mating habits. Males deposit sperm mounts onto rocks and plants before repeatedly pushing the female in an effort to guide her onto the sperm. Definitely not the most romantic of sights.
Captive axolotl have become popular exotic pets, but wild ones are found exclusively in the

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Retrieved Text: Ground beetles (family Carabidae) are important predators found in most agricultural and garden settings. They may be the most numerous predatory insects in certain systems. Hundreds of species of carabids occur in the Midwest. They vary in size from a less than 1/4" to over 1-1/2" long. The adults of most species are dark brown or black, shiny, and somewhat flattened, with slender legs for running. A few are an iridescent blue or green. They are commonly found under leaves or debris, in cracks in the soil, or running along the ground. Some species also climb into trees, shrubs, and crop plants looking for prey. Adult ground beetles run quickly when disturbed, but they rarely fly. Some species emit a strong smelling irritant when handled. Many are nocturnal and some are attracted to lights at night. In general, arable land contains more carabids than does land planted to permanent crops such as clover or alfalfa. Most species are more common on clay than on sandy soils.
The adults are fierce predators that chew up their prey with their large, sharp mouthparts. Caterpillars, grubs and adults of other beetles, fly maggots and pupae, earthworms, and other small soil dwellers are common prey for many ground beetles. They can consume their body weight in food daily. Eggs are deposited either on objects above ground or in cavities made in the soil. One of the better studied ground beetles in vegetable crops, Lebia grandis, lays hundreds of eggs. Other species may lay only a few. The three larval instars live

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Retrieved Text: Click beetles are long, narrow, and rounded or tapered at each end. The sides are fairly parallel. Most are drab brown, black, or gray, some with interesting patterns. The pronotum (shieldlike portion between the head and wing covers) is extended on each side, pointing to the rear. The antennae are usually serrate (the segments looking sawtoothed), or threadlike or with little combs at the tip.
Behavior helps identify click beetles. By snapping a spinelike structure into a groove on the underside of the thorax (beneath the pronotum), click beetles that find themselves on their backs can flip suddenly into the air. This startles predators and helps click beetles escape, in addition to helping them get back on their feet.
The larvae are thin, wormlike, shiny, hard-bodied, and segmented. Called wireworms, they have 6 tiny legs and are tan, whitish, or brownish. They look a bit like the mealworms sold at bait and pet shops, or like soil centipedes that have only 6 legs.
Length: to 2½ inches; most are less than 1 inch (varies with species).
Adult click beetles are mostly nocturnal, living near plants or under bark, but they are commonly attracted to lights at night. Sometimes you see them in the morning, resting on the side of a house where a light had been on all evening. Larvae live in soil, in rotting logs, and other protected places where the food of their species abounds.
Adults, if they eat at all, eat plant materials, including nectar, plant juices, foliage, and other plant materials. The larvae must grow, however, and

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Retrieved Text: A close-up of a female Megaselia marquezi by Emily Hartop.
Entomology Curator Brian Brown had known about them for 30 years — these little flies that often cluster around mushrooms. But he had never been able to identify them. He could tell they were phorid flies, but identifying the exact species is tricky. To do that you have to carefully inspect the males’ genitalia under a microscope. And that was the problem: only female flies were ever found buzzing around the mushrooms. Where were the males? No one could ever find them.
Inside the mushrroom cap are fly eggs, carefully laid in between gills.
Brown and then-Assistant Collections Manager Emily Hartop got a call out of the blue one day in April that would lead them to the answer. It was the proprietor of a bed and breakfast in Los Angeles not far from the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. They had some mushrooms with flies all over them. Would the entomologists want to take a look?
At long last, Brown and Hartop found the well-hidden males and could then identify this mysterious fly — it’s Megasela marquezi. This particular species is the sixth most commonly collected species in the Los Angeles area in the BioSCAN Project, where volunteers host an insect trap in their backyard. But even though this fly is commonly found in the area, its life cycle had been a complete mystery, so no one knew it was this species that had been seen around mushrooms for decades.
The fly was named by Hartop and Brown

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "bacteria in soil converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by what?" and the following answer choices: 
- bacteria
 - humans
 - density
 - Conifers
 - Roundworms
 - gravity
 - h2o
 - orchids

Now knowing that bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and many orchids are rewarding indoor plants, choose the best answer.

Target Text: orchids

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Law of Conservation of Matter - Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
There are two interrelated parts of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen gas forms about 80% of the atmosphere. However, no animals and few plants can utilise nitrogen in this gaseous form.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen to amino acids, which are the components of proteins. Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the cyanobacteria Nostoc, soil bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium, and the legume root bacteria Rhizobium.
Atmospheric nitrogen can also be fixed or converted to a more solid form by lightning.
In reverse, Denitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia, a nitrogenous waste in urine, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen in animals and plants is in the form of amino acids and proteins. As one organism eats another along the food chain, the nitrogen passes from one organism to another.
Animals also excrete nitrogenous wastes in urine as urea, uric acid or ammonia. This passes to the soil.
When animals and plants die, Putrefactive Bacteria in the soil converts the body amino acids and proteins to ammonia in the soil. These decay bacteria also convert urea and uric acid to ammonia in the soil.
Nitrite Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia to nitrites in the soil.
Nitrate Bacteria in the soil convert those nitrites to nitrates in the soil. These are used by the plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus is an essential component of many chemicals within living organisms. Examples include the energy-rich compound ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and the phosphates used by plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus

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Retrieved Text: Let’s talk about nitrogen. What is nitrogen, and why does it matter to us?
Nitrogen is chemical element number 7. It’s crucial to living organisms. It’s a necessary component in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. While it’s common knowledge that proteins make up muscles, they also perform a wide variety of functions and are involved in virtually all cell processes that keep you alive.
Nitrogen is also a component of nucleic acids in DNA, the blueprint of life. DNA determines your eye color, your height, your metabolism, even to an extent your intelligence and behavior. Clearly, living organisms require nitrogen to survive.
Eye color is determined by DNA, made from proteins built up with nitrogen.
In many types of ecosystems, however, there is a scarcity of usable nitrogen. Nitrogen has a limited availability for biological use. Yet, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere. 78% of the air around us consists of nitrogen in the form N2.
78% of the atmosphere is composed of N2.
How do you explain this apparent dichotomy between abundant atmospheric nitrogen, and the scarcity of nitrogen in ecological systems?
While abundant, atmospheric nitrogen is in the form N2. Other significant forms of nitrogen in ecosystems are ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen from animal waste is excreted in the form of ammonia. Plants intake nitrogen in the form of nitrate. From N2 in the atmosphere to nitrate absorbed as nutrients by plants, nitrogen is converted through different chemical forms by ecological processes and cycled over and over again.
These processes compose the nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen fixing bacteria help plants grow.
Custom N2 is a nitrogen fixing product that increases the nitrogen content of the soil. N2 contains a nitrogen fixing bacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa. This beneficial soil bacteria takes atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and converts it to ammonium. The ammonium is then usable to the plant.
Nitrogen fixation is a vital process for the plant as nitrogen is a key element in plant growth.
Custom N2 improves root size and root health. This healthier root allows the plant to take up additional nutrients thereby improving overall yield and quality of the crop.
Green soybean, called edamame in the United States, needs a large quantity of nitrogen to grow and produce crop. In this case study, we added Custom N2 and had a much larger yield of edamame.
Use of Custom N2, improves roots in green soybeans, edamame, and other crops. Notice the case study in the final picture, the root on the right has been treated with Custom N2. The root on the right is the untreated control. The treated root is larger and has more offshoots. Its easy to see why this treated plant will thrive and perform better than the untreated plant.
Custom Biologicals manufactures a number of biological products for use in agriculture, farming and gardening including, biofertilizers, soil inoculants and biological seed treatments. Contact Custom directly at (561) 797-3008 or via email at Bill@Custombio.biz for additional information.
Custom N2 is a liquid concentrate containing the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Paenibacillus polymyxa. N2 is available in two sizes 50ml and 1 L. The 50 ml size treats

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Retrieved Text: Provide an example of an ecosystem evolving in a manner that preserves or recycles nutrients.
In tropical environments with stable geological topography, there is very little phosphorus in the soil. This is due to the age and stability of the soil. The soil itself is so old that the clays in it have broken down. Because rain is the only input of water, there is no opportunity for the addition of new minerals. The phosphorus necessary to sustain the ecosystem is stored in the vegetation, and is retained phosphorus during growth. When those plants die, the return the phosphorus to the ecosystem in the form of plant litter detritus, and is quickly taken back up into other organisms in the system. The other organisms in the environment have evolved to pull the phosphorus directly out of the litter instead of the soil.
How is it that a nutrient like nitrogen, which is typically qualified as limiting, is present in such excess in many locations?
Nitrogen is historically not easily obtained in natural systems. It exists primarily as N2 gas in the atmosphere and plants are not able to obtain this form directly. Most plants rely on other organisms to fix nitrogen into usable forms like NH4+ and NO3- which they are able to use. This means that the plants are dependent primarily on microorganisms in the soil or in their root structures thus their growth is limited by the productivity of the microorganisms.
Humans have changed this case in three ways. Humans cultivate a variety of plants such as legumes

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Retrieved Text: process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
1. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies or various industrial processes.
2. The conversion by certain soil microorganisms, such as rhizobia, of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that plants and other organisms can assimilate.
the process by which free nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted by biological or chemical means to ammonia and to other forms usable by plants and animals. Biological nitrogen fixation is the more important process and is accomplished by microorganisms in the soil, either free living or in close association with root nodules of certain plants. In contrast, chemical nitrogen fixation, as is used in industry, requires extremely high temperatures and pressures.
the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen in the synthesis of AMINO ACIDS by some bacteria. Such bacteria can be free-living (e.g. Azotobacter, an aerobe; Clostridium, an obligate anaerobe) while others (e.g. Rhizobium) live in association with plants, occupying swellings in the root called root nodules. The latter relationship is one of SYMBIOSIS, in that the plant gains nutrients and thus can live in nitrogen-poor soils, while the nitrogen-fixer obtains a supply of carbohydrates from the plant. The nitrogen is reduced to ammonia in the microbes by action of the enzyme nitrogenase: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, the ammonia then reacting with keto acids to form amino acids.
Nitrogen fixation potential of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Variation in seedling growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia nilotica inoculated with eight rhizobial strains.
Nitrogen fixation and its improvement through genetic engineering.
Nitrogen fixation associated

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria with nitrogen-fixing ability, play a very important rule in the biological cycle. This article provides detailed information about various types of such bacteria.
You must have heard about nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants that enrich the soil where they grow. They have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the ground and make their own fertilizers. Actually, these plants do not pull off this feat on their own. They owe partial credit for this effort to their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The leguminous plants provide nutrients to the bacteria, in return for which they fix atmospheric nitrogen through anaerobic processes (processes that work without oxygen).
The primary function of these bacteria is 'Survival' and in their efforts directed towards this goal, they enter into a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants or some survive on their own. As a part of their metabolic cycle, they fix nitrogen.
There are many complex processes which make this nitrogen fixation possible and the reaction above is a simplified one. The end products are Ammonia (NH3) and water. Nitrogenase, the vital ingredient which make nitrogen fixation possible, is destroyed when it comes in contact with oxygen.
So the process of nitrogen fixation only occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) conditions or the oxygen is neutralized by its combination with chemicals like Leghemoglobin. Nitrogen fixation is one stage in the cycle which maintains the balance of this element in nature.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other micro organisms that fix nitrogen are collectively called 'Diazotrophs'. There are many strains of these bacteria in soil, which perform this function. They

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Retrieved Text: Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles.
What is evaporation? Water gets warm and changes from liquid water to water vapor.
Are humans primary consumers of carbon dioxide or secondary consumers? Neither. Humans produce carbon dioxide.
Another method for fixing nitrogen? Lightning converts nitrogen gas into soluble nitrates.
When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.
Some bacteria have the ability to "fix" nitrogen. This means they convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically useful forms of nitrogen.
The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that the reservoir for phosphorous exists in mineral form in rocks rather than in the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.

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Retrieved Text: Carbon Cycle VIDEO by FUSE SCHOOL!
What in the world is BIOGEOCHEMICAL RECYCLING?
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO..
These cycles are different from the energy cycles of the food chain and food web in whic h the Energy Flow through the ecosystem flows in ONE DIRECTION. Also some of this energy gets lost from “the system” as heat.
These five cycles are particularly important to organisms because these materials make up the chemical compounds of cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE is the global circulation of carbon from the environment to living organisms and from living organisms back to the environment. Carbon EXISTS in the abiotic environment as 1) Carbon dioxide [CO2 (gas)] in the atmosphere, 2) dissolves in H2O to form HCO3 (BICARBONATE) and Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)., 3) Carbonate rocks (limestone & coral = CaCO3 [Calcium Carbonate], 4) Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are derived from once living things (fossil fuels), and 5) Dead organic matter.
The Carbon Cycle Step 1 - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion (burning).
The Carbon Cycle Step 2 - Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.
The Carbon Cycle Step 3 - Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
The Carbon Cycle Step 4 - The dead

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Retrieved Text: Read this article to learn about the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen cycle.
The most abundant element in the atmosphere is nitrogen. In its elemental form it is a colourless and odorless gas which cannot be used by plants or animals. But in combination with oxygen or other elements, nitrogen is available to living organisms as a nutrient. The nitrogen cycle may be defined as the circular flow of nitrogen from free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrates in the soil, and, finally, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
By this process, nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates.
(i) There are some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in the soil or in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. They can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate. Nitrogen fixation is also done by some types of blue-green algae and fungi.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation also occurs in the atmosphere. This is natural nitrogen fixation. It takes place when lightning occurs, because the electrical current that passes through the atmospheric nitrogen converts some of the nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds. These compounds can be used by plants.
(iii) Nitrates are also released from dead and decaying plants and animals and animal wastes.
At the same time, when nitrates are being produced from nitrogen gas, other nitrates are breaking down and releasing nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere. This process of reversal is called de-nitrification.
(ii) When run-off water carry nitrates into surface water which constantly exchanges nitrogen with the atmosphere.
There are some ecosystems where the process of nitrogen fixation and de-nitrification are attuned according to the productivity demands

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Retrieved Text: The nature balances the elements the plants need to produce amino acids. Carbon and oxygen are abundant in the atmosphere, and hydrogen is available as long as water is present. Nitrogen is recycled mainly through compost and manure with the help of bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen can also be utilized with the help of bacteria.
Organic nitrogen in compost and manure.
Inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and chemical fertilizers.
Modern agriculture focuses on efficiency. But the natural nitrogen balance in the soil is disrupted, because the plants are removed from the site (no decomposition) and animals are prevented from entering the area (no manure). To compensate for this are nitrogen and other elements added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers.
While fertilizers improve plant growth, do they also create problems. Soil health relies on a balance of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as microbial health. It is much more complicated then simply adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.
Increased acid levels in the soil, which is damaging the balance in the soil.
Nitrous oxide, which is a byproduct of nitrogen, is a significant greenhouse gas.
Groundwater contamination, which is linked to several health issues.
Eutrophication. Groundwater contamination also contributes to marine "dead zones". The increase in the water-soluble nitrates creates an influx of plant-life, which eats up oxygen and starves out fish and crustaceans.

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Retrieved Text: a. Microorganisms may be unicellular or ___________.
b. __________ bacteria help to make curd from milk.
c. Disease-causing microorganisms are called _______.
d. Ammonium salt in the soil is converted first into nitrites by _________ bacteria.
e. _______ coagulation takes place only when milk is hot.
f. Salting draws out _______ from food.
g. Nitrate in the soil is converted by _________ bacteria into nitrogen gas.
h. The process of preventing food spoilage by chemical or physical methods is called food ________.
Q2: Name any two antibiotics.
Q3: Give the names of any two communicable diseases.
Q4: What are the two common food preservatives used in our homes?
Answer: Salt, sugar and oil.
Q5: Name the bacteria that are present in root nodules of leguminous plants that fix nitrogen.
Q6: Very often we observe greenish pond water in our surroundings. What type of microbes they are likely to be?
Q8: Name any unicellular algae.
Q10: Which organisms are interlinked between living and non-living organisms?
Answer: The process in which milk is heated up to 72°C for 15 to 30 minutes and then chilled and stored is called pasteurization. This prevents the growth of most microorganisms.
Q12: Pasteurisation led to another process, critical to surgery. Name the process.
Q13: What are the advantages of food preservation?
1) This prevents spoilage of food.
2) Food can be preserved for a longer period.
3) Quality of food is ensured for a long time.
4) Variety of food items may be available in faraway places, in any season.
Q14: How do microbes cause food poisoning?
Answer: Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning. e.g. Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella are

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Retrieved Text: Fertilizers in the Soil main content.
In the fall man takes crops away, and unless he makes replacements of some sort, the soil becomes poor and useless.
He adds commercial fertilizers such as phosphate, nitrates, and potash, or he may grow clover and alfalfa which he plows back into the soil.
These plants have root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which take nitrogen directly from the air and turn it into usable nitrates.
Bacteria enter roots from the soil and establish themselves in cells of the root tissues. These cells become enlarged and finally nodules are formed. The enclosed bacteria fix nitrogen into nitrates which are released when the roots decay.

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Retrieved Text: Prefers part shady, moderately dry, well-drained, sandy-loam soil to moist areas and stream banks. Can tolerate drought and wind, but not maritime exposure.
Seed or division, though divisions are difficult.
From seed there are several options: Direct sow outdoors in fall; winter sow in vented containers, cold-frame or unheated greenhouse; stratify if sowing indoors and sow before last frost.
Prefers an acid to neutral soil, though can succeed in poor soils. Dislikes root disturbance.
This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen compounds are essential to plant development, but atmospheric nitrogen must be fixed (transformed) into molecules that plants can use. Bacteria are the only organisms able to carry out nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in many environments. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil have the additional ability to live inside the root nodules of certain plants, such as legumes, and provide fixed nitrogen to the plant host.
Most plants utilized for bioenergy production are not capable of hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so they require applications of nitrogen to increase the speed of growth. However, nitrogen application is costly, environmentally damaging, and potentially hazardous to human health.
We received funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop mechanisms to engineer bioenergy crops so that these plants can fix nitrogen via root nodule symbioses. If we are successful, engineered bioenergy crops could be cultivated in marginal lands that have little agricultural value due to poor soil or other characteristics.
Our phylogenomic approach involves obtaining genomic data form 15,000 species. We are collecting tissues of these species from different herbaria across the world.
We will verify the function of candidate genes discovered in Aim One for their effect on root nodule development in Medicago (nodulating) and poplar root organ cultures (non-nodulating).
We will engineer promising genes identified in Aim Two into poplar, evaluate the development of nodules, and test the impact of these introduced genes on N-fixation and whole-plant properties.
This project is funded by the Biosystems Design Program from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Office of Science at the U.S. Department of

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Retrieved Text: Many present-day coffee plantations use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous and phosphatic ones. These types of fertilizers are bad for two main reasons: they are very expensive, and these chemical fertilizers often make use of non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels, which can deplete nature’s precious resources. Furthermore, these synthetic fertilizers can harm Mother Earth due to water pollution. Thus, these chemical fertilizers are disastrous for the fragile ecology of coffee-growing regions.
Many generations of coffee farmers have ignored and abused the soil. The soil imbalance process takes time and the changes in each generation are minute, so no one cared – and many people still don’t care. Now, many farmers need to enrich the soil, so they turn to chemical fertilizers. The core issue for farming is how can we foster development and production without negatively affecting environment?
Faced with a problem of such a enormous magnitude, one can find a easy, yet effective solution for fertilizer needs of Coffee Plantations by just looking at the soil as a major natural resource. Most people think of soil as a dead, inert material. However, from an agricultural standpoint a healthy soil is the lifeline of any nation.
Soil itself is a living system with millions of beneficial microbes, acting as factories that provide biological nitrogen and other nutrients to the plant. Consider that 83.3% of the earth’s atmosphere is made up of inert nitrogen gas. Microorganisims can convert this atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant in the soluble form (such as ammonia) that the plant can absorb

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Retrieved Text: Copy to Clipboard Experienced and driven Compliance Officer with a proven track record of helping to lead companies by ensuring they are functioning in complete compliance with all national and international rules and regulations.
If students can draw a picture of the problem even using simple representations like squares or circles for the units discussed in the problemthen it can help them visualize exactly what's occurring.
Pada tahunkebanyakan dari perangkat lunak yang mereka miliki bebas karena mereka tidak berpikiran untuk membatasinya. Para pengguna hanya menerima berkas berupa deretan angka-angka yang dapat dijalankan.
This template, Velli, is great if you have images of visual work that you'd like to form part of your resume, and there's also space for a cover letter.
For Students: Essay in punjabi on internet and academic success!
Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.
Building capacity in health research in the developing world. The access to the English-speaking reviews is a dominating factor in a scientific community which publishes mainly in English.
A number of explanations are possible.
We should recognize this as a parabola that opens up and has been shifted 2. Completing the Square and Shifting Parabolas getting parabola to vertex form and analyzing the shift of a vertex F-IF.
We may also: Do I need to attend an interview?
Step 4: Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. New vs. The best

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Retrieved Text: Which products do we offer?
What does your crop need?
How can you improve your performance?
Along with carbon, nitrogen is a fundamental component of organic matter. Although 78% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, our nitrogen requirements can only be met with plant or animal protein. Other than legumes, plants only have access to nitrogen at the end of the mineralisation process of organic matter. Agriculture was revolutionised by the discovery, over a century ago, of the ammonia manufacturing process by combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (Haber-Bosch process, 1918 and 1931 Nobel prize-winners). Without such mineral nitrogen, the world’s farming output would be reduced by half.
Along with other elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc.), nitrogen is a constituent of the amino acids that build up proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element for cell constitution and for photosynthesis (chlorophyll). It is the main factor in plant growth. It has an influence on quality, mainly on the protein content of plants.
Nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3-) dissolved in the soil solution. Organic, ammonia or urea nitrogen present in the soil gradually turns into the nitrate form as a result of different microbial and physical-chemical processes. By absorbing water from the soil to make up for evaporation losses, the plant passively absorbs the nitrates present in a flow that rises up to the leaves. Here, the nitrates are reduced and reorganised in organic form, and then redistributed throughout the plant.
Nitrogen is generally the first factor limiting plant growth, with the exception of

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Retrieved Text: Considering last fall’s wet weather and the soggy fields this spring, farmers wonder about using inoculants on soybean seed in 2010. Should you use a rhizobium inoculant? Or, is there enough of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Bradyrhizobia japonicum, remaining in the soil?
True, rhizobial bacteria don’t survive wet conditions very well. But whether it will pay to use an inoculant depends largely on whether soybeans were grown in the field sometime during the last five years or if the field has been flooded for more than a week, says Aaron Saeugling, Iowa State University Extension field agronomist in southwest Iowa.
The presence of rhizobia in the soil is necessary for a legume such as soybeans to be able to convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form usable by the plant, he says. This process, nitrogen fixation, is critical for producing high soybean yields. For nitrogen fixation to occur, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria need to be readily available in the soil or must be applied to the seed.
When soybean seed germinates, the rhizobia bacteria invade the root hairs of the seedling and begin to multiply. Nodules, the structures that house the bacteria, form on the roots. Under field conditions, nodule formation can be seen shortly after emergence, but active nodule fixation of N from the air doesn’t begin until about the V2 to V3 growth stage of beans. After that point, the number of nodules formed and amount of nitrogen fixed increase with time until about midway between the R5 and R6 growth stages; then N fixation decreases sharply.
Applying nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Azorhizobium caulinodans: A species of AZORHIZOBIUM which forms nodules on the roots of the tropical legume Sesbania rostrata. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Sesbania: A plant genus of the family FABACEAE. Members contain piperidine alkaloids (PIPERIDINES).Rhizobiaceae: A family of gram-negative bacteria which are saprophytes, symbionts, or plant pathogens.Nitrogen Fixation: The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.Fabaceae: The large family of plants characterized by pods. Some are edible and some cause LATHYRISM or FAVISM and other forms of poisoning. Other species yield useful materials like gums from ACACIA and various LECTINS like PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS from PHASEOLUS. Many of them harbor NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria on their roots. Many but not all species of "beans" belong to this family.Azorhizobium: A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped, obligate aerobes which are motile by peritrichous flagella on solid medium and one lateral flagellum in liquid medium. Under microaerobic conditions Azorhizobium fixes nitrogen. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)Xanthobacter: A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria found in wet soil containing decaying organic material and in water. Cells tend to be pleomorphic if grown on media containing succinate or coccoid if grown in the presence of an alcohol as the sole carbon source. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)ThioglucosidesPlants, Medicinal: Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.Flavanones: A group of FLAVONOIDS characterized with

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Retrieved Text: Most people—even non-gardeners—have a vague idea about the process of nitrogen-fixation. This knowledge usually stems from hearing about planting clover to rejuvenate the soil in between rotations of crops. Clover is a classic “green manure” that acts against soil depletion, but it is merely one of many plants that can remediate worn-out earth.
Most—but not all—of these nitrogen-restorative plants are legumes, meaning they’re in the Fabaceae (pea) family. The nitrogen fixation they exhibit is a process whereby bacteria (called rhizobia) exist in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria live in nodules on the plant’s roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is bioavailable.
Although these symbioses primarily exist on the roots of members of the aforementioned Fabaceae family, there are plants like alders (Alnus spp.), sea buckthorns (Hippophae spp.) and gunneras (Gunnera spp.) that also have symbioses with bacteria or cyanobacteria.
In the garden, you can use these nodule-dwelling rhizobia to your advantage in a single season: Planting peas, beans or alfalfa (all legumes) alongside or between your other crops helps to share the wealth these plants bring to the soil. A classic planting formation that operates on these principles is the Haudenosaunee Three Sisters plot, where maize (corn), beans and squash are grown together.
In between seasons, consider cover-cropping your plots, pots and raised beds with a leguminous seed mix. Or even let a bed lay fallow and unproductive for a season under a cover crop: Your soil will thank you next year. When it comes time to plant again, you can compost the biomass

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: N2Africa has received a prestigious prize through the Harvesting Nutrition Contest, sponsored by the World Bank, which aimed at rewarding agricultural projects around the world that have bridged the gaps between nutrition, agriculture and food security. N2Africa was picked among 50 highly-acclaimed projects from around the world, all showcasing efforts to improve the impact of interventions in agriculture and food security on nutritional outcomes.
The contest was organized by the Secure Nutrition Knowledge Platform in partnership with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) and Save the Children.
N2Africa emerged winner alongside two other projects. It was chosen because of its positive impact on the nutrition of its beneficiaries, novelty in its approach to linking agriculture and nutrition, demonstration of an application of old approaches employed in an innovative way, and potential feasibility on a broad-scale basis.
In addition to getting the US$ 5000 prize money, N2Africa will also be documented in a multimedia portrait which will be made available for viewing on the Secure Nutrition website.
The N2Africa project focuses on maximizing benefits for smallholder farmers growing legumes, such as groundnut, cowpea and common bean – generally regarded as women’s crops in Africa – through nitrogen fixation. This is a process that gives soil bacteria the ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms. IITA and Wageningen University are taking the lead in this project that is being implemented with funds from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Howard G. Buffet Foundation.

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Retrieved Text: You are a little tiny nitrogen (N) atom floating around the atmosphere in a gaseous state, the state that you and your nitrogen friends are usually in. You are an element on the periodic table that is very important to life on Earth. You make up DNA, which carries genetic information in organisms.
You also make up about 78% of the air surrounding all living things. The problem is, you like to hang really close to your nitrogen boyfriend in the air, joining together as N2. You have a very strong bond to your nitrogen boyfriend, and the two of you are hard to break apart, which makes you unable to be used by living organisms. That is why you must go through the nitrogen cycle in order to be useful.
The nitrogen cycle is composed of four steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification.
During the first step of the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, you and your boyfriend (N2) are pulled out of the air by bacteria in the soil. The bacteria turns you both into ammonium by mixing you with hydrogen atoms.
In the next step, nitrification, is the transition of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate through oxidation. Look at it this way: you start off as a nitrogen atom in ammonium, surrounded by hydrogen atoms. More bacteria in the soil convert you into nitrite and then nitrate, so you are now surrounded by oxygen atoms. As part of nitrate, you can now be brought into plants through their roots in order to be used. You might

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Retrieved Text: Guar Resourcees, LLC ("GR") offers U.S. farmers a way to maintain nutrient-rich soil while reaping the benefits of growing guar. You can contract with GR prior to planting with our commitment to purchase your entire crop at harvest.
GR maintains a large seed base, and licenses guar seed to growers. Incorporating guar into the planting cycle can replenish and improve the soil due to its nitrogen-enhancing properties. Its drought-tolerant characteristics help to ensure profitability in ever-changing climates and drought conditions.
Guaranteed purchase of your entire harvest.
Converts atmospheric nitrogen to plant-available nitrogen – improves your soil.
Works well in rotation with cotton – University research has demonstrated up to 15% yield increases in cotton grown following guar.
Plants are extremely hardy with minimal disease and insect pressures.
Read what growers just like you are saying about guar and its benefits.
Download our flyer that explains more about guar, planting stats & details.
You have our invitation to connect with our team of agronomists who will be glad to provide complete information on the benefits of growing guar and how you can get started today.

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Retrieved Text: Most corn grows small "prop" roots, but Sierra Mixe corn uses them for nitrogen fixing, too. Photo by Flickr/Ton Rulkens.
A joint research team from the University of California, Davis; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and Mars, Inc. recently described a landrace of corn in the Sierra Mixe region of Mexico that doesn’t just survive in low-nitrogen soil — it thrives. The cultivar looks quite unfamiliar compared with the mass-produced, conventional cultivars in the United States, growing more than 16 feet tall. It grows much more slowly than conventional corn as well, taking about nine months to reach maturity, rather than conventional corn’s three.
However, the most remarkable thing about the Sierra Mixe corn is how it obtains most of its nitrogen.
Sierra Mixe corn grows 8 to 10 aerial roots — rather than the one or two grown by conventional corn — that secrete a sugar-rich mucilage, which attracts nitrogen-fixing bacteria that then convert aerial nitrogen into a more usable form. In a simplified sense, the corn fixes nitrogen from the air, rather than the soil.
Incredibly fascinating in its own right, this corn also holds some serious potential for sustainable agriculture down the line. Nitrogen fertilizers are often financially inaccessible in developing countries, and producing them requires about 2 percent of the world’s energy supply, which contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions. If the Sierra Mixe corn’s nitrogen-fixing trait could be bred into cheap, conventional cultivars, it could dramatically increase yields in nitrogen-poor areas and eliminate the need for costly nitrogen fertilizers. It would also mean a more

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Retrieved Text: Flatulance, while this might be an oversimplification, is essentially the process from which Azospirillum convert nitrogen gas to plant usable, ammonia (NH3). When it comes to nutrition nitrogen is the limiting factor in plant growth, playing a key role in almost every process of a plants life. In effect, azospirillum also affect almost every process of a plant’s life. So yeah, it’s pretty important!
Nitrogen exists in our air and our soil. Actually, 78% of our atmosphere is made of nitrogen (N2). The way it exists in our atmosphere doesn’t do much for our plants unless it can take on a solid form. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria take in nitrogen the way that we do oxygen.
Then they excrete it as a solid form that plants can use. When nitrogen is taken from gas to solid, it is called nitrogen fixation.
There are two main types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: free-living and mutualistic. The free-living bacteria are the self-sufficient, independent radicals of the group. Azospirillum is a mutualistic type of bacteria that creates symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the soil and the roots that grow in it. They are also known as root-colonizing bacteria or rhizobacteria.
The efforts of azospirillum can only be matched by a couple of other rare events in nature that require much more energy than releasing a few little bacteria to do the dirty work. Other natural elements responsible for nitrogen fixation include: ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment and being struck by lightning. We suggest sticking with picking up a bag of Xtreme Gardening Azos for your azospirillum fix.
Are All

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Retrieved Text: Improved composting of green waste with zeolite by breaking down naturally bound nitrogen into usable plant nutrients. Zeolite can help you get usable compost quicker, with higher nitrogen retention and less odor.
Composting is a process that converts organically bound nitrogen to ammonium nitrate and ammonia, both of which are plant-accessible nutrients. It also kills pathogens, dries manure, and kills weed seeds. Ultimately, the goal is to produce high-quality compost that can be used as a bio-based soil amendment (Olds College, 2004).
Methane and nitrous oxide are two greenhouse gases produced during the composting process (Olds College, 2004). Scientists have concluded that both gases are more potent than carbon dioxide. Aluminum silicates (such as zeolite) can sequester nitrates, sulphates, and hydrogen ions, which can prevent methane and nitrous oxide production during the composting process; studies have demonstrated that aluminum silicates can reduce emissions by 20 percent (Olds College, 2004).
Natural zeolite provides value to the composting processes because of its ability to absorb water and adsorb plant- available nitrogen through cation exchange. Also, zeolite prevents soil compaction and works to increase infiltration, both of which promote soil aeration. This benefit is made possible by the mineral’s high surface area and porosity.
A study by Zhang and Sun (2015) examined the effects of an earthworm cast and zeolite mixture on the composting of green waste. The results indicated that the mix improved the quality of the compost products in regards to nitrification, enzyme activities, and microbial numbers. Also, the compost matured in only 21 days as opposed to the common 90

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Retrieved Text: A legume is the pod of a plant such as peas, beans or vetches, which all belong to the same family of plants (Leguminosae, or Fabaceae). Legumes provide a vital source of food for humans and their animals. They are high in protein and contain many of the essential amino acids. People get protein from peas, beans, peanuts and soybeans while their animals get it from alfalfa (lucerne) and clovers, which is then passed on to the humans when they eat their animals.
Legumes get the nitrogen they need to make these amino acids from symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria which live in nodules on their roots. These bacteria are able to fix nitrogen, transforming atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and other compounds, some of which are passed on the legume. In return the legume gives protection and food to the bacteria. These compounds are also available to other plants after decayed roots (and other plant parts) of the legume have released these nitrogen products into the soil. Animals get nitrogen compounds by eating plants.
We also extract edible oils, fibers, and raw material for plastics from them.
Seeds of the Phaseolus beans and other legumes produce phytohemagglutinin, a protein that clots certain human blood types and has other medical applications.

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Retrieved Text: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers has generated several environmental problems.
To overcome these, bio fertilizers can be used as they are natural, beneficial, eco friendly and user friendly.
They are considered important in growth improvement and establishment of forest tree seedlings as the media used to raise seedlings in nursery as well as planting sites are generally low in nutrients and beneficial microbial populations.
It is very essential to improve the seedling health and quality planting stock of every forest tree species at the nursery level for successful establishment in the field. The following group of bacteria and fungi are major bio fertilizers being used in tree cultivation.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are symbiotic associations between tree roots and soil fungi that play a key role in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem and also protect plants against environmental stress.
Some bacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation from the atmospheric Nitrogen pool. The major types of N2 fixing bacteria are Azospirillum, Rhizobium, and Frankia.
Azospirillum is free living in soils so that it can be cultured and produced in artificial medium only.
It can be used at the rate of 5 gm / tree seedlings of all tree crops.
Rhizobium is host specific nitrogen fixing bacteria normally associated with leguminous trees. About 5g of rhizobium /tree seedlings of leguminous tree crops is required for nitrogen fixation and growth improvement.
Most of the Indian soils are deficient in phosphorus and its requirement is met by the addition of phosphate fertilizers in the form of aluminium phosphate or iron phosphate.
But these fertilizers are becoming costly and may have

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Retrieved Text: We often work very hard to make sure that our favourite plants are getting what they need in their diets to offer us the yields we desire. Have you ever just stuck a plant in the ground outdoors in the full sun only to return in a few months to find it has reached a stunning maturity? So, in terms of nutrients and the soil, what allows this to happen? The answers could be infinite, as there are billions of microscopic lives in a simple handful of good soil. On the other hand, the answer is simple in itself. The most productive soils are generally the most alive soils.
Now before we go any further, this does not necessarily mean that soil grown plants are more productive than plants grown by other methods including hydro and aeroponics. In fact, some studies suggest that the growth rates of strawberries are at their highest the couple of weeks following soil pasteurization (sterilization). Luckily for the length of this article though, this "sterile" period only lasts a couple of weeks before life finds its way back into the soil. This being the case, we can help to control which organisms exist and at what levels in our grow media by cultivating our soil(s) with biological products and organisms.
Since many of us are dealing with soilless mix such as coco or peat-based grow media, there are some long-term benefits to be had by increasing the "life" in the soil. The reason the term "long-term" is used is that for short-term crops

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "an incandescent light bulb converts electricity into light by sending electricity through what?" and the following answer choices: 
- hair-thin molecules
 - hair-thin spokes
 - epidermis and dermis
 - hydrogen and oxygen
 - activation energy
 - an electron lens
 - hair-thin hairs
 - hair-thin fibers of glass

Now knowing that an incandescent light bulb converts electricity into light by sending electricity through a filament and fiber optics works by carrying light along hair-thin filaments of glass, choose the best answer.

Target Text: hair-thin fibers of glass

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Retrieved Text: Just Another Static Monday – Let there be Light! – Science is Fun!
If you ever get stuck in the dark with a fluorescent light bulb and a balloon (or even a length of PVC pipe or a plastic comb), don’t worry. You can use static electricity to light up the bulb and find the light switch (that is assuming the bulb you have is not supposed to be in the light fixture).
Any fluorescent light bulb will work – the coiled up compact type or the long narrow kind. Simply charge up the balloon (or comb or pipe) by rubbing it vigorously on your head so that it is full of extra electrons. Then hold the light bulb near (but not touching) the balloon to see the bulb glow. You will be able to see it best in the dark.
A fluorescent light bulb usually works when electricity causes mercury vapor in the bulb to emit ultraviolet light. Our eyeballs can’t see ultraviolet light but the phosphors coating the inside of the light bulb to soak it up and then emit visible light that we CAN see.
In this case, instead of sending electricity into the bulb, we hold a charged balloon near the bulb, which stirs up all the electrons in the mercury vapor causing an electric current that causes the mercury to send out ultraviolet light and the phosphors to glow.
Experiment with different arrangements of the bulb and balloon to produce the most light.
What happens when the bulb touches the balloon?
Does the balloon, comb, or PVC pipe

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Retrieved Text: As technology progresses many of the things that were once commonplace become obsolete. Practically everything will eventually meet this fate; typewriters, cassette players, VCRs and public pay phones are all examples. The same is true for the incandescent light bulbs.
The world has two leading technologies positioned to take the place of the incandescent bulb; they are the light emitting diode (LEDs) and the compact fluorescent lamp (CFLs). In this article, our goal is to explain these emerging technologies so that you can make a better decision when choosing between the two.
The incandescent light bulb is becoming obsolete because it is extremely inefficient, especially when compared to a light emitting diode or a CFL bulb. Incandescent bulbs are very simple devices. Each one contains a filament, which allows electricity to pass through. This process converts electricity into heat, which causes the light bulb filament to glow white-hot creating light.
Most of the electricity that is used to light up incandescent bulbs is wasted on the heat that it produces. As a result, many countries around the world have implemented some type of incandescent light bulb ban, which bars retailers from selling them. This has influenced both businesses and homeowners to choose from alternative light sources when living life in the green zone.
As the name implies a compact fluorescent bulb is just a miniature version of a fluorescent light. Due to the fall of incandescent light bulbs, these fluorescent fixtures are now being used in many homes and business across the globe.
A CFL bulb works by driving electrical current

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Home / Blog / Commercial & Retail Lighting / What is a Compact Fluorescent Ballast?
What is a Compact Fluorescent Ballast?
A CFL bulb with an integrated ballast. These are also called “self-ballasted” CFLs. Image from EE Times.
As efficient lighting design continues to evolve, more and more projects use alternatives to traditional incandescent lamps. The easiest and most common option is the compact fluorescent lamp, or CFL. Along with a transition to CFLs comes a need for a fluorescent light ballast to control the current of electricity.
To understand what a compact fluorescent ballast does, one must first be acquainted with what a compact fluorescent lamp is all about. Like incandescent lamps, the CFL aims to put out a bright, yet soft, stream of light. It just produces that light in a different way.
Incandescent v. Compact Fluorescent: They Both Glow, So What’s the Difference?
An incandescent bulb relies on an electric current that is carried via wire to meet a filament. The filament creates resistance to the electricity, and causes the lamp to heat up and glow. On the other hand, CFLs use an electric current that is passed between two electrodes. This electric current, also known as an arc, is achieved from a regulated supply of high voltage. That’s where our fluorescent light ballast comes in!
Think of a CFL ballast as a bank lender dealing in electric currency, and each compact fluorescent lamp as a client applying for a loan. To begin the business of lighting up, a CFL needs a sudden and powerful influx of

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Retrieved Text: If you were to walk down the lighting isle of your local hardware store, how many different types of light bulbs do you think you’d find? 10, 15, 20? A quick google search of the Home Depot website for “non specialty bulbs” produced over 1200 results! So while it’s hard to say just how many different types of bulbs there are, it’s safe to assume that there’s a lot.
If you’re like most people, you’d likely end up buying the wrong one unless you knew exactly what you’re looking for. So to help you navigate your local hardware store’s lighting section, we’ve come up with a guide to understanding modern light bulbs. After all, using the proper light bulb can make all the difference when it comes to saving money on your monthly electric bills.
Incandescent – This is probably the most common style of light bulb in use today. It generates its light by heating a tungsten filament with electricity to 4,172 degrees Fahrenheit, at which point the filament begins to glow. Unfortunately, these bulbs aren’t very energy efficient. In fact, 90% of the electricity these bulbs use is turned into heat rather than visible light.
Halogen – These bulbs work via a combination of a tungsten filament, much like an incandescent bulb, and halogen gas. However, this style of bulb can produce the same amount of light with a much smaller sized bulb and wattage, making them more energy efficient and longer lasting than there incandescent counterparts. These bulbs are roughly 30% more efficient than incandescents, but

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Retrieved Text: There are four different types of light bulb technologies still in use today, all of which have their own unique pros and cons. Below are the light bulbs explained and how they can affect your energy consumption, electrical bills and your lighting in your home. EU regulations are pushing the removal of one particular type of light bulb technology, so you will have a wider choice of bulbs when it comes to replacing the soon to be removed bulbs.
The incandescent bulb is the most common light bulb technology in use, but is under attack from EU legisaltion and is currently being phased out to be replaced by more energy efficient technology (the light bulbs listed and explained below).
Incandescent light bulbs work by heating a small tungsten filament in the bulb and producing light. However, to produce any light at all the tungsten filament must be hot and produce a lot of heat. Because of this, incandescent light bulbs are regarded as a waste of heat and energy (they also cost more to use compared to new energy-friendly alternatives) and also dangerous because of the high temperature they will reach when in use.
Halogen bulbs work on the same principle as incandescent bulbs, but instead use halogen gas inside the bulb to help maintain its life and quartz glass material for the bulb to keep heat inside the bulb and reduce heat loss. Compared to a normal incadescent bulb, halogen light bulbs last marginally longer.
CFL light bulbs use a gas which emits ultraviolent light when 'excited' by electricity;

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Retrieved Text: There are light bulbs which work with batteries. For example, flashlight bulbs or car headlamps. If you mean getting a 220 volt (or 110 volt) bulb to work off a battery, you must us a device called an inverter (DC-AC converter)... The light bulb (incandescent lamp) is like the ones used at home. The enclosure of the lamp is a bulb made of thin glass. Inside the glass are inert gases such as nitrogen and argon.
Either tape or hold the straight end of the wire on one end of the battery with your thumb and touch the end of the light bulb to the other end of the battery as shown in the next photo. The light should shine. If it doesn’t, either the wire on the battery or the wire on the light is not making a good connection. Use the small piece of sand paper to clean the wire ends … and try again. If how to prepare a case study presentation Next hold the metal base of the bulb so that it is touching the other end of the battery. And finally, have the base of the bulb make contact with the aluminum foil. And finally, have the base of the bulb make contact with the aluminum foil.
Potato Battery Light Bulb Project. Uncategorized. Potato Battery Light Bulb Project. masuzi December 14, 2017. Setup step 3 make a potato battery build a potato powered battery. Potato Light Bulb Experiment For Kids Sciencing Potato Light Bulb Experiment Study Com How To Use Potato Electricity In

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Retrieved Text: Home / Home / What Are Halogen Light Bulbs?
Doesn’t it seem like a regular light bulb just doesn’t last very long. As soon as you put one in, another one is going out. Replacing light bulbs all the time can get expensive and is not very good for the environment. More used bulbs means more waste that has to be disposed of in out landfills. Also, regular light bulbs are not very energy efficient. A good alternative to regular light bulbs is halogen bulbs. But what are halogen lights bulbs and how are they different from regular light bulbs?
Before you can understand what makes the halogen bulb so different, you need to know the basics on how a regular light bulbs works. A regular light bulb is called an incandescent bulb. Everyone knows that an incandescent light bulb is made of very fragile glass (I have broken my share so I know). Inside the glass bulb are two wires that connect to what is called a filament. The two wires are attached to the metal base of the bulb which makes contact with an electrical source. The electricity flows up the two wires and heats up the filament.
The filament of the light bulb is made up of tungsten. It is the best material for producing light. When the electricity heats up the tungsten filament, it reaches degrees of approximately 4,000 Fahrenheit. At this level the tungsten turns white hot which gives off light.
The problem with tungsten is that it evaporates the more it is used. In

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Retrieved Text: Lighting can account for over 20% of a typical home’s energy bills (depending on appliances), so making your lighting more efficient is an easy way to save money.
Traditional light bulbs (known as 'incandescent' bulbs) have been lighting homes for over a century, and their design is little-changed – a tungsten filament inside a vacuum bulb. But they are highly inefficient, converting only about 5% of the electricity they receive into light, with 95% wasted as heat.
CFL (Compact fluorescent) – a flourescent bulb in a coil-like form. They are cost-effective for general lighting purposes, fit directly into the same sockets as incandescent bulbs, and are widely available.
LED(Light Emitting Diode) – even more efficient, and a particularly ideal replacement for halogen downlighters. They are more expensive than CFLs but save more money in the long-term.
if you replace a 50W halogen downlighter with a 6W LED you will typically save around €5 per year or €90 by the time you need to replace the bulb.
Multiply these figures by the number of standard light bulbs in your house (one survey claims the average EC home has 24) and you'll see the kind of savings you can make.
Although CFLs cost more than traditional incandescent bulbs, their much longer lifespan makes them significantly more cost-effective – and LEDs even more so.
A glass bulb with a tungsten filament in a vacuum. Electricity passes through the filament, but only 5% of this produces light. The remaining 95% is lost as heat – extremely inefficient!
Halogen bulbs work much like incandescent bulbs, but filled with halogen

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Retrieved Text: Home / Why Change to LED?
Upgrading your Caterham’s lights can provide substantial benefits such as increased visibility and safety.
What makes LED lights so much better?
Safety – LED’s are better for stop lamps than anything else, as they light up almost instantaneously. This gives the drivers behind more time to react to avoid an accident if a car makes a sudden stop.
It might seem insignificant that a LED lights up 0.2 seconds faster than an incandescent bulb, but at 75 mph this translates to 21 feet extra braking distance for the cars behind. This can literally make the difference between life and death.
Efficiency – One important advantage an LED light bulb has over a traditional light bulb is its innate efficiency in converting electricity into visible light. A traditional light bulb only turns approximately 3% of the electricity it receives into visible light. The remaining 97% is wasted as heat energy, which does nothing to help with illumination. On the other hand, an LED light converts about 90% of the energy it receives into visible light with only 10% given off as heat waste. This means that an LED light bulb can produce substantially more illumination per watt than a comparable halogen bulb.
Long Lasting – Essentially, the filament inside a normal bulb is on fire. If there is anything impacting how it burns — if weather conditions be too hot or too cold — the traditional bulb could fail and need to be replaced. While halogen technology has advanced to the point that this filament can last

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Retrieved Text: Our post about LED light bulbs generated a lot of interest on our Climate for Real Facebook page, and some of the questions led us to believe people wanted more information about how different kinds of light bulbs worked. The reality is that there are a lot of different light bulbs. Some are better suited for different applications than others, but some might be chosen because they are more durable, don’t produce as much heat, or don’t use as much electricity.
How Do Energy Efficient Light Bulbs Work?
Of course, individuals and businesses are being urged to switch out old light bulbs in favor of more energy efficient light bulbs. If everybody did this, the US could save billions in dollars in energy costs a year. In order to understand how energy-efficient light bulbs work, it helps to understand how all bulbs work. Even though the newer and more energy-efficient bulbs work differently, they are better at converting electricity to light instead of heat.
The production of almost all incandescent light bulbs has stopped in the US and other countries, but they will probably still be on the market for awhile as inventory as cleared. Even though they are less efficient than other kinds of light bulbs, some people mourn their passing because they tend to produce a brighter and something that many people consider more natural light. It may be that this kind of indoor lighting is what people are used to, and that is why they are considered more natural.
By the way, halogen lights, typically found on

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Retrieved Text: Until this past week, I had incandescent light bulbs in the two lights of mine that are nearly constantly on. Oh no!
You see, we had fluorescent bulbs, but then eventually they died. And when we replaced them, we just used the incandescent bulbs that we had in the house to build my dehydrator. But, eventually they died, and now we finally replaced them with the much more energy efficient fluorescent bulb.
Did you know that you can save 30 dollars per fluorescent bulb that you use? These bulbs use less electricity to give you more light than the standard incandescent. (I just peeked at our new bulb. Its 28 watts and gives off the light of an 100 watt bulb.) That means you use less electricity (and hence, pay less) to provide more light.
And of course, even more energy savings will be had if you make sure to turn off your lights when they're not in use. But more on that another time!

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Retrieved Text: Low Energy Lighting, what’s it all about?
It has become extremely important to reduce your carbon footprint and the amount of energy that your business uses. Installing low energy lighting is one of the easiest ways to improve energy efficiency and save your business money. But what is low energy lighting and how do energy saving light bulbs work?
An energy saving light bulb is a compact fluorescent lamp, as opposed to traditional light bulbs which are incandescent lamps. Traditional bulbs are purchased with different wattage outputs and a typical light bulb is usually 60 watts or 100 watts and this indicates how much power the bulb uses each hour. A low energy equivalent will use only 9 or 11 watts every hour, and you can see that this represents quite a large power saving, without compromising on the amount of light produced.
The only downside to energy saving light bulbs is that they initially cost more than incandescent bulbs – but this cost is offset by how much longer they last. Estimations show that, an energy saving light bulb could save around £20 in electricity costs used to run it over the course of it’s life.
How does an Energy Saving Light Bulb Work?
What happens is, the glass tubes that you can see in the bulb are filled with gas, this is mercury vapour. Also contained in the bulb is an electronic ballast, electricity flows through this and as the light is switched on the mercury vapour gives off light in the ultraviolet range, this then stimulates the phosphorous

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Retrieved Text: Colored light bulbs use the same process to turn electricity into light as incandescent bulbs. Electricity is passed through a filament of tungsten wire, which is heated and reacts with the inert gas mixture that surrounds it. A colored light bulb is usually made the same way as a standard bulb, but the glass is then coated with a translucent paint or film. Colored bulbs are often used to create a certain mood or atmosphere. Many stores and restaurants rely on them to add ambience, but they can be used at home as well. These bulbs are also popular in signs and marquees, where they draw attention and catch the eye. 1000Bulbs.com stocks colored light bulbs in a variety sizes, shapes and, of course, colors.

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Retrieved Text: Today we are introducing a new weekly feature Talk Back Tuesday where we respond to reader and customer inquiries. We are working to make this n interactive site, so you can pose a question relating to electricity, energy or Cleveland Public Power and we will offer our response.
My initial response was less than confident, but I had an “aha” moment. What better way to begin communicating with our readers and customers than by answering their concerns on a regular basis!
So here we are today with our first Talk Back Tuesday!
Dale and Barry confirmed my assessment, but with a caveat. With an incandescent light bulb the drawing of power ends when the bulb has burned out. An incandescent bulb contains a filament which transports the current through the bulb to produce light. The filament is what burns out, and in turn breaks the current for the light.
Compact Fluorescent light bulbs are similar to the incandescent bulbs when it comes to burning out, and the inability to continue to draw power from the socket.
However with fluorescent tube lighting, something not commonly found in homes, the burned out bulb is not drawing power, but the ballast is continuing to find a source for energy.
I hope that clears up any questions with leaving a light bulb in the socket. If you have a question that you would like featured in Talk Back Tuesday, send an email to cppgreen@gmail.com and we will review, and hopefully feature it in an upcoming segment!

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Retrieved Text: LEDs are now easier to incorporate into your everyday life, and prices are quickly becoming more affordable. LEDs, or light–emitting diodes, are semiconductor devices that produce visible light when an electrical current is passed through them. LEDs are now being incorporated into bulbs and fixtures for general lighting applications. LEDs are small and provide unique design opportunities.
Incandescent bulbs produce light using electricity to heat a metal filament until it becomes “white” hot or is said to incandesce. As a result, incandescent bulbs release 90% of their energy as heat. Over the next few years, the A-style incandescent bulbs will gradually be phased-out as EISA efficiency standards are phased-in. The phase-out schedule begins with the 100 watt incandescents in January 2012 and ends with new standards for the 40 watt incandescent in 2014.
In a CFL, an electric current flows between electrodes at each end of a tube containing gases. This reaction produces ultraviolet (UV) light and heat. The UV light is transformed into visible light when it strikes a phosphor coating on the inside of the bulb. What makes these bulbs use 2/3 less energy than a traditional bulb is a small amount of mercury—an average of 5 milligrams, which is roughly equivalent to an amount that would cover the tip of a ball-point pen. By comparison, older thermometers contain about 500 milligrams of mercury. No mercury is released when the bulbs are intact or in use, and the energy efficiency of CFLs actually presents an opportunity to reduce mercury emissions. However, proper disposal or recycling of

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Retrieved Text: As incandescent bulbs fade away, LED and curly CFL contenders are duking it out. A new rival, called Finally, will also enter the ring with softer light. Yet LEDs are mercury free, unlike CFL and Finally bulbs.
We support LED bulbs due to their longevity, efficiency, overall cost/hour and styles appealing to tiny house dwellers. Let’s compare the bulbs for sale.
“A good rule of thumb to understand is that a typical LED light will use about 12 to 18 percent of the electricity as a traditional incandescent or halogen bulb would use for comparable lumens,” explains Michael Beverly, a Los Angeles electrical contractor. Lumens refer to the bulb’s light brightness, by the way.
LED prices, at $36/bulb, seem high though one lasts as long as five CFL and 42 incandescent bulbs. LEDs save money vs. incandescents and, with dropping prices, should beat CFLs soon. Throw in electricity usage and costs, and LEDs already achieve the lowest cost/hour.
The upcoming Finally costs $10/bulb, and you’ll need four to match LED’s longevity. Overall, it lands between LEDs and CFLs on total cost/hour. Finally bulbs resemble old incandescents, delivering warm and dispersed light. Dimmers don’t work yet.
Beyond the numbers, LED bulbs fit nicely with different fixtures: recessed high-hats, pendants, lamps, strips, etc. LED light diffuses better than earlier versions and maintains brightness and color through its 50k hour lifespan.
Many tiny house dwellers use them now.

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Retrieved Text: Published 04/25/2019 11:38:41 pm at 04/25/2019 11:38:41 pm in Led Bulbs In Incandescent Fixtures.
led bulbs in incandescent fixtures led lights that mimic the look of vintage edison bulbs architectural digest cree engineers a cheaper led bulb by losing the heat sink ieee an led bulb.
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Retrieved Text: How long does an average incandescent light bulb last before you need to replace it?
In which U.S. state was the first light bulb showcased to the public?
There is air inside a light bulb.
What is the filament's function in a light bulb?
It is the piece of metal that gets so hot that it glows.
It carries the electricity to the light bulb.
It is the outside of the light bulb.
It stops the bulb from blowing up.
Fluorescent light bulbs contain mercury.
Which type of gas is most often used inside of a light bulb?
What are LED light bulbs mostly used for?
When in use, what is the average temperature of the filament?
What is the main problem when using a halogen light bulb?
They use a lot of energy.

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Retrieved Text: LED lights can help reduce spending on electricity and replacement bulbs.
You’ve probably heard that some types of light bulbs are on the way out and other lighting options, such as LED lights, are increasing in popularity. Both in the United States and abroad, traditional lighting from the Edison-invented incandescent bulb is being scaled back. In some cases this has been due to government policies, in some its market forces, and in others it’s both. One of the alternatives to incandescent bulbs are LED lights, which are much more efficient than many other types of lighting.
Why are LED lights such a great alternative to traditional bulbs? Perhaps the biggest reason is they use far less electricity. Incandescent bulbs work by using electricity to heat the filament inside so much that it begins to glow. This means a lot of the energy brought into incandescent bulbs is lost as heat. In fact, incandescent bulbs only turn 10% of the electricity they use into light. The other 90% becomes heat. This isn’t the case for LED lights, meaning less electricity is needed to produce a comparable amount of light. Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) bulbs use electricity differently than incandescent ones and consume less of it. However, LED lights are still more efficient. Using less electricity means you save you money on your power bill and that less electricity must be produced to keep your home well-lit.
Another advantage of LED lights is that they don’t require any heat-up time—they’re fully lit when you hit the switch. This is in contrast

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Retrieved Text: Published 04/25/2019 08:35:42 am at 04/25/2019 08:35:42 am in What Are Lumens In Light Bulbs.
what are lumens in light bulbs philips 55w es classic led light bulb frosted what are lumens lumens chart definition light bulb facts at the differences between light bulbs.
ge lighting watt lumen a way ge lighting watt lumen a way light bulb soft white pack incandescent bulbs amazoncom, the best outdoor light bulbs to buy in courtesy of amazon, e led bulbs light bulbs the home depot watt equivalent b dimmable energy star clear filament vintage style led light bulb daylight, luno a dimmable led bulb w w equivalent lumens w d, learn about led lights energy star incandescent bulbs produce light using electricity to heat a metal filament until it becomes white hot or is said to incandesce, lightbulb efficiency comparison chart and analysis lightbulb efficiency comparison chart, five tips for choosing the right light bulb which five tips for choosing the right light bulb, lumens vs watts lumen coalition the , best grow light bulbs compare buy save heavycom apollo hps grow light bulb, ledare led bulb e lumen ikea ledare led bulb e lumen, light our world in data price of light by energy source from until today.

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Retrieved Text: Enjoy all the benefits of advanced LED energy-saving technology with the Feit Electric R40/2650/865/LED BR40 LED Light Bulb. This 65000K daylight bulb is non-dimmable and will replace a 300-watt equivalent incandescent bulb. It produces a similar light output (2650 lumens), uses 23 watts of electricity and up to 92% less energy than a standard incandescent light bulb. Get instant on to full brightness with relatively cool running performance. Feit Electric BR40 light bulbs have an average life of 25,000 hours, are RoHS compliant and are 100% mercury free. Choose a dependable pool and spa bulb for residential or commercial applications.

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Retrieved Text: Will minor changes to your home’s lighting make a noticeable change on your utility bills? Absolutely!
Little changes make a BIG impact.
An ENERGY STAR-qualified compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL) will save about $30 over its lifetime, and pays for itself in about 6 months. Compared to an incandescent bulb, it uses 75% less energy and lasts about 10 times longer.
Nationwide, artificial lighting consumes about 10% of a household’s electricity use. Use of new lighting technologies can reduce lighting energy use in homes by up to 70%. Upgrading just 15 of the inefficient incandescent light bulbs in your home could save you up to $50 per year.
During your Home Energy Assessment, your Energy Monster Advisor will determine what types of energy efficient lighting will make the greatest impact on lowering your utility bills.
Use of new lighting technologies can reduce lighting energy use in homes by 50 – 75%.
Electricity for lighting costs households about $100 every year and generates around 20,000 black balloons of greenhouse gas. Reduce that by half now!

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Retrieved Text: Typically 30% of your domestic electricity bill is spent on lighting your home.
The use of energy saving light bulbs can help to reduce the typical domestic electricity bill by producing the same amount of light as a standard light bulb but by using a fraction of the electricity. This new technology means that energy saving light bulbs can outlive standard light bulbs by 8 times!
A consideration that one must take into account, however, is that energy saving light bulbs do not work with standard electronic sensors, timers or dimmers, though there are special units available that can work with these bulbs.
Standard incandescent light bulbs (your standard domestic light bulb) are generally pear shaped and burn electricity to heat a filament until it glows white and produces a bright light. Approximately 90% of the electricity used to power regular light bulbs is lost to heat and you can expect the burn time to be 800 – 1000 hours before expiration.
These types of bulbs contain a small pocket filled with a halogen gas, which emits a bright white light. They emit a greater degree of light than standard light bulbs of a similar wattage and use less electricity. In addition, they have a longer burn time of 2000 – 3000 hours in total.
Older halogen units ran at low voltage and required a transformer and their output was limited to around 20W – mains voltage halogen bulbs are now available which do not require a transformer and have better outputs.
These bulbs are the long, thin tubes that can often

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Retrieved Text: City pengcheng decoration company electrician and Master Li said: "members of the public in selecting the lamp usually take into account the brightness problem, LED light brightness is generally higher than that of energy-saving lamps more than twice times, second in incandescent lamps, energy saving lamps is in last place. Through calculation, consumed 0.03652 kWh an hour incandescent bulbs are consumed 0.00814 kWh an hour; LED lights for one hour costs 0.00704 kWh. "Ordinary families usually light 5-6 hours a day if lights on 6 hours a day, 0.6 Yuan per kWh calculation, a 40W incandescent light bulb costs of electricity a year to 47.98 Yuan, and 10W CFL costs of electricity a year to 10.69 Yuan, 5W LED lamp costs of electricity a year to 9.25 Yuan. It is clear that using incandescent light bulbs are the least economic, LED light is expensive than CFLs, but electricity is cheaper.
The urban lighting market, the writer met Mr King to buy LED lamps for the public, he told reporters, before home with energy-saving light, but it feels like energy-saving lamp life is short, often broke in less than a year, so I want to switch to LED lights. But Mr King which LED lights a bit confused what to buy: "too many brands don't know what good, other prices. "The reporter visited the markets also found that, at present LED lights brand variety, the seller said it was from Guangdong and other manufacturers into goods, sold very well on the ground, the quality is no problem. Confuse

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Retrieved Text: A light source consisting of a long glass tube containing mercury in a partial vacuum. Available in many lengths and several diameters, the tube is lined with a fluorescent phosphor. When the mercury is excited by electricity, it emits ultraviolet (UV) light, which causes the phosphor to emit visible light. Fluorescent lamps have been widely used in commercial buildings for decades, because they use considerably less power and last much longer than incandescent lighting. However, due to their tubular design and cooler color temperatures, they have not been generally welcome in the home.
Compact fluorescents are designed to replace the standard incandescent bulb and screw into everyday table lamps and lighting fixtures. They are available in soft, warm hues like incandescent bulbs. See fluorescence, incandescent bulb, halogen bulb, LED bulb and color temperature.
Instead of straight tubes, coiled and U-shaped CFL tubes screw into the standard Edison base in incandescent lamps and fixtures. See Edison base.
Introduced in 1930, the bulb produces light by passing an electrical current through a gas-filled tube. Available in either warm or cool light, with long bulbs that fit into a ballast, which can be mounted onto a ceiling or under cabinets.
Energy Star also reports that at an average price of $2 to $3 per CFL, the typical payback is about seven months.
Supported by increase in customer base, revival of the economy and addition of new high margin clients, CFL witnessed improvement in operating revenue and operating margins in 2009-10.
The page also contains new training tools developed by CPPD for CFLs, such as body

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Retrieved Text: a. LED light is equiped by LED as light source. Full name of LED is light emitting diode, which is an electronic device that lights up when electricity is passed through it.
b. Energy saving: Efficiency is 80-100lm/w now, which is over 8 times higher than efficiency of incandescent bulbs.
c. Eco-friendly: LED does not contain any leads, mercury, argon, xenon or krypton gases. Fluorescent bulb contains mercury.
What is CCT (color temperature)?
LED Lighting offer lamps in warm, natural, pure and cool white with color temperatures measured in Kelvin (K). The lower the color temperature is the warmer light.

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Retrieved Text: Home » Electrical » How many apps does it take to change a light bulb?
How many apps does it take to change a light bulb?
Two green-thinking innovators have created smartphone software that won the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) top award for Apps for the Environment. The app, called Light Bulb Finder, can tell you in an instant the correct wattage to use when replacing those inefficient incandescent bulbs with LED or compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL) models.
Kudos go to Andrea Nylund and Adam Borut of Eco Hatchery, a think tank that creates solutions for green homes where owners want to conserve water and energy and cut their utility bills. Light Bulb Finder is a free smartphone app that not only suggests the correct energy-saving replacement bulb, but tells users about programs in their state that offer rebates or assistance in energy conservation.
According to Matthew Loveless of the Department of Energy, the winning app uses data from the EPA on carbon emissions, the Energy Information Administration on electricity costs and ENERGY STAR light bulb statistics to recommend the best solution for your replacements.
Installing a CFL bulb in place of a traditional incandescent bulb can save consumers about $10 in energy costs the first year, according to Loveless. You can multiply the savings against the total number of bulbs you replace and see how much sense it makes to change.
Here is where you can download the app for an Apple or Android.
Joe Romm of Climate Progress lists the Light Bulb Finder app at the top of his list

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Retrieved Text: Enjoy all the benefits of advanced LED energy-saving technology with the Feit Electric BR3065/827/FILED/2 65W glass dimmable LED Light Bulb. This traditional glass bulb produces 2700K soft white light, and will replace a 65-watt equivalent incandescent bulb. It produces a similar light output (650 lumens) and uses 9 watts of electricity. Get instant on to full brightness with relatively cool running performance. These Feit Electric BR30 bulbs have an average life of 15,000 hours / 13 years and look just like a traditional incandescent bulb. Choose a dependable LED track and recessed lighting bulb for all your residential or commercial applications.

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Retrieved Text: Light your home using the same amount of light for less money. Upgrading 15 of the inefficient incandescent lightbulbs in your home could save you about $50 per year. New lighting standards take effect in 2012, and money-saving options such as energy-saving incandescent, CFL, and LED lightbulbs are available today. For high-quality products with the greatest energy savings, choose bulbs that have earned the ENERGY STAR.
New Lightbulbs: What’s the Difference?
Traditional incandescent bulbs use a lot of energy to produce light.
Newer energy-saving lightbulbs provide the choices in colors and light levels you’ve come to expect. The new lights are also much more efficient — so they save you money.
Energy-saving, or halogen, incandescents have a capsule inside that holds gas around a filament to increase bulb efficiency. This type of incandescent bulb is about 25% more efficient and can last up to three times longer than traditional incandescent bulbs. They are available in a wide range of shapes and colors, and can be used with dimmers.
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are simply curly versions of the long tube fluorescent lights you may already have in a kitchen or garage. Because they use less electricity than traditional incandescents, typical CFLs can pay for themselves in less than nine months, and then start saving you money each month. An ENERGY STAR-qualified CFL uses about one-fourth the energy and lasts ten times longer than a comparable incandescent bulb that puts out the same amount of light.
Fluorescent bulbs contain a small amount of mercury, and they should always be recycled at the end

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Retrieved Text: Mar 12, 2017: When you are looking for an ideal LED light bulb for your home or office, it is important to first know what actually your requirement is, then look for one that provides the right light and the right colour that you need. You may like to find a replacement for the common 60-watt incandescent bulb. When looking for an LED light bulb, it is important to consider how the light emits from the LED bulb, the base of the bulb and its dimension. An important aspect about LED bulbs is that it lasts for a much longer period than a conventional bulb or an CFL. Also, it does not contain mercury, so it is not harmful; you do not have to take care to dispose them off at a safe place due to its hazardous material.
The first thing you should consider is how to save electricity and cut down on your electricity bill. A light is brighter if it has more lumen, and LED light bulbs provide many lumens for few watts as compared to incandescent bulbs. So, you need to find a bulb that has low wattage but high lumens as it will save on your electricity bill.
On an average, a 12 watts LED bulb can give the same amount of light as a 60 watt incandescent bulb. This means you save a lot on electricity and hence on your electricity bill.
The second feature that you should look for in an LED bulb is one that offers a long lifespan. Most LED

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======= Instance Index 6720 =========
Input Text: You are presented with the question "When a hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, that hemisphere does what in the sunlight?" and the following answer choices: 
- by indirect light
 - flow of electrons
 - grows papaya trees
 - enormous damage to homes
 - evaporation
 - reflecting light
 - observe it
 - It gets heated up

Now knowing that when a hemisphere is tilted towards the sun , that hemisphere receives more direct sunlight and papaya trees grow in the direct sunlight, choose the best answer.

Target Text: grows papaya trees

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Retrieved Text: When it is Winter in the Southern Hemisphere, what season is it in the Northern Hemisphere?
When it is Spring in the Northern Hemisphere, what season is it in the Southern Hemisphere?
When it is Fall in the Southern Hemisphere, what season is it in the Northern Hemisphere?
Does our axis move back and forth?
No - the revolution around the Sun is how our Earth faces different angles.
Our Earth is farthest from the Sun in July. Why is it warmer?
The Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.

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Retrieved Text: Summer solstice is Thursday. This is what it is.
Summer solstice: What is it and why does it happen?
Long, hot summer days have nothing to do with being closer to the sun. What is heating up Cincinnati, then? And what's going on Thursday?
The days have been getting longer as summer draws nearer, and Thursday is scientifically due to be the longest day of the year, known as the summer solstice. But why are summer days longer, anyway?
To answer this, we need to start with a simpler question: Why has it been so darn hot lately?
And no, it's not because we are closer to the sun in the summer. Rookie mistake.
Actually, the earth is farthest from the sun in July. Our distance from the sun, in general, is so great that the slight shifts towards and away from the sun during orbit doesn't really affect our weather at all, according to NASA.
Instead of sun proximity, the seasons depend on the earth's spin axis, said Miami University associate professor of astronomy and physics Stephen Alexander.
Our earth is tilted at a 23.5-degree angle. This means that at any given time, different parts of the earth are receiving different amounts of direct sunlight, depending on where earth is in its orbit around the sun. More direct sunlight means more energy, and thus more heat.
Alexander said that in a summer in Ohio, the north pole is pointing towards the sun and the south pole is tipped away. This creates a higher arc during the summer months, making our days longer and hotter.
This

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Retrieved Text: Now reading: PI kids are asking: What’s up with seasons?
It might be tempting to think that the seasons are caused by the Earth’s changing distance from the sun: that in summertime, the air feels warmer because we’re closer to the sun, and that the coldness of winter is because we are farther from the sun’s toasty rays. This seems to make sense at first, but it turns out to be a common misconception. It is true that the Earth’s orbit is slightly elliptical – that is, it doesn’t go around the sun in a perfect circle. If you’re from Canada, it might surprise you to find out that the Earth is closest to the sun (a point called “perihelion”) in January and farthest from the sun (“aphelion”) in July!
That brings us to the second part of your question, which provides an important clue about why the distance from the sun is not the reason for the seasons. Canada’s winter months, December through March, are Australia’s warmest ones. If the seasons were caused by the Earth being closer to the sun in the summer, you would expect both hemispheres to share the same seasons.
The key to understanding the seasons lies with one peculiar fact about the way the Earth orbits the sun: the axis that the Earth spins about (one turn equals one day) is actually tilted slightly – about 23.5 degrees. So the north and south poles don’t point quite straight up and down. This means that as the Earth moves around the sun, different parts

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Retrieved Text: Home > Haith's Wildlife Blog > First day of autumn: The autumn equinox falls in the northern hemisphere on 23 September.
First day of autumn: The autumn equinox falls in the northern hemisphere on 23 September.
What triggers autumn and where does the sun go between now and spring? (And what does that all mean for wildlife?).
The equinox is apparently triggered when the Earth’s axis isn’t tilted towards or away from the Sun. As for where the sun goes, the answer to that is a little like reading a good book; endings are almost always connected to beginnings – in other words, our (the northern hemisphere’s) loss of the sun’s summer rays is the gain of the southern hemisphere as September signals the beginning of spring.
For the UK, we lose daylight hours and we experience cooler weather, but we rarely, thankfully, feel the extremes of the equinox; however, what does the equinox mean for inhabitants of the two geographical extremes: the North & South Pole?
South Pole inhabitants are likely to be happier than those in the North Pole as they’re going to soon be celebrating the first appearance of the sun for six months. Whereas North Pole inhabitants are about to wave goodbye to the sun as they prepare for six months of darkness. You can now see why birds head south for winter. What does all of that mean for resident wildlife?
Days with less daylight shorten the foraging window for wildlife - there’s less time to source and secure a supply of good food. Any food is

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Retrieved Text: 9 categories match your search criteria.
Which group of hamburgers is equal to the number of hot dogs?
Count the suns. Which shows 1 more?
Which set of backpacks is less than the number of boats?
Are there fewer suns or trees?
What season will the Northern Hemisphere experience when Earth is tilted towards the Sun?
When the Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the Sun, what season will it be in that hemisphere?
Write the name of the season on the line.
An INDIAN SUMMER is the hottest days of summer.
The number of grills shown is a prime number.
I saw 13 starfish and 6 shells on the beach. How many starfish and shells did I see altogether?
Which is on the left?

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Retrieved Text: Summer is the season that comes after spring and before fall. In many places, summer is the warmest time of the whole year. During summer, sunrise happens earlier and sunset happens later, which gives us more hours of daylight. The longest day of the year, called the Summer Solstice (say: SOLE-stiss), happens in June. This year the Summer Solstice is on June 20 — that means that June 20 is the longest day of the whole year!
You might know that it takes one year for the earth to move around the sun one time. As the earth moves around the sun, it is tilted slightly to one side, similar to how a globe looks with the north pole slightly off center. Have you heard of the equator? It is an imaginary line around the middle of the earth that divides earth into two halves, a northern half and a southern half. In summer, the earth is tilted so that the Northern Hemisphere (including the United States Canada, and parts of Europe) gets the most sun.
While it’s summer for us, those living in the Southern Hemisphere (including South America and Australia) are experiencing the cold weather of winter. The sun shines directly on the equator all year, so how warm or cold your seasons are depends on how far away you live from the equator. If you live close to the equator, you probably don’t experience very big changes in temperature when the seasons change.
The sun gives us warmth and light. In the Northern Hemisphere, there are

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Retrieved Text: You cannot feel or hear the world turning. It does not rumble through space. But you can see it turn with your own eyes every day and night. And, with patience, you can see Earth travel around the Sun.
As the globe turns and night falls, stars appear to travel from east to west across the night sky. Or do they?
How stars move across the sky is a touch more complicated than you may first imagine. And the motion of the stars tells us about our place on the world and our travels around the Sun.
We live on a spinning globe, and as we turn different swathes of the universe come into view. However, what you see depends on where you are.
Almost directly above the North Pole is the star Polaris. As the world turns on its axis, Polaris remains above the North Pole. If you had the misfortune of being at the North Pole in midwinter, Polaris would be a constant companion overhead.
Imagine an alien looking down from Polaris at Earth. What would they see? They would see Earth’s Northern Hemisphere, spinning anticlockwise around the North Pole. A Polarisian would never see Earth’s Southern Hemisphere, with its red Australian deserts and frozen Antarctic wastes.
Who can see Polaris from Earth? People across the Northern Hemisphere can see Polaris, and it never rises nor sets.
However, while Polaris is high in the sky when viewed from inside the Arctic circle, as you move towards the Equator, Polaris gets closer and closer to the northern horizon. If you travel into

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Retrieved Text: The winter season is usually the coldest season in the year. It is a season that comes after the autumn season and just before spring season.
This season comes with its own celebration as it collides with popular holidays like Christmas in some parts of the world.
There are also numerous places that people can visit during winter to participate in snow activities. The winter season however does not happen in all parts of the world as the tropical zone does not experience the season.
What happens in the winter season?
There are numerous changes that occur during winter. One of this is that some animals migrate.When winter season approaches, some animals move to warmer places and come back after the season comes to an end.
It is also in winter that some animals hibernate. This is due to lack of food sources. Animals hence go into this state to conserve the little amounts of foods.
Also in winter, some plants may die. This is due to the extremely low temperatures.
During the winter season, people tend to wear warm clothes. This includes heavy jackets, sweaters, scarves, heavy socks and boots. This is to protect them from the cold.
There are also some sporting activities that people take part in during winter. This includes ice skating, snowboarding, sledding, skiing, etc.
During winter, some people also decide to visit tropical countries to escape from the cold. This usually comes as a form of vacation to most families.
Northern hemisphere refers to the part of the world that is above the equator while the Southern hemisphere refers to

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Retrieved Text: The earth’s axis is tilted about 23.5 degrees, so the Earth is never straight up and down compared to the Sun. When it is summer in Northern Hemisphere, that is because the North Pole and the rest of the Northern Hemisphere are pointing toward the Sun. The Sun appears to stay in the sky longer each day (really, we are just pointed toward the Sun for longer each day). Because we spend more time in the sunshine and less in the shadow of night, our part of the Earth gets warmer, and we experience summer.
During the summer, the Sun is high in the sky. Therefore, rays of light from the Sun hit us more directly during summer, making the sunlight more intense and warmer. In winter, the Sun is low in the sky. The rays of light are spread more thinly, and they do not warm us as much.
In Winter, the Northern Hemisphere points away from the Sun. It spends more time in darkness (has longer nights) and the sun’s rays are not as concentrated.
In Spring and Fall, the days are nearly equal in length for both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
In Summer, the Northern Hemisphere spends more time pointed toward the Sun, and the sun’s rays are more concentrated and warmer.
Throughout the seasons, Earth is almost the same distance from the Sun: 93 million miles. It is closest to the Sun on about January 3rd (the middle of our winter!) and farthest from the Sun on about July 3.
Don’t be confused by the perspective of

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Retrieved Text: The Sun is at a standstill right now. Oh, it’s still orbiting the center of the galaxy at an impressive clip — about half a million miles per hour. And it’s still moving across the sky as Earth turns on its axis. But the points along the horizon at which the Sun rises and sets aren’t changing.
The reason is that today is the summer solstice. It’s a point in Earth’s orbit that marks the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere.
We have seasons because Earth is tilted on its axis. At the June solstice, the north pole tilts toward the Sun, bringing more sunlight to the northern hemisphere. Six months later, at the December solstice, the south pole tilts sunward, giving the northern half of the globe shorter days and longer nights.
Between the solstices, the Sun moves north and south in the sky. As a result, its rising and setting points move north and south as well. At some times of year, if you have a good way to mark these points, you can see the difference from day to day.
But the Sun appears to “stand still” along the horizon for a few days either side of the solstice. In fact, solstice means “Sun stands still.” At the June solstice, the Sun is farthest north for the year, so it rises and sets to the north of due west. Just how far north depends on your latitude.
Incidentally, the summer solstice is also the longest day of the year, so there’s

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Retrieved Text: 1 If you are like most people living on Earth, you experience four different seasons throughout the year. What each season means to you depends on where you live. To you, winter might mean building snowmen or going ice skating. It could also mean temperatures around sixty degrees. Spring may mean sunshine and melting snow. It might also mean clouds and thunderstorms. For many, summer begins in the month of June. However, in some parts of the world, summer begins in December!
2 Why do we have four seasons here on Earth? Why do the four seasons mean different things in different parts of the world? There is more to understanding the seasons than you might think. You need to know about astronomy and geography. To really understand the seasons, you have to look at Earth from space. You need to understand how the Earth is arranged in space, how it spins, and how it orbits around the sun. All of these things are important in understanding why Earth has four seasons. If you look at the Earth from space, you will see that it is tilted. Earth's axis is not vertical. The North Pole is not at the top of the Earth. The Earth's axis is tilted approximately 23.5 degrees. This tilt is what creates the four seasons. As the Earth moves around the sun during the year, the direction in which the axis is pointing changes. Sometimes the North Pole is tilted toward the sun. Sometimes it is tilted away from the sun.
3 The equator

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Retrieved Text: Climate Analysis & Controls - eco systems design, inc.
The solar collector space in a solar heated and cooled greenhouse is the building enclosure, which must have transparent surfaces through which to collect sunlight, and it must have insulating surfaces where sunlight is not being collected, to help minimize the loss of the heat energy stored.
The transparent glazing must be oriented on the compass to collect solar heat as well as possible, so it is always facing as closely as possible to due south in the northern hemisphere, due north in the southern hemisphere.
In winter, when it is desirable to gather as much sunlight as possible, our location on the Earth is tilted away from the sun, causing the sun to enter at a lower angle, to shine on the inside walls, helping to store more heat. In summer, when it is desirable to minimize the solar heat gathered inside, the sun is at a higher angle, so it shines more on the floor and less on the walls, minimizing the collecting area. The sun’s exposure can be further minimized in summer, by the use of roof overhangs or shading devices over the glazing, and by creating trellises for vines to occupy, shading areas of the greenhouse where we want to create cooler zones.
Which strategy do you need for the crops you want to grow, inside the natural climate where you live?
Habistat: a simple controller for all the equipment used to regulate temperature in a greenhouse.

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Retrieved Text: Professor Astronomy's Astronomy Blog: It's summer!
Wrong: Earth's distance from the sun causes the seasons. Most people think that the Earth is closer to the sun in the summer and further away in the winter, and this changing distance is what causes the seasons. It is true that the distance between the sun and the Earth changes, and that distance changes from to 91.3 million miles to 94.4 million miles. But the Earth is closest to the sun in early January, and furthest from the sun in July, almost exactly backwards from what most people in the Northern Hemisphere think! Also, remember that the northern and southern hemispheres of the Earth have opposite seasons, which would not be true if the Earth-Sun distance were responsible for Earth's seasons.
In short, the Earth-Sun distance does not cause the seasons.
Correct answer: Earth's tilt causes the seasons. The Earth is not straight up and down with respect to the sun. (Stated more scientifically, Earth's rotation axis is inclined, or tilted, with respect to its orbit). Our north pole is pointed in a direction toward Polaris, the North Star. And it always points in that direction. As the Earth orbits the sun, sometimes that direction is toward the sun, and sometimes it is away from the sun. On the summer solstice (today!), the Earth's North Pole is pointed as close to the sun as it can get. On the winter solstice (around December 22), the North Pole is pointed as far away from the sun as it can get.
So, why does this

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Retrieved Text: For a listing of the dates and times of solstices and equinoxes through 2025, page down.
There are only two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, resulting in a "nearly" equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. These events are referred to as Equinoxes.The word equinox is derived from two Latin words - aequus (equal) and nox (night). At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on these two equinoxes. The "nearly" equal hours of day and night is due to refraction of sunlight or a bending of the light's rays that causes the sun to appear above the horizon when the actual position of the sun is below the horizon. Additionally, the days become a little longer at the higher latitudes (those at a distance from the equator) because it takes the sun longer to rise and set. Therefore, on the equinox and for several days before and after the equinox, the length of day will range from about 12 hours and six and one-half minutes at the equator, to 12 hours and 8 minutes at 30 degrees latitude, to 12 hours and 16 minutes at 60 degrees latitude.
The summer solstice occurs at the moment the earth's tilt toward from the sun is at a maximum. Therefore, on the day of the summer solstice, the sun appears at its highest elevation with a noontime position that changes very little for several days before and after the summer solstice. The summer solstice

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Retrieved Text: Recently a friend of mine visited the country of Bali in Africa. She claims that because that country is south of the equator, the Moon, instead of having a crescent shape during certain phases, will actually have a "boat" shape. Is she pulling my leg ?? Isn't the crescent shape seen the whole world over??
Kristine: Your friend is right; the orientation of the crescent moon depends on the latitude of the person observing it (the size of the crescent, however, is the same wherever you are). Think about a crescent moon as seen from the Northern hemisphere, and the same Moon as seen from the Southern hemisphere; if we take the people in the Northern hemisphere as "right-side up", then those in the southern hemisphere are "upside-down", since the Earth is spherical. Since the existence of the crescent Moon depends only on the relative locations of the Moon, Earth and Sun (and not on one's location on the Earth), the Moon seen in the Southern hemisphere is upside down when compared to that seen in the Northern hemisphere. This means that if the concave part of the crescent points "left" in North, it will point "right" in the South. Since the transition from a "left" pointing crescent to a "right" pointing one must be smooth, we require that the Moon be a "boat" instead of a crescent at the equator.
Sabrina: The appearance of the crescent moon will also change depending on the season for an observer staying at a single location on the Earth. We know

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Retrieved Text: The seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis away or toward the sun as it travels through its year-long path around the sun.
The Earth has a tilt of 23.5 degrees relative to the "ecliptic plane" (the imaginary surface formed by it's almost-cicular path around the sun). The tilt toward the sun is maximized during Northern Hemisphere summer in late June (the "summer solstice"). At this time, the amount of sunlight reaching the Northern Hemisphere is at a maximum.
In late December, on the date of the "winter solstice", the Earth's tilt away from the sun is maximized, leading to a minimum of sunlight reaching the Northern Hemisphere. The seasons, of course, are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.
During the winter, cold air masses build up over North America, Europe, and Asia, due to the low intensity of sunlight. The oceanic air masses are much less affected by the seasons because circulations in the upper ocean replenish warm surface water if it has been cooled.
The strong temperature contrast between the cold air masses over land and the relatively warmer air masses over the ocean lead to extratropical (non-tropical) cyclone formation (low pressure). These storms are thus much more frequent and intense in the winter than in the summer.
The sun is actually closest to the Earth during Northern Hemisphere winter (not summer). Thus, the amount of sunlight averaged over the whole Earth, is as much as 7% more intense in the winter than the summer. Despite this fact, the global-average surface temperature is warmer in Northern

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Retrieved Text: What effect does Earth's orbit have on climate change? Is the Earth in a warming or cooling orbital phase? All your questions answered.
May 25, 2012, 8:49 p.m.
Climate science is complicated business, and understanding the extent to which climate change is man-made also requires an understanding of Earth's powerful natural cycles. One of those natural cycles involves Earth's orbit and its complicated dance with the sun.
The first thing you need to know about Earth's orbit and its effect on climate change is that orbital phases occur over tens of thousands of years, so the only climate trends that orbital patterns might help explain are long-term ones.
Even so, looking at Earth's orbital cycles can still offer some invaluable perspective on what is happening in the short term. Most notably, you might be surprised to learn that Earth's current warming trend is happening in spite of a relatively cool orbital phase. It's therefore possible to better appreciate the high degree that anthropogenic warming must be taking place in contrast.
Many people might be surprised to learn that Earth's orbit around the sun is much more complicated than the simple diagrams studied in childhood science classrooms. For instance, there are at least three major ways that Earth's orbit varies over the course of millennia: its eccentricity, its obliquity and its precession. Where the Earth is within each of these cycles has a significant effect on the amount of solar radiation — and thus, warmth — that the planet gets exposed to.
Unlike what is portrayed in many diagrams of the solar system,

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Retrieved Text: The June solstice is the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.
The date varies between June 20 and June 22, depending on the year, and the local time zone.
A solstice happens when the sun's zenith is at its furthest point from the equator. On the June solstice, it reaches its northernmost point and the Earth’s North Pole tilts directly towards the sun, at about 23.4 degrees.
It's also known as the northern solstice because it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere.
“Solstice” (Latin: “solstitium”) means sun-stopping. The point on the horizon where the sun appears to rise and set, stops and reverses direction after this day. On the solstice, the sun does not rise precisely in the east, but rises to the north of east and sets to the north of west, meaning it's visible in the sky for a longer period of time.
Although the June solstice marks the first day of astronomical summer, it's more common to use meteorological definitions of seasons, making the solstice midsummer or midwinter.
Stonehenge in England may have been constructed as a calendar.
One of the world's oldest evidence of the summer solstice's importance in culture is Stonehenge in England, a megalithic structure which clearly marks the moment of the June solstice.
Midnight Sun or Polar Night?
On the June solstice, the midnight sun is visible (weather permitting) throughout the night, in all areas from just south of the Arctic Circle to the North Pole.
On the other side of the

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Retrieved Text: click here for the Winter Acrostic poem!
watch Mr. R.'s Winter Song!
Winter is the coldest season and comes after fall and before spring.
Winter is characterized by having the longest nights and shortest days.
In the northern hemisphere (such as in the United States), winter comes in December and lasts through March, while in the Southern Hemisphere (such as in Argentina), winter is between June and August. This occurs because the two hemispheres of the Earth are tilted towards/away from the Sun at opposite times during the Earth's orbit.

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Retrieved Text: Pageants Before Christmas: The Winter Solstice Makes Time : 13.7: Cosmos And Culture Why do we celebrate Christmas just a few days after the winter solstice when almost no one thinks Jesus was born on December 25th?
Newgrange: A monument to the winter solstice.
Why do we celebrate Christmas just a few days after the winter solstice when almost no one thinks Jesus was born on December 25th? Is the astronomical connection with Christianity's high holy day a fluke or an ancient cynical political calculation. Or, more importantly, does it point us to a deeper truth now almost entirely lost in a world alienated from its own most intimate experience of the night sky?
Before we answer that question we must stop for a word from our solar system.
What, exactly is the winter solstice? The winter and summer solstices mark the poles of Earth's temporal cycle as it marches around the Sun. Our planet's spin axis is tilted 23 degrees relative to the line linking us with our Star (that line defines the plane of our orbit as we sweep around Sol). Since the spin axis direction remains fixed relative to the stars (i.e. it points for now towards Polaris, the "North Star"), the duration of daylight changes as the Earth moves around the Sun. In the northern hemisphere the Earth's axis is tilted towards the Sun in the summer and we have long days (more hours of sunlight). Likewise the axis is tilted away from the Sun in the northern hemisphere in the winter and we have short

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Retrieved Text: HomeArticlesWhat’s the Difference Between a Solstice and an Equinox?
What is a solstice? What is an equinox? And what’s the difference between them? Let’s clear a few things up!
From an astronomical perspective, an equinox is the instant of time when the plane of Earth’s equator passes through the center of the Sun. In other words, it is the moment at which the center of the Sun is directly above the equator.
Each year there is both a spring and autumn equinox. The spring equinox, otherwise known as the “vernal equinox,” occurs in March, either on March 20th, or the day before or after depending on the year. During the spring equinox, the sun moves northward over the equator, and the Northern Hemisphere begins to experience days that last longer than nights. This lasts until the autumn equinox.
During the autumn equinox, or “autumnal equinox,” the sun moves south over the equator, and this point tends to mark the onset of fall for the Northern Hemisphere. After this point, the nights become longer than the days. The autumnal equinox typically falls on or around September 22nd.
Like equinoxes, solstices occur twice a year. They are used to mark the points in time when the sun’s path is at its farthest point from the Equator. The Northern Hemisphere will typically experience the summer solstice on or around June 20th or 21st. The winter solstice occurs in late December between the 21st and 22nd.
Much like their names imply, the solstices are used to mark the transition from spring to summer and from autumn

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Retrieved Text: We have seen in earlier chapter that the sun heats up more when overhead. Similarly, the area of earth where the sun is overhead during the season, gets heated up more than other areas. Because of the axial tilt of the earth, there is an apparent movement of orbital plane in relation to the earth. We feel that the sun migrates from northern hemisphere to southern hemisphere and back in the period of a year. The midday sun is exactly overhead at all latitudes between tropics of Capricorn and cancer, at least once in a year. This area gets maximum heat and is called Torrid Zone.
The sun is never overhead in any place on earth beyond the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn and the angle of sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. At areas beyond Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle, the sun appears just above the horizon and these areas are very cold due to this. These areas are called Frigid Zones. The areas between Torrid Zone and Frigid Zone have a moderate temperature and are called Temperate Zones.
Because of the constant inclination of the earth’s axis in one direction, the Northern hemisphere faces the sun for about half of the year and faces away from the sun for next half of the year. The part which faces the sun gets more heat and light compared to the other part. Every point in this hemisphere remains in the sunlight for a longer period of time and hence we say that the days are longer

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Retrieved Text: On 5th July 2012 at 8.45 a.m. celestial event of “Earth in Aphelion” will occur involving Sun & Earth. Planet Earth will be at farthest point it can get to sun this year in its elliptical orbit around Sun at 1.017 AU (152 Million km approx) from Sun. Astronomically this is phenomena is known as “Aphelion”. Whereas on 5rd January 2012 Planet Earth it was at closest point (Perihelion) to Sun at 0.983 AU (147 million km).
Belief & Ignorance: Generally people think that its distance of Earth from Sun which determines if it is Hot or Cold temperatures. Whereas the truth is Tilt of Earth as it rotates on its axis at 23.4 Degrees is responsible for Seasons.
For example: In January Month when Earth was close to Sun in India the temperatures were cold. Whereas when Earth is far from Sun say in months of May to July compared to January it was Summer and now followed by winter. Hence facing of earth towards and away from Sun due to its tilt at 23.4 Degrees is responsible.
What is Aphelion & Perihelion?
Earth revolves around sun in a elliptical orbit. So at one point of time during its journey around sun it will be at closest point it can get (perihelion) and one point of time during the year it would be at farthest point (aphelion).
How Earth Axial Tilt 23.4 Degress contributes to be Reason for Changing Seasons ?
The Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5 degrees away from the plane of the ecliptic.
In other words at it rotates on

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Retrieved Text: The change between day and night is caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis. If the Earth did not rotate as it does, the day/night cycle would be very different or possibly even nonexistent. The changing lengths of days and nights depends on where you are on Earth and the time of year. Also, daylight hours are affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its path around the sun.
Length of a Rotation A solar day, 24 hours, is the time it takes for the Earth to rotate exactly once so that the sun appears at the same place in the sky the next day. However, the Earth is also moving around the sun, and this movement makes measuring the day somewhat complicated. The actual time of one Earth rotation is a little shorter – about 23 hours and 56 minutes. Astronomers discovered this by observing the time it took for a star to appear in the same place in the sky the following day, and they called this a sidereal day.
Longer and Shorter Days Although a solar day is 24 hours, not every day has 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night. Daytime is shorter in winter than in summer. This is because the Earth’s imaginary axis isn’t straight up and down, it is tilted 23.5 degrees. As the Earth moves around the sun during a year, the northern half of the Earth is tilted towards the sun in the summer, making daytime longer than night. In winter, this

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Retrieved Text: We all know that Monday, June 20th marks the first day of summer. This means that the temperature will get hotter, the days longer, and the nights shorter. Summer occurs because of the way the earth is tilted towards the sun and the first day of summer happens because of the summer solstice.
This solstice marks the beginning of summer and it is when the sun travels the furthest and longest in the sky. Therefore, in the Northern Hemisphere this day holds the most sunlight. On the other hand, in the Southern Hemisphere, June 20th is the shortest day of the year and called the winter solstice.
In ancient times, the solstice was used to organize calendars and determine when to harvest crops. So, many different cultures around the world celebrate the June solstice because it has a time-honored history. Feasts, Picnics, bonfires, face painting, dancing, and music are some of the many traditions and rituals that take place on this day.
People gather in Stonehenge near, Wiltshire England to watch the sun rise on the first day of summer. Archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was built from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. It is one of the world’s most famous monuments and its giant stones can be seen from miles away.
It is known that if you stand in the right place inside the Stonehenge monument, on June 20th, facing north-east you will be able to see the sun rise.
Summer is especially warm during June, July and August because the earth is directly below the Sun. This season exposes the

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Retrieved Text: Throughout geological time, the Earth’s climate has varied drastically, primarily driven by through energy transfer from the sun to the Earth’s surface. This position and the interaction between the Earth and the sun (orbital variation) has varied over the Earth’s 4.6 billion year history, controlling the climate.
What is the Milankovitch theory?
The Milankovitch theory is used to explain the impacts of the Earth’s movements on its climate. It was developed by Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković during the early 1900s. Using mathematical theory, he hypothesised that variations in the Earth’s orbit were the primary drivers of global climate patterns. These ‘orbital forcing’ mechanisms are centred on three parameters: eccentricity, obliquity, and precession (see below). These parameters interact with one another, each with a different periodicity (or cycle). The Milankovitch theory addresses the impacts of these three factors on the Earth’s climate.
Similar hypotheses were also developed much earlier, by James Croll and Joseph Adhémar during the 19th Century. However, at that time, geological dating methods were not sufficiently advanced to provide reliable dated evidence in support of the theory. In fact, despite the evidence presented by Milankovitch, it wasn’t until the publication of the pioneering work of Hays, Imbrie and Shackleton in 1976 that the Milankovitch theory attained widespread acceptance. Hays, Imbrie and Shackleton provided the first, high resolution, high precision record of long-term global environmental change using deep ocean cores. Their work, published in 1976, used oxygen isotope measurements from the tests (or shells) of deep sea organisms called foraminifera to track changes in global ice

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Retrieved Text: Spring Equinox. What makes today so special?
Today Wednesday 20th March, marks the spring equinox, the midway point between mid-winter and mid-summer.
If the axis of the earth was at 90° or perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, our planet would be very different.
Sunrise and sunset would occur at the same time every single day.
We would also have no seasons and there would be a huge impact on weather patterns around the globe.
The reason that that is not the case is because the earth is tilted by 23.5 degrees in relation to its plane of orbit. It’s that tilt which gives rise to the seasons.
In the northern hemisphere summer we’re tilted towards the sun and in winter away from it.
However the equinox is an important staging post on the annual orbit of the earth around the sun, particularly if you live at 54.5°N like we do in Ireland.
In Ireland on the winter solstice, 21 December 2018, there were seven hours and 15 minutes of daylight.
On the summer solstice this year, 24 June, the sun will rise at 04:48 (BST) and set at 22:04 (BST), giving Ireland 17 hours and 16 minutes of daylight.
By contrast in Singapore – which is is just 1°N of the equator – the shortest day was 12 hours and three minutes of daylight, and the longest just nine minutes more.
During an equinox the earth’s north and south poles are not tilted towards or away from the sun and the duration of daylight is theoretically the same at all points on the earth’s surface.
Hence

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Retrieved Text: On the evening of Thursday June 20, Mercury reaches its maximum elongation east of the sun, placing it directly below brilliant Venus in the evening twilight sky.
Don’t miss your chance to see Mercury in the night sky as the northern summer kicks off.
For the next few nights, Mercury will be a tiny speck just below Venus. It is closest to Venus on July 20, slightly less than two degrees away, but will also be very close one night earlier or later.
The best time to see Mercury is about half an hour after local sunset. Any earlier, and it will be lost in the sky's glare but much later and it will be too low to see. It is most easily spotted with binoculars, but once you've located it, the planet should be relatively easy to see with the naked eye.
The seasons are caused by Earth's tilt. In the Northern Hemisphere it is summer when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.
This week also marks the summer solstice, on Friday (June 21) at 1:04 a.m. EDT (0504 GMT). The sun will reach its most northern declination, marking the middle of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the middle of winter in the Southern Hemisphere.
Because the sun is as far north as it can get, it is above the horizon in the Northern Hemisphere as long as is possible. At local noon, it will be as high in the sky as it can get. These two factors combine to create the maximum solar heating possible in the

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Retrieved Text: AAAS Science Assessment ~ Ideas ~ The orientation of earth's axis of rotation with respect to the sun changes as the earth moves around the sun.
Key Idea: The orientation of earth's axis of rotation with respect to the sun changes as the earth moves around the sun.
The earth moves in a nearly circular path around the sun over the course of one year, approximately 365 days.
The earth’s axis of rotation is tilted about 23.5° relative to a line that is perpendicular to the plane formed by earth’s circular path around the sun.
As the earth moves around the sun and it rotates on its axis, its axis always points to the same place in the sky.
Since the earth’s axis is tilted relative to the plane of its path around the sun and the angle at which it is tilted does not change as the earth moves around the sun over the course of a year, the orientation of the earth with respect to the sun changes gradually and continually over the year.
Changes in the orientation of the earth with respect to the sun can be described by changes in the angle formed by a line between the north pole and the center of the earth and the line from the center of the sun to the center of the earth. This angle continually changes as the earth moves along its path around the sun. The angle is largest on the same day in late December each year, when the north pole is tilted away from the sun

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Retrieved Text: This diagram shows the position of the Earth, in relation to the Sun, at the time of the Summer Solstice, as well as the other solstice and equinoxes of the year. This year, June's Full Moon occurs on the day of the Summer Solstice in the Western Hemisphere.
This year, the beginning of Summer in the Northern Hemisphere is marked with a Full Moon. Both astronomical events occur on the same calendar date in the Western Hemisphere.
For 2016, the season of Summer begins in Earth's Northern Hemisphere (and the season of Winter begins in the Southern Hemisphere) at the moment of the June Solstice: Monday Evening, 2016 June 20 at 6:34 p.m. Eastern Daylight Saving Time (EDT) / 22:34 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The actual time of Full Moon occurs Monday morning at 7:02 a.m. EDT / 11:02 UTC, the time of the posting of this blog post. Although, technically, the Moon will be in the Waning Gibbous Phase at the moment of the Summer Solstice, it will, of course, look quite full.
A honey-hued-color Full Moon (particularly at extreme northern latitudes) in June, particularly around the time of the Summer Solstice, is considered the "Honey-Moon." This honey-hued effect is due to the Full Moon traveling low in the sky, very close to the southern horizon, throughout the night.
This may have led to the traditional term of "Honey-Moon," as weddings were traditionally held in June when the good weather days of Summer would begin. The term "Honey-Moon" can be traced as far back as 1552. At that time,

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Which type of plants convert from carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy into carbohydrates?" and the following answer choices: 
- heterotrophs
 - plants
 - tiny polyps
 - fed by others
 - consumers
 - Organic compounds
 - Green plants
 - peachleaf willow

Now knowing that photosynthesis means producers convert from carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy into carbohydrates for themselves and if the plant is green, it is a producer, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Green plants

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to renewable energy, biomass energy is one of the oldest types. Biomass energy uses organic materials such as plants and animal waste that is available readily. It is a very renewable and unique form of energy, thanks to the process by which it is made.
To make biomass energy, a few simple things are needed. These things include solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Biomass energy is mostly sourced from plants. My friend who is an Austin locksmith really is passionate about this topic.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants manufactured biomass energy. This is done when energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll then converted to carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. As the carbohydrates burn, the carbon dioxide and water are converted back and release energy into the atmosphere from the sun.
Trees are another source of biomass energy, working much the same way as other plants. Many times, this process is done by the conventional processes of burning wood as fuel. This can also be done through trimming and thinning of trees, though, as well as through operations such as park management and tree surgery. We can obtain biomass fuel from almost any type of tree that is considered a category of Virgin would, meaning it hasn’t been used for any other purpose. You can also specifically grow energy crops that can be used to obtain biomass fuel directly.
There are many reasons why you should consider using biomass as an energy source. Of course, the most obvious reason is because it is renewable. There

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: Scientists in Switzerland have split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen using a solar reactor. The technology uses a thermochemical process to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful fuels.
Splitting carbon dioxide and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas (syngas) is the first step to producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels for cars and aeroplanes. Current approaches for splitting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen suffer from low mass conversions, poor selectivity and low energy efficiencies.
The solar reactor has a 100mm inner diameter, a 75mm deep receiver with a 4cm diameter circular aperture sealed by a 4mm thick quartz window so it can access the concentrated solar radiation. The cavity contains an octagonal 25mm thick porous ceramic structure made of pure ceria. With this arrangement, the structure is directly exposed to high-flux irradiation, enabling volumetric absorption and uniform heating.
Now, a team led by Aldo Steinfeld at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, has made a 4kW solar reactor containing cerium oxide or ceria, a well-known redox material. The reactor can split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The technology uses a two-step cyclic process based on the reduction and oxidation reactions of ceria and a swing in temperature and pressure to control the oxygen exchange. In the first step, 3000-fold concentrated solar power heats the ceria to 1500°C under reduced pressure to generate oxygen. In the second step, carbon dioxide reoxidises the reduced ceria at 900°C to generate carbon monoxide. This redox cycle can also

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: Nuclear power plants produce electricity using uranium and other radioactive elements as fuel, which are unstable. In a process called nuclear fission, the atoms of these elements are broken apart, in the process ejecting neutrons and other atomic fragments together with large amounts of energy. Practical nuclear power dates back to the 1950s and has proved itself a reliable, economical source of energy, providing power not only for communities but also for space missions and ships at sea. In the 21st century, global warming has provided new reasons to exploit the advantages of nuclear power.
Although a nuclear power plant gets its energy from radioactive materials, many nuclear plants have similarities with fossil-fuel plants. Both a nuclear facility and a coal-fired one produce heat to boil water into steam. The high-pressure steam turns a turbine, which in turn powers an electrical generator. The steam, turbine and generator technology is nearly identical in each situation. Using time-tested steam and turbine technology improves the nuclear power plant’s reliability.
Power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, produce huge quantities of carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes significantly to global warming. By contrast, nuclear power plants make heat without burning anything. The radioactive materials produce no carbon dioxide, making nuclear power plants serious alternatives for generating electricity.
Unlike traditional power plants that burn fossil fuels, nuclear plants consume no oxygen and give off no carbon dioxide. They run for long periods on a relatively small amount of fuel. This makes them ideal for powering submarines, which can operate

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: New Delhi : After much practice, scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago have created artificial leaves that can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide to fuel ten times more efficiently than natural plants. Artificial leaves mimic the process whereby plants use water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates using energy from the Sun.
But, the state-of-the-art artificial leaves only work in the laboratory because these leaves need pure, pressurised carbon dioxide from tanks.
Researchers from the University of Illinois at Chicago in the US have suggested a design solution that could bring artificial leaves out of the laboratory and into the environment. The artificial leaf which would use carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas from the air, would be at least 10 times more efficient than natural leaves at converting carbon dioxide to fuel.
"So far, all designs for artificial leaves that have been tested in the lab use carbon dioxide from pressurised tanks," said Meenesh Singh, assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago."In order to implement successfully in the real world, these devices need to be able to draw carbon dioxide from much more dilute sources, such as air and flue gas, which is the gas given off by coal-burning power plants," said Singh, corresponding author of the study published in the journal ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.
Unlocking the pressurised carbon dioxide supply from these leaves means that they must have a way to collect and concentrate carbon dioxide from the air to drive their artificial photosynthetic reactions. Singh and Aditya Prajapati, a

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Retrieved Text: Plants capture and store solar energy through photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, living plants convert carbon dioxide in the air into sugar molecules they use for food. In the process of making their own food, plants also provide the oxygen we need to breathe. Thus, plants provide the energy and air required by most life forms on Earth. Plant productivity also plays a major role in the global carbon cycle by absorbing some of the carbon dioxide released when people burn coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. The carbon plants absorb becomes part of leaves, roots, stalks or tree trunks, and ultimately, the soil.
The maps above show one way to monitor the carbon “metabolism” of Earth’s vegetation. They show net primary productivity, which is how much carbon dioxide vegetation takes in during photosynthesis minus how much carbon dioxide the plants release during respiration (metabolizing sugars and starches for energy). The data come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. Values range from near 0 grams of carbon per square meter per day (tan) to 6.5 grams per square meter per day (dark green). A negative value means decomposition or respiration overpowered carbon absorption; more carbon was released to the atmosphere than the plants took in.
In mid-latitudes, productivity is obviously tied to seasonal change, with productivity peaking in each hemisphere’s summer. The boreal forests of Canada and Russia experience high productivity in June and July and then a slow decline through fall and winter. Year-round, tropical forests in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia

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Retrieved Text: Sorry plants, but you just got shown up.
Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have discovered how to harness solar power to turn carbon dioxide into fuel. That’s exactly what plants do every day with photosynthesis, but this newly discovered process does the job even better than nature does.
“It is possible to take sunlight, CO2, and water, and in an artificial system make hydrocarbons with an efficiency that’s greater than that of photosynthesis,” Joel Ager, lead author of the study, tells Inverse. Hydrocarbons are just any molecules made of hydrogen and carbon, and their ability to store energy has made them the main energy source for the planet.
If the system can break out of the lab, it could help fuel the world without relying on high-polluting and globally warming fossil fuels like oil and gas. And there’s plenty of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide around — indeed, far more of the latter these days than there should be.
As the researchers detail Wednesday in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, the researchers used a photovoltaic solar cell to split carbon dioxide in water, producing the desired hydrocarbon fuel molecules like ethanol, as well as oxygen-based molecules.
This is the first time scientists have managed to go straight from carbon dioxide to a finished, basically ready-to-use fuel, without having to do any more costly chemical manipulation. Improvements in the solar cell technology powering the experiment also let the researchers convert the energy at levels plants could only imagine.
A drawing of how the solar-powered fuel system works to convert C02 using

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Retrieved Text: This science experiment works because plants are able to convert light into energy. A plant takes in water and carbon dioxide through their roots and leaves, which is needed to form glucose, a sugar that living organisms break down to produce energy. Using energy from the sun, plants rearrange water and carbon dioxide to form sugar. This process whereby light is converted into food, is called ‘photosynthesis’.

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: Carl Bernacchi's primary employer is the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the the United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA). He has funding from the USDA ARS and from Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that is engineering crops to photosynthesize more efficiently to sustainably increase worldwide food productivity with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR), and the U.K. Government’s Department for International Development (DFID).
Ivan Baxter works for the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and has received funding from the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, The USDA-ARS and Cotton Inc.
Researchers around the world are trying to figure out ways to feed a growing population, which is estimated to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050. But as humanity struggles to increase crop yield, might nutritional quality of crops suffer?
The process that allows plants to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air into stored sugars and fats – carbohydrates – that ultimately lead to growth is called photosynthesis. These carbohydrates end up in what farmers harvest. Plants also absorb minerals from the soil, which are critical for them to survive. These minerals also end up in the food farmers harvest. Therefore, plants are critical to human health both in terms of calories from carbohydrates and minerals in our diets.
For several decades, studies have consistently revealed that higher carbon dioxide levels produce higher yields of most crops. However, there are very few real-world, field experiments on major crops that examine the impact

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: June 2, 2005 By Mark Peplow This article courtesy of Nature News.
Fuel born from carbohydrates could be clean and easy.
The diesel fuel in your car could one day come from plants rather than oil wells, according to chemists who have converted plant chemicals into useful hydrocarbons.
Biomass fuels are often touted as a green alternative to oil. Although the carbon dioxide they produce when burnt is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, in theory it should be sucked up by the following year's crop as it grows.
The easiest way to extract energy from plants is simply to burn them, and convert the heat to electricity. Although this is good for stationary power plants, it isn't ideal for cars. Electric cars have to be recharged frequently, which may make them unsuitable for long journeys.
A better idea is to convert plant material into fuel that vehicles can use directly. This has been done with the fatty acids in vegetable oils, which make up a small part of plant material. But now researchers have found a way to create fuel from the carbohydrates that make up about 75% of a plant's dried weight.
The result is a much more efficient use of plant material, report James Dumesic, a chemist from University of Wisconsin, Madison, and his colleagues in Science1.
The plant-derived hydrocarbons are just like conventional diesel, notes Jens Rostrup-Nielsen of Haldor Topsoe, a chemical technology company based in Lyngby, Denmark, so they can be distributed through existing infrastructure. This makes the fuel easier to use than hydrogen, for example,

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Retrieved Text: Spinach gave Popeye super strength, but it also holds the promise of a different power for a group of scientists: the ability to convert sunlight into a clean, efficient alternative fuel.
Purdue University physicists are part of an international group using spinach to study the proteins involved in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the sun's energy into carbohydrates used to power cellular processes.
"The proteins we study are part of the most efficient system ever built, capable of converting the energy from the sun into chemical energy with an unrivaled 60 percent efficiency," said Yulia Pushkar, a Purdue assistant professor of physics involved in the research. "Understanding this system is indispensible for alternative energy research aiming to create artificial photosynthesis."
During photosynthesis plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrogen-storing carbohydrates and oxygen. Artificial photosynthesis could allow for the conversion of solar energy into renewable, environmentally friendly hydrogen-based fuels.
In Pushkar's laboratory, students extract a protein complex called Photosystem II from spinach they buy at the supermarket. It is a complicated process performed over two days in a specially built room that keeps the spinach samples cold and shielded from light, she said.
Once the proteins have been carefully extracted, the team excites them with a laser and records changes in the electron configuration of their molecules.
"These proteins require light to work, so the laser acts as the sun in this experiment," Pushkar said. "Once the proteins start working, we use advanced techniques like electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray spectroscopy to observe how the electronic

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Retrieved Text: All organisms require a continuous supply of energy in order to stay alive. This energy can be obtained by the absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis, the absorption of chemical potential energy from large molecules or obtained by certain chemical reactions, which can be carried out by some specialised bacteria. Almost all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, either directly or indirectly. The process of photosynthesis is vital since it supplies organisms with both an energy supply and useful carbon compounds. Photosynthesis supplies humans with the food they use as an energy source, the oxygen we need to release the energy from this food source, and a huge variety of useful products such as wood, coal and natural gas.
The light-independent stage uses the ATP and NADP made during the first stage to convert carbon dioxide into simple carbohydrates. These simple carbohydrates can then be transformed into a large number of other organic molecules.
Investigating Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis.
How plants have adapted or become acclimatised to shade.

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Retrieved Text: Why Is Ethanol Called a Renewable Resource?
Ethanol, derived from plant material, is a renewable energy source because the production and combustion of ethanol completes a cycle. The amounts of carbon dioxide and water that plants use are returned back to the atmosphere when ethanol, made from plant starch or cellulose, is combusted. Ethanol is considered a "green" fuel because it is nontoxic and reduces air pollution. The 13.3 billion gallons of ethanol that were produced in the United States in 2013 reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 38 million metric tons, equivalent to removing 8 million vehicles from the road, according to the Renewable Fuels Association.
Ethanol is generated from glucose that is derived from plant material. Glucose can be obtained from plant starch or cellulose. In the United States, most of the ethanol is derived from the starch in corn kernels. Other countries may use other plants. For example, Brazil uses sugarcane to make ethanol. Although it is relatively easy to produce ethanol from corn starch, growing large amounts of corn for energy production may cause shortages in corn food production. Nonfood plants, such as wheat straw or switch grass, contain cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose molecules. Ethanol obtained from cellulose requires pretreatment of plant material to soften it and make the cellulose more susceptible to hydrolysis, which is the breakdown of the cellulose polymer.
The production of ethanol from plant material and ethanol's subsequent combustion form a complete cycle. Glucose within plants is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis, a process that uses

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Retrieved Text: Eddie Temistokle, Toshiba America, Inc.
Among Mother Nature’s many wonders, Toshiba researchers focused on photosynthesis -- a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation). In other words, plants are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. Learning from this system, Toshiba researchers created a novel way to convert carbon dioxide into ethylene glycol. The ethylene glycol generated by this artificial photosynthesis system is a valuable and versatile industrial raw material that can be used in the manufacture of PET bottles, polyester fibers and resins!
Toshiba Develops World's Highest Efficiency Artificial Photosynthesis Technology for Generation of Fuel and Feedstock from Carbon Dioxide.

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Retrieved Text: Turning fossil fuel into energy is easy: You just burn it. And live with the carbon dioxide byproduct. What if we could reverse the process and turn water and carbon dioxide back into fuel?
A dream solution, but it may seem like trying to put the genie back in the bottle.
Not for University of Minnesota researcher Jane Davidson. She and her colleagues are using concentrated light energy equal to 3,000 suns to find the most efficient way to convert carbon dioxide and water into synthetic gas, or "syngas," with solar power.
Syngas is easy to transport via pipelines and is readily converted to high-energy-density liquid hydrocarbon fuels, or "synfuels," with properties equivalent to what we derive from petroleum. “We are aiming for unprecedented solar-to-fuel efficiencies that will enable the entire sunlight-to-synfuels process to be done with 10 percent efficiency and no input of fossil fuels,” says Davidson, a mechanical engineering professor.
At the University's Solar Energy Laboratory, the process begins with an indoor solar simulator in the form of seven mirrored, 6,500-watt lamps that concentrate the light on a 10-centimeter spot with an irradiance of 3,000 suns. (One "sun" equals 1,000 watts of solar energy falling per square meter of surface.) With this concentrated radiant energy, one can generate temperatures of more than 3,600 F in a chemical reactor. There, carbon dioxide and water are split to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the two components of syngas.
Davidson, along with mechanical engineering professor Tom Chase and their students, have developed two prototype reactors to split water and CO2. Deploying these

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Retrieved Text: 3 What Enzymes Does Mercury Inhibit?
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that plants and algae use to convert light energy, water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In the light reactions, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy and harnesses it to create the high-energy molecules ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon in the Calvin cycle.
In the chloroplasts of plant cells there are a series of enzymes and other proteins called photosystems I and II. Some of these proteins hold chlorophyll molecules and, when chlorophyll is struck by a photo of light, an electron becomes energized and water molecules bind. An enzyme in photosystem II splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The energized electron is then passed along through another enzyme called the cytochrome b6-f complex, which in turn pumps positively charged hydrogen molecules across a membrane to create a store of potential energy. An enzyme called ATP synthase uses that potential energy to synthesize a molecule called ATP, which is the most common energy currency for cells, and which is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain a second light-capturing mechanism called photosystem I, which acts similarly to photosystem II, except that the end result is a molecule called NADPH instead of ATP. Photosystem I is connected to photosystem II by a small protein called plastocyanin, which donates electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to

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Retrieved Text: A technology to collect, compress and store liquid carbon dioxide, generated from most industrial processes of the electricity generation, petrochemical and steel manufature plants, before emitting into the air.
The wet capture process is to collect carbon dioxide from the general exhaust gas by absorbing it with wet-type absorbents.
The dry capture process is to collect carbon dioxide by absorbing it with dry-type absorbents instead of wet-type ones.
A fuel cell is used to convert the chemical energy which is generated by chemical reactions of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity.
uses phosphoric acid (H3PO4) as electrolytesand is operated at a low temperature of about 150-200℃. It enables water cooling and can be manufactured to be compact in size. And, it uses distributed power sources from hospitals, hotels and buildings.
uses molten carbonate (Li2CO3,K2CO3) as electrolytes and is operated at a high temperature of about 600-700℃. No electro catalyst is required, and it is high in power generation efficiency. And, it uses distributed power sources from apartments and large buildings.

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Definition of a C4 Pathway?
The C4 pathway is a method plants use to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into a chemical compound containing four carbons. About.com explains that plans that utilize this pathway usually originate in subtropical areas. Examples include maize, sugarcane, sorghum, millet and papyrus. These plants commonly grow at latitudes below 45 degrees, in the tropics.
While photosynthesis normally takes place in the leaves of plants, in those plants using the C4 pathway, it takes place in a special leaf structure, the Kranz anatomy, which includes vascular bundles surrounded by sheath cells. Once the fixation of carbon dioxide completes, transforming it into the four-carbon compound through tehmesophyll cells, the plant transports it to the sheath cells where ribosco, the enzyme necessary for photosynthesis, is stored. This process prevents exposing the enzyme to oxygen and conserves energy for the plant.
Reference.com says that C4 photosynthesis gives plants an advantage over those using the classic C3 type of photosynthesis in drought conditions as well as in locations where carbon dioxide and nitrogen are limited. In C3 plants, as much as 97 percent of the water is lost due to transpiration. C4 plants make up approximately 5 percent of the world's biomass yet fix 30 percent of terrestrial carbon.

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Retrieved Text: Move the sliders or type in a percentage to change your energy mix.
this at any time click default.
See the outcome of your decisions on your electricity bill and national carbon emissions, today and into the future.
Now help us with a quick survey. CSIRO wants to hear from you!
Why did you choose this energy mix (above)?
What is the postcode of your home address?
Are there any other comments you wish to make in relation to the range of options for generating electricity in Australia?
This information shows the possible impact of your power selection on your electricity bill. The graph shows the percentage increase or decrease versus today's prices.
This information shows the possible impact of your power selection on national carbon emissions. Different power sources generate different amounts of carbon. You can adjust the emissions levels by adjusting the energy mix.
The energy of coal converted into electricity in coal-fired power plants.
The energy of gas (mostly methane) released by burning in power plants.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies capture carbon dioxide from fossil fuel power plant exhaust and store it in underground reservoirs.
These reservoirs can include depleted and disused oil and gas fields, deep saline aquifers (onshore and offshore underground deposits of salty water), and deep coal seams that cannot be mined.
Wind: The kinetic (motion-based) energy of wind captured by wind turbines. Wind turbines are large windmill-type structures that may be located onshore or offshore.
Solar: The energy of sunlight (solar radiation) captured by solar panels (photovoltaic cells) or concentrated mirrors (concentrating solar/solar-thermal).
Biomass and biogas: The energy of organic matter (such

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of sugars. In a process driven by light energy, glucose molecules are constructed from water and carbon dioxide, and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The glucose molecules provide organisms with two crucial resources: Energy and fixed-organic-carbon.
Photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, and some bacteria, play a key ecological role. They introduce chemical energy and fixed carbon into ecosystems by using light to synthesize sugars. Since these organisms produce their own food-that is, fix their own carbon-using light energy, they are called photoautotrophs.
And can be translated as six water molecules plus six carbon dioxide molecules yields one molecule of sugar and six oxygen molecules.
It is one of the most important reactions on the planet because it is the source of nearly all of the world’s oxygen. Hydrogen which is produced when the water is split could potentially be a green and unlimited source of renewable energy.
The apparent incompatibility between the increasing energy demand, environmental awareness, and the excessive consumption of finite fossil fuels has spurred incessant research endeavors in seeking renewable and green energy resources to maintain the sustainability of our society. Solar energy, as an inexhaustible clean energy source that powers all the life on the Earth, is considered to be the most exploitable one. The conversion and utilization of solar energy for chemical fuel production and environmental remediation through artificial photocatalysis has been recognized to be an ideal scheme to address the worldwide energy and environmental concerns. Essentially, there

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What is passed up a chain or web from lower to higher trophic level?" and the following answer choices: 
- Veins and arteries.
 - heat or cold
 - scarce resources
 - food resources
 - matter vibrating
 - rays or beams
 - Organic compounds
 - fossil fuels

Now knowing that energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels and food gives energy, choose the best answer.

Target Text: food resources

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Why are pyramids important in ecology?
The classic example of a pyramid is shown here. But the pyramid structure can also represent the decrease in a measured substance from the lowest level on up. In ecology, pyramids model the use of energy from the producers through the ecosystem.
The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The different trophic levels are defined in the Table below. Examples are also given in the table. All food chains and webs have at least two or three trophic levels. Generally, there are a maximum of four trophic levels.
Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are primary consumers when they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary consumers when they eat salmon.
Energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels. However, generally only about 10 percent of the energy at one level is available to the next level. This is represented by the ecological pyramid in Figure below. What happens to the other 90 percent of energy? It is used for metabolic processes or given off to the environment as heat. This loss of energy explains why there are rarely more than four trophic levels in a food chain or web. Sometimes there may be a fifth trophic level, but usually there’s not enough energy left to support any additional levels.
Ecological Pyramid. This pyramid shows how energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher trophic levels. Assume

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Retrieved Text: The Energy Flow is Basic Function of the Ecosystem in the Environment. As it’s the study of the trophic level interaction in an Ecosystem which gives energy flow to the Ecosystem.
While the Energy Flows from Producers to the Subsequent Trophic Level Which Means Always from Producers to the Carnivores.
The Ecosystem is Related to the other Organism feeding Mechanism or Trophic Level. A Food Chain Starts with Producers to the End with Top Carnivores. Small Herbivores Are Consumers of the Vegetable and Convert them to them into the Animal Matter.
Those Consumers Which Start Their Food Chain by Utilizing the Plant Part as their Food or Food Chain Begins with Green Plants at their Base and the Primary Consumers is Herbivore. In Ecosystem there are Some Phytoplankton is eaten by the zoo Planktons which is Eaten by the Fish or by Pelicans.
A Food Chain Which Starts from Soil or Dead Organism of Decaying Animals and Plant Bodies to the Micro-Organisms ten to the Feeding Organism Called Detrivores and to other Predators.
So the Difference Between the two Chains is the Source of the Energy and First Level of the Consumers. So the Two Food Chains Are Linked with Each Other.
A collection of the Food Chain is Known as the Food Web. As the Same Food Resource is Part of More than One chain. If any of the intermediate Food Chain Removed from the System, the Succeeding Links of the Chain Will Be Affected Largely.
For Example – Grasses may Serve Food for Rabbit and Grasshopper or goat or Cow.
An Ecological

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Retrieved Text: How do you calculate the osmolarity of seawater?
Ernest Z. · Kate M.
You add up the molarities of the constituent ions.
Thus, if you consider just the #"NaCl"#, the osmolarity of seawater is about 1000 mOsmol/L.
If you include the magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sulfate ions, the osmolarity is closer to 1200 mOsmol/L.
What is a trophic level, and what is the 10% rule?
What is an energy pyramid?
What is the 10% rule used in an energy pyramid?
Why do food chains rarely have more than four trophic levels?
Why should we eat from the lower part of the food chain?
What are the food web and food pyramids in the biome taiga?

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Retrieved Text: What is ecology? The scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, or surroundings.
What does the biosphere contain? Necessary things, such as land, water, and air, or atmosphere.
Why do ecologists ask questions about events and organisms that range in complexity from an individual to the biosphere? To understand the relationships within biosphere.
Ecosystem (Second highest level of organization) A collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment.
Why might an ecologist set up an artificial environment in a laboratory? To imitate and manipulate conditions that organisms would encounter.
Why are many ecological phenomena difficult to study? They occur over long periods of time or on such large spatial scales that they are difficult to study.
Why do ecologists make models? To gain insight into complex phenomena such as the effects of global warming on ecosystems.
What is at the core of every organism's interaction with the environment? The organism's need for energy to power life's processes.
What source of energy to organisms use if they don't use the sun's energy? Energy stored in inorganic chemical compounds.
What are autotrophs? Plants, some algae, and certain bacteria that capture energy from the sunlight or chemicals and use that energy to produce food.
Why are autotrophs also called producers? They make their own food.
What do autotrophs do during photosynthesis? They harness solar energy.
What is chemosynthesis? When organisms use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.
Where do bacteria that carry out chemosynthesis live? Very remote places on Earth such as volcanic vents on the deep-ocean floor

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Retrieved Text: An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment. There are two parts: the entire complex of organisms, or biome, living in harmony and the habitat in which the biome exists.
Ecosystems occur at a range of different scales. Micro-habits are ecosystems that are found in small, specific locations e.g. under a stone, beneath a leaf etc. Habitats are specific locations that have conditions which the community has adapted e.g. hedgerow, pond. Zones are areas within a biome. An example of this would be one of the four layers of the rainforest. A biome is a large scale ecosystem which extends across continents. Each has its own flora and fauna. Examples include the tropical rainforest, hot desert and tundra.
The main driving force in terms of energy in all ecosystems is the sun. It provides the heat that warms up plants, animals and their abiotic environment. It also drives the water cycle and other important flows. The sun is also essential in providing energy for photosynthesis.
Once food has been used to build a plant (producer) it becomes available for other organisms to consume (consumers). These organisms become available to other organisms. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, take the remains of dead plants and animals, along with secreted waste, and converts them back to CO2 and nutrients. This flow of energy through plants and animals then back to the soil is known as a food chain.
Figure 1. below shows the flow of energy in a typical food chain. It is estimated

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Retrieved Text: Flow of energy declines as it passes from lower to higher trophiclevel.
Assertion: In a food chain members of successive higher levels are fewer innumber.
Reason: Number of organisms at any trophic level depends upon the availability of organisms which serve as food at the lowerlevel.

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Retrieved Text: The accumulation of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in various tissues of a living organism: the bioaccumulation of mercury in fish.
The accumulation of chemicals or nutrients in a living organism against an inorganic background (e.g., the external environment), which is due to a high partition coefficient and resistance to degradation by the bioaccumulating organism.
the process of concentration of chemical contaminents in animal tissues as they move higher up the food chain e.g. pesticides and heavy metals stored in fatty tissues are passed on from one predator to a higher predator, the resulting concentrations being increasingly harmful and most so to the top predators.
process producing an increase in the concentration of chemicals (usually toxins) in the tissues of organisms with each increase in the trophic level in the food chain. Examples include chlorinated hydrocarbons which reach their greatest concentrations in predatory birds and pelicans, and ciguatera in which the toxins are concentrated in large predatory fish such as gropers, barracudas and mackerel.

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Retrieved Text: Biotic factors would include the availability of food organisms and the presence of conspecifics, competitors, predators, and parasites. Synthetic ammonia is a key component of artificial fertilizers.
Covers questions concerning state formation, nationalism, social movements, globalization, political culture and participation, and civil society. These polymers have a dual role as supplies of energy as well as building blocks; the part that functions as energy supply results in the production of nutrients and carbon dioxide, water, and heat.
Locally made products are preferred over those shipped from a distance or made locally through mass production both of which transfer capital to outside sources.
A bioregion can be determined initially by use of climatology, physiography, animal and plant geography, natural history and other descriptive natural sciences.
Chain Reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place.
Food chains food web ecological pyramids or Reoccur is something that will happen again and come into being and be a reality. Sensitivity to it plays a role in milk allergies, Asperger's Syndrome, and Autism. Something unfortunate or hard to bear.
The final boundaries of a bioregion, however, are best described by the people who have lived within it, through human recognition of the realities of living-in-place The Baldwin Effect fills in a gap in how natural selection is thought to work by explaining how learnings normally invisible to it become innate.
Note that the total number of organisms found in any one level decreases as one goes up the pyramid. Abrasiveness also seems to be the one quality currently

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Retrieved Text: food-chain - Chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which energy is transferred. Each link in the chain feeds on and obtains energy from the one preceding it and in turn is eaten by and provides energy for, the one following it. The number of links is usually three or four. At the beginning of the chain are green plants, and organisms whose food is obtained from green plants through the same number of links are described as belonging to the same trophic or energy level. Thus green plants occupy level one (T1), the producer level. All other levels are consumer levels. T2, herbivores, are primary consumers, T3 and T4, smaller and larger carnivores, respectively, are secondary consumers. At each trophic level much of the energy obtained is lost in respiration and thus fewer organisms can be supported at the succeeding one. Bacteria, fungi and some protozoa are consumers that operate in decomposition at all levels. All the food chains in a community make up the food-cycle or food-web.

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Retrieved Text: Chapter #5- Guided Reading! - AP Environmental Science!
1: Define: Community EffectIs when species in an ecosystem affect another species indirectly.
Sea otters are considered a keystone species in an ecosystem because they affect both Sea urchins and kelp. Sea Otters reduce the number of sea urchins, the less sea urchins the less damage there is to the kelp.
3: Why were Sea Otters endangered and how did their numbers rebound?
The Sea otters where endangered because they have the finest furs in the world and they would eat abalone which is a prized seafood for us humans, during the 18th and 19th century. But they bounded back due to legal protection by the U.S. government.
Is an ecosystem that has 2 major parts non living and living. Non living is the physical-chemical environment that includes the atmosphere, water,etc. While the living part is that is called ecological community, is the set of species that interact within the ecosystem.
2: What two main processes must occur to maintain an ecosystem?
A cycling of chemical elements and a flow of energy. They are necessary for all life, but no single species can carry out all the necessary chemical cycling and energy flow alone.
1: What is the difference between a food chain and a food web?
A food chain are the compounds from creature to creature, while the the food web has more linkage than the food chain.
Consists of all organisms in an food web that are the same number of feeding levles away from the orignial energy source.
Autotrophs are the self eaters such as plants.

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Retrieved Text: For most animals, there are few things as important as reproduction and the survival of their offspring. Likewise, selecting safe nesting sites is an important matter for birds, as it is directly related to the survival of their eggs and chicks, and it would be logical for birds to choose nest sites with a reduced rate of exposure to predators. It may therefore surprise you to know that the nest survival rates of the black-chinned hummingbird, also known as the Archilochus alexandri, are higher when nests are built closer to the nests of the northern goshawk, the Accipiter gentilis, or to those of Cooper’s hawk, the Accipiter cooperii. At first glance, this makes no sense; after all, hawks are one of the most formidable predators in the avian world, and hummingbirds would hardly be expected to come into their proximity, much less become their neighbors. However, predator-prey relationships are rarely so simple, and when a mesopredator — a predator at the middle level of the food chain — is involved, the presence of a hawk may in fact prove to be beneficial for hummingbirds and their nests.
In this case, the Mexican jay, the Aphelocoma wollweberi, is the mesopredator, and while Mexican jays are known to devour hummingbird eggs and chicks, they are also preyed upon by other predators such as hawks. Hummingbirds, however, are too small to serve as a food source for hawks, and face no risk of predation from them. Hawks swoop down from perches in horizontal or descending chases to hunt, meaning that

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Retrieved Text: Question 1: What are the three types of food web classifications?
Connectedness webs: emphasize feeding relationships, based on observations of who ingests what. Who eats who?
Energy flow webs: weight interaction strengths by flux of energy, require measures of food and energy consumed, and generally show dominance of a small number of species. Who gets energy from what?
Functional webs: emphasize influence of individual species on the growth rate of other species. Revealed by removal experiments and may not correspond to energy flux. This tries to explain how the rest of the web is influenced by a single species by estimating effects of removal or insertion of a single species.
Question 2: What is the difference between top down and bottom up theories of the trophic cascades?
Bottom Up: nutrients or plants control relative abundance of upper trophic levels. Plants or nutrients are the limiting factor in trophic level interactions.
Top Down: Predators control the population of next trophic level down.
Question 3: Considering a top down trophic cascade, how might sea otters indirectly affect the abundance of kelp forests?
Sea otters feed on sea urchins who in turn feed on kelp. When there are healthy populations of sea otters, kelp forests are more prominent because sea otters control the population of sea urchins. The top down trophic cascade described here, the sea otter depresses the trophic level it feeds on, indirectly increasing the biomass of the next lower trophic level below it (kelp).
Question 4: What is Disturbance?
An unpredictable event that varies in magnitude and frequency. Can create a trigger for some species to

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Retrieved Text: NEET question - With the help of a flow chart , show the phenomenon of biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain.
With the help of a flow chart , show the phenomenon of biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain.
Biomagnification is increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic levels. Toxic substances cannot be metabolised or excreted , so they got accumulated in the body of an organism. Through food chain these substances are passed to the next trophic level.
For example, DDT and mercury . The concentration of DDT is increased at successive trophic levels e.g., if there is DDT of about 0.003 ppb (parts per billion) in water, it can ultimately reach 25 ppm in fish-eating birds through biomagnification.
High concentration of DDT in birds interferes with calcium metabolism which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking. This will result in decline in bird population.

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Retrieved Text: The biodiversity of ecosystems worldwide is changing because of species loss due to human-caused extinctions and species gain through intentional and accidental introductions. Here we show that the combined effect of these two processes is altering the trophic structure of food webs in coastal marine systems. This is because most extinctions (∼70%) occur at high trophic levels (top predators and other carnivores), while most invasions are by species from lower trophic levels (70% macroplanktivores, deposit feeders, and detritivores). These opposing changes thus alter the shape of marine food webs from a trophic pyramid capped by a diverse array of predators and consumers to a shorter, squatter configuration dominated by filter feeders and scavengers. The consequences of the simultaneous loss of diversity at top trophic levels and gain at lower trophic levels is largely unknown. However, current research suggests that a better understanding of how such simultaneous changes in diversity can impact ecosystem function will be required to manage coastal ecosystems and forecast future changes.
Copyright: © 2007 Byrnes et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Funding and other support for this study was provided by the UC Davis IGERT on Biological Invasions (NSF-DGE No. 0114432) and the National Science Foundation Biological Oceanography program (OCE 03-17778 to JJS).
The biodiversity of ecosystems around the world is being altered by species loss due to extinction from human activities  and gain through

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Retrieved Text: Ten Percent Law: Ten percent law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by Lindeman (1942). According to this law, during the transfer of energy from organic food from one trophic level to the next, only about ten percent of the of energy from organic matter is stored as flesh. The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete digestion by higher trophic levels. The ten percent law suggests or implies that exactly 90% of the energy is lost in the transfer at each trophic level, and that only 10% is passed on as useable biological energy. That implied preciseness is misleading, however, and is one of the reasons that many scientists discount the concept, even label it a myth. Instead, it should be considered a rule of thumb, a teaching device, or perhaps best, a mnemonic device that serves as a reminder of the striking inefficiencies of natural systems.

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Retrieved Text: Sensors provide computer systems with a window to the outside world. Activity recognition "sees" what is in the window to predict the locations, trajectories, actions, goals and plans of humans and objects. Building an activity recognition system requires a full range of interaction from statistical inference on lower level sensor data to symbolic AI at higher levels, where prediction results and acquired knowledge are passed up each level to form a knowledge food chain. In this talk, I will give an overview of activity recognition and explore its relation to other fields, including planning and knowledge acquisition, machine learning and Web search. I will also describe its applications in assistive technologies, security monitoring and mobile commerce.

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Retrieved Text: General Ecology - Welcome to The Frog Pad!
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them. Ecology also provides information about the benefits of ecosystems and how we can use Earth's resources in ways that leave the environment healthy for future generations.
Ecologists study interactions at multiple levels. Some ecologists focus on how individual organisms respond to their environment. Other ecologists are more interested in how organisms of the same species interact with each other in populations. Still others spend their days examining how whole populations interact with other populations in a community. And, at a higher level, some ecologists focus on the big picture, studying the interactions between all of the living and nonliving elements in a given area, or ecosystem.
Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources.
A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem. Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move through the ecosystem. All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.
Organisms in food webs are grouped into categories called trophic levels. Roughly speaking, these levels are divided into producers (first trophic level), consumers, and decomposers (last trophic level).
Producers make up the first trophic level. Producers, also known as autotrophs, make their own food

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Retrieved Text: The 10% rule refers to the amount of energy available to the next trophic level.
When a consumer eats a plant, it gains energy from the plant. That energy is used for growth, reproduction, and other biological processes. Some of that energy is also lost through heat loss. Thus, when a predator eats that consumer, all of the energy the consumer gained from the plant is not available to the predator: it has been used and lost.
As we move up an energy pyramid or a trophic level, we can see that less and less of the original energy from the sun is available. Roughly ten percent of the previous trophic level's energy is available to the level immediately higher up. This is called the 10% Rule.
What happens to the energy at each level as you move up the food pyramid?

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Retrieved Text: Which of the following adaptations is/are found in the mangrove plants?
Turn their leaves to reduce exposure to the sunlight.
Mangroves can restrict the opening of their stomata. Allows the mangrove to preserve fresh water, vital to survive in a saline environment.
– The pneumatophores allow the plant to breath, however also change in size to stop the intake of salt from the water.
– Accumulation/ storage—in some mangroves, salt accumulates in selected parts of the plant, for example in some leaves, until it reaches a certain concentration. That part of the plant is then shed.
– Excretion— salt glands on the surface of their leaves, which release salt.
Which of the following are responsible for land degradation?
Itai-itai disease was the name given to the mass cadmium poisoning of Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting around 1912. Cadmium poisoning can also cause softening of the bones and kidney failure.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan, in 1956.
Which of the following pyramids can be both upright and inverted?
A “pyramid of numbers” shows graphically the population of each level in a food chain. Often, there are more producers than consumers, however, it can also be seen in many ecosystems that there are more primary consumers than producers.
A “pyramid of biomass” shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an energy community at a particular time. It is a graphical representation of biomass present in unit area in different tropic levels.

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Retrieved Text: Few studies have examined lakes or wide swaths of ocean areas, leaving critical data gaps in how plastic pollution affects wildlife and moves across food webs.
Although it seems like volumes have been written recently about the ubiquitous plastic pollution in the world’s waterways, a new report finds major gaps in where we’ve looked and what we know.
Few, if any, studies have been done in critical regions like the waters off populous coastal Asia, according to the research overview published online today in the journal Environmental Reviews. The paper also shows that most of the focus has been on oceans, with food web impacts in lakes and other freshwater ecosystems largely unknown.
Little is known about how up to 12.7 million metric tons of plastics entering the ocean every year move through aquatic food webs.
Plastics pollution is currently “a hot topic,” said lead author Jennifer Provencher, head of the Wildlife Health Unit for the Canadian Wildlife Service’s Wildlife Management and Regulatory Affairs Division, based in Gatineau, Quebec. But despite a spate of recent studies, relatively little is known about how up to 12.7 million metric tons of plastics entering the ocean every year—and unknown amounts making their way into streams, rivers, and lakes—move through aquatic food webs.
In an effort to compile current knowledge and identify key research needs, Provencher and colleagues reviewed 160 recent field studies that reported plastic ingestion by animals. They found that most of the research so far has been concentrated in the same few geographic regions, ecosystems, and species.
The review included academic papers published

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Retrieved Text: A series of organisms interrelated in their feeding habits, the smallest getting fed upon by a larger one, which in turn feeds a nevertheless bigger one. Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the dependence of the organisms at a provided level on the organisms at decrease level. Plotting the power will constantly give a accurate pyramid mainly because it is impossible to generate new power so a trophic level will always be smaller sized than the one beneath it. Just after we played the game, I study to them from a Delta Science Module book on Food Chains and Food Webs which explains how energy is transferred.
Producer organisms (normally green plants) kind the base of the pyramid, with succeeding levels above representing the unique trophic levels (respective position of the organisms inside ecological food chains). For my class, it is a assessment of a concept learned in third grade and a excellent introduction to the a lot more complicated meals internet. We had been able to see uncomplicated chains very first, then function our way up to complete chains – total with decomposers.
An energy pyramid is usually upright as the total quantity of power readily available for utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the reduce levels. A meals chain ought to be very straightforward, one thing you have been studying given that main school but now we’ll take it to the subsequent level. Similarly, all living issues get energy from their food so that they can move and develop. There

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Retrieved Text: Doing further harm to our understanding, he (Michael Pollan in “Omnivore’s Dilemma”) does not accurately report our connections and our relationships to ecosystems through food choices. He writes, “The Omnivore’s Dilemma is about the three principal food chains that sustain us today: the industrial, the organic, and the hunter-gatherer.” Though sharing some similarities with food chains, the first two are at best methods of production with the third being methods of acquiring food. Claiming that hunter-gatherers are a food chain instead of a method of procuring food is an idea I hope readers will see as obviously misapplied.
When Pollan applies an ecological term like food chains to organic and industrial methods of food production, he is comparing plots of land under agriculture to nonagricultural food chains that occur inecosystems. In botanical agriculture, one can plant and harvest rice by hand (nonindustrial), then use pesticides and herbicides, and thereby not be organic. Those are aspects of production. They are not food chains. A cropped field is a very narrow view of the larger biological world. Food chains describe the interconnectedness of food energy flowing through species but farms are not the same as the ecosystems they are embedded within.
Here we continue with a description of what food chains are—a far cry from what Michael Pollan is telling you.Food chains describe the procession of species, one consuming another. They are complex biological relationships that never leave ecosystems. If a lion eats you, then you are part of her food chain, as iswhat you ate. When a sea lion

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Retrieved Text: What is bio concentration of pesticides?
Bio concentration of pesticides means accumulation of pesticides in the living organisms like plants, men and animals.
Pesticides are poisonous chemical substances which are sprayed over crops to protect them from pests i.e. small harmful animals and diseases. These chemical pesticides mix up with the soil and water. From soil and water, these pesticides are absorbed by the growing plants along with water and other minerals.
When herbivorous animals eat plant food then these poisonous chemical pesticides go into their bodies through the food chain. Similarly when the carnivorous eat herbivores then the pesticides get transferred to their bodies. Human beings eat plant food as well as herbivores. So the pesticides present in plant food and herbivores also get transferred to the man’s body through food. In this way the pesticides enter the food chain at the producer level i.e. plant level and in the process of transfer of food through trophic levels, these harmful chemicals get concentrated at each trophic level. This is called bio concentration of pesticides.

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Retrieved Text: The term “trophic cascade” refers to changes in a food web where energy is passed from one organism to others in that community. Famous wildlife ecologist Aldo Leopold first noted early in the 19th century that predators maintain a balance within an ecosystem. Marine ecologist Robert Paine coined the term ‘trophic cascade’ in 1980 to describe this phenomenon. Since then, our understanding of trophic cascades has expanded.
By regulating the populations of other organisms, predators keep a balance in a food web and increase species richness. The most well-known terrestrial example of a top-down effect is what happened in Yellowstone National Park when grey wolves were reintroduced after being absent for 80 years. When the wolves were eradicated, the populations of herbivores erupted. The plains were overgrazed, saplings were consumed, and waterways dried up. Dozens of other species that relied on those microhabitats, such as songbirds, amphibians, reptiles, and insects, disappeared as well. You can learn more about Yellowstone’s wolves here.
One of the first examples of an ecosystem that was completely changed through a trophic cascade was from an experiment conducted by Robert Paine in Mukkaw Bay, California. Paine observed a carnivorous sea star, Pisaster ochraceus, prey on mussels; he was inspired to study the effects if the sea stars were removed.
In the experiment, Paine created a control plot in which he did nothing, and a plot where he removed sea stars gradually over a year. After a year, he noticed an extreme difference between the plots. For the control plot, where Pisaster was left alone, vegetation

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Retrieved Text: A bar diagram that indicates the relative numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each bar gives a measure of the relative numbers. Pyramids begin with producers, usually the greatest number at the bottom decreasing upwards.
This is a simple easy method of giving an overview and is good at comparing changes in population numbers with time or season.
All organisms are included regardless of their size, therefore a system say based on an oak tree would be inverted (have a small bottom and bet larger as it goes up trophic levels). Also they do not allow for juvenilles or immature forms. Numbers can be to great to represent accurately.
As pyramids of number but uses dry mass of all organisms at each trophic level.
Overcomes the problems of pyramids of number.
Only uses samples from populations, so it is impossible to measure biomass exactly.also the time of the year that biomass is measured affects the result.
The bars are drawn in proportion to the total energy utilized at each trophic level. Also the productivity of producers in a given area measured for a standard time, and the proportion utilized by consumers can be calculated.
Most accurate system shows the actual energy transferred and allows for rate of production.
It is very difficult and complex to to collect energy data.

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Retrieved Text: The micro-algae that grow in the brine channels of ice and in surface waters are the ultimate source of food for the marine food web, much like grass sustains cattle on land. Will the production of these microscopic plants increase or decrease and will the transfer of this production toward harvestable resources become more or less efficient?
How will the biomass, distribution and species dominance of microalgae, zooplankton and fish change? Is the capacity of the Arctic Ocean to absorb the greenhouse gas CO2 de-creasing or increasing?
We will seek answers to these questions by looking at how changes in the physical environment (e.g. loss of sea-ice, increasing temperature, enhanced episodic mixing of the water column by storms during spring and autumn, increased penetration of Atlantic waters) affect the productivity and species dominance of organisms in the lower part of the food web. Changes in the lower food web are bound to affect the nutrition and spatial distribution of higher trophic level organisms such as seals, whales, and polar bears.
Amundsen Gulf, Viscount Melville Sound, Barrow Strait, Lancaster Sound, North Water Polynya, Baffin Bay, Gibbs Fjord, Hudson Strait, Hudson Bay.
Our collaborations with northern communities are limited to having a Wildlife Monitor on board since our field work mainly takes place on the CCGS Amundsen.

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Retrieved Text: This week's In The News addresses recent findings (published in the October 16, 1998 issue of Science) that killer whale predation on sea otters in the North Pacific has "created an ecological chain reaction in nearshore ecosystems." Such ecological chain reactions refer to the disruption of the complex balance between predator and prey species. Killer whales, which traditionally fed on the (now scarce) Steller sea lions and harbor seals, have recently shifted their diet to sea otters. The resulting decline in sea otters has, in turn, led to an increase in sea urchins (sea otter prey), which in turn have deforested many kelp (seaweed) beds in the nearshore marine community. Although killer whales are playing a critical role in the current disruption, this chain of interactions "was probably initiated by anthropogenic changes in the offshore oceanic ecosystem" -- namely, the region's burgeoning fisheries, higher ocean temperatures, and the depletion of baleen whales. Similar "trophic cascades" have been well documented for lakes and in other systems (e.g. Snow Geese in the Arctic), but this research provides a new example of a disrupted food web that may reach a wider audience -- as it involves several highly charismatic vertebrates. The nine resources above describe the recent scientific findings, provide background information on food webs, and offer several resources for understanding ecological (trophic) chain reactions.

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Retrieved Text: BIOMAGNIFICATION - Phytoplankton absorb PCBs passing the chemical to zooplankton, to herring, then salmon and seals (not shown) and finally to large cetaceans that eat fish and marine mammals.
Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or humans. The substances become concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted.
An anchovy eats zoo-plankton that have tiny amounts of mercury that the zoo-plankton has picked up from the water throughout the anchovies lifespan. A tuna eats many of these anchovies over its life, accumulating the mercury in each of those anchovies into its body. If the mercury stunts the growth of the anchovies, that tuna is required to eat more little fish to stay alive. Because there are more little fish being eaten, the mercury content is magnified.
CARRIER - This is just a small sample of the plastic packaging that you will find in retails stores all over the world (and some fishing rope). A good proportion of this packaging - around 8 millions tons a year, will end up in our oceans, in the gut of the fish we eat, in the stomachs of seabirds and in

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Retrieved Text: del Mar Palacios , Maria, Warren, Donald T., and McCormick, Mark I. (2016) Sensory cues of a top-predator indirectly control a reef fish mesopredator. Oikos, 125 (2). pp. 201-209.
Behavioural trophic cascades highlight the importance of indirect/risk effects in the maintenance of healthy trophic-level links in complex ecosystems. However, there is limited understanding on how the loss of indirect top–down control can cascade through the food-web to modify lower level predator–prey interactions. Using a reef fish food-web, our study examines behavioural interactions among predators to assess how fear elicited by top-predator cues (visual and chemical stimuli) can alter mesopredator behaviour and modify their interaction with resource prey. Under experimental conditions, the presence of any cue (visual, chemical, or both) from the top-predator (coral trout Plectropomus leopardus) strongly restricted the distance swum, area explored and foraging activity of the mesopredator (dottyback Pseudochromis fuscus), while indirectly triggering a behavioural release of the resource prey (recruits of the damselfish Pomacentrus chrysurus). Interestingly, the presence of a large non-predator species (thicklip wrasse Hemigymnus melapterus) also mediated the impact of the mesopredator on prey, as it provoked mesopredators to engage in an 'inspection' behaviour, while significantly reducing their feeding activity. Our study describes for the first time a three-level behavioural cascade of coral reef fish and stresses the importance of indirect interactions in marine food-webs.
A version of this publication was included as Chapter 2 of the following PhD thesis: Palacios Otero, Maria del Mar (2017) Controlling mesopredators: importance of behavioural interactions in trophic cascades. PhD thesis, James Cook University, which is available

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Retrieved Text: © 2014 Hertz et al.
In aquatic systems, the ratio of predator mass to prey mass (PPMR) is an important constraint on food web structure, and has been correlated with environmental stability. One common approach of estimating PPMR uses nitrogen stable isotopes (δ15N) as an indicator of trophic position, under the assumption that the discrimination between diet and tissue is constant with increasing diet δ15N (an additive approach). However, recent studies have shown that this assumption may not be valid, and that there is a negative trend between the δ15N of the diet and the discrimination value (a scaled approach). We estimated PPMR for a simulated food web using the traditional additive approach and improved scaled approach, before testing our predictions with isotope samples from a North Sea food web. Our simulations show that the additive approach gives incorrect estimates of PPMR, and these biases are reflected in North Sea PPMR estimates. The extent of the bias is dependent on the baseline δ15N and trophic level sampled, with the greatest differences for samples with low baseline δ15N sampled at lower trophic levels. The scaled approach allows for the comparison of PPMR across varying δ15N baselines and trophic levels, and will refine estimates of PPMR.
This preprint is the original submission of a recently accepted article in Marine Ecology Progress Series. We will update this preprint with the revised version once the article is published online.
Eric Hertz conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, wrote the paper, prepared figures and/or tables, reviewed drafts of the

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What allows soil to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form by plants?" and the following answer choices: 
- hydrogen and oxygen
 - diseased soil
 - peachleaf willow
 - bacteria-free soil
 - healthier soil
 - nutrients
 - virus filled soil
 - Cooking

Now knowing that bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and more bacteria mean healthier soil, choose the best answer.

Target Text: healthier soil

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Let’s talk about nitrogen. What is nitrogen, and why does it matter to us?
Nitrogen is chemical element number 7. It’s crucial to living organisms. It’s a necessary component in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. While it’s common knowledge that proteins make up muscles, they also perform a wide variety of functions and are involved in virtually all cell processes that keep you alive.
Nitrogen is also a component of nucleic acids in DNA, the blueprint of life. DNA determines your eye color, your height, your metabolism, even to an extent your intelligence and behavior. Clearly, living organisms require nitrogen to survive.
Eye color is determined by DNA, made from proteins built up with nitrogen.
In many types of ecosystems, however, there is a scarcity of usable nitrogen. Nitrogen has a limited availability for biological use. Yet, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere. 78% of the air around us consists of nitrogen in the form N2.
78% of the atmosphere is composed of N2.
How do you explain this apparent dichotomy between abundant atmospheric nitrogen, and the scarcity of nitrogen in ecological systems?
While abundant, atmospheric nitrogen is in the form N2. Other significant forms of nitrogen in ecosystems are ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen from animal waste is excreted in the form of ammonia. Plants intake nitrogen in the form of nitrate. From N2 in the atmosphere to nitrate absorbed as nutrients by plants, nitrogen is converted through different chemical forms by ecological processes and cycled over and over again.
These processes compose the nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Law of Conservation of Matter - Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
There are two interrelated parts of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen gas forms about 80% of the atmosphere. However, no animals and few plants can utilise nitrogen in this gaseous form.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen to amino acids, which are the components of proteins. Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the cyanobacteria Nostoc, soil bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium, and the legume root bacteria Rhizobium.
Atmospheric nitrogen can also be fixed or converted to a more solid form by lightning.
In reverse, Denitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia, a nitrogenous waste in urine, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen in animals and plants is in the form of amino acids and proteins. As one organism eats another along the food chain, the nitrogen passes from one organism to another.
Animals also excrete nitrogenous wastes in urine as urea, uric acid or ammonia. This passes to the soil.
When animals and plants die, Putrefactive Bacteria in the soil converts the body amino acids and proteins to ammonia in the soil. These decay bacteria also convert urea and uric acid to ammonia in the soil.
Nitrite Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia to nitrites in the soil.
Nitrate Bacteria in the soil convert those nitrites to nitrates in the soil. These are used by the plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus is an essential component of many chemicals within living organisms. Examples include the energy-rich compound ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and the phosphates used by plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus

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Retrieved Text: process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
1. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies or various industrial processes.
2. The conversion by certain soil microorganisms, such as rhizobia, of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that plants and other organisms can assimilate.
the process by which free nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted by biological or chemical means to ammonia and to other forms usable by plants and animals. Biological nitrogen fixation is the more important process and is accomplished by microorganisms in the soil, either free living or in close association with root nodules of certain plants. In contrast, chemical nitrogen fixation, as is used in industry, requires extremely high temperatures and pressures.
the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen in the synthesis of AMINO ACIDS by some bacteria. Such bacteria can be free-living (e.g. Azotobacter, an aerobe; Clostridium, an obligate anaerobe) while others (e.g. Rhizobium) live in association with plants, occupying swellings in the root called root nodules. The latter relationship is one of SYMBIOSIS, in that the plant gains nutrients and thus can live in nitrogen-poor soils, while the nitrogen-fixer obtains a supply of carbohydrates from the plant. The nitrogen is reduced to ammonia in the microbes by action of the enzyme nitrogenase: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, the ammonia then reacting with keto acids to form amino acids.
Nitrogen fixation potential of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Variation in seedling growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia nilotica inoculated with eight rhizobial strains.
Nitrogen fixation and its improvement through genetic engineering.
Nitrogen fixation associated

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Retrieved Text: Provide an example of an ecosystem evolving in a manner that preserves or recycles nutrients.
In tropical environments with stable geological topography, there is very little phosphorus in the soil. This is due to the age and stability of the soil. The soil itself is so old that the clays in it have broken down. Because rain is the only input of water, there is no opportunity for the addition of new minerals. The phosphorus necessary to sustain the ecosystem is stored in the vegetation, and is retained phosphorus during growth. When those plants die, the return the phosphorus to the ecosystem in the form of plant litter detritus, and is quickly taken back up into other organisms in the system. The other organisms in the environment have evolved to pull the phosphorus directly out of the litter instead of the soil.
How is it that a nutrient like nitrogen, which is typically qualified as limiting, is present in such excess in many locations?
Nitrogen is historically not easily obtained in natural systems. It exists primarily as N2 gas in the atmosphere and plants are not able to obtain this form directly. Most plants rely on other organisms to fix nitrogen into usable forms like NH4+ and NO3- which they are able to use. This means that the plants are dependent primarily on microorganisms in the soil or in their root structures thus their growth is limited by the productivity of the microorganisms.
Humans have changed this case in three ways. Humans cultivate a variety of plants such as legumes

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Retrieved Text: You are a little tiny nitrogen (N) atom floating around the atmosphere in a gaseous state, the state that you and your nitrogen friends are usually in. You are an element on the periodic table that is very important to life on Earth. You make up DNA, which carries genetic information in organisms.
You also make up about 78% of the air surrounding all living things. The problem is, you like to hang really close to your nitrogen boyfriend in the air, joining together as N2. You have a very strong bond to your nitrogen boyfriend, and the two of you are hard to break apart, which makes you unable to be used by living organisms. That is why you must go through the nitrogen cycle in order to be useful.
The nitrogen cycle is composed of four steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification.
During the first step of the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, you and your boyfriend (N2) are pulled out of the air by bacteria in the soil. The bacteria turns you both into ammonium by mixing you with hydrogen atoms.
In the next step, nitrification, is the transition of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate through oxidation. Look at it this way: you start off as a nitrogen atom in ammonium, surrounded by hydrogen atoms. More bacteria in the soil convert you into nitrite and then nitrate, so you are now surrounded by oxygen atoms. As part of nitrate, you can now be brought into plants through their roots in order to be used. You might

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Retrieved Text: Citation: Tang, Q., Liu, H., Tewolde, H., Jiang, P., Lei, B., Zhai, L., Ren, T. 2018. Nitrogen uptake and transfer in broad bean and garlic strip intercropping systems. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 17(1):220-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61772-6.
Interpretive Summary: Broad bean, like other legume crops, has the ability to convert inert nitrogen gas to chemical forms that can be used by plants for growth. Garlic, however, does not have this ability. The nitrogen need by garlic may partially be met by intercropping it with broad bean. This study was conducted to quantify the amount of nitrogen that transfers from broad bean to garlic when both crops are planted in the same soil. Field and pot studies were carried out in the Erhai Lake region in China using stable nitrogen isotope (15N) as a tracer applied to the soil or injected into broad bean plants. The results showed that intercropping of garlic and broad bean increased the absorption of soil-applied fertilizer nitrogen from 32% for monocrop broad bean and 41% for monocrop garlic to 47% if the two crops were intercropped. Nearly 15% of isotopic nitrogen injected into petioles of broad bean plants intercropped with garlic was recovered in garlic plant parts at harvest. The transfer of 15% of nitrogen from broad bean to intercropped garlic suggests garlic production can benefit from the ability of broad bean to convert nitrogen gas to plant-usable forms. The results provide a basis for optimizing the nitrogen fertilizer management of non-legume crops like garlic when intercropped with legumes like broad bean.
Technical Abstract:

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Retrieved Text: a. Microorganisms may be unicellular or ___________.
b. __________ bacteria help to make curd from milk.
c. Disease-causing microorganisms are called _______.
d. Ammonium salt in the soil is converted first into nitrites by _________ bacteria.
e. _______ coagulation takes place only when milk is hot.
f. Salting draws out _______ from food.
g. Nitrate in the soil is converted by _________ bacteria into nitrogen gas.
h. The process of preventing food spoilage by chemical or physical methods is called food ________.
Q2: Name any two antibiotics.
Q3: Give the names of any two communicable diseases.
Q4: What are the two common food preservatives used in our homes?
Answer: Salt, sugar and oil.
Q5: Name the bacteria that are present in root nodules of leguminous plants that fix nitrogen.
Q6: Very often we observe greenish pond water in our surroundings. What type of microbes they are likely to be?
Q8: Name any unicellular algae.
Q10: Which organisms are interlinked between living and non-living organisms?
Answer: The process in which milk is heated up to 72°C for 15 to 30 minutes and then chilled and stored is called pasteurization. This prevents the growth of most microorganisms.
Q12: Pasteurisation led to another process, critical to surgery. Name the process.
Q13: What are the advantages of food preservation?
1) This prevents spoilage of food.
2) Food can be preserved for a longer period.
3) Quality of food is ensured for a long time.
4) Variety of food items may be available in faraway places, in any season.
Q14: How do microbes cause food poisoning?
Answer: Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning. e.g. Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella are

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Retrieved Text: Most people—even non-gardeners—have a vague idea about the process of nitrogen-fixation. This knowledge usually stems from hearing about planting clover to rejuvenate the soil in between rotations of crops. Clover is a classic “green manure” that acts against soil depletion, but it is merely one of many plants that can remediate worn-out earth.
Most—but not all—of these nitrogen-restorative plants are legumes, meaning they’re in the Fabaceae (pea) family. The nitrogen fixation they exhibit is a process whereby bacteria (called rhizobia) exist in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria live in nodules on the plant’s roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is bioavailable.
Although these symbioses primarily exist on the roots of members of the aforementioned Fabaceae family, there are plants like alders (Alnus spp.), sea buckthorns (Hippophae spp.) and gunneras (Gunnera spp.) that also have symbioses with bacteria or cyanobacteria.
In the garden, you can use these nodule-dwelling rhizobia to your advantage in a single season: Planting peas, beans or alfalfa (all legumes) alongside or between your other crops helps to share the wealth these plants bring to the soil. A classic planting formation that operates on these principles is the Haudenosaunee Three Sisters plot, where maize (corn), beans and squash are grown together.
In between seasons, consider cover-cropping your plots, pots and raised beds with a leguminous seed mix. Or even let a bed lay fallow and unproductive for a season under a cover crop: Your soil will thank you next year. When it comes time to plant again, you can compost the biomass

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Retrieved Text: Does an apple a day really keep the doctor away? Not anymore, according to soil health experts—unless the apple comes from a tree grown in healthy, organic soil.
According to Australian soil scientist Christine Jones, as reported by Courtney White in his book, Grass, Soil, Hope, apples have lost 80 percent of their vitamin C.
And that orange you just ate to help ward off a cold? It’s entirely possible that it contains no vitamin C at all.
A study looking at vegetables from 1930 to 1980, found that iron levels had decreased by 22 percent, and calcium content by 19 percent. In the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1990, copper content in vegetables fell by 76 percent, and calcium by 46 percent. The mineral content in meat was also significantly reduced.
Food forms the building blocks of our bodies and health. Soil forms the basis for healthy food. Unhealthy soil grows poor quality food. And poor quality food means poor health.
Even our mental health is linked to healthy soil, rich in microbes.
So what’s happened to our soil? It’s been under assault since the advent of modern industrial agriculture, with its monocrops, fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
The term “biodiversity” evokes images of a rich variety of plants—trees, flowers, grasses, fruits, vegetables—mixed in with an equally diverse collection of animals, insects and wildlife, all co-existing in a lush environment.
But there’s a whole world of biodiversity that lives beneath the surface of the earth—at least in areas where the soil hasn’t been destroyed. And that biodiversity is essential for the growth of nutrient-rich

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Retrieved Text: South Texas is a hot and dry land, and when a good rain comes, our plants rejoice. But rain brings more than water to replenish the countryside. Rain also contains fertilizer.
The air in the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen. Plants require nitrogen to grow, but they can’t process the inert nitrogen gas in the sky. It takes an enormous blast of energy to break apart those nitrogen molecules and convert them to a compound that plants can use.
This is where lightning comes into play. A lightning bolt is 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit, hotter than the sun, and contains up to a billion volts of electricity. A single lightning bolt can stretch for miles as it tears apart the sky with its power.
The unbridled energy of lightning shatters the nitrogen molecules in the air. Some of the free nitrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form compounds called nitrates that mix with the rain.
These nitrates are a powerful natural fertilizer. Raindrops carry the nitrates to the ground in a soluble form that plants can absorb. This process is called atmospheric nitrogen fixation, where lightning creates fertilizer in the sky.
The falling raindrops also capture other particles in the air, such as dust and pollen. The rain delivers this biologically rich material to the soil while cleansing the grit and grime from the leaves of plants.
The rain gives its water to the thirsty land, but it is the lightning that adds fertilizer. We can water our gardens ten times and not do as much good as one lightning-charged rainstorm. Our lack of

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Retrieved Text: are living organisms that consist of one cell.
Bacteria are the smallest of all living things.
Bacteria are the oldest and most diverse life forms.
Some bacteria are used to fight off harmful infections. Where would you find these helpful bacteria in the human body?
What is the significance of scientist Alexander Fleming accidentally finding a single mold growing in a used petri dish?
All petri dishes should be sterilized to prevent cross contamination.
It was the first form of cell mutation.
It was penicillin, a powerful antibiotic that kills bacteria.
He had created a toxic substance without even trying.
In which of these foods might you find E. coli?
What do bacteria in our soils and waterways do to help our environment?
They serve as food for other organisms.
They decompose dead organisms and animal wastes into chemical elements.
Once ingested, they can protect animals from transmitted diseases.
They can protect plants from diseases.
the desert and hot springs.
What has caused some bacteria to become drug-resistant?
What do helpful bacteria do for humans and animals?
They help digest food and destroy harmful organisms in the intestines.
Intestinal bacteria help the body absorb vitamins.
They live in their stomachs to help digest food.
Which of the following is an example of how bacteria can help change a chemical into a form that can be used by plants?
Some bacteria convert carbon monoxide in the air into nutrients for plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in soil into nitrate.
Some bacteria convert oxygen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
Some bacteria convert nitrogen in water into nitrogen used by plants.
اني راح اجاوب حسب منهج السبعينات الي درسنا عليه..

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Retrieved Text: Copy to Clipboard Experienced and driven Compliance Officer with a proven track record of helping to lead companies by ensuring they are functioning in complete compliance with all national and international rules and regulations.
If students can draw a picture of the problem even using simple representations like squares or circles for the units discussed in the problemthen it can help them visualize exactly what's occurring.
Pada tahunkebanyakan dari perangkat lunak yang mereka miliki bebas karena mereka tidak berpikiran untuk membatasinya. Para pengguna hanya menerima berkas berupa deretan angka-angka yang dapat dijalankan.
This template, Velli, is great if you have images of visual work that you'd like to form part of your resume, and there's also space for a cover letter.
For Students: Essay in punjabi on internet and academic success!
Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.
Building capacity in health research in the developing world. The access to the English-speaking reviews is a dominating factor in a scientific community which publishes mainly in English.
A number of explanations are possible.
We should recognize this as a parabola that opens up and has been shifted 2. Completing the Square and Shifting Parabolas getting parabola to vertex form and analyzing the shift of a vertex F-IF.
We may also: Do I need to attend an interview?
Step 4: Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. New vs. The best

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen fixing bacteria help plants grow.
Custom N2 is a nitrogen fixing product that increases the nitrogen content of the soil. N2 contains a nitrogen fixing bacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa. This beneficial soil bacteria takes atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and converts it to ammonium. The ammonium is then usable to the plant.
Nitrogen fixation is a vital process for the plant as nitrogen is a key element in plant growth.
Custom N2 improves root size and root health. This healthier root allows the plant to take up additional nutrients thereby improving overall yield and quality of the crop.
Green soybean, called edamame in the United States, needs a large quantity of nitrogen to grow and produce crop. In this case study, we added Custom N2 and had a much larger yield of edamame.
Use of Custom N2, improves roots in green soybeans, edamame, and other crops. Notice the case study in the final picture, the root on the right has been treated with Custom N2. The root on the right is the untreated control. The treated root is larger and has more offshoots. Its easy to see why this treated plant will thrive and perform better than the untreated plant.
Custom Biologicals manufactures a number of biological products for use in agriculture, farming and gardening including, biofertilizers, soil inoculants and biological seed treatments. Contact Custom directly at (561) 797-3008 or via email at Bill@Custombio.biz for additional information.
Custom N2 is a liquid concentrate containing the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Paenibacillus polymyxa. N2 is available in two sizes 50ml and 1 L. The 50 ml size treats

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Retrieved Text: Flatulance, while this might be an oversimplification, is essentially the process from which Azospirillum convert nitrogen gas to plant usable, ammonia (NH3). When it comes to nutrition nitrogen is the limiting factor in plant growth, playing a key role in almost every process of a plants life. In effect, azospirillum also affect almost every process of a plant’s life. So yeah, it’s pretty important!
Nitrogen exists in our air and our soil. Actually, 78% of our atmosphere is made of nitrogen (N2). The way it exists in our atmosphere doesn’t do much for our plants unless it can take on a solid form. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria take in nitrogen the way that we do oxygen.
Then they excrete it as a solid form that plants can use. When nitrogen is taken from gas to solid, it is called nitrogen fixation.
There are two main types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: free-living and mutualistic. The free-living bacteria are the self-sufficient, independent radicals of the group. Azospirillum is a mutualistic type of bacteria that creates symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the soil and the roots that grow in it. They are also known as root-colonizing bacteria or rhizobacteria.
The efforts of azospirillum can only be matched by a couple of other rare events in nature that require much more energy than releasing a few little bacteria to do the dirty work. Other natural elements responsible for nitrogen fixation include: ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment and being struck by lightning. We suggest sticking with picking up a bag of Xtreme Gardening Azos for your azospirillum fix.
Are All

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria with nitrogen-fixing ability, play a very important rule in the biological cycle. This article provides detailed information about various types of such bacteria.
You must have heard about nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants that enrich the soil where they grow. They have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the ground and make their own fertilizers. Actually, these plants do not pull off this feat on their own. They owe partial credit for this effort to their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The leguminous plants provide nutrients to the bacteria, in return for which they fix atmospheric nitrogen through anaerobic processes (processes that work without oxygen).
The primary function of these bacteria is 'Survival' and in their efforts directed towards this goal, they enter into a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants or some survive on their own. As a part of their metabolic cycle, they fix nitrogen.
There are many complex processes which make this nitrogen fixation possible and the reaction above is a simplified one. The end products are Ammonia (NH3) and water. Nitrogenase, the vital ingredient which make nitrogen fixation possible, is destroyed when it comes in contact with oxygen.
So the process of nitrogen fixation only occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) conditions or the oxygen is neutralized by its combination with chemicals like Leghemoglobin. Nitrogen fixation is one stage in the cycle which maintains the balance of this element in nature.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other micro organisms that fix nitrogen are collectively called 'Diazotrophs'. There are many strains of these bacteria in soil, which perform this function. They

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Retrieved Text: Many present-day coffee plantations use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous and phosphatic ones. These types of fertilizers are bad for two main reasons: they are very expensive, and these chemical fertilizers often make use of non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels, which can deplete nature’s precious resources. Furthermore, these synthetic fertilizers can harm Mother Earth due to water pollution. Thus, these chemical fertilizers are disastrous for the fragile ecology of coffee-growing regions.
Many generations of coffee farmers have ignored and abused the soil. The soil imbalance process takes time and the changes in each generation are minute, so no one cared – and many people still don’t care. Now, many farmers need to enrich the soil, so they turn to chemical fertilizers. The core issue for farming is how can we foster development and production without negatively affecting environment?
Faced with a problem of such a enormous magnitude, one can find a easy, yet effective solution for fertilizer needs of Coffee Plantations by just looking at the soil as a major natural resource. Most people think of soil as a dead, inert material. However, from an agricultural standpoint a healthy soil is the lifeline of any nation.
Soil itself is a living system with millions of beneficial microbes, acting as factories that provide biological nitrogen and other nutrients to the plant. Consider that 83.3% of the earth’s atmosphere is made up of inert nitrogen gas. Microorganisims can convert this atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant in the soluble form (such as ammonia) that the plant can absorb

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Retrieved Text: The nature balances the elements the plants need to produce amino acids. Carbon and oxygen are abundant in the atmosphere, and hydrogen is available as long as water is present. Nitrogen is recycled mainly through compost and manure with the help of bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen can also be utilized with the help of bacteria.
Organic nitrogen in compost and manure.
Inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and chemical fertilizers.
Modern agriculture focuses on efficiency. But the natural nitrogen balance in the soil is disrupted, because the plants are removed from the site (no decomposition) and animals are prevented from entering the area (no manure). To compensate for this are nitrogen and other elements added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers.
While fertilizers improve plant growth, do they also create problems. Soil health relies on a balance of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as microbial health. It is much more complicated then simply adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.
Increased acid levels in the soil, which is damaging the balance in the soil.
Nitrous oxide, which is a byproduct of nitrogen, is a significant greenhouse gas.
Groundwater contamination, which is linked to several health issues.
Eutrophication. Groundwater contamination also contributes to marine "dead zones". The increase in the water-soluble nitrates creates an influx of plant-life, which eats up oxygen and starves out fish and crustaceans.

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Retrieved Text: Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles.
What is evaporation? Water gets warm and changes from liquid water to water vapor.
Are humans primary consumers of carbon dioxide or secondary consumers? Neither. Humans produce carbon dioxide.
Another method for fixing nitrogen? Lightning converts nitrogen gas into soluble nitrates.
When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.
Some bacteria have the ability to "fix" nitrogen. This means they convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically useful forms of nitrogen.
The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that the reservoir for phosphorous exists in mineral form in rocks rather than in the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.

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Retrieved Text: Why are artificial nitrogen fertilisers used and how do they affect sustainability?
In many natural environments nitrogen is the primary factor in limiting plant growth (provided there is sufficient water supply and an absence of pests and disease). It is an essential macronutrient for plant metabolic pathways, protein synthesis and is a major component of chlorophyll. Although nitrogen accounts for 78% air, plants can only utilise reduced sources of this element such as the inorganic forms of ammonium (NH4–) and nitrate (NO3–) salts from soil. In order to become available for uptake, plants rely on a process of nitrogen fixation which is carried out naturally by fixation microorganisms. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria symbiotically associate with particular plant groups such as rhizobium bacteria and legumes. Despite this only about 2% of soil nitrogen is naturally found in inorganic form.
As with any business, farmers seek to maximise profit and typically in cropping systems this equates to optimising yield. In wheat systems, high yields of high quality grain (i.e. high % nitrogen content) requires high input and uptake of nitrogen (Barraclough et al., 2010). Whilst grain and fertiliser price ratios are favourable, farmers are driven to apply high levels of nitrogen above those that are most efficient for crop stability in an effort to maximise potential yields and returns.
The process of nitrogen fixation is energy intensive since it requires the breaking of the triple covalent bond of N2 and as in nature, the industrial manufacture of nitrogen fertilisers requires significant amounts of energy to break the bonds of N2 molecules.

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Retrieved Text: Read this article to learn about the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen cycle.
The most abundant element in the atmosphere is nitrogen. In its elemental form it is a colourless and odorless gas which cannot be used by plants or animals. But in combination with oxygen or other elements, nitrogen is available to living organisms as a nutrient. The nitrogen cycle may be defined as the circular flow of nitrogen from free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrates in the soil, and, finally, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
By this process, nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates.
(i) There are some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in the soil or in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. They can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate. Nitrogen fixation is also done by some types of blue-green algae and fungi.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation also occurs in the atmosphere. This is natural nitrogen fixation. It takes place when lightning occurs, because the electrical current that passes through the atmospheric nitrogen converts some of the nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds. These compounds can be used by plants.
(iii) Nitrates are also released from dead and decaying plants and animals and animal wastes.
At the same time, when nitrates are being produced from nitrogen gas, other nitrates are breaking down and releasing nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere. This process of reversal is called de-nitrification.
(ii) When run-off water carry nitrates into surface water which constantly exchanges nitrogen with the atmosphere.
There are some ecosystems where the process of nitrogen fixation and de-nitrification are attuned according to the productivity demands

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Retrieved Text: Which products do we offer?
What does your crop need?
How can you improve your performance?
Along with carbon, nitrogen is a fundamental component of organic matter. Although 78% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, our nitrogen requirements can only be met with plant or animal protein. Other than legumes, plants only have access to nitrogen at the end of the mineralisation process of organic matter. Agriculture was revolutionised by the discovery, over a century ago, of the ammonia manufacturing process by combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (Haber-Bosch process, 1918 and 1931 Nobel prize-winners). Without such mineral nitrogen, the world’s farming output would be reduced by half.
Along with other elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc.), nitrogen is a constituent of the amino acids that build up proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element for cell constitution and for photosynthesis (chlorophyll). It is the main factor in plant growth. It has an influence on quality, mainly on the protein content of plants.
Nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3-) dissolved in the soil solution. Organic, ammonia or urea nitrogen present in the soil gradually turns into the nitrate form as a result of different microbial and physical-chemical processes. By absorbing water from the soil to make up for evaporation losses, the plant passively absorbs the nitrates present in a flow that rises up to the leaves. Here, the nitrates are reduced and reorganised in organic form, and then redistributed throughout the plant.
Nitrogen is generally the first factor limiting plant growth, with the exception of

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Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: The weather has been erratic lately. One day the girls are running through the yard in their flip flops and the next day they are wearing snow boots building a snowman. This weather has even triggered the tulips. They are starting to pop up out of the soil. I want to put little coats on them and tell them it’s not quiet time to display their splendor. I find it fascinating that when conditions are right, a seed or in this case a bulb, emerges from a dark wet place all on its very own. The laws of nature are amazing. Watching a plant emerge from a tiny seed into a plant is one of my favorite parts of gardening.
My enthusiasm for gardening is spreading, as I have three close friends (Amy, Katy, Mary) with plans to start their very first gardens. I’m so excited to share the gardening experience with them. Current discussions center on where to place their garden and what they plan to grow. In these discussions I always emphasize the important components of healthy soil.
Right now, I will focus on nitrogen in the soil. Are you ready for a science lesson? If you remember Jr. High science class you may already know all of this. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the three primary nutrients needed for plant growth and development; nitrogen being the most important. Nitrogen deficient plants look sick; they often are yellow, weak and if they produce fruit it will be small.
Nitrogen is in the Earth’s atmosphere and the air

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen compounds are essential to plant development, but atmospheric nitrogen must be fixed (transformed) into molecules that plants can use. Bacteria are the only organisms able to carry out nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in many environments. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil have the additional ability to live inside the root nodules of certain plants, such as legumes, and provide fixed nitrogen to the plant host.
Most plants utilized for bioenergy production are not capable of hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so they require applications of nitrogen to increase the speed of growth. However, nitrogen application is costly, environmentally damaging, and potentially hazardous to human health.
We received funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop mechanisms to engineer bioenergy crops so that these plants can fix nitrogen via root nodule symbioses. If we are successful, engineered bioenergy crops could be cultivated in marginal lands that have little agricultural value due to poor soil or other characteristics.
Our phylogenomic approach involves obtaining genomic data form 15,000 species. We are collecting tissues of these species from different herbaria across the world.
We will verify the function of candidate genes discovered in Aim One for their effect on root nodule development in Medicago (nodulating) and poplar root organ cultures (non-nodulating).
We will engineer promising genes identified in Aim Two into poplar, evaluate the development of nodules, and test the impact of these introduced genes on N-fixation and whole-plant properties.
This project is funded by the Biosystems Design Program from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Office of Science at the U.S. Department of

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Retrieved Text: Carbon Cycle VIDEO by FUSE SCHOOL!
What in the world is BIOGEOCHEMICAL RECYCLING?
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO..
These cycles are different from the energy cycles of the food chain and food web in whic h the Energy Flow through the ecosystem flows in ONE DIRECTION. Also some of this energy gets lost from “the system” as heat.
These five cycles are particularly important to organisms because these materials make up the chemical compounds of cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE is the global circulation of carbon from the environment to living organisms and from living organisms back to the environment. Carbon EXISTS in the abiotic environment as 1) Carbon dioxide [CO2 (gas)] in the atmosphere, 2) dissolves in H2O to form HCO3 (BICARBONATE) and Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)., 3) Carbonate rocks (limestone & coral = CaCO3 [Calcium Carbonate], 4) Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are derived from once living things (fossil fuels), and 5) Dead organic matter.
The Carbon Cycle Step 1 - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion (burning).
The Carbon Cycle Step 2 - Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.
The Carbon Cycle Step 3 - Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
The Carbon Cycle Step 4 - The dead

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Retrieved Text: As society becomes more health and environmentally conscious, you're likely paying more attention to the size of your household's carbon footprint and what you feed your family. If you grow a home vegetable garden or feed your lawn and landscape, you may wonder if chemical fertilizers are really the best products to use. It's true that chemical fertilizers create runoff, contribute to greenhouse gasses and require frequent application. They do have their benefits, however. Chemical fertilizers offer greater control over the amount of nutrients you feed your plants than their organic counterparts. Manufactured fertilizer is also much less likely to add weeds to your garden, benefits plants more quickly than organic fertilizer and requires smaller applications. It's important to weigh both the pros and cons of chemical fertilizers before deciding whether to use them.
Many computer interfaces operate on a WYSIWYG system, and so do manufactured fertilizers. In the computer world, WYSIWYG stands for "what you see is what you get," and refers to programs that allow users to print documents that appear the same on paper as they do on the screen. Chemical fertilizers work the same way. The fertilizer ingredients are carefully measured and their amounts listed right on their packaging. When you use them, you know exactly how much of a given element you will add to your soil. Because of their sources, organic fertilizers are a bit more unpredictable. Many come from manure, for instance, and it's impossible to know exactly what a certain animal ate and how its body processed it.
Chemical fertilizers

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Retrieved Text: Matter is recycled continuously within biological systems which act to moderate the availability of these substances in a way that supports the continued presence of life. In this way biological systems are able to terra-form their planets and bring it to a state of stability that supports further life.
We are part of this matrix of life and like the rest of it we need to align our functions to those that support and preserve life. The work of the permaculture designer is to create abundant systems that flow with the processes of life and work in with the recycling of materials to support.
The water cycle is a process that allows water to be available in continuously fresh forms to be drawn into biological systems and support the function of life.
Living systems have evolved in the context of aquatic systems and water provides an environment for all life processes.
The water cycle describes the movement of water between the different spheres of the Earth. This is illustrated in the diagram below.
The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon between the different spheres of Earth. Carbon is present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas, within the soil as organic matter, and within living things in the biological molecules that compose their bodies. The movement of carbon between these spheres ensures the fertility and abundance of biological systems. At the base of terrestrial systems is a thriving soil ecology and the addition of fresh sources of carbon to this system acts as a crucial part of maintaining and building

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Retrieved Text: One does not typically associate labor and toil with a day of festivities, but the invention of Labor Day in America was started as just that back in 1882. Seen as the swan song of summer and the last long weekend for barbeques and bocci ball, celebrate this national holiday with the lupine flower. At its finest as the dog days simmer down into cooler nights and crisper mornings, this native wildflower works hard to look good in a vase next to the roasted corn and sweet iced tea.
Adopted as an official federal holiday in 1894, Labor Day has become the end of summer holiday celebrated with camping trips and backyard grilling. Originally established to give workers a day off so that they, along with their families, could come out to enjoy parades and events highlighting the hard work and contributions of labor associations across the country, many towns still hold festivals and fairs around this time to show of (sometimes the literal) fruits of their labor. As a wildflower, lupine grows natively in the mountainous west with very little labor and care at all, but can also be quite at home in a perennial garden. They are the perfect expression of a lazy Monday off from work.
Tall and voluptuous, the lupine flower is made up of a 2-4 foot stalk with many pretty little pea-flower like blooms. The cupped shape of each individual bloom can often have two different shades of color which can come in purple, blue, yellow, pink or white. Full and thick,

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Retrieved Text: micro nutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B), and of occasional significance there are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V) plus rare mineral catalysts.
The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilisers. The macro nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a “fixed” form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.
Fertilizers are any solid, liquid or gaseous substances containing one or more plant nutrients in known amount, that is applied to the soil, directly on the plant (foliage) or added to aqueous solutions (as in fertigation) to maintain soil fertility, improve crop development, yield and/or crop quality.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "An organism that uses pollination as the fertilization step in sexual reproduction also performs wha" and the following answer choices: 
- competition
 - rapid expansion
 - in the autumn season
 - peachleaf willow
 - Chemical energy
 - important habitats
 - heat energy
 - Photosynthesis

Now knowing that pollination is the fertilization step in the sexual reproduction of plants and plants use sunlight for photosynthesis, choose the best answer.

Target Text: Photosynthesis

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: 4 Animal Reproduction - Teacher Resource Asexual reproduction: any reproduction that does not involve the union of sperm and egg. Plants can reproduce asexually by growing from cuttings, from... Asexual reproduction in plants is also called vegetative reproduction. It usually involves only the plant's vegetative structures like roots, stems and leaves. For example, raspberries can produce a new generation using their stems; potatoes, using their roots; and geraniums can be grown from any piece of a parent plant.
Reproduction of Animals and Plants F 1 R U I T 2 A 3 F 4 O E S 5 P E R M P 6 U B E R T Y R S 7 S E R T E T C 8 X P 9 L A C E N T A Y M I O U R I M 10 E N S T R U A T... Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, insemination, pollination, fecundation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to initiate the development of a new individual organism. The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called sexual reproduction.
Do not write in margin TOTAL / A2.16 ASEXUAL/SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 9 The table below refers to various features of asexual and sexual reproduction.
growth and reproduction; that the life processes common to plants include growth, nutrition and reproduction; to make links between life processes in familiar animals and plants and the environments in which they are found.
Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also

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Retrieved Text: Asexually reproducing organism can cope with a changing environment only through relatively rare spontaneous mutations that prove to be beneficial.
This process does not allow any variation in their population, though it is opposite in the case of sexual reproduction, which accepts variations in their population.
These offsprings are parents again give rise to new one.
No fertilization occurs during asexual reproduction. And due to which sexual reproduction is considered as the most fundamental aspect of evolution. These offspring are usually referred to as clones . Time is taken to complete Multiplication is very rapid and in lesser time. Starfish Regenerating its Legs Agamogenesis Any form of reproduction which does not involve male gametes is known as agamogenesis.
What is asexual reproduction? Types of asexual reproduction There are several different types of asexual reproduction but the most common ones include binary fission, budding, fragmentation and spores.
The number of offspring may vary from two to many and are genetically similar in asexual reproduction whereas the number of offspring produced are less in number comparatively which are genetically different from their parents.
There are specialized organs present in male and female gametes for sexual reproduction in plant and animals. If it continues to grow normally it can eventually become a baby. This combination of gametes is named treatment.
Both of these forms of reproduction occur in plants, fungi and animals however the specific form of reproduction will depend on the species . Puffballs Emitting Spores Sexual Reproduction of Plants Bryophytes like liverworts, mosses, and hornworts consist of motile sperms with flagella.
Fertilization takes place in

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Retrieved Text: Check new design of our homepage! Reproduction is one of the distinguishing features of living organisms, and is essential for the survival of any species. Such perpetuation of species is achieved through two fundamental Reproduce asexually - sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction involves the formation of a zygote, through the fusion of gametes from two parents.
The zygote develops into an embryo, and grows into an offspring. On the other hand, asexual reproduction involves Reproduce asexually formation of a genetically identical offspring from a single individual. The primitive life forms predominantly exhibit asexual reproduction. The ability to exist in two genders evolved with the changing environment. With the increase in complexity of the newly evolved life forms, the dominance of asexual reproduction decreased.
Nevertheless, each kingdom encompasses a set of strictly asexual organisms, as well as a set of organisms characterized by the presence of both sexual and asexual phases. What is Asexual Reproduction? Asexual reproduction is a reproductive process devoid of gamete formation and fertilization, and mostly proceeds via mitosis. The resultant offspring is a clone of the parent organism due to Reproduce asexually absence Reproduce asexually genetic exchange.
Budding, fission, fragmentation, vegetative propagation, etc. Such reproductive cycles complete in less time, as compared to sexual reproduction, which serves as an evolutionary advantage. However, owing to the lack of genetic variation, the ability to adapt to changing environment is limited.
In asexual organisms, genetic Reproduce asexually can Reproduce asexually only through random mutations. Being so, they are dependent on favorable mutations to cope with environmental changes. List of Organisms

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Retrieved Text: 1. What are the functions of the leaves?
The leaves exchange gases as well as are the site of photosynthesis.
2. What are the products of photosynthesis?
Glucose is the main product and oxygen is a by product.
3. Why is the elodea green?
4. What is the perfect flower?
Flowers that have both male and female parts.
5. What is the function of the stamen?
The stamen are the male parts and they produce pollen.
6. What does the ovary grow into after fertilization?
7. What is the difference between pollination and fertilization?
8. Why does a seed have a cotyledon?
The cotyledon is the stored food because the seed cannot make its own yet.
1. How are tissues related to cells?
2. What are the functions of the skeletal system?
3. Which two systems work together to provide locomotion?
4. What function do the nutrients eggs, beef and yogurt have for the human body? WHY?
5. How does temperature affect the flexibility of the gummy worm?
6. Which nutrient gives us a quick source of energy?
7. What is the difference between absorption and digestion?
8. Where does digestion end, and why?
9. Why are the lungs part of the excretory system?
10. How does the digestive system work with the circulatory system?
11. How does the circulatory system work with the respiratory system?
12. How does the nervous system work with the muscular system?
1. How is it possible that a tree can grow 40 different fruit?
2. What is the difference between fission and budding?
3. Where does fertilization and development occur in Homo sapiens?
4. Name one advantage of internal fertilization.
5. What is a clone?
6. What type of reproduction

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Retrieved Text: Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in some organisms in which offspring arise from only one parent. It is the primary form of reproduction in single-celled organisms, however, some plants and fungi can reproduce asexually as well.
There are many advantages of asexual reproduction. One advantage is the speed of producing offsprings quickly. Because it does not involve the formation of gametes so the time is saved and can be utilized by parent cell to spread its genetic material rapidly. It is also beneficial for smaller populations. For example, if there is a small number of plants in an area then, there will be very small amount of plants to pollinate one another. In that case, it will be a good choice to reproduce asexually, to increase the number of plants of that species in such area.
Moreover, if an organism is very successful and its environment is stable i.e. not changing a lot then it will be beneficial to reproduce asexually to get successful offsprings as well.
Although asexual reproduction is advantageous in many cases but sometimes it may cause serious threats to a population. Asexually reproduced offsprings have no diversity. Since they are produced from the single parent so no mix-up of genetic material and no diversity, they are exactly identical. They are very prone to extinction because all the offsprings have same traits so same weaknesses. One diseased organism can cause the whole population to wipe out because there is no genetic diversity. Another disadvantage is the lack of adaptability. If an individual establishes reaction

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Retrieved Text: Look at the diagram of a flower below. Most flowers form as a series of rings. The outer ring is made up of sepals. Sepals are usually green and look like leaves attached to the stem at the base of the flower. The colorful petals make up the next ring. Inside the ring of petals in the center of the flower are the reproductive parts of the plant. The stamens are the male reproductive organs. Notice that each stamen has an anther on its tip. This is where millions of tiny pollen grains are attached. The solid tube called the pistil is the female part of the flower. The pistil contains the ovary and egg/eggs.
The first step of fertilization is pollination. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anther to the sticky top of the pistil. Birds and insects are responsible for pollinating many flowers. They knock pollen off the anther and onto the pistil. Rain and wind also aid in pollination.
A tube grows out of the pollen grain that is stuck to the pistil. Inside the pollen tube is the sperm. The tube grows down into the ovule, which is at the bottom of the pistil and fertilization occurs. The fertilized egg cell begins to divide and form a young organism called an embryo. The ovule grows into a covering that protects what has now become a seed. As this seed forms in the parent plant, the flower changes. The sepals and petals die and fall off. The ovule grows into a seed with

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Retrieved Text: This biphasic life cycle that plants demonstrate is referred to as an?
The life cycle of a plant from?
The leafy green gametophyte is the haploid generation that produces sperm and eggs. The sperm must swim through a film of water to the egg. The zygote develops into a stalked, diploid sporophyte that emerges from the gametophyte plant. The sporophyte is topped by a brown capsule in which haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These are dispersed and germinate, producing another green gametophyte generation.
What is the function and structure of the flower?
Flowers are the part of the sporophyte generation in flowering plants that is dedicated to sexual reproduction.
Insect and vertebrate pollination is ____ efficient than wind pollination.
that put more efforts into mechanisms to attract the animals (i.e. nectar, odoriferous compounds, appearance and etc.) ensured the success of those flowering plant lineages.
Stamens and carpels are composed of two to three distinctly different parts.
1.) To recap pollination is when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower's carpel.
2.) The pollen generates a tube to transfer the sperm from the male gametophyte to the female gametophyte.
3.) In flowering plants we see a double fertilization from the fusion of the sperm to specific cells of female gametophyte.
4.) This double fertilization gives rise to a zygote and endosperm.
5.) When the female gametophyte develops in the manner previously illustrated (polygonum type), which is the most common, the double fertilization gives rise to a (2n) zygote and a (3n) endosperm.
How do seeds germinate and grow?
Seeds need moisture and warmth to germinate. If conditions

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Retrieved Text: Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.
Describe the process of fertilization in human beings.
Choose the most appropriate answer.
Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.
Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction in animals.
In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?
What is metamorphosis? Give examples.
Differentiate between internal fertilization and external fertilization.
Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
NCERT solutions for Class 8 Science chapter 9 (Reproduction in Animals) include all questions with solution and detail explanation. This will clear students doubts about any question and improve application skills while preparing for board exams. The detailed, step-by-step solutions will help you understand the concepts better and clear your confusions, if any. Shaalaa.com has the CBSE Science Textbook For Class 8 solutions in a manner that help students grasp basic concepts better and faster.
Concepts covered in Class 8 Science chapter 9 Reproduction in Animals are Modes of Reproduction, Concept of Sexual Reproduction, Concept of Asexual Reproduction.
Using NCERT Class 8 solutions Reproduction in Animals exercise by students are an easy way to prepare for the exams, as they involve solutions arranged chapter-wise also page wise. The questions involved in NCERT Solutions are important questions that can be asked in the final exam. Maximum students of CBSE Class 8 prefer NCERT Textbook Solutions to score more in exam.

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Retrieved Text: Steeves, T.A.. "Seed Plants". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 04 March 2015, Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seed-plants. Accessed 21 April 2019.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the "seed habit," a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte).
Seed Plants, the most abundant and familiar component of Earth's vegetation, comprise an estimated 250 000-300 000 species. They outnumber all other PLANT groups, dominate the land, thrive in bodies of fresh water and are found to a limited extent in the oceans. They include the largest (giant sequoia) and oldest (bristlecone pine) living things, and encompass tiny water-meal scarcely 1 mm long and ephemeral annuals that survive only a few weeks. Seed plants share with other vascular plants (plants with woody conducting systems) basic organs (root, stem and leaf), cell types and tissues. In response to different environments, they have evolved many forms.
The common feature uniting seed plants is the &QUOT;seed habit,&QUOT; a unique method of sexual reproduction. In all vascular plants, the conspicuous plant is a spore producer (sporophyte) that alternates, in the life cycle, with a sexual phase (gametophyte). In seed plants, the spore that produces the female gametophyte is not shed to initiate an independent plant but is retained in the sporangium (reproductive structure), which is surrounded by a protective covering (integument). This is the immature seed or ovule.
Spores that produce male gametophytes are released as the gametophytes begin to develop. These are the pollen grains which are

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Retrieved Text: Why don’t cyanobacteria and bacteria reproduce by mitosis?
Damaged cells of an organism are usually ___ by mitosis.
All the chromosomes in a diploid cell are paired.
How many chromosomes are produced by the first division during meiosis?
Which statement(s) correspond(s) correctly to a mutation?
The kind of cell division associated with an increase in size and weight of an organism is called ___.
Gametes have ___ the chromosome number of the parent cell.
Chromosomes are attached to the ___ during the metaphase of mitosis.
The spindle apparatus disintegrates during the ___ of mitosis.
-Plant cells divide by means of a cell plate.
How does mitosis in animal cells differ from mitosis in higher plant cells?
Occasionally asexual reproduction can cause undesirable proliferation of an organism.
Nearly all plants can be reproduced asexually.
The new plant produced by the technique of layering must remain attached to the stem of the original plant.
A successful scion will produce the product of the rootstock with greater quality.
The technique of asexual reproduction most commonly used in the production of fruit trees is ___.
The vigor of a rootstock is usually ___ than that of the root system produced by the scion.
Asexual reproduction is most common in plants growing in ___ climates.
An elongated, horizontal stem that grows at the surface of the ground or just below it is called a rhizome.
Animals have more mechanisms for asexual reproduction than plants.
The stock is inserted into the scion during grafting.
The most commonly used method of asexual reproduction used in gardening is the cutting.
Root cuttings are more commonly used than stem cuttings.
A ___ is a plant structure with enlarged

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Retrieved Text: The flower’s function is to bring about sexual reproduction (the production of offspring following the fusion of male and female nuclei). The male and female nuclei are contained within the pollen grain and ovule respectively and pollination is the transfer process. Crosspollination ensures that variation is introduced into new generations of offspring.
Self pollination occurs when pollen comes from the same flower (or a different flower on the same plant) as the ovule, common in Fabaceae (bean family).
Cross-pollination occurs when pollen comes from a flower of a different plant, with a different genetic make-up from the ovule, common in Brassicaceae (cabbage family).
Natural agents of cross-pollination are mainly wind and insects.
The characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers are their small size, their green appearance (lacking coloured petals), their absence of nectaries and scent production, and their production of large amounts of pollen which is intercepted by large stigmas. They also often have proportionally large stigmas that protrude from the flower to maximize the chances of intercepting pollen grains in the air.
The commonest examples of wind-pollinated plants are the grasses, and trees with catkins such as Salix (willow), Betula (birch), Corylus (hazel), Fagus (beech), Quercus (oak). The Gymnosperma (conifers) also have wind-pollination from the small male cones.
Insect-pollinated flowers. The characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers are brightly coloured petals (and scent production) to attract insects, and the presence of nectaries to entice insects with sugary food. Insects such as bees and flies collect the pollen on their bodies as they fly in and out and carry it to other flowers. In tropical countries,

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Retrieved Text: Plants either reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on the type of plant. In sexual reproduction, two germ cells, or gametes, fuse to create the beginning of a genetically unique offspring. In asexual reproduction, a plant cell splits in two to create a genetically identical offspring.
During sexual reproduction, a male gamete needs to fertilize a female gamete. Depending on the plant, this is accomplished in a variety of ways. In flowering plants, the male and female gametes are located on different parts of the same flower. The sperm, located in the pollen grains, fall on the carpel of the flower, where the female gametes are located. This process occurs because of wind pollination or insect pollination that transports the pollen grains to the female gametes. As a result of this pollination, a fruit is created, which contains the seeds of offspring. In mosses, sexual reproduction can only occur if the male and female plant gametes combine directly. Conifers have two different cones: a male and a female cone. The male cone gives off pollen that the female cone catches.
Asexual reproduction occurs either through vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Vegetative reproduction occurs when a plant's shoots, roots and, sometimes, leaves fall onto moist dirt and take root. In apomixis, unfertilized plant seeds are used to create more offspring. Although asexual reproduction among plants occurs, sexual reproduction is far more common in most plant species.

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Retrieved Text: Research during the past five years has delivered tremendous new insights into gamete physiology and the mechanisms involved in fertilization in Arabidopsis. This progress has established the view that gametes are hyper-differentiated cell types with highly specific transcriptional profiles. Advances in microscopy based on fluorescent reporters and live cell imaging have also transformed research capability and provided insights into the mechanisms involved in gamete delivery, interaction and the reprogramming of chromatin. Yet, our understanding of the complexity of double fertilization that characterises flowering plants is far from complete.
Importantly, we lack any knowledge on the origin of mechanisms that predate double fertilization. Here, we propose to use emerging models, representing key stages in plant evolution, to provide insight into the ancestral mechanisms of gamete differentiation and fertilization. We will establish gene co-function networks by generating expression atlases for the liverwort Marchantia, the moss Physcomitrella and the extant basal flowering plant Amborella. These will be complemented with co-function networks from Arabidopsis and the important crops maize, tomato and rice. The green alga Chlamydomonas will serve as an outgroup. These networks will be used to study the conservation of gene co-function networks governing male and female gametogenesis, pollen tube growth and fertilization mechanisms in flowering plants. Moreover, these investigations will provide novel molecular markers of fertility in crops. We aim to identify, for example, fertilization factors which were lost from ancient angiosperms during the evolution of monocots (grasses) and eudicots and those which have evolved de novo in the angiosperm lineage. We will also directly test the function of

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Retrieved Text: Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will need to be separated from each other. However, keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing the other one out would not work, because the copy pushed out would not have an organized cellular structure for maintaining life processes. Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus. Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells. These two cells are of course similar, but are they likely to be absolutely identical? The answer to this question will depend on how accurately the copying reactions involved occur. No biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original. Some of these variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die. On the other hand, there could still be many other variations in the DNA copies that would not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving cells are similar but subtly different from each other.
The reproductive parts of

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Retrieved Text: Explains the process of pollination and its impact on our lives, and includes photographs, illustrations, and electron microscopy images.
A beautiful illustrated guide to the structure and form of pollen investigates pollination and fertilization, its impact our lives, and includes photographs, illustrations and electron microscopy images. The authors are an artist and a plant scientist.
A scientific and artistic collaboration reveals a stunning, even sensual, microscopic world.
Pollen grains have fascinated the scientifically curious since the 17th century. They are minute, almost impossible to see without a high-powered microscope, and remain hidden beyond the beauty o the flower until the moment of release. Then the grains, like alien spaceships, are carried by wind, water or animal to achieve their purpose of procreation.
This beautifully produced and highly original book by an artist and botanical scientist portrays the perfect designs of these microscopic organisms. Special light and scanning electron microscopy are used to obtain astonishing images of pollen grains, which are combined with exquisite photographs of the parent plants.
Pollen describes and illustrates in minute detail the reproductive workings of plants ranging from tulips and lilies to orchids and palms. The structure and form of pollen set the scene for the remarkable events that occur from pollination to fertilization. Also included are literary references to plant reproduction, as well as early botanical illustrations.
Pollen is an intriguing book that is both informative and surprisingly beautiful.
Pictures not as good as "Bizarre and Incredible World" and "Wonders of the Plant Kingdom," but it is a better book because of author Harley's teaching and pictures which

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Retrieved Text: Young to old. A life cycle?
Not in the biological sense. Life cycles describe the amount of DNA present at a specific stage or time in the life of an organism. Is there a haploid or diploid amount of DNA? That is the key question.
Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are represented in Figure below and described following sections.
Life cycles can vary in sexually reproducing organisms. Three types of sexual life cycles are shown here. Do you see how they differ? The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates diploid stages.
The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases, known as alternation of generations. In plants, the life cycle alternates between the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte. Spore forming cells in the diploid sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores, a haploid reproductive cell. Spores can develop into an adult without fusing with another cell.

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Retrieved Text: In humans is it possible to fertilize a ovum with another ovum from the same female subject?
I already found some works in which the ovum is fertilized by a somatic cell (see e.g. this ), but I am looking for fertilization specifically by another ovum.
Around a year ago I found in the internet a Japanese (ongoing) study on this, but cannot locate it any more.
Consider that somatic cells are properly diploid. Whereas an ovum itself just contains a haploid number of chromosomes. In typical sexual reproduction the sperm fertilizes the ovum which would than bring the chromosome number to to correct tally. So combining the genetic material in two ovum should bring the chromosome count to the correct tally as well, but scientists would need to somehow motivate the activities that happen when typical sexual reproduction occurs. It's likely very challenging to do that if not highly improbable. Should it work, this process could only produce female children.
Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged molecular-genetics reproduction human-genetics cytogenetics or ask your own question.
The probability of indirect human fertilization?
Why does the ovum prefers to be arrested at metaphase 2 of meosis before fertilization? What is the possible advantage of this process?
Why are so many spermatozoa produced when only one of them fertilises the ovum?
What is the need for lobules in (human) testicles?

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Retrieved Text: 1. the process of reproduction.
2. a class composed of all individuals removed by the same number of successive ancestors from a common predecessor, or occupying positions on the same level in a genealogical (pedigree) chart.
alternate generation reproduction by alternate asexual and sexual means in an animal or plant species.
asexual generation (direct generation) production of a new organism not originating from union of gametes.
first filial generation the first-generation offspring of two parents; symbol F1.
parental generation the generation with which a particular genetic study is begun; symbol P1.
second filial generation all of the offspring produced by two individuals of the first filial generation; symbol F2.
sexual generation production of a new organism from the cell formed by the union of a male gamete (spermatozoon) and a female gamete (oocyte).
spontaneous generation the discredited concept of continuous generation of living organisms from nonliving matter.
reproduction by fission, gemmation, or in any other way without union of the male and female cell, or conjugation.
Reproduction by fission, gemmation, or in any other way without union of the male and female cells, or conjugation.
Synonym(s): heterogenesis (2) , nonsexual generation.
2. a class composed of all individuals removed by the same number of successive ancestors from a common predecessor, or occupying positions on the same level in a genealogical (pedigree) chart. Said also of antibiotics or other chemicals derived from parent compounds.
reproduction by alternate asexual and sexual means in an animal or plant species.
production of a new organism not originating from union of gametes. Called also direct generation.
the first generation offspring of two parents; symbol F1.
all of

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Retrieved Text: Asexual reproduction involves only one parent so there is no genetic variation and all offspring are clones of each other and the parent. This method of reproduction is much quicker than sexual reproduction and is very beneficial in environments which don’t vary.
However, in environments that change rapidly, all of these clones are susceptible to the same diseases and adverse conditions. Many plants naturally reproduce asexually (such as strawberries using runners). Humans can also induce plants to reproduce asexually by taking and planting cuttings that will grow into clones of the parent plant.
The sexual organ of a plant is the the flower. The gametes of flowers are pollen (male) and ovules (female) and the process where pollen from one flower is transferred to another, is called pollination. Plants have evolved two subtly different forms of a pollination: wind-pollination and insect-pollination.
The process of pollen landing on a stigma is known as pollination and from then on the events do not differ between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated plants.
Wind pollinated flowers require wind to transfer pollen from one flower to the next and therefore do not need bright petals or nectaries. Their anthers dangle in the air to catch wind currents (so that the pollen can be blown away) and their stigmas are feathery, making them more likely to catch pollen floating in the air. Wind pollinated flowers produce pollen grains that are larger and inflated to help them be carried by the wind.
Pollen grains have two nuclei and once pollination has occurred, the pollen grains first nucleus controls the growth

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Retrieved Text: Tulips reproduce either from cross-pollination of seeds or self-pollination via bulbs that form around the base of the plant's main bulb. These bulbs are clones of the parent plant. Reproduction by bulbs is the more reliable propagation method, but reproducing with seeds allows for color variations and genetic diversity.
Tulips produce seeds by sexual reproduction when their flowers are pollinated by wind or insects, according to Tulip World. Sexual reproduction combines the genetic materials of two plants. Tulips also contain both male and female parts, which allows the plant to reproduce asexually. In asexual reproduction, the bulb roots bud or split.
Tulips are spring-flowering bulbs that require cool temperatures to signal their biological clocks to begin the reproductive cycle. The bulb is planted a few weeks before the last frost date for the region. Roots sprout, followed by stems, which grow until just below the soil's surface. The tulip bulbs then remain dormant through winter. Once the soil warms in spring, the tulip bulbs continue pushing out roots and stem until the stem breaks through the earth, grows leaves and blooms.
A tulip bulb is almost a complete embryo of the plant packed inside a covering of layers that store the plant's food. Bulbs have a self-contained food-storage mechanism adapted to life underground.

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Retrieved Text: The transference of the pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma is known as pollination.
Importance of Pollination- In flowering plants, it is essential that the pollen must be transferred to the stigma if sexual reproduction must take place. In other words, pollination is the essential prerequisite to sexual reproduction and the subsequent setting of the seeds and fruits.
Types of Pollination- There are two main types of pollination . (1) Self-Pollination and (2) Cross-Pollination.
Self Pollination- When pollen grains are transferred from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower, it is called self pollination or autogamy.(pollination involving only one flower is called self-pollination or autogamy).
Autogamy is possible only in bisexual (hermaphrodite)flowers. It is less common in nature, and is observed in Mirabilis, Solanum etc.
Geitonogamy: it is a type of self-pollination between two flowers present on the same parent plant. When pollen grains are transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of another flower present on the same parent plant, it is described as geitonogamy.e,g, Maize.
Some prefer to consider geitonogamy as a type of cross-pollination because it takes place between two flowers.
(1) Pollen grains are easily available and there is no distance barrier beteween the anthers and stigmas, hence pollination rarely fails.
(2) Flowers do not have to depend on external agencies like wind, water, animals. etc.
(3) Minimum wastage of pollen.
(4) Pure, homozygous characters can be obtained and retained through repeated self-pollination.
(1) Progeny becomes weaker due to continued self-pollination generation after generation.
(2) There is no chance of either introduction of new, desirable character or

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Retrieved Text: Biotechnology is a new and promising technique for crop improvement and novel uses of plants, animals and micro-organisms. Its potential to reduce or eliminate major constraints to crop productivity and to enhance food quality are widely recognized world wide. Plant biotechnology is a set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development through the use of plants.
In a Darwinian view of life, the fitness of an organism is measured only by its ability to replace itself with healthy, fertile offspring. Sexual reproduction is not the sole means by which flowering plants reproduce. Many species can also reproduce asexually, creating offspring that are genetically identical to themselves.

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Retrieved Text: Mayapple is an herb that grows in forests throughout the Midwest. It is pollinated by a variety of bees. As forests have been cleared and converted to other uses, there has been growing concern that pollinator populations would decline.
In a previous study, scientists at Baldwin-Wallace College compared 3 areas across northern Ohio in which forest cover varied from more than 50% (Lake County), to 15-20% (Lorain County), to less than 10% (Henry County). The decline in forest cover corresponded to an increase in the intensity of row crop agriculture across these counties. Instead of revealing a relatively low rate of pollination and fruit production in Henry County, the Baldwin Wallace Study found that Henry County plants had the highest rate of pollination and fruit production.
The absence of the predicted relationship among deforestation, agriculture and mayapple reproductive success leaves unanswered the question of what, in fact, controls variation in mayapple reproduction. One factor that may influence reproductive success is the density of other flowering plants in the vicinity of mayapple. Mayapple does not produce nectar and does not attract large numbers of insects. Other plants growing in the vicinity of mayapple may produce nectar and attract insects that then inadvertently visit and pollinate mayapple flowers.
In 2006, study results showed that the Henry County sites had a higher density of flowering, non-mayapple plants than the Lake County sites. This difference could be caused by the impact of deer browsing. In Henry County, deer can focus their browsing on crop and forage plants that are often very high in

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Retrieved Text: The life cycle of a fern is complex compared to that of a flowering plant, and the cycle involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. Some ferns are able to produce new plants entirely asexually, but usually a fern's reproductive process includes a sexual stage.
Ferns differ from flowering plants in that they don't reproduce via seeds. Instead, most ferns produce tiny seedlike structures called spores, and when the spores germinate, they grow into new plants that begin the next stage in the life cycle. In flowering plants, seeds are produced sexually, which means they contain a mixture of genetic material from distinct sperm and egg cells that may come from different plants. Fern spores, however, are produced asexually, which means their genetic material is identical to that of the parent fern.
This asexual stage, though, is only the first step in a fern's life cycle. The next step involves sexual reproduction.
Fern spores are dispersed by wind or water, and when they land in a place with the right growing conditions, which typically involves plenty of moisture and shelter from direct sunlight, the spores germinate and grow into tiny plants called gametophytes. Most ferns' gametophytes are very small compared to the size of the parent plants, and they may go entirely unnoticed as they develop.
Gametophytes develop sexual organs and produce sperm and egg cells. One gametophyte's egg cell may be fertilized by a sperm cell from a nearby gametophyte, or the little plant may fertilize itself. Even if the egg is self-fertilized, however, the new plant that grows from

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Retrieved Text: My research focuses on the evolution of early development in species of nematodes closely related to the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, as well as the evolution of reproduction mode in these species. I study a group of nematode species called Protorhabditis, the closest genus to the Caenorhabditis species, meaning that they diverged “recently” compared to any other group of nematodes. Despite this evolutionary proximity, they have very specific derived characteristics such as a distinct organization of cells in the four-cell embryo, and a particular reproduction mode called parthenogenesis – the development of an embryo without fertilization. I want to compare homologous processes between Caenorhabditis species and Protorhabditis species to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie these evolutionary changes. The nematode embryo is a simple cellular system that shares many essential cellular processes with other animals, including humans, which makes it a powerful system to study the evolution of cellular events.

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Retrieved Text: Apomixis is the replacement of sexual fertilization with asexual reproduction. With normal sexual fertilization, embryos are formed from the union of male and female gametes, which produces genetically varied offspring. In contrast, apomictic embryos are formed without paternal contribution.
Apomixis is the means of reproduction found in Hosta ventricosa, the only Hosta species which produces offspring apomictically. The asexually-produced offspring are generally believed to be identical to the parent plant.
"Being apomictic does not mean being 100% apomictic - only that a percentage of the seed is clonal. The rest are sexually formed, so that gives you a mix in the seedlings of the apomictic plant. A lot of H. ventricosa seedlings have been raised to date, in part because of the ‘comes true from seed’ story that goes around. Many of them clearly look different, but I’m not sure how much phenotypic variation you get on apomictic seed. Do they end up identical like TC divisions or are there significant differences? Years ago, I walked rows of H. ventricosa seedlings at a large wholesale nursery and saw quite a bit of difference. For example, quite a few had funnel-shaped flowers rather than the expected bell shape."
But what portion, if any, of those seedlings were apomictic? Could it be that some of the seedlings Bill observed were the result of sexually formed embryos and that not all were formed by apomixis? Even if it could be determined that a particular group of H. ventricosa seedlings were the result of apomixis, there may still be slight differences, as there

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Retrieved Text: Individual organisms come and go, but, to a certain extent, organisms transcend time through producing offspring. Reproduction in animals occurs in two primary ways: through sexual reproduction and through asexual reproduction.
Now let's take a look at sexual reproduction.
In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population.
In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis.
The gametes are haploid (containing only one set of chromosomes) while the zygote is diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes).
In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is nonmotile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.
There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place.
The first is external (the eggs are fertilized outside of the body); the second is internal (the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract).
For example, many animals have estrous cycles that occur during certain parts of the year so that offspring can typically be born under favorable conditions. Humans however, do not undergo estrous cycles but menstrual cycles.

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Retrieved Text: Achene—a dry, non-fleshy fruit that contains a single seed and does not break open when ripe.
Adventitious roots—roots originating above-ground on a stem and growing into the ground.
Allelopathic—producing chemicals that are toxic to or inhibit the growth of other plants.
Alternate—leaf arrangement in which a leaves emerges on alternating sides of the stem.
Annual—a plant whose entire life cycle occurs within one year.
Asexual reproduction—occurring without pollen transfer, typically vegetative reproduction.
Axil – the angle formed at the base of a leaf or stem and the stem that supports it.
Biennial—a plant that lives two years, flowering and setting seed in the second year.
Bolting—rapid elongation of a shoot before flowering.
Bract—reduced leaf or petal-like structure at the base of a flower or inflorescence.
Bulb—fleshy underground shoot that stores carbohydrates and is capable of vegetative reproduction.
Cambium—a layer of living tissue found in the outermost growth ring, which should be severed when girdling a tree or shrub.
Cespitose – growing in tight groups; clumping. Also spelled Caespitose.
Compound leaf—a leaf composed of multiple leaflets.
Containment—a control strategy aimed at preventing the spread of an invasive species.
Cotyledon—the first juvenile leaves that emerge following seed germination.
CRISP—Clackamas River Invasive Species Partners, a collaborative group of land managers working to cooperatively combat invasive species in the Clackamas River watershed.
Crown—the top portion of the root from which leaves or shoots emerge.
Dicot—a flowering plant with two juveniles leaves (cotyledons) emerging following seed germination.
EDRR—early detection and rapid response, is a weed management strategy that focuses on locating and treating weed populations before they become widespread.
Eradication—elimination of a species, including seeds, from a given area.
Fecundity—the reproductive rate

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Retrieved Text: Igcse mathematics sets plant reproduction answers work. Biology 1 worksheet iii selected answers 2 1. It is a source of genetic variation in a population.
What are the advantages of sexual reproduction.
Biology igcse plant reproduction worksheet answers. Worksheets are biology 1 work i selected answers gcse 9 1 biology plant reproduction answers work igcse. Worksheets and presentation for plant reproduction. Biology igcse worksheets showing all 8 printables. The female gamete is found in the and is called an.
6 plant structure and function. Igcse biology worksheets. Plant reproduction answers worksheet. Plant reproduction worksheet 1.
Plant reproduction 1 2. Questions answers 8 reproduction in flowering plants. The male gamete or pollen will be found in the anther and the. Answers to questions on reproduction in flowering plants in in chapter 8 of igcse gcse biology by d g mackean for teachers and students.
Each worksheet should take. Please refer to your notes or textbook. Learn about plant reproduction and the process of pollination with bbc bitesize ks3 science. Useful for most igcse and gcse courses.
Worksheets and presentation for plant reproduction. This pack of three worksheets focuses on sexual reproduction in plants perfect for gcse students or could be used with able ks3 pupils. Biology gcse igcse question bank.

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Retrieved Text: Our research program is focused on elucidating key questions related to auxin synthesis, translocation and the nature of auxin-regulated signaling networks during fruit development, using tomato as a model system.
During fruit set, the growth of an otherwise static ovary is stimulated after successful pollination and fertilization. After fertilization, tomato fruit growth is due primarily to cell division and later fruit growth continues mostly by cell expansion. At the end of the cell expansion period, the fruit has reached its final size and will start to ripen.
Despite major advances made in recent years in many aspects of auxin metabolism, transport and signaling in vegetative tissues, the information about the nature and importance of these processes in fruit development and ripening of crop fruit species is very scarce. Moreover a recurring theme that emerges from all these studies is the lack of knowledge about the sources of auxin in fruit tissues, its biosynthetic pathway(s) and how auxin becomes distributed to fruit target tissues. Our research goal is to better understand the mechanisms by which auxin is produced and transported in tomato fruit and how these mechanisms are regulated to mediate cell and tissue specific growth and differentiation.
Analysis of auxin levels or activity in different tomato tissues have revealed a dynamic pattern of tissue specific auxin accumulation throughout fruit development likely to be regulated by components of the auxin polar transport pathway. Critical components of auxin transport systems are the PIN and AUX/LAX protein families, which control cellular auxin efflux and influx respectively. Our studies have provided a transcriptional

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Urine is a product of what organ of the body that is excreted by the urinary system?" and the following answer choices: 
- bowel
 - epidermal
 - bladder
 - alveoli
 - lungs
 - urine
 - mammals
 - NaCl

Now knowing that urine is the liquid waste product of the body that is excreted by the urinary system and liquid waste is put into the bladder, choose the best answer.

Target Text: bladder

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Xenotransplantation – The last cure for renal failure Xeno refers to ‘new’. Kidneys were the first organs to be successfully transplanted. Renal transplantation is the organ transplant of a kidney into a patient with end–stage renal disease. Kidney transplants have a high success rate, although recipients do need to take immune–suppressant drugs for the rest of their life to prevent rejection. The donor kidney may come from a living or recently deceased donor and can be kept viable outside of the body for several days. Let’s learn the basic structure and function of human renal system and its associated disorders.
Describe the morphology and anatomy of human kidney and explore its functions.
Illustrate how kidneys maintain acid–base concentration.
Discuss and understand how kidneys influence blood pressure.
Systematize the sequential steps involved in the formation of urine.
List the hormones that are secreted from the kidneys and explore their key roles.
Identify the risk factors that are associated with kidney disease.
List some of the kidney disorders.
Define “diuretics” and explore how they operate to increase urine flow.
Discuss and explore the different treatment options available till date for renal failure.
The Human Urinary System Image Description: The urinary system - also known as the renal system - produces stores and eliminates urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The main function of this system is to regulate the volume, pressure, and composition of the blood. The kidneys are the organs of the urinary system that accomplish this task by regulating the

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Retrieved Text: Amino-acids: Building blocks of proteins.
Artery: Blood vessel carrying blood from the heart to the other organs. Blood carried in the arteries is generally high in oxygen.
Bladder: Organ in which urine is stored before being eliminated. It has a balloon shape with elastic walls.
Cystine stones: form in people affected with a rare hereditary disorder called cystinuria. In this disease, the kidneys release too much cystine, a type of amino acid in the body. Too much concentration of cystine in the urine may stick together to form cystine stones.
Creatinine: Waste product eliminated in urine coming from the breakdown of creatine from muscles. The level of creatinine depends mainly on the muscle mass and is thus quite constant in the same person. Creatinine blood and urine levels are often used to estimate kidney function.
Calcium stones: Calcium stones are the most common type of kidney stones. They form from too much concentration of calcium in the urine. The combination of calcium with other substances in the urine such as oxalate and phosphate often form stones.
Dialysis: Process used in kidney failure to remove from the blood accumulated wastes, toxins and excess fluid.
Glomerulus: Structure made of tiny blood vessels that filter the blood into urine.
Hormone: Substance produced by the body acting as a messenger and regulating certain cells and organs activities. Kidneys release several hormones: erythropoietin, renin and an active form of vitamin D.
Kidney: Vital organ cleaning blood from wastes and eliminating them in the form of urine. Kidney helps also in regulation of blood pressure, production of red blood cells and

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Retrieved Text: People, like the vast majority of living organisms, generate a certain amount of waste. Waste that is excreted from the body by an entire structure of organs and tissues known as the excretory system.
This system, which works in tune with organs in other systems, filters and removes unnecessary substances from our body. This article describes what the excretory system is, its parts and functions, and what diseases are associated with it.
The excretory system is a structure formed by different organs and whose primary function is to eliminate the excess of unnecessary materials from body fluids. The objective of this system is to keep the homeostasis or chemical balance and avoid pain in our body.
For this, the waste products are removed from the metabolism, and the body is drained of the already used and decomposed components in both a liquid and a gaseous state. In people, and almost all mammals, these substances are mainly expelled in the form of urine or sweat.
Although sometimes the excretory system is confused with the urinary system, the truth is that the latter is included in the first one. The excretory system includes all those organs used explicitly for the excretion of the excess of body fluids.
Since most of the organs in our body produce metabolic waste, especially those of the digestive system, these systems work interdependently, so if one fails or suffers some deterioration the rest can also be affected or suffer alterations in their functioning.
As we mentioned before, the excretory system is formed by a set of organs and tissues

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Retrieved Text: It seems like my cat’s litter box is always wet. Is that abnormal?
As more and more cats live exclusively indoors (where they’re safest) more and more are also using the litter box. One of the best things about a litter box is that it allows you to be more aware of your cat’s urine habits. You may notice, for example, that you’re cleaning the box more often.
If there is more urine in the litter box, it can sometimes be a bit difficult to tell if a cat is peeing larger volumes or just more often; however, it’s important to differentiate increased frequency from increased volume, since they indicate completely different potential problems and point to different locations in the urinary system. There are conditions that cause increased frequency of small amounts of urine, conditions that result in large volumes of urine and conditions that cause increased attempts to urinate. You may need to keep a close eye on your cat to know for sure.
It will also be important to know what is normal for your cat so that changes will be noticeable. One study, reported by DVM 360, indicated that cats produced an average of 28 ml/kg of urine every 24 hours. That equals about one half cup of urine a day for the average 10 pound cat. In general, what goes in must come out. Although minute water losses include tear flow, saliva flow and fluids contained in stools, the majority of water leaves the body of animals as urine.
Is your cat peeing a lot

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Retrieved Text: Understand your bright red (bloody) urine symptoms, including 10 causes and common questions.
The body eliminates excess water and waste through urine. Normal urine can take on a broad spectrum of hues. Urine is typically yellow in color. Depending on the amount of water in the urine, this yellow color can range from pale (diluted) to deep gold or amber (concentrated).
Even with this broad range of normal colors, bright red or bloody urine (also known as hematuria) is a sign of an underlying systemic problem. Hematuria in itself is the most common cause of red-colored urine .
Macrohematuria is the term for visible blood in the urine. However, there are conditions of bloody urine where the blood can only be detected by microscopic examination (microhematuria) . In most cases, macrohematuria is the triggering symptom that causes worry; however, microhematuria can also have symptoms similar to macrohematuria.
Increased urinary urgency: This is an increased desire to urinate.
Increased urinary frequency: This is increased urination.
Usually the underlying problem is not life-threatening; however, you should always follow-up with your healthcare provider if you notice any of the symptoms above.
To understand what may be causing your bright red urine, let's first discuss the process of the kidneys. The kidney first makes and filters the urine. The urine passes from the kidneys into the bladder through two tubes called the ureters. The urine then exits the bladder through another tube called the urethra. Changes in urine color can often signal a problem with the kidney and its components; however, there are many non-kidney associated causes

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Retrieved Text: Bladder: A sac in your body that holds the urine (pee) produced by the kidney.
Blood pressure: The force of blood pushing against the inner walls of the blood vessels.
High blood pressure means the force is too high.
Chronic: Health conditions that cause some long-term health problems.
Dialysis: A procedure that filters waste products and extra water from your blood. It is one of the main treatments for kidney failure.
GFR (glomerular filtration rate): A measure of kidney function. It tells you how well your kidneys work.
Kidneys: Two bean-shaped organs in your body. Kidneys clean the blood, help make red blood cells, and keep bones healthy.
Kidney disease: The loss of some kidney function. It means your kidneys cannot work as well as healthy kidneys. Kidney disease can be treated.
Kidney failure: The loss of all kidney function. It means your kidneys have stopped working. You will need a kidney transplant or dialysis treatment for the rest of your life.
Transplant: An operation to put a healthy organ in your body.
Urethra: A tube that carries urine (pee) out of the bladder when you go to the bathroom.
Urinary system (also called “Urinary tract”): A system in your body that includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It acts as a plumbing system to drain urine (pee) from the kidneys, store it, and then release it when you pee.
Urine: A yellowish liquid made by the kidneys. Your kidneys make urine as a way to remove waste products and extra water that your body.

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Retrieved Text: The urinary system plays a vital role in the body’s ability to maintain volume and composition of body fluids within normal limits. One of the main functions of the urinary system is to rid the body of waste products such as urea. The urinary system’s major organs include the bladder and the kidneys. While the urinary system is the most involve in excretion, other organs such as the lungs, skin, liver and intestines are also involved in excretion. The lungs remove carbon dioxide and water as waste products, while the skin’s sweat glands also rid the body of waste. The liver and intestines excrete the bile that results when hemoglobin is broken down. The urinary system also maintains fluid levels in the body and pH of blood. The system makes sure that there are normal concentrations of electrolytes and other substances in the blood by filtering blood through the kidneys. In general, the urinary system maintains homeostasis in the body.
Malnutrition lowers the body’s ability to regenerate cells and work efficiently. Malnutrition can lead to a decreased resistance to bacteria which can cause UTIs in children. In a study done by the University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital, children who were malnourished were found to be more likely to develop urinary tract infections. The bacteria that exit our bodies have a much easier time causing infection when the body’s defenses are depleted as they are when someone is malnourished. Another study by a German institute found that malnutrition can cause worsening of chronic renal failure symptoms, and CKD

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Retrieved Text: Pregnancy and Cloudy Urine - What Is The Connection?
With pregnancy and cloudy urine, there are times when cloudy urine becomes more serious to the mother and unborn child. While cloudy urine due to food or drink consumption simply disappears without any further problems after the first urination of the day, cloudy urine when accompanied with urinary frequency or urge incontinence may present a more serious diagnosis. Such symptoms are often associated with urinary tract infections. A foul odor with urination is a sign that an infection is present. As with any individual, pregnancy and cloudy urine due to infection may be a result of puss in the urine, or pylonephritis. This is a condition which may also be accompanied with abdominal discomfort.
The cause of cloudy urine and diabetes will most likely stem from other underlying conditions, one of which may include excess protein excreted from the kidneys. This is a condition called proteinuria and is caused by hypertension or various renal issues. When proteinuria is associated with pregnancy and cloudy urine, this could result in preeclampsia, a more serious condition for the expectant mother. When preeclampsia is not controlled, sufficient blood flow to the placenta is inhibited. Placental abruption, or the placenta breaking free from the uterine wall before delivery may occur.
For whatever the reason pregnancy and cloudy urine become an issue for an expectant mother, the best way to prevent further complications is to be in tune with body changes and express all concerns with the physician. While some conditions present danger to a pregnant

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Retrieved Text: Urinary Bladder - want to learn more about it?
The urinary bladder is an organ that serves to collect urine to be voided through urination after the urine is filtered through the kidneys (where the necessary ions are reabsorbed if physiologically needed through feedback mechanisms found throughout the body and in the nephrons of the kidneys, such as the macula densa).
Histologically, the urinary bladder is lined with transitional epithelium and does not produce mucus.
Generally, the bladder is a hollow, muscular, and pear-shaped distensible elastic organ that sits on the pelvic floor. It receives urine via the ureters, which are thick tubes running from each kidney down to the superior part of the bladder.
Urine is collected in the body of the bladder, and finally it is voided through the urethra. The fundus is the base of the bladder, which is formed by the posterior wall and contains the trigone of the bladder, and is lymphatically drained by the external iliac lymph nodes. The trigone is the structure that contains the outlet (urethra) of the bladder.
While the general volume of the human bladder will vary from person to person, the range of urine that can be held in the bladder is roughly 400 mL (~13.5 oz) to 1000 mL (~34 oz), with the average capacity being 400 to 600 mL.
One mnemonic often heard in clinical settings related to the bladder is: “water (ureters) under the bridge.” This phrase describes an anatomical relationship, between the ureters and the uterine arteries (female) or the vas deferens (males). During a hysterectomy, where

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Retrieved Text: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is primarily diagnosed with blood and urine tests that detect chemical imbalances caused by the progressive loss of kidney function. The tests may be accompanied by imaging tests and biopsies used to pinpoint the exact cause of the dysfunction. Kidney function tests, also known as renal function tests, are important for monitoring the progression of the disease and your response to therapy. They are also vital to staging the disease and can help differentiate CKD from an acute kidney injury (AKI).
Chronic kidney disease develops when the kidneys, for whatever reason, are unable to filter waste and regulate the balance of water and acids in the body. The disease can be diagnosed by measuring certain substances, known as markers, that either rise or fall when the kidneys are impaired.
The screening process begins with a battery of blood and urine tests that evaluate standard diagnostic markers such as serum creatinine (SCr), glomerular filtration rate (GFR), urinary albumin, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Serum creatinine (SCr) tests measure the amount of a substance called creatinine in your blood. Creatinine is a by-product of muscle metabolism that is excreted in urine. Because creatinine is produced and excreted at a fairly steady rate, it is a reliable measure of kidney function.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is an estimation of how well your kidneys are functioning. Specifically, it estimates how much blood passes through the tiny filters of your kidneys, called glomeruli, each minute.
To calculate your GFR, the lab will use an algorithm that factors in your SCr value, age,

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Retrieved Text: The kidney is the organ of the urinary system where urine is produced. Urine is transported to the bladder by the ureters. It is finally eliminated from the organism through the urethra.
Urine contains blood waste (urea, creatine, certain medications, etc).
It is at the level of the nephron of the kidney where the waste passes from blood to urine.
Click on to view a section of a kidney and a nephron.
Discover the organs of the urinary system.
Understand the structure and the role of the kidney.
Explain the function of the nephron and the production of urine.

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Retrieved Text: Pyroluria was initially described by Abram Hoffer. This condition is not related to schizophrenia in conventional medicine.
Also known as the mauve factor, see lab test below, where th elevels are 6.7 times over the limit.
Pyroluria is a an oxidative stress induced physiological disorder.
Pyrroles needed for the formation of the porfirin ring of the heme are excessively excreted.
This leads to a depletion of the body of vitamin B6 and Zinc.
The condition is diagnosed by the presence of a "mauve Factor" in urine.
Only 11% of people with a normal mental status have this condition.
42% of psychiatric patients, and up to 52% of schizophrenic patients.
Among other important functions B6 and Zn regulate normal cartilage metabolism.
The presence of urinary pyrroles (mauve factor) was first reported in patients with LSD psychosis.
Later, high levels of pyrroles were found in the urine of schizophrenic patients.
The chemical structure is a 2,4 dimethyl-3-ethylpyrrole. It is also called kryptopyrrole.
Kryptos comes from the Greek word "hidden."
by a dramatic deficiency of zinc and vitamin B6.
Pylouria frequently occurs in behavior disorders.
autism, Asperger's, ADHD, ADD, depression, bipolar disorders, alcoholism assaultive or aggressive behavior, and Down's syndrome.
In normal urine, the amount of pyrroles excreted is small, less than 20 ug/dL.
It has been reported that kryptopyrrole will form a Shiff base with the aldehyde form of vitamin B6 in the blood.
This combination will then bind with zinc. As large amounts of kryptopyrroles are excreted in the urine, zinc and b6 will be depleted.
Pyroluria, according to Carl Pfeiffer, is a form of schizophrenic porphyria.

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Retrieved Text: Infection is usually the cause of kidney and bladder problems. Waste products from body processes are filtered out of the blood by the kidneys, which also regulate the fluid and electrolyte balance in the body. The wastes and excess electrolytes that are excreted, along with water in the form of urine, are retained in the bladder until voiding. Cystitis refers to an inflammation of the bladder, whether it involves actual infection or not. Frequent, urgent and painful urination (sometimes with blood or pus) and pain in the lower abdomen and back area are symptoms of cystitis. Nephritis refers to an inflammation of the nephrons in the kidney, leading to the deterioration of that organ and sometimes death. It is nearly always a result of bacterial infection. Bright’s disease refers to several extreme forms of glomerulonephritis which involves degeneration of the kidney’s minute filter cells. The acute form of this disease is generally preceded by a streptococcus infection somewhere in the body and there may be no overt symptoms. However, in most cases of kidney disease, chills, fever, headache and blood or albumen (blood plasma protein) in the urine accompany the pain and tenderness in the kidney area. Kidney problems may also be indicated by edema and high blood pressure. See ‘Gravel and Stones‘ for a discussion of kidney stones.
Initially, one should do a juice fast (like the Lemon Aid Cleansing Fast), followed by a diet low in mucus and containing at least 2 litres of clean water daily. Watermelon (especially its seeds) is beneficial. Potent diuretics

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Retrieved Text: D-mannose is a monosaccharide hexose simple sugar, naturally found in some trees, berries and fruits, such as cranberry, and is closely related to glucose. Small amounts of D-Mannose are metabolised by our bodies; more than small amounts are excreted promptly into the urine and it complements the body’s natural cleansing process.
D-mannose attaches to bacteria better than bacteria attaches to human cells in the bladder and urinary tract. When we take a large quantity of D-mannose, almost all of it spills into the urine through our kidneys, literally coating any bacteria present so they can no longer attach to the inside walls of the bladder and urinary tract. The bacteria is then literally rinsed away with normal urination.
Imbalances of the urinary tract are widespread, and it is estimated that 20 percent of women will experience them. Biovea® D-mannose supports the health of the entire urinary tract: the urethra, bladder, ureter, renal pelvis and the renal parenchyma. D-mannose nourishes the healthy flora that colonise the membranes of the urinary tract and keep us in balance.
Always discuss any symptoms you may be experiencing with your health care provider for an accurate diagnosis and treatment.
Other Ingredients: HMPC capsule, rice flour, silicon dioxide, magnesium stearate.
Warning: If you are pregnant, may become pregnant, or breastfeeding, consult your healthcare professional before using the product. Keep out of reach of children. Store in a cool, dry place. Do not use this product if the safety seal on the bottle is broken.

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Retrieved Text: Approximately 180 g of glucose is filtered by the glomeruli every day in healthy adults and is excreted into the urine. Glucose excreted into urine is reabsorbed from the proximal renal tubules via SGLT.
In diabetes, hyperglycemia is persistent, and expression of SGLT2 is increased compared with in healthy subjects. It has been demonstrated that reabsorption of glucose is enhanced. However, there is a threshold for the reabsorption of glucose by SGLT2, so glucose is excreted in the urine if the threshold is exceeded.
Lusefi®, an SGLT2 inhibitor, selectively targets SGLT2, which is responsible for 90% of glucose reabsorption by the kidneys. While SGLT2 accounts for 90% of glucose reabsorption by the kidneys, SGLT1 accounts for only 10% of the glucose reabsorption.
Lusefi®, an SGLT2 inhibitor, promotes urinary glucose excretion by preventing the reuptake of filtered glucose in the proximal tubules of the kidney, consequently lowering plasma glucose levels. SGLT2 inhibitors have an insulin-independent mechanism of action.

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Retrieved Text: Although some drugs are excreted unchanged in urine, most are partially eliminated by metabolism. Usually both the urinary excretion of unchanged drug and the metabolism are first-order processes, with the rate of excretion and metabolism dependent on the amount of unchanged drug in the body. This results in a "branch" in the kinetic chain, representing exit of drug in the body as depicted in the accompanying pharmacokinetic model (Scheme 2).
For drugs that are both metabolized and excreted unchanged, semilogarithmic plots of plasma concentrations versus time will provide values of kel.
Urine data are required to determine the individual values of ke and km. The required equations are derived next.
It should be noted that equation (25) is another form of an integrated rate equation. This form makes use of an exp (—x) term and may be referred to as an exponential rate expression. These expressions are useful for visualizing the characteristics of a first-order process. For example, when t = 0, exp (—kelt) = 1, and DB = DB. When t = t1/2, exp (-kelt1/2) = 0.5, and DB = 0.5 x DB. When t = 1, exp (-kelt) = 0, and DB = 0. Thus, the value of exp (—kelt) varies from 1 to 0 as time varies from 0 to 1. At any time between 0 and i, the fraction of the dose remaining in the body is equal to exp (—kelt).

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Retrieved Text: be buffered and excreted to maintain acid base balance.
carbonic or volatile acid(H2CO3) and noncarbonic or nonvolatile acids.
Metabolism of fats and carbohydrates result in the production of 15-20 mol of CO 2 per day.
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3(CA) ↔ H+ + HCO3where (CA) is the very important enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
ventilation leading to a stable PCO2 level.
Most of this comes from the metabolism of sulphur containing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine which yield sulphuric acid and from metabolism of lysine. citrate). . Note that HCO3. Buffers are located in the extracellular fluid (ECF). Ingestion of alkali containing foods (e. Note in this buffering reaction that bicarbonate reacts with a strong acid to form a weaker acid(H2CO3) which then dissociates into CO2 and H2O.g. arginine and histidine which yield hydrochloric acid. A normal diet results in the generation of 50 -100 meq of H+ per day.buffer system is considered very effective because of the vast quantity of bicarbonate in the body and the ability to excrete the CO2 formed via ventilation.used up in this process must be regenerated and the NA2SO4 must be excreted by the kidneys. the HCO3. The CO2 produced here does not reform H2CO3 because it is then excreted by the lungs. So that pH is not affected. Other less important buffers in the ECF are plasma proteins and inorganic phosphates. intracellular fluid and bone. The body buffers which are primarily weak acids. are able to take up or release H+ so that changes in the free H+ concentration are minimized.is used up in

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Retrieved Text: Mucus is a viscous colloid, yellow in color, which occurs in various organs of the body, including the lungs and the large intestine. The mucous membrane is responsible for mucous production. The mucous safeguards the inner wall of the intestine and lubricates the passage of stool for easy removal. Normally urine is a clear fluid, nevertheless the presence of mucus in urine can make it cloudy.
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): A bacterial infection including the urinary system can cause mucus in urine. The kidneys, bladder, urethra, and the ureters are the parts of a urinary system. Although any organ can get affected, usually the bacteria invades the bladder first and then gradually spread to the other parts of the urinary system. Pain while urinating is the most common symptom of UTI.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD): This is an infection triggered by the bacteria gonorrhea or chlamydia, in which mucus discharge in urine from urethra (a tube like passage that provides a way for the urine to move out of the body) is discovered. As a result, the urine appears yellow and is not at all clear.
Fiber is not causing this condition, you should eliminate one food item at a time from your diet and inspect if that food item was responsible for the very same. By doing this, you will have the ability to zero in on the foods that cause for this condition to occur and deal with them.
Thinking of the latter works much better for the bulk.
Urachal Cancer: Urachal cancer, also referred to as bladder cancer,

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Retrieved Text: Compare the structure and function of organs in the digestive system.
Activity: Constructing a Digestive System Model - Follow the instructions to create a model of the system. Also includes other worksheet activities to help understand the organs and functions of the digestive system.
Body Basics Article: Digestive System - All you need to know about the digestive system, including an Interactive Diagram that provides information over the various structures as you roll your mouse over each one.
Crossword Puzzle: Digestive System - Print off the puzzle for students to complete the crossword puzzle.
Digestion - Function and structures of the digestive system.
Digestive System - Learn about the anatomy, functions and more. Includes a self checking quiz as well.
Digestive System Activities - Numerous interactive activities, quizzes, demonstrations, etc.
Digestive System Lessons and Activities - A variety of handouts, activities, presentations, lessons and more.
Food and the Digestive System - Lesson plan with a purpose "to learn about the digestive system. To begin to explore where nutrients come from, as well as their importance for particular tasks in the body."
Functions of the Digestive System - Digestive system chapter that includes vocabulary, activities and questions to check that the objectives were learned.
Introduction to Digestion and Nutrition - Module with a variety of lessons on the structure and function of the digestive system as well as other topics related to digestion.
Learn the Structures - Free printable diagram for students to label and color the various structures of the digestive system.
Lesson Plan: Digestive System - "The purpose of this lesson will be to help students understand

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Retrieved Text: Urinary infections are common types of bacterial infection, typically involving the lower urinary tract and including the bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection is one of the most common reasons for females between the ages of 16 to 50 to visit their GP. It is estimated that 1 in 3 women will have a urinary tract infection before the age of 24 and half of all women will experience an infection in their life time. The SELFCheck home screening test is ideal for detecting urinary infections and helping consumers to seek prompt advice on treatment. Historically, urinary infections have been treated with broad spectrum antibiotics, but in recent years the use of antibiotics has declined and, instead, sufferers are advised to drink more water in order to flush the urinary tract of the bacteria. Antibiotics may still be used to increase the rate of recovery or, if the sufferer has any other medical conditions, that may be affected by the presence of a bacterial colonisation of the lower urinary tract. Screening tests are ideal tools for regular screening at home if the user suspects that they may have a persistent or recurrent infection, in which case the user may need to seek further medical advice or a course of antibiotics. Home test kits allow the user to screen for the presence/absence of chemicals that are excreted in the urine: if the lower urinary tract is infected there is strong probability that protein, nitrite and leukocyte esterase will be detected. These chemicals are not normally found in

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Retrieved Text: Allantoin in human urine quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
Uric acid is a potent antioxidant and scavenger of singlet oxygen and other radicals in humans. Allantoin, the predominant product of free radical-induced oxidation of uric acid, is efficiently excreted in the urine and has potential as a biomarker of oxidative stress. We developed a rapid and specific assay for urinary allantoin using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry suitable for high-throughput clinical studies. The method required minimal sample preparation and was accurate (mean error=6%), precise (intra- and interday imprecision <8%), and sensitive (limit of detection=0.06pmol). Allantoin levels measured in control samples were comparable to literature values.

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Retrieved Text: A concretion in the kidney usually made up of calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate or uric acid; also known as renal calculi.
Persons most commonly affected: Adults of both sexes aged over 30 years but more common in men than women.
Organ or part of body involved: Kidneys and ureters.
Symptoms and indications: Severe stabbing pain in the back that comes and goes, nausea, and there may be slight amounts of blood in the urine. A kidney stone that does not pass on out can block the urinary tract. This blockage will probably cause pain initially. But if medical attention is not received to identify the cause of the pain and remove the blockage, the pain is likely to gradually go away over a few days time. This lack of pain may cause the sufferer to think the crisis has passed when, in fact, the kidney which has been blocked by the stone has shut down. If left untreated in just a few days this shut down can lead to permanent loss of function in that kidney. A kidney stone can even rupture the collection system of the kidney.
Causes and risk factors: There are various causes or factors that favour the formation of kidney stones. These include a high level of calcium in the urine, which may come from drinking large quantities of milk and eating foods that are rich in vitamin D, which helps the body to absorb calcium, a change in the acidity or alkalinity of the urine, concentration of the urine, which may occur if too little

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Retrieved Text: After alcohol ingestion, the bulk of ethanol ingested (≥95%) is rapidly eliminated in the liver in a two-stage oxidation process: first to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase and then to acetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase. The remainder is excreted mainly unchanged in urine and expired air. However, another small fraction of the ingested ethanol dose (<0.1%) (1) undergoes a phase II conjugation reaction catalyzed by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) to produce ethyl glucuronide (EtG), which is eventually excreted in the urine (2)(3)(4). Because EtG has a longer period of elimination than the parent compound, the interest in EtG has largely focused on its use as a sensitive and specific biomarker of recent alcohol intake with clinical and forensic applications (5)(6).
Animal studies have indicated that ethanol may also undergo sulfate conjugation through the action of sulfotransferase to produce ethyl sulfate (EtS) (7)(8)(9). After an oral dose of ethanol and injection of 35S-labeled sulfate in rats, EtS was apparently excreted in urine mainly during the first 24 h (10). However, a general limitation in these studies was the lack of reliable methods for unequivocal identification of EtS and precise quantification.
In the present study on humans, we used a sensitive and specific liquid chromatographic–mass spectrometric (LC-MS) method to determine whether EtS is formed after intake of alcohol and is excreted in the urine. Urine samples were collected from a healthy male individual at timed intervals after ingestion of a single dose of ethanol. Urine samples were also selected randomly from those sent to the laboratory for routine detection of recent drinking by

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Retrieved Text: CYSTURIL – rapid effect on cystitis. Prevents infections of the bladder and urinary tract system.
Acute renal failure (in Latin: Insufficientia renalis acuta) is a sudden, rapid and often reversible loss of renal function.
It may be due to hypovolemia (dehydration, low blood pressure, acute hemorrhage, and circulatory shock), adoption of kidney-toxic substances (kidney poisons), systemic or localized to the urinary tract infection or obstruction of the urinary tract. This differs from chronic renal failure, primarily in the evolution of the disease and in the reversible course of the acute form. People with renal failure present a number of non-specific symptoms which must be ordered by significance. Abrupt increase in body weight within days or a week or two, without deliberate eating, decreased volume and frequency of urinating, backache, backache, nausea when taking water and other liquids, slow heartbeat or palpitations, pant, chest pain, embarrassment seizures and other neurological symptoms. Treatment of acute renal failure can be successful if it is diagnosed in time and a reversible mechanism is discovered, for example when toxins are taken – to be antagonized with antidote. In general terms acute renal failure is treated through correcting humoral balance, identifying and removing the outer aggression, for example medicines taken with nephrotoxic effect, as well as initiation of antibiotic treatment of bacterial diseases. The combination of diuresis and rehydration with proper intravenous is effective for the light form of the condition. For severe forms of acute failure, a temporary hemodialysis may be necessary.
According to the US statistics, till the year 2000 ARF was discovered

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Retrieved Text: Chronic kidney disease is the gradual loss of kidney function and is one of the most common diseases in cats that affects senior cats. It can affect all ages and breeds and is most common in cats over the age of 9 years and in Abyssinian and Persian breeds.
The term “renal” and “kidney” are used interchangeably. Some writers use the term chronic kidney failure (CKF) while others write chronic renal failure (CRF).
We will address Chronic Kidney Failure in cats in this article. For more information about acute kidney disease, go to Acute Renal (Kidney) Failure in Cats.
The cat’s urinary tract is a system made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. A cat has two kidneys that sit in the abdomen. They are bean-shaped organs that contain hundreds of nephrons that are microscopic filtering units. These units have the ability to form urine.
When the kidneys function normally, they filter excess fluids and wastes from the blood. These wastes are then excreted in the cat’s urine. As the kidney disease progresses and reaches an advanced stage, dangerous levels of electrolytes, wastes, and fluids can build up in your cat’s body. Changes that result from kidney failure can affect almost every system.
A complete blood count (CBC) may be within normal limits, but an elevated white blood cell count may be present if there is also secondary infection.
A biochemical profile may reveal elevations in kidney enzymes or electrolyte abnormalities.
A urinalysis may reveal diluted urine, blood, white blood cells, protein or bacteria in the urine.
Symmetric Dimethylarginine (SMDA) Blood

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Retrieved Text: The urinary system filters the blood and removes liquid waste products from the body in the form of urine. Picture 1 shows where the organs of the urinary system are located inside the body. Picture 2 is an enlarged diagram of these organs.
Kidneys - filter the blood, keep the right balance of water in body tissues, and change liquid waste products into urine.
Ureters - long narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder - a muscular pouch where urine collects and is stored until it is passed out of the body.
Urethra - short, narrow tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside.

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Retrieved Text: The amount of activity that goes on in the human body makes it comparable to a city. There is even more activity in a human body than in the busiest of cities, only all on a smaller scale. Most people are not aware of the highly complicated and orderly processes that take place in their body; the cause and effect mechanisms that are vital for the human metropolis to function properly all work involuntarily. The processes that occur so that our body can carry out the normal bodily activities of digestion, food transmission to body cells, disposal of waste products, distribution of oxygen to all the cells through respiration and many other activities are all carried out so smoothly that we are never even aware of them. We habitually answer a call of nature, never giving thought to the various-small or great-systems that are present, from the warning signal and our response to it, to the relieving process that all work in perfect harmony.
Nephrology is the study of the kidneys, the essential organ of excretion, and elements related to it. If due observation and research are thoroughly carried out on every part of the human metropolis, when the integrated hierarchical mechanisms are analyzed, it can be seen that numerous events are constantly taking place; these can open new doors to various sciences and offer us new horizons of reflection on the Divine Wisdom. In this way, these events are an interpretation of the saying “If all the seas were to be made up of ink, and

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Retrieved Text: What is urine to your body?
Mainly containing water and soluble waste compounds, urine is an excretory product of the body’s metabolic processes.
Types/categories of urine according to colour.
Categorized as either normal or abnormal, the urine you excrete could be of different colourations; yellow, cloudy,dark coloured or plain clear.
Depending on factors such as ; diet choices, the amount of water in your system and beverage consumption, medication and diseases.
Urine colour manifests whatever state of health your body is in.
Healthy urine is straw, light yellow in colour and has a light odour, a slight stench of ammonia.
Causes of the different colours in urine.
Whenever you see dark yellow coloured urine, it is because the ratio of waste substances, usually nitrogenous products, in your urine is more than the water carrying it. In extreme cases, dark yellow urine has an irritating stench due to the chemical composition in it. Such a strong stench may be a manifestation of infection of the urinary tract.
Medication,another is another cause of yellow coloured urine. Since medications contain a lot of chemical composition in them, it influences heavily the colouration of your urine. Medications such as blood thinners, laxatives and vitamin B and vitamin C supplements have a strong influence on the colour of your urine. Others that are quinine derived also do cause yellow colouration Combined with the effect diseases have on your body, your urine could turn out darker.
Diseases and health conditions that affect your body, mainly your urinary tract and liver also do cause yellow colouration. Haemolytic anaemia, caused by degradation of red

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Retrieved Text: A kidney stone is a solid piece of material that forms from crystallization of excreted substances in the urine. The stone may remain in the kidney or break loose and travel down the urinary tract. A small stone may pass all of the way out of the body, but a larger stone can get stuck in a ureter, the bladder, or the urethra. This may block the flow of urine and cause great pain.
If you notice blood in your urine, cloudy urine or experience a burning sensation during urination, you may be suffering from kidney stones and should see a doctor as soon as possible. Urologists at Jefferson are experienced in treating kidney stones. We are equipped to provide a range of treatment options, including lithotripsy, to break up stones using shock waves or surgical procedures to remove stones.
If a stone becomes too large to pass, blocks the flow of urine or causes urinary tract infections (UTIs), more aggressive treatment may be needed. Turn to our experts to help you effectively manage this very painful condition.
Drink more water. Up to 12 full glasses of water a day can help to flush away the substances that form stones in the kidneys. Ginger ale, lemon-lime sodas, and fruit juices are acceptable.
Limit coffee, tea, and cola to one or two cups a day. The caffeine may cause a rapid loss of fluid.
Consult your physician regarding dietary modifications.
Medications may be prescribed to prevent calcium and uric acid stones from forming.

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Retrieved Text: Pyelonephritis is a urinary tract infection that usually starts in the bladder or urethra before traveling to the kidneys. The infection requires immediate medical attention. Without treatment, the infection in the kidney can cause permanent damage or can spread to the bloodstream and develop into a life-threatening infection. Doctors typically treat this and other kidney infections using antibiotics. However, a case of pyelonephritis usually requires hospitalization.
Acute pyelonephritis comes on suddenly where the kidneys begin to swell. If the kidneys are persistently and repeatedly attacked, doctors consider this a chronic form of the infection. Though rare, chronic pyelonephritis tends to occur more and children and individuals who suffer from a urinary obstruction. Receiving a diagnosis during its initial acute stage can greatly impact the patient's prognosis (outcome).
Who Is at Risk for Pyelonephritis?
The infection in the kidneys usually develops in the urinary tract in the urethra, before it enters the bladder. The infection can multiply quickly and travel to other areas in the body through the bloodstream. Kidney infections are extremely dangerous for individuals with an artificial heart or joint valve.
Gender – Women have an elevated risk of developing kidney infections compared to men due to their anatomy. The female urethra is significantly shorter than the male urethra, minimizing the distance bacteria can travel from the opening of the urethra into the bladder. Once the infection has reached the bladder and can easily spread the kidneys.
Pregnancy – Being pregnant can increase the risk of developing kidney disease.
Urinary Tract Obstruction – Any obstruction that restricts the flow of urine

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What plant processes convert carbon dioxide, water and solar energy into carbohydrates?" and the following answer choices: 
- water types
 - life-sustaining
 - chlorofluorocarbons
 - food tools
 - planting pots
 - circulatory systems
 - one celled organisms
 - peachleaf willow

Now knowing that photosynthesis means producers convert from carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy into carbohydrates for themselves and photosynthesis and cellular respiration are life-sustaining plant processes, choose the best answer.

Target Text: life-sustaining

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: When it comes to renewable energy, biomass energy is one of the oldest types. Biomass energy uses organic materials such as plants and animal waste that is available readily. It is a very renewable and unique form of energy, thanks to the process by which it is made.
To make biomass energy, a few simple things are needed. These things include solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Biomass energy is mostly sourced from plants. My friend who is an Austin locksmith really is passionate about this topic.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants manufactured biomass energy. This is done when energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll then converted to carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. As the carbohydrates burn, the carbon dioxide and water are converted back and release energy into the atmosphere from the sun.
Trees are another source of biomass energy, working much the same way as other plants. Many times, this process is done by the conventional processes of burning wood as fuel. This can also be done through trimming and thinning of trees, though, as well as through operations such as park management and tree surgery. We can obtain biomass fuel from almost any type of tree that is considered a category of Virgin would, meaning it hasn’t been used for any other purpose. You can also specifically grow energy crops that can be used to obtain biomass fuel directly.
There are many reasons why you should consider using biomass as an energy source. Of course, the most obvious reason is because it is renewable. There

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Retrieved Text: Sorry plants, but you just got shown up.
Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have discovered how to harness solar power to turn carbon dioxide into fuel. That’s exactly what plants do every day with photosynthesis, but this newly discovered process does the job even better than nature does.
“It is possible to take sunlight, CO2, and water, and in an artificial system make hydrocarbons with an efficiency that’s greater than that of photosynthesis,” Joel Ager, lead author of the study, tells Inverse. Hydrocarbons are just any molecules made of hydrogen and carbon, and their ability to store energy has made them the main energy source for the planet.
If the system can break out of the lab, it could help fuel the world without relying on high-polluting and globally warming fossil fuels like oil and gas. And there’s plenty of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide around — indeed, far more of the latter these days than there should be.
As the researchers detail Wednesday in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, the researchers used a photovoltaic solar cell to split carbon dioxide in water, producing the desired hydrocarbon fuel molecules like ethanol, as well as oxygen-based molecules.
This is the first time scientists have managed to go straight from carbon dioxide to a finished, basically ready-to-use fuel, without having to do any more costly chemical manipulation. Improvements in the solar cell technology powering the experiment also let the researchers convert the energy at levels plants could only imagine.
A drawing of how the solar-powered fuel system works to convert C02 using

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Retrieved Text: Turning fossil fuel into energy is easy: You just burn it. And live with the carbon dioxide byproduct. What if we could reverse the process and turn water and carbon dioxide back into fuel?
A dream solution, but it may seem like trying to put the genie back in the bottle.
Not for University of Minnesota researcher Jane Davidson. She and her colleagues are using concentrated light energy equal to 3,000 suns to find the most efficient way to convert carbon dioxide and water into synthetic gas, or "syngas," with solar power.
Syngas is easy to transport via pipelines and is readily converted to high-energy-density liquid hydrocarbon fuels, or "synfuels," with properties equivalent to what we derive from petroleum. “We are aiming for unprecedented solar-to-fuel efficiencies that will enable the entire sunlight-to-synfuels process to be done with 10 percent efficiency and no input of fossil fuels,” says Davidson, a mechanical engineering professor.
At the University's Solar Energy Laboratory, the process begins with an indoor solar simulator in the form of seven mirrored, 6,500-watt lamps that concentrate the light on a 10-centimeter spot with an irradiance of 3,000 suns. (One "sun" equals 1,000 watts of solar energy falling per square meter of surface.) With this concentrated radiant energy, one can generate temperatures of more than 3,600 F in a chemical reactor. There, carbon dioxide and water are split to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the two components of syngas.
Davidson, along with mechanical engineering professor Tom Chase and their students, have developed two prototype reactors to split water and CO2. Deploying these

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Retrieved Text: Editor’s Note: In this paper, Saskia Grisaru (‘19) explains the essential concept of The Law of the Conservation of Mass and how this scientific concept plays out in the real world.
The Law of Conservation of Mass, which states that mass in a closed system can neither be created nor destroyed, is indubitably one of the defining characteristics of our universe. Developed during the 18th century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, this law plays a part in scientific and real world affairs in innumerable ways. While perhaps best known by chemists as the rationale for balancing chemical equations, the Law of Conservation of Mass is applicable to many important processes.
One important process that this law applies to is the existence and sustenance of all life. For instance, when a human eats food, our bodily functions are able to convert that food to nutrients, which are then used by the body for energy, growth, and cell repair. Similarly, when a plant undergoes the process of photosynthesis, it is able to derive energy from the sun, water from the soil, and carbon dioxide gas from the air, and convert these components to sugars. These sugars fuel the plant and allow it survive and grow. Furthermore, during photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the air—oxygen which then supports animal life. Both the digestive and photosynthetic processes begin with completely different ingredients than those with which they conclude, yet matter is never created nor destroyed; it is simply rearranged to form different products. The Law of Conservation of Mass is also

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: Scientists in Switzerland have split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen using a solar reactor. The technology uses a thermochemical process to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful fuels.
Splitting carbon dioxide and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas (syngas) is the first step to producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels for cars and aeroplanes. Current approaches for splitting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen suffer from low mass conversions, poor selectivity and low energy efficiencies.
The solar reactor has a 100mm inner diameter, a 75mm deep receiver with a 4cm diameter circular aperture sealed by a 4mm thick quartz window so it can access the concentrated solar radiation. The cavity contains an octagonal 25mm thick porous ceramic structure made of pure ceria. With this arrangement, the structure is directly exposed to high-flux irradiation, enabling volumetric absorption and uniform heating.
Now, a team led by Aldo Steinfeld at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, has made a 4kW solar reactor containing cerium oxide or ceria, a well-known redox material. The reactor can split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The technology uses a two-step cyclic process based on the reduction and oxidation reactions of ceria and a swing in temperature and pressure to control the oxygen exchange. In the first step, 3000-fold concentrated solar power heats the ceria to 1500°C under reduced pressure to generate oxygen. In the second step, carbon dioxide reoxidises the reduced ceria at 900°C to generate carbon monoxide. This redox cycle can also

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: Chemical fuels from carbon neutral sources are another important component in need of development if we are to achieve a sustainable energy future. Chemical fuels are especially important to the transportation sector as roughly one third of our energy goes into transportation—and currently over 40% of global transportation cannot be electrified, such as ships, aircraft, and trucks.
The Sun produces enough energy in one hour to power all human activity on Earth for a full year, and yet storage of this energy in the form of convenient, inexpensive fuels has remained technically elusive. Addressing this challenge at Caltech is the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP) and CCI Solar, which are two organizations dedicated to the production of solar fuels. Both JCAP and CCI solar aim to find a cost-effective method to produce fuels using only sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide as inputs.
Researchers including Professors Nate Lewis, Harry Gray, Jonas Peters and Mike Hoffmann are focused on this effort. They are looking at the photocatalytic splitting of water to produce molecular hydrogen, and via the photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to produce useful products such as syngas, methane, and other hydrocarbons. They’re developing enhanced light absorbers, optimized catalyst materials and their integration into functional assemblies.
Professor Sossina Haile is using a thermochemical approach to solar fuel production. This method relies on the oxygen uptake and release capacity of oxides such as ceria. Because the process uses sunlight in the form of heat, it has the potential to utilize the entire solar spectrum with high efficiency. Her group has demonstrated

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Retrieved Text: Carl Bernacchi's primary employer is the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the the United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA). He has funding from the USDA ARS and from Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that is engineering crops to photosynthesize more efficiently to sustainably increase worldwide food productivity with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR), and the U.K. Government’s Department for International Development (DFID).
Ivan Baxter works for the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and has received funding from the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, The USDA-ARS and Cotton Inc.
Researchers around the world are trying to figure out ways to feed a growing population, which is estimated to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050. But as humanity struggles to increase crop yield, might nutritional quality of crops suffer?
The process that allows plants to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air into stored sugars and fats – carbohydrates – that ultimately lead to growth is called photosynthesis. These carbohydrates end up in what farmers harvest. Plants also absorb minerals from the soil, which are critical for them to survive. These minerals also end up in the food farmers harvest. Therefore, plants are critical to human health both in terms of calories from carbohydrates and minerals in our diets.
For several decades, studies have consistently revealed that higher carbon dioxide levels produce higher yields of most crops. However, there are very few real-world, field experiments on major crops that examine the impact

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: June 2, 2005 By Mark Peplow This article courtesy of Nature News.
Fuel born from carbohydrates could be clean and easy.
The diesel fuel in your car could one day come from plants rather than oil wells, according to chemists who have converted plant chemicals into useful hydrocarbons.
Biomass fuels are often touted as a green alternative to oil. Although the carbon dioxide they produce when burnt is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, in theory it should be sucked up by the following year's crop as it grows.
The easiest way to extract energy from plants is simply to burn them, and convert the heat to electricity. Although this is good for stationary power plants, it isn't ideal for cars. Electric cars have to be recharged frequently, which may make them unsuitable for long journeys.
A better idea is to convert plant material into fuel that vehicles can use directly. This has been done with the fatty acids in vegetable oils, which make up a small part of plant material. But now researchers have found a way to create fuel from the carbohydrates that make up about 75% of a plant's dried weight.
The result is a much more efficient use of plant material, report James Dumesic, a chemist from University of Wisconsin, Madison, and his colleagues in Science1.
The plant-derived hydrocarbons are just like conventional diesel, notes Jens Rostrup-Nielsen of Haldor Topsoe, a chemical technology company based in Lyngby, Denmark, so they can be distributed through existing infrastructure. This makes the fuel easier to use than hydrogen, for example,

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: This science experiment works because plants are able to convert light into energy. A plant takes in water and carbon dioxide through their roots and leaves, which is needed to form glucose, a sugar that living organisms break down to produce energy. Using energy from the sun, plants rearrange water and carbon dioxide to form sugar. This process whereby light is converted into food, is called ‘photosynthesis’.

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Retrieved Text: Nuclear power plants produce electricity using uranium and other radioactive elements as fuel, which are unstable. In a process called nuclear fission, the atoms of these elements are broken apart, in the process ejecting neutrons and other atomic fragments together with large amounts of energy. Practical nuclear power dates back to the 1950s and has proved itself a reliable, economical source of energy, providing power not only for communities but also for space missions and ships at sea. In the 21st century, global warming has provided new reasons to exploit the advantages of nuclear power.
Although a nuclear power plant gets its energy from radioactive materials, many nuclear plants have similarities with fossil-fuel plants. Both a nuclear facility and a coal-fired one produce heat to boil water into steam. The high-pressure steam turns a turbine, which in turn powers an electrical generator. The steam, turbine and generator technology is nearly identical in each situation. Using time-tested steam and turbine technology improves the nuclear power plant’s reliability.
Power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, produce huge quantities of carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes significantly to global warming. By contrast, nuclear power plants make heat without burning anything. The radioactive materials produce no carbon dioxide, making nuclear power plants serious alternatives for generating electricity.
Unlike traditional power plants that burn fossil fuels, nuclear plants consume no oxygen and give off no carbon dioxide. They run for long periods on a relatively small amount of fuel. This makes them ideal for powering submarines, which can operate

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: Why Is Ethanol Called a Renewable Resource?
Ethanol, derived from plant material, is a renewable energy source because the production and combustion of ethanol completes a cycle. The amounts of carbon dioxide and water that plants use are returned back to the atmosphere when ethanol, made from plant starch or cellulose, is combusted. Ethanol is considered a "green" fuel because it is nontoxic and reduces air pollution. The 13.3 billion gallons of ethanol that were produced in the United States in 2013 reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 38 million metric tons, equivalent to removing 8 million vehicles from the road, according to the Renewable Fuels Association.
Ethanol is generated from glucose that is derived from plant material. Glucose can be obtained from plant starch or cellulose. In the United States, most of the ethanol is derived from the starch in corn kernels. Other countries may use other plants. For example, Brazil uses sugarcane to make ethanol. Although it is relatively easy to produce ethanol from corn starch, growing large amounts of corn for energy production may cause shortages in corn food production. Nonfood plants, such as wheat straw or switch grass, contain cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose molecules. Ethanol obtained from cellulose requires pretreatment of plant material to soften it and make the cellulose more susceptible to hydrolysis, which is the breakdown of the cellulose polymer.
The production of ethanol from plant material and ethanol's subsequent combustion form a complete cycle. Glucose within plants is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis, a process that uses

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Retrieved Text: Thermal processes for the production of fuels such as liquid hydrocarbons and hydrogen from hydrocarbon gas and carbon dioxide are well established processes, but all use fossil fuels as an energy source. The development of high temperature solar thermal systems offers an energy savings alternative to the use of fossil fuels, and opens opportunities to the use of other carbon-free or carbon-neutral processes to produce fuels.
The use of concentrated solar power (CSP) to produce electricity is well established. The development of high temperature CSP plants and the availability of materials capable of withstanding these high temperatures has generated interest in the use of CSP for other high temperature processes, which usually require fossil fuels or electrical energy to operate.
High temperature solar fuel production could lead to a new paradigm where carbon dioxide (CO2) is seen as a valuable commodity that can be used in solving other shortage problems rather than being seen as a pollutant that must be buried or sequestrated. There are already a number of projects running which do convert recovered carbon dioxide to liquid fuels for instance, but these all use other sources of energy such as electricity, primarily “surplus” renewable electricity.
Fig. 1: Solar reactor used in HTS processes ).
The core of the solar thermal (ST) process is the solar reactor, which is the equivalent of the receiver of CSP system. ST systems operate at higher concentration ratio than CSP, and thus generate higher temperatures. Current pilot systems under development, or in use, have power levels up to 1 MW, although higher ratings

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Retrieved Text: Spinach gave Popeye super strength, but it also holds the promise of a different power for a group of scientists: the ability to convert sunlight into a clean, efficient alternative fuel.
Purdue University physicists are part of an international group using spinach to study the proteins involved in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the sun's energy into carbohydrates used to power cellular processes.
"The proteins we study are part of the most efficient system ever built, capable of converting the energy from the sun into chemical energy with an unrivaled 60 percent efficiency," said Yulia Pushkar, a Purdue assistant professor of physics involved in the research. "Understanding this system is indispensible for alternative energy research aiming to create artificial photosynthesis."
During photosynthesis plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrogen-storing carbohydrates and oxygen. Artificial photosynthesis could allow for the conversion of solar energy into renewable, environmentally friendly hydrogen-based fuels.
In Pushkar's laboratory, students extract a protein complex called Photosystem II from spinach they buy at the supermarket. It is a complicated process performed over two days in a specially built room that keeps the spinach samples cold and shielded from light, she said.
Once the proteins have been carefully extracted, the team excites them with a laser and records changes in the electron configuration of their molecules.
"These proteins require light to work, so the laser acts as the sun in this experiment," Pushkar said. "Once the proteins start working, we use advanced techniques like electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray spectroscopy to observe how the electronic

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Retrieved Text: In 2012, Council developed a Distributed Energy Plan which looked at how Council can reduce energy consumption and save money at the main energy consuming facilities.
Recommendations for energy efficiency included lighting retrofits, air conditioning upgrades, energy management systems, increased insulation and shading as well as modifying use of water pumping systems. The most significant recommendation was for installation of solar power systems.
Bathurst Regional Council continues to be green and install solar PV (photovoltaic) solar power systems on its buildings to help curb rising energy costs. By 2015 Council had installed more than 120kW of solar generation in five years. This reduces greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 170 tonnes of carbon dioxide (equivalent) each year, and saves Council an estimated $46,000 annually.
Council's solar installations are funded through a Revolving Energy Fund, which reinvests savings from previous projects. The price of solar panels has dropped, allowing much larger projects to be funded from the savings of smaller installations. In the graph below, blue points are the size of solar installed in any one year. The green line represents the total amount installed up to and including that year.
The Water Filtration Plant and the Waste Water Treatment Plant are the Council's largest users of electricity, and have the largest solar installations.
Council received funding through the Australian Government's 'Nation Building - Economic Stimulus Plan' to install 2kW of solar power. The system was opened by the Federal Member for Macquarie, the Honourable Bob Debus on 26 August 2009.
In 2012 a 4.2 kW expansion was installed.
A 10 kW solar power

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: A team of genuine United States patriots employed by the United States Department of Energy has spoken out about the genuine potentials for harvesting Carbon Dioxide, from whatever convenient source, and then using and consuming that Carbon Dioxide as the key and basic raw material in the industrial synthesis of any and all sorts of hydrocarbon fuels and chemicals, into anything, in effect, we now sell our children's futures out to continue buying from the OPEC cartel.
Genuine United States patriots everywhere, regardless of their political party affiliations or personal feelings about the relationship between the economy and the environment, should pay some attention to what these USDOE scientists have to say about Carbon Dioxide, and the potentials for it's productive use, especially since the United States Government, who most now see as opposed to any industry that might co-produce a little Carbon Dioxide, had the integrity to publish it.
our own United States Department of Energy, our United States Government, has had the technology in hand for more than several decades now to harvest Carbon Dioxide, the same stuff some folks want to shut our economically essential Coal-fired generators of abundant and affordable electric power down because they co-produce a - - relative to a number of all-natural and un-taxable sources of it's emission, such as volcanoes - - small amount of, and, to then convert that Carbon Dioxide into some of the stuff we seem willing to send our young citizens in uniform off to the Persian Gulf to fight and die for.
we could actually eliminate

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Retrieved Text: A one megawatt solar generation system installed by Inovateus Solar at the CuisinArt Golf Resort & Spa in Anguilla, BWI is helping the resort meet both energy and water requirements. Anguilla is an island in the Caribbean, east of Puerto Rico.
The innovative solar power system is powering the resort’s reverse osmosis water plant and reducing energy costs, addressing both water and energy shortages in the Caribbean while also setting the standard for other islands and resorts in the region.
Anguilla recently joined the Carbon War Room 10-Island Challenge to reduce the Caribbean carbon impact. The solar system installed by Inovateus for CuisinArt is currently the only significant positive step made into renewables, with the new power plant saving 1.2 million pounds of carbon dioxide emissions annually.
The solar power system uses a battery backup system to store energy, ensuring uninterruptible energy supply to the reverse osmosis (RO) plant throughout the day. The RO plant creates potable solar water for the residents on the island and guests of the resort as well as irrigation water for the golf course.
The solar plant is completely isolated from the grid and also has the unique benefit of being able to reconnect partial loads in a discretionary way to continue desalination outside solar production hours. For those hours when the sun is down, it depends on the local utility, Anguilla Electricity Company Ltd. (Anglec) for energy.
Peter Rienks of Inovateus explains that the payback on this project will immediately save CuisinArt hundreds of thousands of dollars per year, adding that the system could be

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers lack a what?" and the following answer choices: 
- characteristics
 - the body's largest organ
 - watery habitat
 - centralized nervous system
 - functioning arm
 - underwater life
 - biological diversity
 - epidermis and dermis

Now knowing that echinoderms lack a centralized nervous system and echinoderms include starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers, choose the best answer.

Target Text: centralized nervous system

#### Retrieved Documents ####

Rank: 0
Score: 59.01486
Retrieved Text: Ok, you know about what you eat, but you don't know what starfish eat!!! If you do I'll tell you anyways. HA!! Starfish eat chitons, coral, sea cucumbers,sea urchins, snails, sponges, and worms.Some feed on bivalves. Starfish are carnivores, which means they only eat meat.

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Retrieved Text: . . . from starfish to sea cucumbers. . .
A nyone who has been to the beach has probably seen starfish or sand dollars. The more intrepid beachcomber may find brittle stars, sea cucumbers, or sea urchins. These and many other organisms, living and extinct, make up the Echinodermata, the largest phylum to lack any freshwater or land representatives.
Most living echinoderms, like this sand dollar from Baja California, are pentameral; that is, they have fivefold symmetry, with rays or arms in fives or multiples of five. However, a number of fossil echinoderms were not pentameral at all, and some had downright bizarre shapes. Echinoderms have a system of internal water-filled canals, which in many echinoderms form suckered "tube feet", with which the animal may move or grip objects.
Images and information about various living California echinoderms are available through the DELTA Project of the California State University system.
Visit the Echinoderm Homepage at the California Academy of Sciences for additional information and links. Or peruse the Echinoderm Newsletter, brought to you by the National Museum of Natural History.

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Retrieved Text: The most complete coverage of the British echinoderm fauna published since 1927! This Synopsis of the British Fauna provides a concise account of the diversity, habitats, distribution and lifestyles of 94 species of echinoderms recorded from British waters.
Accurate identification keys, focusing on distinctly recognisable external features, will aid identification of the 3 species of feather stars, 21 starfish, 17 sea urchins, 20 brittle stars and 33 sea cucumbers featured.

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Score: 51.742558
Retrieved Text: A weird creature that wriggled across the ocean beds 430 million years ago has been dug up in Britain.
It is so bizarre it has been named Sollasina cthulhu after horror writer H.P. Lovecraft’s most famous beast – the inspiration behind the ‘Alien’ movies.
The “exceptionally preserved” remains enabled palaeontologists from the UK and the US to create an accurate 3D computer reconstruction.
This identified it as a distant ancestor of the sea pig – said to be the ugliest animal beneath the waves – and other types of sea cucumber.
Cthuhlu appeared in a series of stories by the legendary US author – who likened it to a cross between an octopus, a dragon and a “human caricature”.
Although the fossil is only just over an inch (3cm) wide, its many long tentacles would have made it appear quite monstrous to other small marine life.
It is thought to have used these limbs, or ‘tube feet’, to capture food and crawl over the seafloor.
Complete with soft parts, it was found in volcanic ash deposits that accumulated in a what is now Herefordshire in the Welsh Borders at a time when most of Europe’s land mass was submerged.
Lead author Dr Imran Rahman, deputy head of research at Oxford University Museum of Natural History, said: “Sollasina belongs to an extinct group called the ophiocistioids, and this new material provides the first information on the group’s internal structures.
“This includes an inner ring-like form that has never been described in the group before.
Described in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, it sheds light

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Retrieved Text: SEATTLE- The owner of a Washington seafood company has been sentenced to prison for overharvesting sea cucumbers.
Federal prosecutors said Friday that 62-year-old Hoon Namkoong was sentenced to three years in prison and must pay $1.5 million in restitution.
He pleaded guilty earlier this year to underreporting the number of sea cucumbers he bought from tribal and nontribal fisheries in the Puget Sound by nearly 250,000 pounds (113,400 kilograms) between 2014 and 2016.
Namkoong’s company, Orient Seafood Production, sold them in Asia and the U.S.
U.S. Attorney Annette Hayes says 62-year-old Hoon Namkoong’s actions will impact sea cucumber numbers in the Puget Sound for years to come.
The long and tubular bottom-dwelling creatures are cousins of sea urchins and starfish and are featured in the cuisine of China and other southeast Asian countries.

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Retrieved Text: You have probably heard of sea cucumbers. If you’re lucky, you might have seen one, if not in the wild, then perhaps in a nature documentary like Blue Planet or the children’s cartoon Octonauts. If you’re less lucky, you might have eaten one – they are most commonly described as slippery and bland in taste!
Despite their appearance, sea cucumbers are actually marine animals most closely related to sea urchins, rather than to worms or slugs. Over the past century palaeontologists have uncovered a range of ancient fossil relatives of modern sea cucumbers that allow us to piece together the story of how they evolved from armoured ‘tanks’ into the naked slug-like forms we see today. One such fossil is described in a new paper by my colleagues and I, just published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
The fossil in question is 430-million-years-old, and it comes from a site of exceptionally-preserved fossils in England called the Herefordshire Lagerstätte. Herefordshire has produced many exciting discoveries over the years, from prehistoric parasites to an ancient ‘kite runner’. The new fossil is the first of its kind from this deposit.
Like all fossils from Herefordshire, the specimen was preserved in an egg-shaped nodule of rock. Because the rock has the same chemical composition as the fossil, it could not be studied with modern imaging methods such as CT scanning. Instead, it had to be studied by painstakingly grinding away the fossil, a few hundredths of a millimetre as a time, with photographs taken of each exposed surface using

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Retrieved Text: Why Are Millions of Starfish 'Melting'?
An orange bat star, surrounded by purple sea urchins, is one of many starfish species being killed by a newly identified virus.
A virus is the culprit behind a gruesome wasting disease that has struck sea stars along the West Coast of Canada and the U.S.
For the past year and a half, a killer has been on the loose, taking out millions of starfish up and down the West Coast of North America. By the time it is done with an area, starfish that had once littered the ocean floor have been reduced to mounds of white goo.
The silent killer now appears to be a kind of parvovirus—the group of viruses that cause gastrointestinal problems in unvaccinated dogs—researchers report Monday in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Sea stars are linchpins in the ecology of habitats like tide pools, said Robert Paine, a retired marine ecologist at the University of Washington in Seattle, in an interview earlier this year. Without them around to control mussels, the bivalves can take over an area, greatly reducing the kinds of algae and sea anemones present. "The system, for all intents and purposes, simplifies itself."
There's not much researchers can do to stop the virus, though. "We can't quarantine, we can't effectively cull, and we can't vaccinate," said Drew Harvell, a marine ecologist at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, in an interview earlier this year. The best they can hope for is that populations can recover once the epidemic winds down.
The long-term effects of

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Score: 48.202415
Retrieved Text: To celebrate the arrival of our new Geology Curator, Neil Owen, Natural Science Curator Clare Brown created the Lemon Drizzle Crinoid Cake – celebrating a mysterious creature from the oceans.
Looks can be deceiving as crinoids are animals not plants. They are members of the phylum Echinodermata. This group of animals is made up of starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers and sea lilies. First appearing in the fossil record during the Early Ordovician, 480 million years ago and survived to present day. They were prolific from the Carboniferous to the Cretaceous with over 6000 species discovered.
The seas at this time would have been teeming with crinoids gracefully swaying in the currents, almost resembling plants in the breeze.
Unlike their relations, they developed a unique body structure with a body (calyx) was covered in a flexible membrane and was made up of interlocking plates, held aloft by a long stem made of individually stacked plates (ossicles)to form a column. At the base of this column they attached themselves to the sea floor with a root like structure (holdfast). On the upper surface of the body they developed arms (brachials) with tiny filaments (pinnules) to filter the passing water currents.
Unfortunately this body plan has been lost in time as modern crinoids have evolved to resemble sea urchins and are entirely mobile.
You can learn more about our Geology Collections over on the #GeoBlitz blog.

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Rank: 8
Score: 48.103718
Retrieved Text: Echinoderms, or members of the phylum Echinodermata, are some of the most easily-recognized marine invertebrates. This phylum includes sea stars (starfish), sand dollars, and urchins, and they are identified by their radial body structure, often featuring five arms. You can often see echinoderm species in a tidal pool or in the touch tank at your local aquarium. Most echinoderms are small, with an adult size of about 4 inches, but some can grow to as much as 6.5 feet in length. Different species may be found in a variety of bright colors, including purples, reds, and yellows.
The phylum Echinodermata contains five classes of marine life: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars and basket stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers), and Crinoidea (sea lilies and feather stars). They are a diverse group of organisms, containing about 7,000 species. The phylum is regarded as one of the oldest of all animal groups, thought to have appeared at the start of the Cambrian era, about 500 million years ago.
The word echinoderm means comes from the Greek word ekhinos, meaning hedgehog or sea urchin, and the word derma, meaning skin. Thus, they are spiny-skinned animals. The spines on some echinoderms are more obvious than others. They are very pronounced in sea urchins, for example. If you run your finger over a sea star, you'll likely feel small spines. The spines on sand dollars, on the other hand, are less pronounced.
Echinoderms have a unique body design. Many echinoderms exhibit radial symmetry, which means that their components are

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Score: 45.948853
Retrieved Text: Echinoderms are a group of marine animals that includes more than 7,000 different species, sea lilies, sea urchins and starfish being the most common and most well-known members.
No member of this large and diverse group is able to survive on land or in freshwater habitats, but they are very widespread in marine habitats and can be found in salt water all over the world. They prefer coral reef habitats and shallow waters, but they are quite common in deep waters and around the poles as well. Most of them live on the sea floor and are sedentary animals, but some of them, such as some sea lilies, are able to move fast over short distances, changing place often. Some sea urchins are known to be free-floating all their lives.
The name of these special animals means spiny skinned in Greek. Though not all of them have spines, most of them have textured, often very rough skin. The species that do have spines are usually poisonous, the spines releasing a toxin as a means of defense. All echinoderm species have symmetrical bodies, with five or a multiple of five equal sections distributed around a center. In some species, such as brittle stars, the sections have transformed into arms, each of them being equipped with a set of internal organs of their own. Though most species of this group have very fragile bodies, they have an extraordinary capacity for regeneration, being able to re-grow their lost sections, even their organs. These creatures have no brains, only a rudimentary nervous

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Rank: 10
Score: 44.697933
Retrieved Text: Echinoderms include familiar forms such as sea stars (or starfish), sea urchins, and sand dollars. Much of the Neogene fossil record of echinoderms in the southeastern United States consists of the remains of sea urchins and sand dollars, which are known as echinoids. Because echinoids have robust exoskeletons made out of calcium carbonate and spend much of their time buried in the sand, they have a very good fossil record.

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Rank: 11
Score: 44.5593
Retrieved Text: Citation: Science Reporter, Vol.34; 9-15p.
Biodiversity of coral reefs is responsible for productivity in the sea and these coral reefs are built mainly by corals containing a calcium-carbonate skeleton. The reef building corals are the hermotypic corals harbouring zooxanthellae and the chermotypic corals, without zooxanthellae. Coral reefs are found in waters upto a depth of 50-70 m, well lighted zones having salinity of 32-35% and temperatures of above 20 degrees C. Coral reefs are abound in a variety of fascinating animal life such as giant clams, sea cucumbers, sea anemones, sea urchins, sea fans, crown-of-thorns starfish and a variety of coloured fishes. Each of these animals have a special niche in this system. The three major types of reefs are the fringing reefs, barrier reefs and the atolls. Reefs all over the world are dwindling fast. The major agents of destruction of coral reefs are abiotic and biotic factors such as hurricanes, bioerosion, sedimentation, eutrophication, pollution, predation and diseases. Pollution by oil spill and oil transport, thermal pollution and freshwater inflow are the major threats to corals growing along the urban and industrialised centres. Therefore, a concerted effort from academicians, governmental and non-governmental bodies to educate the public and build-awareness about the rich, diverse biological resources is warranted and a plea is made to manage the sewage, oil and thermal pollution to help preserve the biodiversity of coral and associated flora and fauna.

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Rank: 12
Score: 44.05688
Retrieved Text: The 10th most popular snorkel dive spot in New Zealand.
South of Auckland and New Plymouth, the snorkeling at Taranaki Marine Reserve offers good rocks and reefs to observe. During Taranaki Marine Reserve snorkeling, you may encounter starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
A good place to start is at Ngamotu Beach or off the beach at the Tapuae stream end. In either case, make sure to only snorkel here on calm days. The water is known to be very cool, so plan on using a wetsuit. The visibility is not usually great and typically ranges from 6 to 15 feet. Keep an eye on the swells that frequent this marine reserve.
To reach Auckland by air, fly into Auckland Airport (AKL), which is located south of Auckland. There is a Taranaki Marine Reserve Visitor Information Centre in New Plymouth centrally located at Puke Ariki.
Overall, Taranaki Marine Reserve is the 10th most popular snorkel dive spot of all 11 snorkeling dives in New Zealand.
For snorkeling at Taranaki Marine Reserve in New Zealand, our printable snorkeling dive guides offers dive descriptions, maps, lodging suggestions, driving directions, levels of difficulty and points-of-contact.

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Rank: 13
Score: 43.705654
Retrieved Text: That's what I love about Sea Cucumbers. They always show us that our internal organs have the confidence and adventurous spirit to climb out of the cramped darkness of the human body and live an independent life in the great outdoors.
This particular example is called Ocnus lacteus. It looks just like a liberated piece of spinal cord topped with a loosely constructed brain, wandering around in northerly waters from the Arctic to the Mediterranean.
These Sea Cucumbers are tiny, usually just 1 cm (0.2 in) and occasionally up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long. They crawl around on rocks at shallow depths using five rows of long tube-feet that line their body. At their head are 10 branching tentacles for catching food.
Isn't it wonderful to think that your death need not be the end for your organs? It can be the start of a whole new adventure!
eek! liberated piece of spinal cord! yuck!
perhaps instead we are the prisoners of the sea cucumber.
Wait a sec... could hallucigenia be an early echinoderm?
@TexWisGirl: I think pretty much all Sea Cucumbers are yuck somewhere down the line!
@itchy8me: Ahh! Maybe we're mere vehicles and beasts of burden for the Sea Cucumbers who travel within. Something to think about!
@KJM: Thank you so much! I'm glad you're enjoying it!
@Lear's Fool: I have NO idea! Hallucigenia is completely mad. What you'd need to do is found out what echinoderms looked like back then and I don't THINK any of them looked like that. It's difficult though!
Yeah, everything looked weird back then, didn't they?
I just can't

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Rank: 14
Score: 42.703033
Retrieved Text: After the works of art, natural rarities predominated. They consisted chiefly of plants, shells, and other exhibits from the ocean that must have been Captain Nemo's own personal finds. In the middle of the lounge, a jet of water, electrically lit, fell back into a basin made from a single giant clam. The delicately festooned rim of this shell, supplied by the biggest mollusk in the class Acephala, measured about six meters in circumference; so it was even bigger than those fine giant clams given to King Fran�ois I by the Republic of Venice, and which the Church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris has made into two gigantic holy-water fonts.
The zoophyte branch offered some very unusual specimens from its two groups, the polyps and the echinoderms. In the first group: organ-pipe coral, gorgonian coral arranged into fan shapes, soft sponges from Syria, isis coral from the Molucca Islands, sea-pen coral, wonderful coral of the genus Virgularia from the waters of Norway, various coral of the genus Umbellularia, alcyonarian coral, then a whole series of those madrepores that my mentor Professor Milne-Edwards has so shrewdly classified into divisions and among which I noted the wonderful genus Flabellina as well as the genus Oculina from R�union Island, plus a "Neptune's chariot" from the Caribbean Sea--every superb variety of coral, and in short, every species of these unusual polyparies that congregate to form entire islands that will one day turn into continents. Among the echinoderms, notable for being covered with spines: starfish, feather stars, sea lilies, free-swimming crinoids, brittle stars,

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Rank: 15
Score: 42.400978
Retrieved Text: As the festive season approaches, I am sure that many of you are looking forward to a holiday at the coast. In light of this I thought we would take a look at a few of the amazing creatures that inhabit the many tidal rock pools found along our 3000km coastline.
One of the weird and wonderful life forms that are easy to spot in rock pools are sea anemones, with their gently waving tentacles. Although they resemble delicate flowers, anemones are actually primitive animals that are closely related to jellyfish and corals. They stick to rocks by an adhesive disc and, lacking a hard skeleton, are supported by the water inside their body cavity. Their tentacles, packed with microscopic stinging cells, called nematocysts, are used to entangle and paralyse small fish, mussels and anything else they can grasp and push into their mouths. The young of the dark-red Plum anemone (Actinia mandelae) are brooded inside its body cavity with juvenile anemones then crawling out of its mouth!
Starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers are another group of fascinating creatures that inhabit our rock pools. These strange animals have no head, eyes, front or rear end but radiate from a central point and have spines embedded in their skin. Starfish usually have five arms and hundreds of delicate tube feet with suckered tips. Their mouth is centrally placed on the under-surface and they turn their stomachs inside out onto their food, digesting it outside their bodies. Some starfish are herbivorous whilst others like the spiny starfish (Marthasterias glacialis)

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Rank: 16
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Retrieved Text: They have a soft body encased in a hard rigid shell or exoskeleton (called a test) made of individual plates (or ossicles). made up of numerous thin plates. Many echinoderms have spines covering their test (e.g. the sea urchin). This group includes such familiar sea-shore creatures as starfish and sea urchins, as well as a number of less known types, and a whole range of paleozoic forms that are no longer around. there are some 6000 recent species, distributed among five classes. But these are only a small fraction of the number and diversity of types that lived in past ages, especially during the Paleozoic era when the group was at its height.
The most distinctive thing about echinoderm appearance is their pentameral - that is, a five fold - radial symmetry. In other words, their body is structured on a five-fold plan, with rays or arms in fives or multiples of five, as shown for example with the familiar starfish with its five arms.
Echinoderms also have a complex and unique water-vascular (or ambulacral) system; a hydrostatic skeleton of internal water-filled canals. This evolved originally as a food collecting and transporting device, but in some echinoderms like starfish and sea urchins is used primarily for movement by means of suckered "tube feet". It can also be used to grip objects and even in the case of starfish apply tremendous force to price open clams, upon which those animals feed.
Echinoderms larvae have bilateral symmetry (having a definite front and rear) while as adults this is lost. This shows

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Rank: 17
Score: 42.133884
Retrieved Text: A curious inhabitant of the sea floor, starfish or sea stars are not fish but star shaped echinoderms of the class asteroidea (with sea urchins, sand dollars and basket stars as relatives). There are some 1500-2000 species of starfish inhabiting all of the worlds' oceans with the greatest diversity occurring in shallow areas and reefs.
They can exhibit different numbers of arms and display various coloration and body shapes. Starfish are slow moving, though some species can move more than 2 meters per minute. They feed primarily on gastropods, arthropods, bivalves and organic matter and corals.
gaby seastar cushion: Super realistic cushions - pillows imitation of marine life and sea fish, made with polyester fiberfill, durable and very soft, washable at 40 degrees. A very suitable gift for both adults and children. They can be used also as a cushion or pillow. Produced in Europe, meet all quality requirements of the European Community.

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Rank: 18
Score: 41.142563
Retrieved Text: The Channel Islands National Park, near Santa Barbara and Ventura, is popular with nature lovers of all kinds. A lot of the area is untouched, making it not only a good home for marine life, but it also promotes the growth of many species including sea lions, sharks, and whales, and tons of kelp forests.
Good visibility also makes it a popular spot for underwater photographers. For these reasons, it is one of the best places to go scuba diving in California. In fact, we even mention it on our list of the Best Diving in the World.
The Channel Islands are easily accessible by boat from the mainland, either Santa Barbara or Ventura, or you can just arrange day trips with local dive shops that can take you there with their own boats.
Sutil Pass: A large kelp forest is home to all kinds of sea life. Playful sea lions will swim by your side. Blackfish, rockfish, urchins, starfish, and lobster are all common sightings. And, for those visiting during the summer months, bat rays congregate in the area for mating season.
Sea Lion Rookery: As guessed, this is the best known place for photographing and seeing sea lions. The rock walls are also home to urchins, spiny lobsters, and other small sea creatures.
Shag Rock: The rocky reefs here are home to halibut. Below, there is a kelp forest which houses plenty of other species including leopard sharks and bat rays.
Black Cavern: Roomy caves and caverns are the highlight of this dive site. Peek into crags and holes to

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Rank: 19
Score: 41.0729
Retrieved Text: Community SuccessionUniversal process of directional change in vegetation during ecological time.Recognized by a progressive change in the species composition of the communityWhen an area is stripped of its vegetation by fire, flood, glaciation, or volcanic activity, it doesnt take long for new vegetation to grow.Three stages Primary succession, secondary succession, climax community.
Migration DistanceVaries across species and within species Shortest (a few hundred miles) are those birds that breed in the southern US and overwinter in Mexico. Some of the longest are birds that breed in the arctic tundra in northernmost Canada and winter as far south as the southermost tip of South AmericaOne way mileage = 10,000Arctic Tern Nests as far north as land extendsOverwinters near the south poleSees more daylight than any other speciesRound trip covers about 22,000 miles.
Why Migrate?They can take advantage of seasonally abundant food supply and avoid times and places that food supply is low.Flying insects, caterpillars, fruits and nectar are abundant during our spring and summer, but not winter.Ultimate reason is breeding success.Can raise more young if they migrate than if they stayed in the tropics.Abundant protein-rich food, longer daylight hours, more room, possibly fewer predators.
Pisaster ochraceous (a starfish)Keystone species in the rocky intertidal communities of western North America.Is a strong predator for a mussel (Mytilus californianus)The starfish can not eat large mussels, so the mussels have a size-related refuge from predationThis mussel can out-compete other invertebrates for space, but the starfish takes away that competitive edge.When the starfish were removed, mussel numbers increased and excluded other invertebrates and algae from

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Rank: 20
Score: 41.038387
Retrieved Text: Emerging from a recent dive 40 feet below the surface of the Puget Sound, biologist Ben Miner wasn't surprised by what he found: The troubling disease that wiped out millions of starfish up and down the West Coast had spread to this site along the rocky cliffs of Lopez Island.
He and another diver tallied the grim count on a clipboard he had taken underwater. Only two dozen adult starfish were found in an area where they once were abundant.
But Miner's chart also revealed good news - a few baby starfish offered a glimmer of hope for the creature's recovery.
In scattered sites along the Pacific Coast, researchers and others have reported seeing hundreds of juvenile starfish. The discovery has buoyed hopes for a potential comeback from a wasting disease that has caused millions of purple, red and orange starfish, or sea stars, to curl up, grow lesions, lose limbs and disintegrate into a pile of goo.
"Babies. That's what we hope for," said Miner, associate professor of biology at Western Washington University. "If you're hoping for sea star populations to recover, it's the best news you can get to be able to go to sites and see that there are babies."
At one site in Santa Cruz, California, more babies were counted in the past year or so than in the previous 15 years combined, said Pete Raimondi, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Not all the sites have seen juveniles and it hasn't been broad. "It doesn't mean all the sites do.

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Score: 40.871914
Retrieved Text: Common English name is fine. Latin is OK too if you\'re feeling brave.
(6/-2) Tarantulas, brine shrimp, houseflies.
(9/-3) Geoduck, chambered nautilus, limpit.
(12/-4) Sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars.
(15/-5) Ascarids, trichina worms, hookworms.

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Rank: 22
Score: 40.849003
Retrieved Text: Australia has the most biodiverse waters on the planet.
With a coastline that stretches over 37,000 kilometres (23,000 miles), Australia lines three of the world’s largest oceans. Consequently, the country’s waters are diverse, ranging from tropical seas, through to temperate and sub-Antarctic waters.
Perhaps, there is no greater association with Australia’s marine offering than its coral reefs. Venturing to Australia's west coast, the world's largest extensive fringing reef is found in the Ningaloo Marine Park, home to the graceful Whale Shark, the world's largest migration of Humpback Whales and 50 per cent of Indian Ocean's coral species.The Great Barrier Reef is the largest living structure on earth and one of the most complex ecosystems. Stretching 2,300 kilometres off the continent's northeast, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is roughly the same area as Japan, Germany, Malaysia or Italy.
But it is the richness of Australia’s temperate marine environments that is surprising. By far the greatest proportion of biodiversity is found along the southern Australian coastline where 85% of fish, 90% of echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers) and 95% of molluscs are considered endemic with new species being discovered everyday.
Australia’s oceans support over 5,000 species of fish, more than half of the shark and ray species in the world, six of the seven known species of marine turtles, tens of thousands of species of invertebrates, over half of the world’s 58 seagrass species, and countless micro-organisms. Life beneath the surface in Australia is simply extraordinary.

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Retrieved Text: A true piece of art, this large sea fossil platter will surely delight.
Using high fire brown stoneware clay, the Large Sea Fossil Platter is wheel thrown, trimmed and decorated with an assortment of favorite found beach treasures (starfish, shells, coral, sea urchins, sea horses) and glazed in a range of eggshell, wiped off in areas to expose the brown clay.
All one of a kind pottery is made by hand in our Pigeon Cove studio located in Rockport, MA. No two pieces are exactly the same. The imperfection adds to the uniqueness and charm of the pottery. All sea fossil platters are microwave, dishwasher, oven and food safe.

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Score: 40.72758
Retrieved Text: Question 1: What are the three types of food web classifications?
Connectedness webs: emphasize feeding relationships, based on observations of who ingests what. Who eats who?
Energy flow webs: weight interaction strengths by flux of energy, require measures of food and energy consumed, and generally show dominance of a small number of species. Who gets energy from what?
Functional webs: emphasize influence of individual species on the growth rate of other species. Revealed by removal experiments and may not correspond to energy flux. This tries to explain how the rest of the web is influenced by a single species by estimating effects of removal or insertion of a single species.
Question 2: What is the difference between top down and bottom up theories of the trophic cascades?
Bottom Up: nutrients or plants control relative abundance of upper trophic levels. Plants or nutrients are the limiting factor in trophic level interactions.
Top Down: Predators control the population of next trophic level down.
Question 3: Considering a top down trophic cascade, how might sea otters indirectly affect the abundance of kelp forests?
Sea otters feed on sea urchins who in turn feed on kelp. When there are healthy populations of sea otters, kelp forests are more prominent because sea otters control the population of sea urchins. The top down trophic cascade described here, the sea otter depresses the trophic level it feeds on, indirectly increasing the biomass of the next lower trophic level below it (kelp).
Question 4: What is Disturbance?
An unpredictable event that varies in magnitude and frequency. Can create a trigger for some species to

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Retrieved Text: What's like to dive Kalymnos?
The sea round our beautiful island is crystal clear. With high visibility all year round. The excellent rocky seabed, favors the development of rich marine habitats.
You will enjoy different, interesting and adventurous fun dives within a short distance.
Certified divers enjoy fun, adventurous, challenging scuba diving with us. Amazing biodiversity - spectacular seabed.
A small sample of our dive sites.
While scuba diving with us you will see marine creatures moving around, or attached to the seabed. Like colorful sponges, bristle warms, sea anemones, soft corals, octopus, sea urchins, starfish and nudibranch. And fish like sea breams, scorpion fish, parrot fish, moray eels, octopus, stingrays, barracudas, amberjacks and dolphins.
Each of the following photos represents a category of Kalymnos underwater fauna and flora. Clicking on an image will pop-up more photos from this category.
Creatures attached on the seabed.
Like colorful sponges, bristle warms, sea anemones, soft corals.
Like octopus, sea urchins, starfish and nudibranch.
Like sea breams, scorpion fish, parrot fish, moray eels, octopus.
Like stingrays, barracudas, amberjacks and dolphins.
The underwater temperatule is around 18o Celcious (65 Fahrenheit ) in April. And up to 25o Celcious (77 Fahrenheit) in September and October.
The sun is shining from mid April until mid November. With a few cloudy days and litle rain before December.
The sea is calm most of the days of April, May, June, September and October. Sometimes in July and August we have a rough sea. Due to "Meltemi", the sea breeze which cool us down the hot days. This does not prevent us from scuba diving.
We make guided boat dives

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Retrieved Text: Hairy Tritons Trumpets, Cymatium pileare, are small snails that tend to live under rocks along the reef and are often found in pairs. They grow to maybe 3, but 2 is a more common size. They seem to live forever in our system, but Im not sure what they eat. The larger tritons trumpet snails eat starfish, sea cucumbers, and sea cucumbers, but Ive never seen these hairy tritons ever attack any of those critters. In an aquarium they tend to climb around on the sides of the tank and on the rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and other similar creatures, many of them "keystone species" that are essential for keeping ecosystems healthy, are falling prey to a range of disturbances caused by human activity.
In some cases these species are so crucial to their environments that if their populations either crash or proliferate, catastrophic "phase shifts" to degraded seascapes may result. The evolutionary progress of the species may also be affected, potentially leading to extinctions.
The first-ever large scale review of current research to investigate broad trends in populations of these marine invertebrate animals, known as echinoderms, has been carried out by AIMS scientists Dr Sven Uthicke and Dr Britta Schaffelke, in collaboration with Professor Maria Byrne from the University of Sydney. Their paper has been published in the journalEcological Monographs*.
The researchers chose to review 28 species that are well-represented in current scientific literature, out of about 7,000 echinoderm species. The choice was made on the basis of strong existing data about large population fluctuations.
The first-ever large scale review of current research to investigate broad trends in populations of these marine invertebrate animals, known as echinoderms, has been carried out by AIMS scientists Dr Sven Uthicke and Dr Britta Schaffelke, in collaboration with Professor Maria Byrne from the University of Sydney. Their paper has been published in the journal Ecological Monographs*.
"Each of these 28 cases was experiencing difficulties because of human activity," Dr Uthicke said. "This involves the whole suite of human activities, including over-fishing, nutrient run-off from the land, species introductions and climate change."
While populations of these

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Retrieved Text: The Aquarium du Québec has a long history that goes back to the 1940's when Dr. Vadim D. Vladykov had an idea of a marine aquarium in the heart of Quebec City. That dream came true in the 1950s and today, the Aquarium du Québec is now home to over 10,000 specimens of fresh and salt water fish, reptiles, invertebrates, amphibians, and mammals.
The Arctic Sector - Here visitors can observe seals, walruses, and the majestic polar bears as they move through the four seasons and an underwater glass display.
Fresh & Salt Water - Two indoor levels that exhibit life in the St. Lawrence basin where the river turns from fresh water into salt water before exiting into the Atlantic ocean.
Wetlands - An exhibition of the main ecosystem in the St. Lawrence corridor and the many birds, amphibians, insects, reptiles, and plants that inhabit it.
The Coastal Zone - This sector showcases the world of Canada's marine invertebrates from both the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific. Visitors will be given the opportunity to interact and even touch animals like starfish, sea urchins, hermit crabs, sea cucumbers and more.
Banks of the St. Lawrence River - While overlooking the mighty St. Lawrence, here you can observe harbour seals as they frolic and play among the waves.
A Scientific Crossroads - Discover the research that makes the Aquarium du Québec an important place for marine biology in Canada and learn more about marine labs and marine research.
The Awesome Ocean - The main attraction of the Aquarium, the Awesome Ocean exhibit is a

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Retrieved Text: Crinoid plate fossil from Morocco. Crinoids, also known as sea lilies,are members of the Echinodermata phylum along with starfish and sea urchins. They resemble graceful underwater flowers and have parts that look like roots anchoring them to the ocean floor. They are amongst the oldest fossils in the world dating back to the Ordovician period, 450 million years ago. The stand is not included in the price.

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "the cell body splits into two cells when in cell division in eukaryotes" and the following answer choices: 
- rapid expansion
 - middle
 - begining
 - initiation
 - final stage
 - graptolites
 - Most plants
 - It expands

Now knowing that cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes and during cytokinesis , the cell body splits into two cells, choose the best answer.

Target Text: final stage

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.
In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two new cells. After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated, then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).
During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules. The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium. At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells. After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.
Binary fission occurs in eukaryotic tissue cells, but the process is more complicated: see mitosis.
↑ A., Mason, Kenneth; H., Raven, Peter; 1942-, Johnson, George B. (George Brooks),; R., Singer, Susan. Foundations of life : chemistry, cells, and genetics : selected materials from Biology, 10th edition. Boston, Mass. ISBN 0077775805. OCLC 846845827.
This page was last changed on 10 April 2019, at 14:09.

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate by binary fission. For unicellular organisms, cell division is the only method to produce new individuals. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the outcome of cell reproduction is a pair of daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. In unicellular organisms, daughter cells are individuals.
To achieve the outcome of identical daughter cells, some steps are essential. The genomic DNA must be replicated and then allocated into the daughter cells; the cytoplasmic contents must also be divided to give both new cells the machinery to sustain life. In bacterial cells, the genome consists of a single, circular DNA chromosome; therefore, the process of cell division is simplified. Mitosis is unnecessary because there is no nucleus or multiple chromosomes. This type of cell division is called binary fission.
The cell division process of prokaryotes, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much quicker process than cell division in eukaryotes. Because of the speed of bacterial cell division, populations of bacteria can grow very rapidly. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell. As in eukaryotes, the DNA of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size. The packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to some of the proteins involved in the chromosome compaction of eukaryotes.
The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the plasma membrane (Figure

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Retrieved Text: Eukaryotes are organisms having very complex cellular structure. This article deals with eukaryotic cell cycle along with its phases and regulation.
Let's get to the roots of what eukaryotes are before we proceed upon discussing life cycle of a eukaryotic cell. Cells are the building blocks of life as a single cell, in itself, is a functional unit of life. Sometimes a single cell can compose an entire organism (lesser, unicellular life forms like bacteria) while on other occasions, a cluster, sometimes reaching a count of millions, of cells may combine together to take the shape of a higher organism like mammals, reptiles, etc. With regards to cell biology, based upon their structures and corresponding functions, cells can be classified under two broad categories - prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Let's take a brief look at each of these cell types and follow it up with a detailed study of the cycle of eukaryotic cells.
A prokaryotic cell is composed of a cell envelop which consists of a cell wall and a plasma membrane beneath the cell wall. Enclosed within this cell envelop is the cytoplasmic area that houses the cell genome (DNA or RNA, as the case may be) along with ribosomes and various other material. Although there exists a nuclear region in the cytoplasmic are, prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus. This is the most significant aspect that differentiates prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells. Archaebacteria and eubacteria are the two chief prokaryote life forms.
Eukaryotic cells are greater in dimension than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotes have a

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Retrieved Text: the division of a cell in reproduction or growth.
Sometimes one cell is seen in each lacuna, sometimes shortly after cell-division a lacuna may contain two or more cells.
This cell-division is modified in a way which leads to a separation of the first two cells.
This form of cell-division is known as simple or direct division.
It was, however, many years before the details of this “cell-division” were laid bare (see Cell-Division below).
The process by which a cell divides to form two daughter cells, each of which contains the same genetic material as the original cell and roughly half of its cytoplasm.
The process by which a cell divides into two or more cells. Among prokaryotes, cell division occurs by simple fission. Among eukaryotes, the cell nucleus divides first, and then a new cell membrane is formed between the nuclei to form the new cell. Cell division is used as a means of reproduction in organisms that reproduce asexually, as by fission or spore formation, and sexually reproducing organisms form gametes through cell division. Cell division is also the source of tissue growth and repair in multicellular organisms. The two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms are mitosis and meiosis.

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Retrieved Text: The cell cycle (Fig. 1) leads to cell division and duplication. In eukaryotes the process can be divided into 3 periods – the interphase, the M (mitotic) phase, and cytokinesis. While cells grow and accumulate nutrients during the interphase (a prerequisite for subsequent cell division), the cell splits itself during the M phase which results in 2 daughter cells which enter the final stage – cytokinesis (represented by 2 yellow cells in Fig. 1 at the end of the M phase).
Cell cycle checkpoints control the process to ensure correct division of the cell.
What happens during the sub phases?
In G1 (Gap 1) cells increase in size. The G1 checkpoint control mechanism makes sure that DNA synthesis is well prepared.
During the S phase DNA replication occurs.
G2 represents the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell continues to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism makes sure that the M phase and cell division is well prepared.
During Mitosis the cell division takes place, cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) makes sure that the cell is prepared to complete cell division.
How do you measure the major phases of the cell cycle in cells?
Biocolor offer a versatile method for live cell detection and measurement of the four major phases of the mammalian cell cycle.
Fig. 2: Cell-Clock dye labelling of the four major phases of the cell cycle, obtained with live CHO cells, covered in a 2-4 mm layer of

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Retrieved Text: The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells. In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA. During the mitotic phase, the chromosomes separate. During the final stage, cytokinesis, the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.
The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that

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Retrieved Text: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis. Chapter 5. 5.1 – The Cell Cycle. Key Concept: Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions. When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?.
Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions.
When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
Does an animal get larger because each cell increases in size or because it produces more of them?
What are some things that all cells in your body must have?
The cell cycle has 4 main stages.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
The main stages of the cell cycle are: Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, & Mitosis.
Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for that type of cell.
Cell volume increases faster than surface area.
Cells need to stay small to allow diffusion and osmosis to work efficiently.
Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesisinto two new daughter cells.
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
Chromosomes: carry genetic information (DNA) that is passed from one generation of cells to the next.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.
DNA plus proteins (histones) is called chromatin.
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
Interphase prepares the cell to divide.
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.
Sister chromatids

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Retrieved Text: A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, color) and σῶμα (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 10,000 to 1,000,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes.
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during

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Retrieved Text: The cell cycle allows multiicellular organisms to grow and divide and single-celled organisms to reproduce.
All multicellular organisms use cell division for growth and the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
Single-celled organisms use cell division as their method of reproduction.
Somatic cells divide regularly; all human cells (except for the cells that produce eggs and sperm) are somatic cells.
Somatic cells contain two copies of each of their chromosomes (one copy from each parent).
The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic phase.
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated; during the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are separated and the cell divides.
A human, as well as every sexually-reproducing organism, begins life as a fertilized egg or zygote. Trillions of cell divisions subsequently occur in a controlled manner to produce a complex, multicellular human. In other words, that original single cell is the ancestor of every other cell in the body. Once a being is fully grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to repair or regenerate tissues. For example, new blood and skin cells are constantly being produced. All multicellular organisms use cell division for growth and the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues. Cell division is tightly regulated because the occasional failure of regulation can have life-threatening consequences. Single-celled organisms use cell division as their method of reproduction.
Cell Division and Growth: A sea urchin begins life as a single cell that (a) divides to form two cells, visible by scanning electron microscopy. After four rounds of cell division, (b) there

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Retrieved Text: Stem cells are cells with incredible properties that set them apart from other types of cells. They are early stage cells that can remain and duplicate as stem cells, or they can transform into any other type of cell as they develop. For instance, a stem cell can become a lung cell, heart cell or even a brain cell.
Stem cells basically function in two different ways. Most commonly they function as undifferentiated cells (meaning they can become other types of cells) through a process of cell division. They can also be induced to become a specific type of cell through conditions like experimentation.
That’s a key reason why they have become such a significant breakthrough in modern medicine.
Multi-celled organisms like plants and human beings are classified as eukaryotes. A single-celled organism, like bacteria, is classified as prokaryote.
A eukaryote originates from a single stem cell that differentiates into a multi-celled organism like a plant or a human being. The sperm of man fertilizes the egg of the woman in the womb. The fertilized egg results in a zygote.
The zygote is composed of one stem cell. The reason is that the zygote contains 46 chromosomes, the number of chromosomes that make a human being. The father contributes 23 chromosomes via the sperm; the mother contributes 23 chromosomes via the egg. Differentiation is demonstrated by fetal development. Let’s trace the path of differentiation. This zygote differentiates and results in an embryo, which differentiates into a fetus, which it turn differentiates into a full term which is ultimately delivered as a

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Retrieved Text: Cornell Center for Materials Research - Does every one in the world have cancer cells in their body?
Home⁄ FAQs⁄ Does every one in the world have cancer cells in their body?
No, your body only contains what scientists call “non-transformed” cells; that is, normal cells that do the things that need to be done to sustain your body. If something happens to the cells of your body that damages it in very specific ways, in particular altering specific genes – which are the chemicals, called DNA, in cells that determine what kind of a cell it is – then in certain conditions the damaged cell can become what scientists called “transformed” and grow by cell division into a tumor. Typically a cell has to take at least two such damaging “hits” to become transformed. Normal cells can undergo cell division also; it is part of normal function for many cells.
For example, your hair grows. But when a cell that isn’t supposed to grow becomes un-controlled and grows without the body’s usual instructions to grow, then you can get a tumor. This then results in cancer.

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Retrieved Text: Animals (kingdom Animalia) are distinguished from protests because animals are composed of many cells arranged into tissues. Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts, which are present in most plants.
Exactly what is a plant and how is it different from other life-forms? This may initially seem like a simple question. Everyone knows that an elm tree is a plant, whereas a dog is not. Nevertheless, the precise definition of plants is still a matter of debate among some scientists. All living things are made up of protoplasm, a complex material composed of organic substances such as sugars, proteins, and fats. Protoplasm is arranged in tiny units called cells. All living things are composed of cells.
As recently as the late 1960s, scientists believed that all organisms could be classified as members of either the plant or the animal kingdom. Life-forms that are green and that can synthesize their own food using light energy were put in the plant kingdom. Those organisms that lack green pigment and are able to move about were considered to be animals. Researchers now agree that living things are more properly divided into two groups—prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These major groups comprise five kingdoms. Major differences between cells are used to distinguish between these groups and kingdoms.
Prokaryotes are very small, single-celled organisms that constitute a single kingdom, the Monera. They include bacteria. Some prokaryotes can produce food using light energy much as plants do. Prokaryote cells are very simple. The protoplasm within the cell, called the cytoplasm, lacks many of the structures found in

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes were the first kind of organisms to evolve. They are single-celled organisms that don’t have a well-defined nucleus and also lack other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. The genetic material in prokaryotic cells exists within an irregularly shaped area of the cell known as the nucleoid.
All water-soluble components within prokaryotes such as DNA, proteins and metabolites are found in the cytoplasm, enclosed within the cell membrane and not in separate compartments of the cell. However, bacteria have protein-based micro-compartments that behave like basic organelles within protein shells.
The two types of prokaryotic cell are Archaea and bacteria. Prokaryotes have a cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes, but no nucleus. They have a cell wall that offers an additional layer of protection, prevents dehydration and maintains the shape of the cell. The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Some prokaryotic cells also have a polysaccharide layer, referred to as a capsule, that enables specific attachment of the cell to certain surfaces.
Prokaryotes have a plasma membrane, which separates intracellular components from the external environment. Prokaryotic cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like substance called the cytosol, in which cell components are contained.
As is the case for all cells, bacteria have a cytoskeleton, a network of filaments and tubules that provides structural support and maintains the shape of the cell. The cytoskeleton also forms a whip-like, external structure called the flagella, which the cell uses to move from one place to another (locomotion). Thin, hair- like structures called pili are also found in some bacteria, which aid in adhesion

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Retrieved Text: Cells will not grow unless conditions allow them to do so. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are subject to these constraints. The fundamental requirements for cells to grow in size or to divide are the availability of food, the temperature and pH of the environment, a properly functioning internal status, and physical space in which to grow. These factors are interconnected and often go hand-in-hand as they influence a cell’s decision to grow or not.
Cells are microscopic factories that contain many protein machines. Machines run on fuel. For a cell, the fuel is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is considered the $20 bill of the cell, since one ATP is enough for a protein machine to do one task, just as a $20 bill is usually enough to buy a typical meal in America. For most cells, the sugar molecule glucose is a common food source. Glucose is broken down to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration, which is also why animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.
Each organism, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, has a preferred temperature and pH range within which it lives. This is because the enzymes within cells only function within certain temperature and pH ranges. Extremes temperature and pH, too high or too low, causes enzymes to denature, meaning they lose the 3D shape that is essential to their function. Human body temperature is 37.5 degrees Celsius. Most enzymes in the body will denature starting at 40 degrees Celsius.
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in

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Retrieved Text: It's meiosis that gives us the male and female reproductive cells known as the egg and sperm. In meiosis, two cell divisions take place, which produces four genetically unique cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
I have a brother. He has brown hair and brown eyes. I don't look much like him because I have blonde hair and blue eyes. We share the same parents, yet we don't share all of the same genes. For instance, my brother got the gene for brown eyes, and I got the one for blue eyes. While there are a number of things to consider, it's basically meiosis that gave me different genes than my brother.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes. The term gametes is just the scientific way of saying sperm and eggs. During meiosis, one parent cell divides into two cells and then divides again to make a total of four cells. During all of this dividing, genes get shuffled around, and the number of chromosomes gets cut in half. So the result of meiosis is four genetically unique cells, or gametes, with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Now that we kind of have an overview, let's take a closer look at how this works.
Before we go too far, I want to point out something. Meiosis is different than mitosis, which you might have learned about in a different lesson. In mitosis, we see body cells divide to form identical body cells. For example, skin cells

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Retrieved Text: Humans are capable of great charity, taking hits to their bank accounts and bodies to benefit their peers. But such acts of altruism aren’t limited to us; they can be found in the simple colonies of bacteria too.
Bacteria are famed for their ability to adapt to our toughest antibiotics. But resistance doesn’t spring up evenly across an entire colony. A new study suggests that a small cadre of hero bacteria are responsible for saving their peers. By shouldering the burden of resistance at a personal cost, these charitable cells ensure that the entire colony survives.
Read the rest about this eye-popping study here.
This is about whether the cell design – the composition and architecture of the prokaryotic cell – is capable of generating something as structurally complex as a mouse (for a mouse, like all animals, is an assembly of cells). Seen from this angle, the endosymbiotic hypothesis supports my position. That is, in order for prokaryotes to ultimately spawn eukaryotes, they first had to go through a radical re-design of cell structure.
So here is what we have. Prokaryotic cells can be viewed as the highest expression of mutation and selection, for there is no better cellular candidate for a “self-replicator.” Yet after billions of years, the prokaryotic cell plan has failed to achieve anything near the level of structural complexity as exhibited by the eukaryotic cell plan. To reach such structural complexity, the cell design had to be radically retooled, partly through endosymbiotic union, a one-time event given the widely accepted monophyly of eukaryotes. Once the

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Retrieved Text: 1: Cell Theory: The Three Principles | 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. New cells arise only from cells that already exist. | Cell Theory: The theory that cells form the fundamental, structural and functional units of all living organisms.
3: Theodore Schwann found that plants and animals were made up of cells and that the cells were their own living organism. Matthias Schlieden found that the nucleus and cell development were related. He also found that plant cells work two lives: one being it's own and one helping the plant. Robert Hooke originated the term cell by observing a tree and naming the holes cellulae. Rudolf Virchow found that all cells originate from an already existing cell. He found that cells reproduce by division.
4: Prokaryotic | Prokaryotes tend to be smaller in size with no nuclear membrane or nucleoli. it's chromosome arrangement in a single circular chromosome with no histones. It usually has a cell wall that is very chemically complex with no cytoskeleton.
5: Eukaryotic | Eukaryotes are larger in size with a true nucleus. it's chromosome arrangement is multiple linear chromosomes with histones. If it has a cell wall then it is chemically simple with a cytoskeleton.
6: Plant Cells | Plant cells are different from animal cells. The are shaped rectangularly with a cell wall that surrounds the cell membrane. Chloroplast allows plant cells to make their own food. It has one large vacuole that takes up 90% of the cells

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Retrieved Text: A statue of Medusa’s head was discovered at Antiochia ad Cragum in Turkey, dating to the first century.
Credit: Michael Hoff, Hixson-Lied professor of art history, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
With serpents for hair, wide eyes and an open mouth, Medusa was amythical monster who could turn a person to stone with her gaze. At Antiochia, a Medusa architectural sculpture would have served an apotropaic function, intended to avert evil —but later, her likeness would have been considered idolatrous by the Christians who came to live at the site.
Antiochia, which covers more than 7 acres (3 hectares), is located on the sparsely populated outskirts of the town ofGazipaş, atop craggy cliffs in an area that is today dominated by wheat fields. Little is known about the city from ancient sources, and though the archaeological site had been identified in the early 19th century, it had never been given much attention by scholars until recently, Hoff said.
“The fact that it’s somewhat of an unknown city makes it fascinating for us as archaeologists,” he added. The evidence Hoff and his colleagues have dug up so far suggests Antiochia might have actually been an economic player during the Roman Empire, a center for the trade and production of wine, agriculture and glass.
An aerial view of the bouletarian, or city council house, recently discovered at the ancient site of Antiochia ad Cragum.
“The result of all this economic activity is a pretty high degree of cultural output,” Hoff said. In 2012, they discovered an enormous poolside mosaic covering 1,600 square feet (150 square meters) with intricate geometric patterns. They also found the marble head of an Aphrodite sculpture in 2013.
Much of the Roman

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Retrieved Text: Smaller structures inside cells are often made of microtubules (tube-shaped polymers of the protein tubulin). Microtubules are very versatile and have evolved to work in a range of different ways. For example, microtubules form the cytoskeleton, an internal scaffold in cells. Microtubule structures are dynamic and are constantly being built, pulled apart and rebuilt.
Cilia, thin rods that protrude from the surface of cells, are bundles of microtubules. The most basic cilia move in the ebb and flow of fluid outside the cell, sensing changes in the environment. Motile cilia can move fluid themselves instead of just being moved by it. Millions of cilia move to sweep mucus up out of the lungs into the throat, removing inhaled dust and dead cells.
Flagella, which are larger, are also tightly arranged bundles of microtubules. They help cells move and can also be involved in sensing the environment outside the cell. Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) from any species have microtubule, cilia and flagella proteins with very similar sequences and secondary structures. As such, these proteins are ‘highly conserved’. In prokaryotic cells such as bacteria, which do not have a nuclear membrane, the flagellum is made from a different protein called flagellin.
Motile cilia and flagella are powered by tiny cellular machines, which are also made from proteins. Molecular motors like this move muscles, power cilia, shift cargo along networks of microtubules inside the cell and organise chromosomes for cell division.
Cilia of the bronchus of the respiratory tract.

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Retrieved Text: Lulú. “El GIF De La Semana: Mitosis En Tiempo Real.” Esceptica, 22 Jan. 2014, esceptica.org/2014/01/19/el-gif-de-la-semana-mitosis-en-tiempo-real/.
Mitosis and Meiosis sound very similar, but while they share some similar concepts they are two different biological terms. What is Mitosis? Mitosis is cell division creating two “daughter” cells. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. What is Meiosis? Meiosis is creating four “daughter” cells that have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell.
While Mitosis and Meiosis both create daughter cells they make two different kinds. Mitosis creates diploid cells or cells that have 23 chromosomes. While meiosis makes haploid cells or gametes which are your reproductive cells such as sperm in males and eggs in females.
Mitosis exists in six different stages each stage doing something different inside of the cell undergoing mitosis.
Interphase: This stage is when the cell is only preparing for Mitosis or Meiosis(Interphase happens in both). This is also where a cell spends most of its life.
Prophase: Prophase is the “first” stage where the nuclear membrane and the nucleus disappear, chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindles form.
Metaphase: This stage is when the duplicated chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fun fact this is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Anaphase is when the duplicated chromosomes separate into two identical groups and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase: This is the second to last stage where membranes form around the two groups of chromosomes at different ends to produce the nuclei in the daughter cells.

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Retrieved Text: Chatton gave the term prokaryote and eukaryote. Depending upon the nature of nucleus cells are classified. Incipient nucleus is present in prokaryotes, where as in eukaryotes well organised nucleus is present.
It is a single membrane system.
It is a double membrane system.
Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane.
Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane in some protists, most fungi and all plant cell. Animal cell lacks it.
Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycans. Strengthening material is murein.
It is composed of polysaccharide. Strengthening material is chitin in fungi and cellulose in others plants.
Cell membrane bears respiratory enzymes.
Cytoplasm lacks cell organelles e.g., Mitochondria, ER, Golgi body etc.
Cytoplasm contains various cell organelles.
Ribosomes are only 70 S type.
Ribosomes are both 80 S and 70 S type.
There are no streaming movements of cytoplasm.
Nuclear material is not enclosed by nuclear envelope and lies directly in cytoplasm. It is called nucleoid.
It is enveloped by nuclear envelope. Nucleus is distinct from cytoplasm.
DNA is circular and not associated with histones proteins.
Nuclear DNA is linear and associated with histone proteins extranuclear DNA is circular and histones protein free.
Sexual reproduction absent but parasexuality present.
Cell division is typically mitotic.
Mesokaryon : Dodge gave the term ‘Mesokaryon’ for dinoflagellates. These are intermediate type of cell organisation in dinophyceae of algae. In mesokaryotic there is present a true or eukaryotic nucleus with definite nuclear membrane and chromosomes.

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Retrieved Text: The human body can be thought of as a small laboratory (weighing no more than ~3 kg at birth) where millions of chemical reactions can take place at the same time, in the right order, and in the right compartment. It is also probably the only "machine" that knows to save fuel when fed in excess and to bring out the reserves when starved, one that can protect itself when attacked by viruses and bacteria, one capable of adjusting and withstanding changes of weather and most importantly, one that is able to learn, think, and create on its own. The human body is a highly integrated and organized system, able to respond to a wide range of stimuli in order to perform all the functions that are vital to our survival. Moreover, since errors and malfunctions in this "organic factory" can have damaging results, ranging from discomfort to life-threatening illnesses, many reactions and processes that take place within our cells are under very tight control.
An example of one of the many complicated-yet-elegant processes that continuously occur in our bodies is the cell division cycle. As you read this sentence, many of the cells in your body are dividing into two. However, behind this seemingly simple step is a complicated series of reactions and changes, such as DNA replication and protein synthesis, which involve a dazzling array of proteins working in concert to achieve a common goal.
The cell division cycle is generally divided into four phases. In normal cells, progress from one phase to the next is

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Retrieved Text: A cytoskeleton is present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria, and archaea. It is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane. The cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. In eukaryotes, the cytoskeletal matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.
The structure, function and dynamic behavior of the cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on organism and cell type. Even within one cell the cytoskeleton can change through association with other proteins and the previous history of the network.
A multitude of functions can be performed by the cytoskeleton. Its primary function is to give the cell its shape and mechanical resistance to deformation, and through association with extracellular connective tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire tissues. The cytoskeleton can also contract, thereby deforming the cell and the cell's environment and allowing cells to migrate. Moreover, it is involved in many cell signaling pathways: in the uptake of extracellular material (endocytosis), segregates chromosomes during cellular division, is involved in cytokinesis (the division of a mother cell into two daughter cells), provides a scaffold to organize the contents of the cell in space  and for intracellular transport (for example, the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell); and can be a template for the construction of a cell wall. Furthermore, it forms specialized structures, such as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes.
A large-scale example of

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Retrieved Text: Summary: Difference Between Nucleus and Nucleolus is that Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus. Each nucleus contains one or more nucleoli. While Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a diameter of 10 µ to 22 µ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell.
Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus. Each nucleus contains one or more nucleoli. The nucleolus contains RNA and some proteins, which are similar to those found in ribosomes. The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of chromosomes and stored in the nucleolus. Later, it is condensed to form the subunits of ribosomes. All the subunits formed in the nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm through the pores of nuclear membrane. In the cytoplasm, these subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role in the formation of proteins.
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a diameter of 10 µ to 22 µ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell. Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except the red blood cells. The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those without nucleus are known as prokaryotes. Presence of nucleus is necessary for cell division.
Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types of cells like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells). Generally, the nucleus is located in the center of the cell. It is mostly spherical in shape. However, the

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Retrieved Text: Many heterotrophic single-celled eukaryotes are content to let the algae handle photosynthesis and then eat them. Others have opted for the convenience of having the algae residing in-house, living as endosymbionts within their cytoplasm. Some have taken this a step farther, discarding most of the algal cell, keeping only its chloroplast. In so doing, they also assumed full responsibility for chloroplast maintenance and replication—not a simple task. It would be exciting and educational to observe this transition in progress. Indeed, candidates willing to reveal steps in "going green" have now been found.
In the year 2000, researchers discovered a new microbial eukaryote on a sandy, intertidal beach in Japan, a member of the recently described Katablepharids. The Katablepharids are yet one more group of single-celled eukaryotes, motile by means of their two flagella, heterotrophs that feed on algae. Interestingly, nearly all the cells of this new species contained a large green "chloroplast." They named the species Hatena arenicola. Hatena is Japanese for enigma or "how odd!"
Further investigation disclosed that when Hatena divides, one daughter cell inherits the whole "chloroplast" while the other daughter is colorless. The "chloroplast" is actually an endosymbiont derived from Nephroselmis, a kidney-shaped green alga abundant in Hatena's habitat. Gone are its flagella, cytoskeleton, and endomembrane system; degraded are its mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. Its plastid has swollen to more than 10 times its original size and is engaged in very active photosynthesis. Since it is so highly modified compared to the free-living form, its identity had to be verified by analysis of its

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Retrieved Text: A model of an enzyme reacting with another molecule and breaking it into two pieces. Each little ball represents an atom.This enzyme, lysozyme, breaks up bacteria in your blood to keep you from getting sick.
An enzyme is a kind of big, complicated protein molecule, made mainly of hydrogen and carbon atoms, but with some other atoms as well. Both prokaryote and eukaryote cells use enzymes (ENN-zimes), so the first enzymes probably evolved around four billion years ago, together with the first living cells.
Prokaryote cells assemble enzymes in their cytoplasm. The cell’s DNA molecule uses enzymes to assemble RNA molecules, and these RNA molecules then in turn assemble more kinds of enzymes. The cell pushes some of these enzymes outside the cell to digest food by breaking it apart into smaller pieces that can get through the cell membrane.
Other enzymes can digest smaller molecules floating in the cytoplasm inside the cell. Some enzymes grab two small molecules and attach them together to make a larger molecule, like a lipid to fix the cell membrane. When the enzyme is done, it lets the new molecule go, and it’s ready to grab two more molecules and do it again. Each kind of enzyme has its own shape, and it will only work with molecules that fit into it exactly, like having the right puzzle piece in a puzzle, or the right key for a lock. That way each kind of enzyme can do its job and not interfere with anything else in the cell.
Eukaryote cells make enzymes in the

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Retrieved Text: Life on earth consists of three main groups. Two of these groups are represented by microbial life forms, the bacteria and the archaea. These are collectively known as the prokaryotes. The cells of these prokaryotes are generally small and simple. The third group of organisms concerns all visible life forms, such as people, animals and fungi. This group is known as the eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The origin of the eukaryotic cell is one of the most fundamental riddles in the evolution of life on earth. Now, through the work of an international collective of researchers, led by Thijs Ettema (Wageningen University & Research and the University of Uppsala in Sweden), there has been more clarity about the evolutionary transition from simple prokaryotic to more complex eukaryotic cell types.
Previous research has shown that the eukaryotic cell originated from an archaea cell and a bacterial cell. The bacterium was absorbed into the archaea cell at some point. There is a general consensus that the cells came together because of a mutually beneficial interaction, called symbiosis. The most plausible hypotheses about the origin of eukaryotes are based on a symbiosis in which one partner produces metabolites that the other partner uses. In recent decades, however, there has been fierce debate in the scientific world about how this metabolic symbiosis actually works.
Recent research in the Ettema laboratory has already provided important information about the identity of the archaea host cell in this scenario. Based on genome research, Ettema’s team has

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Retrieved Text: Ans: The structural and functional unit of the living organism is called cell.
Ques: Name the instrument by which cell can be seen.
Ques: What is unicellular organism?
Ans: The organism which is made of only one cell that is called unicellular organism. Ex – amoeba and paramecium.
Ques: What are multi cellular organisms?
Ans: The organism which is made of more than one cell are called multi cellular organism. Ex – human and tree.
Ques:Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Ques:Distinguish between plant cell and animal cell.
cell wall is present in it.
Cell wall is absent in it.
Ques: Name the projection in amoeba by which it take food.
Ans: A tissue is a group of similar cells having a specific function.
Ques:What are the basic components of a cell?
Ans: The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Ques:Name the components of cell which are enclosed within the cell membrane.
Ques:State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The organisms which cells have a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
Ex. Onion and other animals’ cells.
The organisms which cells do not have nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes.
Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.

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Retrieved Text: – Cell structure is correlated to cellular function.
How do we study cells?
1) Scanning electron microscopes focus a beam of electrons outs the surface of a specimen, providing images that look there dimensional.
Focus a beam of electrons through a specimen (TEMS), there kind of electron microscope is used to study the internal structure of cells.
– Ultra centrifuges fractional cells into their component parts.
– Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell function with structure.
– Protests fungi, animals and plants all consist t of eukaryotic cells.
In the center of nucleus there is a concentrated region called the nucleolus and this is where ribosomal RNA is made and processed it’s also the site where there’s a lot of organization of other RNA protein complexes that have to be assembled in the nucleus.
And we see the endoplasm reticulum and outside of that is the Golgi and mitochondria and centrosome.
Centrosome is the region where doing cell division the chromosomal DNA comes together and we have also lysosomes, peroxisomes and in the outside of the cell we see microvilli protruding from the cell.
– The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most consequence…. organelle.
– The nuclear membrane is a double membrane each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer.
– Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus.
– The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina which is composed of protein.
– Ribosome are particles made of ribosomal RNA and proteins.
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell.
The endomembrane system regulates protein

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Retrieved Text: Are you looking for NCERT Class 8 Solution? Download NCERT Solution Class 8 Science Chapter 8 : Cell-Structure and Functions and prepare better for your examinations.
Question 1: Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
Question 2: Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve cells perform?
The function of a nerve cell is to transmit messages to the brain and also to take away messages from the brain to the receptor organs. Thus, it controls the working of different parts of the body.
Question 3: Write short notes on the following.
It is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Cell organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. are suspended in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm helps in the exchange of materials between cell organelles.
It is a double-layered membrane which separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has nuclear pores that allow the transfer of specific substances in and out of the nucleus.
It is a small spherical body that is not bound by any membrane.
These are thread-like structures that carry genes. Genes contain information necessary for the transfer of characteristics from the parents to the offspring. Thus, chromosomes play an important role in the inheritance of characteristics.
Question 4: Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Cytoplasm is the part of the cell that contains various organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. Cytoplasm is a fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Question

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What evolved from a group of bipedal dinosaurs called theropods?" and the following answer choices: 
- alpacas
 - bacteria
 - hawks
 - vision
 - humans
 - animals
 - mammals
 - viruses

Now knowing that birds evolved from a group of bipedal dinosaurs called theropods and all hawks are birds, choose the best answer.

Target Text: hawks

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Theropods ('beast foot') are a group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs.
Although they were primarily carnivorous, a number of theropod groups evolved herbivory, omnivory and insectivory.
Today, they are represented by the 9,300 living species of birds, which evolved in the Upper Jurassic from small feathered coelurosaurian dinosaurs.
Among the features linking theropods to birds are bipedalism, the three-toed foot, a furcula (wishbone), air-filled bones, feathers and brooding of the eggs.
Theropods first appear in the earliest part of the Upper Triassic about 230 million years ago. They were the sole large terrestrial carnivores from the Lower Jurassic until the close of the Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago.
the herrerasaurids of Argentina. They had a mosaic of primitive and advanced features.
↑ Holtz, Thomas R., Jr. (2012). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages, Winter 2011 Appendix.
↑ Zanno L.E; Gillette D.D; Albright L.B. and Titus A.L. 2009. A new North American therizinosaurid and the role of herbivory in 'predatory' dinosaur evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Published online before print July 15, 2009, doi: 10.1098/rspb.2009.1029.
This page was last changed on 20 December 2018, at 17:44.

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Retrieved Text: Theropoda (theropod /ˈθɛrəpɒd/; suborder name Theropoda /θᵻˈrɒpoʊdə/, frae Greek meanin "beast feet") is baith a suborder o bipedal saurischian dinosaurs, an a clade consistin o that suborder an its descendants (includin modren birds). Dinosaurs belangin tae the suborder Theropoda wur primarily carnivorous, altho a nummer o theropod groups evolved herbivory, omnivory, an insectivory. Theropods first appeared durin the Carnian age o the late Triassic period aboot 230 million years ago (Ma) an includit the sole lairge terrestrial carnivores frae the Early Jurassic till at least the close o the Cretaceous, aboot 66 Ma. In the Jurassic, birds evolved frae smaa specialized coelurosaurian theropods, an are the day representit bi 9,900 livin species.
Amang the featurs linkin theropod dinosaurs tae birds are a furcula (wishbone), air-filled bones, broodin o the eggs, an (in coelurosaurs, at least) feathers.
This page wis last eeditit on 18 August 2017, at 20:50.

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Retrieved Text: A novel study lead by Adelaide scientist has shown how enormous, carnivorous, ground-dwelling dinosaurs – the theropods – evolved into agile flyers: they kept shrinking in size for over 50 million years.
In the prestigious journal, Science, the researchers present a detailed family tree of these dinosaurs and their bird descendants, which maps out what appears to be an unlikely transformation.
The researchers show that the branch of theropod dinosaurs that gave way for modern birds were the only dinosaurs that kept getting inexorably smaller. These bird ancestors also evolved new adaptations (including feathers, wishbones and wings) at a rate of four times faster than other dinosaurs.
“Birds evolved through a unique phase of sustained miniaturisation in dinosaurs,” says lead author Associate Professor Michael Lee, from the University of Adelaide’s School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and the South Australian Museum.
The study examined over 1500 anatomical traits of dinosaurs to create their family tree. The researchers used sophisticated mathematical modeling to trace evolving adaptations and changing body size over time and across dinosaur branches.
The international team included Gareth Dyke and Darren Naish, both from the University of Southampton, as well as Andrea Cau, from the University of Bologna and Museo Geologico Giovanni Capellini.
“Studies of bipedal carnivorous dinosaurs − such as Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor − keep finding more and more bird-like traits, such as feathers, wishbones, hollow skeletons and a three-fingered hand,” says Associate Professor Lee.
The study found that the branch of dinosaurs leading to birds was much more evolutionary innovative than other dinosaur lineages. “Birds out-shrank and out-evolved

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Retrieved Text: can differentiate dinosaur groups by using our understanding of skeletal anatomy.
the skeleton to divide dinosaurs into smaller and smaller groups.
be able to easily tell them apart.
The first major division of dinosaurs is based on the shape of the pelvis.
lizard-hippped dinosaurs and the Ornithischians or bird-hipped dinosaurs.
we'll learn later in the course that birds evolved from the lizard-hipped dinosaurs.
Let's take a look at a set of dinosaur hips.
All dinosaurs have three pairs of bones that make up their pelvis.
This here is a Daspletosaurus pelvis.
Phil, what can you tell us about the bone arrangement?
Tyrannosaurs have the very typical Saurischian dinosaur hip arrangement.
This is the front of the hips here and the back of the hips here.
it forms what we call the sacrum.
is designed to support the great weight of the Tyrannosaur.
also down to the back of the leg to pull the leg backwards.
in Tyrannosaurs, you see a very large muscle scar right here.
The pubis is the last bone.
the pubis is very different in Ornithischian dinosaurs.
the pubis reorientates itself so that it's back beside the ischium.
an Ornithischian dinosaur from a Saurischian dinosaur.
Now here's a familiar beast.
This is the skeleton of a Stegosaurus.
The location of its hip bones is quite clear.
Can you tell if Stegosaurus is an Ornithischian or a Saurischian dinosaur?
In this Stegosaurus skeleton, the pubis and ischium both point backwards.
That makes it an Ornithischian dinosaur.
>> Here we are back at the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology.
The Saurischian or lizard-hip dinosaurs can be divided into two major groups.
The first are the Sauropods or the long neck dinosaurs.
Like we mentioned

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Retrieved Text: Put simply a theropod was a flesh-eating dinosaur. This lizard-hipped group of dinosaurs included some of the largest carnivores ever to roam the Earth. Although theropods often had weedy arms, they did have strong muscles to power their rear legs. They also had large teeth and strong jaws. Most, such as Carnotaurus, had three-toed feet ending in claws. Not all theropods were huge – some were as small as chickens and survived by snapping up lizards and maybe insects.
How big were a killer’s teeth?
Carnivore fossils generally show curved, dagger-like teeth that would have sliced prey to shreds. The size of the tooth was generally a guide to the size of the animal and could be up to 20cm (8in) long. This tooth, which is 9cm (3.5in) long, comes from the mouth of Megalosaurus – a large theropod from the Jurassic Period.
A bipedal animal is one that walks on two legs. All the meat-eating dinosaurs were bipedal, although there were some plant-eaters that also walked on two legs. Bipedal dinosaurs were faster and mostly more intelligent than their four-legged cousins. The first dinosaurs, such as Eoraptor, were bipedal, as were some of the later ones, such as T. rex.
Could a carnivore make a meal of a plant-eater?
A big hunter, such as Allosaurus, would have had several advantages over lumbering plant-eater Stegosaurus. Not only was Allosaurus faster and more quick-witted, it was also better equipped for killing. Allosaurus could slash out with its claws before sinking its razor-sharp teeth into its victim’s flesh. Stegosaurus might have fought back

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Retrieved Text: The velociraptor lookalike leaps with slavering jaws, terrifying if slightly ridiculous as it waves its little arms at you, and grabs your carrot. Screams, crunching. Cellulose flies in all directions. "Cut!" George Lucas Jr. screams.
Sound wrong? A strange dinosaur named hilesaurus, because it was found in Chile, would have fit the bill. It is the missing link between T-rex and other bipedal theropods so beloved of gore flick directors, and the giants of herbivorehood, surmise scientists, after spending years puzzling over the bizarre remains before reaching that postulation.
Chilesaurus diegosuarezi has been known since 2015. The problem was figuring out what the remains were of, because the late-Jurassic animal, which lived about 150 million years ago, was bizarre. It had the head-shape and hips of a "vicious" meat-eater but its teeth were clearly those of a "gentle" plant eater. Think, like a fish with feathers.
Initially the paleo set assumed chilesaurus, originally discovered by Fernando Novas, belonged to the Theropoda, the 'lizard-hipped' group of dinosaurs (some of whom would evolve into today's birds). They therefore assumed that its various ornithischian characteristics were a case of convergent evolution. Now they believe the Chilesaurus should be classified with the "bird-hipped" ornithischian dinosaurs.
Let us here clarify that although the ornithischians are also called "bird-hipped," because birds share their characteristic of a backwards-tipped pubic bone, today's birds did not evolve from ornithischians. They evolved from the therapods, the lizard-hipped ones.
The bird-hipped ornithischia included the likes of the stegosaurus, triceratops and iguanodon, which we tend to think of as peaceful giants. These really

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Retrieved Text: Normally the dinosaurian world is rocked by a new fossil – the biggest, fastest, or toothiest. The latest dinosaur research threatens to change our understanding of how dinosaurs evolved at a much deeper level, and blow aside 130 years of research.
A paper published in the journal Nature suggests scientists need to reorganise the major groups used to classify dinosaurs. This means we may have to revisit what we think we know about the first dinosaurs, what features they evolved first, and where in the world they came from.
The way we classify dinosaurs goes back to the 19th century. In 1887, palaeontologist Harry Govier Seeley divided dinosaurs into two major suborders based primarily on their hip structure. Saurischia comprises the flesh-eating theropods such as Tyrannosaurus and the long-necked sauropodomorphs such as Diplodocus. Ornithischia comprises the rest, including the two-legged Iguanodon, and the armoured, four-legged Stegosaurus, Triceratops, and Ankylosaurus.
This ordering of dinosaurs has stood the test of time for 130 years, weathering the onslaught of cladistics in the 1980s, when palaeontologists began using computers to analyse and categorise groups of animals based on features that pointed to a common ancestor. There are now thousands of diagrams (cladograms) of dinosaur subgroups, and ever-growing data matrices, that closely document the anatomical features of each species.
The recent paper completely disrupts the consensus over Seeley’s categories. The researchers ran a cladistic analysis of 457 characteristics across 74 species (that is a data matrix of 33,818 bits of information recorded from skeletons). They concluded that, based on 21 unique characteristics of the fossils,

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Retrieved Text: After the roars and shrieks of Jurassic World accompanied by XXL tubs of popcorn and Diet Cokes, one might walk away with the impression of ‘nature, red in tooth and claw’. After all, the big bad Rexy and other genetically engineered grisly pretenders to the throne of the Apex Predator are meatosauruses!
But in reality, most dinosaurs of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous period were herbivores and omnivores. When dinosaurs ruled the earth, a lot of things differ when compared to contemporary times. The earth was still young, there were more active volcanoes, the climate was warmer and the air was humid.
Life was slowly set on the path of increasing complexity with the evolution of single-celled organisms into the ginormous beasts that changed the face of the earth. The atmosphere was denser than today, rich in carbon dioxide. The abundance of carbon dioxide caused ferns and conifers to flourish throughout the Mesozoic era.
Being the most numerous in mere diversity, the plant kingdom supported most of life. Evolving life forms in the animal kingdom (read dinosaurs) had to adapt to feeding on the vibrant vegetation to sustain themselves.
Which is one of the reasons why most dinosaurs were plant-eaters.
Analysis of fossilized dental records also indicate at the dinos’ spinach-chomping abilities. Triceratops, hadrosaurs, brachiosaurs- all had dental structure that would have best suited eating plants. Carnivores like the T-Rex, raptors and spinosaurus however have pointy, serrated teeth that would have functioned like a showcase set of steak knives in their mean jaws! Studies made on coprolite (fossilised dino droppings) of

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Retrieved Text: Dinosaurs evolved to fill almost all ecological niches- large, small, herbivores, carnivores.
Dinosaurs are classified into two groups: lizard-hipped & bird-hipped.
The Saurischia (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs have the three main bones of the hip girdle arranged with the pubis (front bone) pointing forward (like reptiles).
The Ornithischia (bird-hipped) dinosaurs have the hips similar to that of modern, but not fossil, birds. All of the ornithischians were herbivores.
66 million years ago, all dinosaurs became extinct except for a group of theropods which had evolved into birds.
Current evidence is that a meteorite caused volcanic activity and climate change (KT event). The earth was hotter and drier, and large organisms didn’t have enough food to survive.

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Retrieved Text: The Institute for Creation Research has graced us once again with a brilliant display of their scientific prowess. This time the focus of their efforts revolves around the recently published description of a newly unearthed dinosaur species Eodromaeus murphi.
Eodromaeus is a small (slightly over a meter in length) South American dinosaur from the mid-Triassic (230 MYA). This date makes it one of the earliest dinosaurs and its describers, Ricardo Martinez et al., argue that it should be classified as a basal theropod ―the carnivorous branch of the “lizard-hipped” or saurischian dinosaurs (Martinez et al., 2011).
What has ICR’s, or more specifically ICR “science writer” Brian Thomas‘ knickers in a twist is that in the same paper in which they describe Eodromaeus the authors also argue for the reclassification of another dinosaur, Eoraptor (described back in the early 1990’s), which is from the same location and roughly the same time period as Eodromaeus.
In a nutshell Martinez et al. argue that Eodromaeus should be classified as a basal theropod, the most basal yet discovered, and that Eoraptor which had previously held that position should be reclassified as a basal sauropod (the plant eating branch of the saurischian dinosaurs), near the base of the lineage that later gave rise to the super-giants of the dinosaur world, the long necked herbivores like the famous Apatosaurus (Brontosaurus).
In his response to this rejiggering of the saurischian family tree―based on both new fossil evidence (Eodromaeus) and a reexamination of earlier finds (Eoraptor)―Mr. Thomas exposes, yet again, a number of flaws in ICR’s basic understanding

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Retrieved Text: Dinosaurs evolved from other reptiles (socket-toothed archosaurs) during the Triassic period, over 230 million years ago. Dinosaurs evolved soon after the Permian extinction, which was the biggest mass extinction that ever occured on Earth. During this time (the Triassic period), the mammals also evolved.
Chasmatosaurus, a crocodile-like, meat-eater (a thecodont) from the Triassic period.
Thecodonts may have been ancestors of the dinosaurs. Thecodonts (like Chasmatosaurus) were socket-toothed reptiles that were the ancestors of dinosaurs, birds, pterosaurs, and crocodilians. These archosauriforms were low-slung, meat-eating quadrupeds had long jaws and a long tail (they looked a lot like crocodiles).
This is a cladogram of the clade Reptilia (reptiles), tracing the ancestry of these groups.
The first dinosaurs were small and lightly built, mostly about 10-15 feet long (3 to 4.5 m). They were bipedal carnivores or omnivores, and probably very agile and fast.
The world's oldest-known dinosaurs have been found on Madagascar, an island off the coast of SE Africa. These dinosaur fossils date from about 230 million years ago during the Triassic period.
Until recently, the earliest-known dinosaur was Eoraptor lunensis (meaning"dawn raptor") which lived about 228 million years ago. It was a small, primitive theropod (a bipedal meat-eater) about 3 feet (1 m) long. It lived in what is now Argentina, South America (fossils were found at the Ischigualasto Formation).

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Retrieved Text: Dinosaurs might not really exist anymore, but it doesn't mean their relatives don't. Yes, it's true - cute, chirpy birds bouncing around in parks and backyards across the nation are related to giant, ferocious dinosaurs of the past.
To be fair, it’s not accurate to say all of the dinosaurs who dominated our planet for millions of years evolved into birds. Many dinosaurs died off through natural means, with the vast majority going completely extinct when a giant asteroid struck the Earth around 66 million years ago. So, how are birds and dinosaurs connected, exactly? Some smaller dinosaurs from the theropod suborder - which Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptor are also classified under - survived the dark days of the planet. And some of this theropod subset, with their proto-avian characteristics, eventually led to the evolution of birds.
These modern dinosaur relatives might seem relatively boring and harmless, but once you realize all the things these two have in common, it might destroy some of the myths you've always believed about dinosaurs.
We should probably address the crocodile in the room: the obvious similarities between dinosaurs and reptiles.
Paleontologists’ understanding of dinosaurs has advanced considerably in recent decades, while our mental images of the ancient creatures have largely remained the same. This has everything to do with the lack of peer-reviewed scientific papers crossing the public’s desk, combined with inaccurate depictions of dinosaurs in movies and TV.
There are also general and technical misunderstandings about what a reptile is and is not. For example, a turtle is considered a reptile, while a frog

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Retrieved Text: Some sliced through meat like a serrated knife through bread.
Theropods were an immensely diverse group of dinosaurs that thrived in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Today, they live on as toothless birds; chickens now are, fortunately, quite unlike the Velociraptor that tore apart its prey with 26 widely spaced teeth. Dinosaur dentistry is the focus of a new Current Biology study on theropods, which shows that if you want to know what prey theropods ripped into, the answer is in the bite.
Previous analyses of theropod teeth dating to the Upper Cretaceous period (100.5 to 66 million years ago) showed that these predators used a “puncture-and-pull bite strategy” to kill and consume prey. With blade-shaped dentures, they’d feast like you would cut into bread with a serrated knife — pushing down, then ripping through. But while all of the dinosaurs in the Theropod family may have used similar feeding movements, a team of scientists announced Thursday in the new paper that the angle in which they bit into a meal reveals that different species went after different victims — some choosing larger, weakened prey and others preferring softer, smaller critters.
Microwear patterns on the teeth of three theropods.
Torices and her team came to this conclusion by examining the patterns of small scratches on the teeth of theropods, a form of damage called microwear. Their observations established that there were specific patterns in the ways that the dinosaurs ate. Taking that data and inserting it in a modeling approach called finite elements analysis, they figured out how the teeth

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Prehistoric > LET'S EXPLORE Prehistoric life > What was it like in the Jurassic world?
"What was it like in the Jurassic world?." Prehistoric, LET'S EXPLORE Prehistoric life, Q-files Encyclopedia, 10 Oct. 2018.
Prehistoric, LET'S EXPLORE Prehistoric life, s.v. "What was it like in the Jurassic world?," accessed April 21, 2019.
Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Period, including the long-necked sauropod Brachiosaurus and Stegosaurus, which had diamond-shaped plates on its back. Brachiosaurus was a giant plant-eating sauropod. Taller than a four-storey building, its sheer size protected it from attack.
The Jurassic Period ran from 201 to 145 million years ago. The climate was much wetter than the dry Permian and Triassic periods that came before. Dense vegetation grew rapidly in the swampy lowlands. It provided a rich source of food for all plant-eating dinosaurs. New ones evolved to eat this abundant food. They included the giant, long-necked sauropods and the stegosaurs, dinosaurs with plates running down their backs. Larger, more powerful meat-eaters, called theropods, evolved at the same time.
Sauropods like Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus were some of the longest and largest land animals that have ever lived. These enormous dinosaurs, measuring more than 20 metres (65 feet) long, walked on four, pillar-like legs. They had extremely long necks with equally long, whip-like tails to balance them. Their peg-like teeth were perfectly shaped for tearing off leaves from trees.
A small feathered dinosaur, called Anchiornis, dating from the Late Jurassic, was discovered in China in 2009. Its feathers were so well preserved, scientists could work out what colour the dinosaur was.

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Retrieved Text: About 156 to 145 million years ago there lived a dinosaur called Coelurus. Coelurus or Coelurosauria, the name means hollow tail. It is a poorly known species. Strangely Coelurus has a number of unusual things about them. Formerly it was referred to small as opposed to huge theropods. This is at present recognized as an artificial, polyphyletic alliance group. Now theropods were bipedal and carnivorous dinosaurs. Their name means breast footed in Greek. The monophyletic taxon includes all superior popular cladistic theropods. This also incorporates their descendants like the birds starting with Archaeopteryx. It was a carnivore which lived in the late Jurassic period. The Maniraptoria and Maniraptoriformes are roughly something similar to them as their grasping of hands was quite alike.
Coelurus was a dinosaur of 6 feet (1.8 m) long, weighing roughly around 20 kg and its thigh bone was 55 cm long. Its bones were hollow as its name means. According to researchers, it was light weighted, which made their movement to be light and fast. The fossils of Coelurus were found in Wyoming , USA . In 1879 a famous paleontologist, Othniel C. Marsh named it Coelurus. Coelurus gets its name from the light bones or vertebrae that are among the fragmentary remains which was recovered from the remains.
Coelurus describes a number of diverse groups in the general phylogenetic which are at different periods as its name suggests. So the uncertainty of the dates is the definitions used by paleontologists, researchers and authors. Even some of the earlier material is not conclusively identified

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Retrieved Text: Solution for: What is a dinosaur?
Although the name dinosaur is derived from the Greek for "terrible lizard", dinosaurs were not, in fact, lizards at all. Like lizards, dinosaurs are included in the class Reptilia, or reptiles, one of the five main classes of Vertebrata, animals with backbones. However, at the next level of classification, within reptiles, significant differences in the skeletal anatomy of lizards and dinosaurs have led scientists to place these groups of animals into two different superorders: Lepidosauria, or lepidosaurs, and Archosauria, or archosaurs.
Classified as lepidosaurs are lizards and snakes and their prehistoric ancestors. Included among the archosaurs, or "ruling reptiles", are prehistoric and modern crocodiles, and the now extinct thecodonts, pterosaurs and dinosaurs. Palaeontologists believe that both dinosaurs and crocodiles evolved, in the later years of the Triassic Period (c. 248-208 million years ago), from creatures called pseudosuchian thecodonts. Lizards, snakes and different types of thecodont are believed to have evolved earlier in the Triassic Period from reptiles known as eosuchians.
The most important skeletal differences between dinosaurs and other archosaurs are in the bones of the skull, pelvis and limbs. Dinosaur skulls are found in a great range of shapes and sizes, reflecting the different eating habits and lifestyles of a large and varied group of animals that dominated life on Earth for an extraordinary 165 million years. However, unlike the skulls of any other known animals, the skulls of dinosaurs had two long bones known as vomers. These bones extended on either side of the head, from the front of the snout

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Retrieved Text: Dinosaurs include extinct animals we know from fossils and the birds we see today.
Dinosaurs are classified as a group of reptiles, although some of their features are found in mammals and birds living today rather than in reptiles. It appears that some dinosaurs were warm-blooded and walked with an upright gait.
The word ‘dinosaur’ means ‘terrible lizard’ in Greek. It was coined in 1842 by Sir Richard Owen, an English Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology.
The extinct animals we normally think of as dinosaurs lived during the Mesozoic era.
Just like a family tree shows your ancestors and present-day relatives, an evolutionary tree shows how dinosaurs are related to other groups of animals and to each other. Dinosaurs (those that are extinct and living birds) are part of the evolutionary tree of amniotes.
The first amniotes were primitive four-legged reptiles from which all other reptiles and mammals evolved. One branch of early reptiles led to the archosaurs – the group that includes dinosaurs, crocodiles and pterosaurs. Dinosaurs themselves are split into two main groups based on their hip structure, and then smaller branches based on other shared features.
The oldest known relative of the dinosaurs is a dog-sized four-legged animal called Asilisaurus kongwe, that lived about 240 million years ago. The fossil bones of at least 14 individuals were discovered in Tanzania.
Asilisaurus belonged to the group of animals called silesaurs, which were closely related to dinosaurs. Silesaurs continued to live alongside dinosaurs until near the end of the Triassic, about 200 million years ago. These fossils show that the dinosaur

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Retrieved Text: Just how quick was the great tyrant lizard, exactly? Experts in biomechanics think she was pretty damn quick – but still probably not as fast as you think.
Researchers have been debating over the speed of dinosaurs – and T. rex, specifically – for years. Reconstructions of dinosaurs toward the end of the 19th century often depicted them as fast-moving creatures, but by the mid-twentieth century, that vision had been turned on its head. Large, bipedal theropods like T. rex were often presented standing completely upright, their tails dragging along behind them in a manner suggestive of slow, lumbering locomotion.
The pair used data from known fossil models to reconstruct the dinosaurs' locomotive anatomies and musculoskeletal features. These models were then pushed to their limits in the GaitSym program, which ran each dinosaur's model through different combinations of muscle activation patterns. Patterns that caused the models to falter were abandoned, while simulations where the dinosaur ran at least 15 meters were investigated more thoroughly.
This is the table we used to create the infographic up top. You'll notice the estimated speed for T. rex (8.0 meters per second) is smack dab in the middle of the "moderate range" of 5–11 ms-1 cited by Hutchinson. Dromaius, Struthio and Homo correspond to emu, ostrich and human, respectively. These numbers corresponded well with top speed data for all three species, and helped demonstrate the accuracy of the GaitSym model.
The upshot: the smaller the bipedal theropod, the faster it runs (just look at that freaking Compy!). The good news is that according to

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Retrieved Text: Put your hands out in front of you, palms facing together. That's how theropod dinosaurs held their hands. Now lower your hands so that they're resting on your desk, and let your fingers assume their natural curl. That's how theropod dinosaurs rested their hands on substrates! Usually, you see restorations of theropods with their hands held palm-down, like Mr. Burns on the Simpsons holds them, or the "Velociraptors" in Jurassic Park. Well, paleontologists have known for years that most theropods--at least, all the ones with preserved wrists--were simply unable to assume such a posture.
Humans (and non-human primates) are able to "twist" our wrists because our radius basically moves over the ulna. Let's do an experiment.
Put your arms straight out at your sides, palms facing forwards. Now, move your palms so that they face down. That's called pronation. Now, move your palms back to face fowards. That's supination. Put your arms back down to your side--that's adduction. Move them back out, and that is abduction. Now, raise your arms over your head. The movement at your shoulders is called protraction. Move them back down, and it's retraction.
Okay, relax. Put your arms down to your sides. We'll do wrist exercises. Move your wrist so that the back of your hand forms a right angle to the back (hairy side) of your arm. That is hyperextension. Move it the opposite way, and it's flexion. Go back to neutral and that movement is called extension. Let's do two more: bend the wrist down so that you try to form an

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Retrieved Text: Adult birds have many anatomical features that presumably help meet the demands of flight. However, juvenile birds, like the first winged dinosaurs, lack many hallmarks of advanced flight. Instead of large wings, they have small “protowings,” and instead of robust, interlocking forelimb skeletons, their limbs are more gracile and their joints less constrained. These traits are often thought to preclude extinct theropods—the group of dinosaurs most closely related to modern birds—from powered flight, but young birds with similar rudimentary anatomies flap their wings as they run up slopes and even briefly fly, challenging longstanding ideas about the origin of flight.
To further explore this work, Heers and colleagues used a technique called x-ray reconstruction of moving morphology (XROMM)—which essentially produces a 3-D x-ray movie—to visualize skeletal movement in developing birds.
At Brown University, the researchers used XROMM to look at Chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) at a variety of ages as they flapped their wings to help climb steep slopes—a behavior scientists call wing-assisted incline running (WAIR). They found that when flap-running at similar levels of effort, juvenile and adult birds show similar patterns of joint movement. Despite their undeveloped anatomy, young birds can produce all of the elements of the avian flight stroke and modify their wing stroke for different behaviors, just like adults.
How is this possible? The study suggests that the cooperation between a juvenile bird’s legs and wings is key in early life: the force generated by flapping pushes the birds forward as well as upward, improving traction as they climb.
This wing-leg cooperation is a bridge

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Retrieved Text: The eoraptor was one of the earliest known dinosaurs. They were here 231 to 228 million years ago. When first described in 1993, it was considered to be one of the earliest, if not the earliest known dinosaur. Eoraptor has heterodont dentition, suggesting that it was omnivorous, and that this feeding strategy had evolved early on in dinosaurs.
Troodon is a genus of relatively small, bird-like dinosaurs known definitively from the Campanian age of the Cretaceous period. Discovered in 1855, T. formosus was among the first dinosaurs found in North America, although it was thought to be a lizard until 1877. Troodon were small dinosaurs, up to 0.9 meters 3.0 ft in height, 2.4 meters 7.9 ft in length. Troodon had some of the largest known brains of any dinosaur group.
Dilophosaurus was one of the largest carnivorous dinosaurs of the early Jurassic period. Dilophosaurus gets its name from the two thin crests of bone on the top of its head. Dilophosaurus has been found in both the U.S. and China, which, although part of the same huge landmass, were still quite a long distance from each other. Dilophosaurus was discovered by a Native American. In 1942 Navajo Jesse Williams led fossil-hunters Bill Rush, Ed Kott, and Sam Welles to the site where he’d happened upon the first known Dilophosaurus remains two years earlier.
The T-Rex is twelve meters long. More than 30 specimens of T.rex have now been identified. Tyrannosaurus/ T-Rex is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex, is one of the most well-represented

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Retrieved Text: Analysis of bone microstructure in ornithopod and theropod dinosaurs from Victoria, Australia, documents ontogenetic changes, providing insight into the dinosaurs' successful habitation of Cretaceous Antarctic environments. Woven-fibered bone tissue in the smallest specimens indicates rapid growth rates during early ontogeny. Later ontogeny is marked by parallel-fibered tissue, suggesting reduced growth rates approaching skeletal maturity. Bone microstructure similarities between the ornithopods and theropods, including the presence of LAGs in each group, suggest there is no osteohistologic evidence supporting the hypothesis that polar theropods hibernated seasonally. Results instead suggest high-latitude dinosaurs had growth trajectories similar to their lower-latitude relatives and thus, rapid early ontogenetic growth and the cyclical suspensions of growth inherent in the theropod and ornithopod lineages enabled them to successfully exploit polar regions.

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Retrieved Text: If you want to know the secret behind the success of Tyrannosaurus rex and their dinosaur cousins ​​who also is a meat eater, consider the teeth.
Scientists on Tuesday, July 28, 2015 has published a comprehensive analysis of the teeth of carnivorous dinosaur group called theropods, reveal unique serration structure which allows them chew the meat and bones of their large prey effectively.
Theropods are the largest land predators on Earth. They first appeared about 200 years ago and is the dominant land creatures that eat meat until the era of dinosaurs ended 65 million years ago.
Research involving six species of theropod teeth reveal their complexity previously unknown. Network internal teeth are arranged so that adds to the power and extend the life of bergeriri teeth like steak knives to enable them to digest other dinosaurs.
A paleontologist of University of Toronto Mississauga, Kirstin Brink said existing fossil shows that the teeth of T. rex could crush bones. Teeth found embedded in the bones and bone fragments prey out of the dirt that has become fossilized.
"The most efficient cam latches to stab or cut meat and grabbed him as he tore the meat, which is known for its 'puncture and pull' style of eating," Brink said.
The researchers analyzed the pieces of fossilized teeth using a microscope and a powerful tool that can show the chemical properties of the teeth.
They examined teeth from ancient Coelophysis tend to be small; Troodon that resembles a bird; large predator Allosaurus, Gorgosaurus, Daspletosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus; and Spinosaurus large and semi-aquatic.
The teeth of Tyrannosaurus

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Retrieved Text: "theropods were carnivorous Dinosaurs, as proved by their numerous sharp ... 171 theropods, Allosaurus agilis, of the Dinosaur division of Mesozoic Reptiles. ..."
"The Dinosaurs, in Europe, as in America, included the herbivorous Sauropods, Ornithopods, and Stegosaurs, and the carnivorous theropods. ..."
"... but lower (less advanced) than that in Late Triassic theropods such as ... which is quite comparable to that of Late Triassic carnivorous theropods like ..."

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Retrieved Text: Tyrannosaurus (/tᵻˌrænəˈsɔːrəs, taɪ-/, meanin "tyrant lizard", frae the Ancient Greek tyrannos (τύραννος), "tyrant", an sauros (σαῦρος), "lizard") is a genus o coelurosaurian theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex (rex meanin "king" in Latin), is ane o the maist well-represented o the lairge theropods. Tyrannosaurus lived throughout what is nou wastren North Americae, on what wis then an island continent kent as Laramidia. Tyrannosaurus haed a much wider range than ither tyrannosaurids. Fossils are foond in a variety o rock formations datin tae the Maastrichtian age o the upper Cretaceous Period, 68 tae 66 million years ago. It wis the last kent member o the tyrannosaurids, an amang the last non-avian dinosaurs tae exist afore the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction.
Lik ither tyrannosaurids, Tyrannosaurus wis a bipedal carnivore wi a massive skull balanced bi a lang, hivy tail. Relative tae its lairge an pouerfu hind limms, Tyrannosaurus fore limbs war short but unuisually pouerfu for thair size an haed twa clawed deegits. The maist complete specimen meisurs up tae 12.3 m (40 ft) in lenth, up tae 3.66 meters (12 ft) taw at the hips, an accordin tae maist modren estimates 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons) tae 14 metric tons (15.4 short tons) in wecht. Awtho ither theropods rivaled or exceedit Tyrannosaurus rex in size, it is still amang the lairgest kent land predators an is estimatit tae hae exerted the lairgest bite force amang aw terrestrial ainimals. Bi far the lairgest carnivore in its environment, Tyrannosaurus rex wis maist likely an apex predator, preyin upon hadrosaurs, airmoured yerbivores

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Retrieved Text: The Two Medicine Formation is famous for the “good mother lizard,” Maiasaura peeblesorum, but records a much more extensive fauna in sediments deposited for 14 million years, from about 84 million years ago to 70 million years ago. This coincides roughly with the entire span of the Campanian Age of the Late Cretaceous. The Two Medicine Formation is exposed in the U.S. state of Montana and Canadian province of Alberta and is roughly coeval with the Judith River Formation, deposited to the east, and lies below the Hell Creek Formation, which records the last few million years of the Mesozoic in the same area.
The Two Medicine Formation is largely made up of sandstones and mudstones deposited by lakes and rivers flowing from west to east from the proto-Rocky Mountains to the Western Interior Cretaceous Seaway, a shallow sea that split North America in two and joined the Gulf of Mexico with the Arctic Ocean and was present for much of the Mesozoic. The Two Medicine Formation and Judith River Formation to the east represent a wedge of terrestrial deposits and are separated by the Sweetgrass Arch (an erosional feature). The Two Medicine Formation lies above the marine Virgelle Sandstone and lies below the marine Bearpaw Shale. Both the Virgelle Sandstone and Bearpaw Shale were deposited at times of high sea-level and the Two Medicine-Judith River wedge and later Hell Creek Formation were deposited at times of low sea level. When seas were relatively high during the Early and Late Campanian the Two Medicine Formation represented a

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Retrieved Text: Theropod, any member of the dinosaur subgroup Theropoda, which includes all the flesh-eating dinosaurs. Theropods were the most diverse group of saurischian (“lizard-hipped”) dinosaurs, ranging from the crow-sized Microraptor to the huge Tyrannosaurus rex, which weighed six tons or more.
Unlike the sauropod saurischians, all the theropods were obligate bipeds; that is, their hind legs provided support and locomotion while the short forelimbs and mobile hands were probably adapted for grasping and tearing prey. Despite the group’s name, which means “beast (i.e., mammal) foot,” theropod feet usually resembled those of birds. Birds are descended from one lineage of small theropods and therefore are members of Theropoda.
Three major theropod groups are generally recognized. Ceratosaurs were the first and ranged in size from the small Coelophysis to Ceratosaurus, which approached Allosaurus in size. Succeeding the early ceratosaurs were the tetanurans, comprising the carnosaurs (including Allosaurus) and the coelurosaurs (a larger group that includes Tyrannosaurus, dromaeosaurs, and Ornithomimus, among others). Coelurosaurs and carnosaurs both had many hollow bones and sharp, recurved teeth along the entire length of their jaws.
Theropod remains have been recovered from all continents except Antarctica and from the Middle Triassic through the Late Cretaceous Epoch (from 245 million to 65.5 million years ago). The earliest theropod is thought to be Eodromaeus, a 1.2-metre- (4-foot-) long dinosaur known from fossils discovered in northwestern Argentina that date to about 230 million years ago.

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Retrieved Text: Scratch, scratch, scratch! You'll find them in hats, on coats and sometimes, ugh, in your hair. Lice! They're itchy! They're disgusting! They're ugly! Yet, when the end came for the dinosaurs, the tiny louse survived.Perhaps it's because these itchy creatures were too small to die or because there were too many of them.
No matter. Originally, bird lice probably made their home on the downy feathers of avian-dinosaurs, the prehistoric monsters that evolved into modern birds. The parasites may have chowed down on dinosaurs such as the Shuvuuia, a genus of birdlike, meat-eating theropods that lived between 85 and 75 million years ago [source: Balter].
A few years ago, scientists discovered two lice fossilized in stone. One was 44 million years old; the other about 100 million years. After careful study, researchers concluded these lousy bloodsuckers not only survived the near destruction of Earth 65 million years ago, but also flourished afterward [sources: Choi, Switek].

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Retrieved Text: In a new study published in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution, an international team led by Professor Baoyu Jiang of Nanjing University and including Dr Michael Pittman of the Department of Earth Sciences, the University of Hong Kong, shows that pterosaurs had at least four types of feathers in common with their close relatives the dinosaurs, pushing back the origin of feathers by some 70 million years.
Pterosaurs and dinosaurs are closely related reptiles that lived from about 230 to 66 million years ago. Reptiles are generally known for their scales, but pterosaurs evolved a furry covering -- often called 'pycnofibres' -- that was presumed to be fundamentally different from the feathers of birds and other dinosaurs, until now. The new study shows that pterosaurs had at least four types of feathers: (1) simple filaments ('hairs'), (2) bundles of filaments, (3) filaments with a tuft halfway down and (4) down feathers. These four feather types are known from two major dinosaur groups -- the plant-eating ornithischians and the theropods, which include living birds.
Dr Pittman who leads the HKU's Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory said: "These exceptional pterosaur specimens were imaged by myself and Tom Kaye of the Foundation for Scientific Advancement using Laser-Stimulated Fluorescence, a technique we co-developed. The LSF images vividly revealed the form of the wing membrane, demonstrating that its generally ginger-coloured feathers were preserved in place."
Professor Mike Benton from the University of Bristol's School of Earth Sciences added: "We ran some evolutionary analyses and they showed clearly that the pterosaur pycnofibres are feathers, just like

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Retrieved Text: In the wake of the Permian mass extinction, the prehistoric world was ripe for the taking. All the world’s landmass was consolidated into the single supercontinent: Pangaea. With no seas standing in their way, new terrestrial animal lineages were able to exploit new habitats all across the globe. Archosaurs, meaning ‘ruling reptiles’, came to dominate Triassic ecosystems. However, dinosaurian archosaurs were not the top predators. Instead, crurotarsans sat undisputed at the top of the food chain. The first theropods were small, but agile carnivores, and although they started out as the Darwinian equivalent of the mail room clerks, by the next geological period (the Jurassic), they were large and in charge. In Lesson 2, we will introduce you to some of the earliest theropods, and explore the anatomical secrets to their survival and eventual success. We will also meet the largest land predators of all time.
At the start of the Jurassic there was an ecological vacuum.
fill the ecological niches that were left empty.
For the theropods this included the niches of large bodied top predators.
The Dilophosauridae was the first major radiation of large theropods.
the large knot in the upper jaw where the maxilla and premaxilla skull bones meet.
And this knot made them look like they had a perpetual snarl.
their appearance in the science fiction novel and movie, Jurassic Park.
an umbrella-like frill around its neck and the ability to spit blinding toxin.
Both of those features are pure works of science fiction.
either feature in the dilophosaurid, or any other dinosaur for that matter.
depicting such features is not inappropriate.
is not

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What can breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults?" and the following answer choices: 
- humans
 - viruses
 - a fish
 - animals
 - bats
 - frogs
 - bacteria
 - air

Now knowing that most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults and all frogs are amphibians, choose the best answer.

Target Text: frogs

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: The term "salamander" refers to a collection of amphibian species that keep their tails as adults. Over 380 salamander species are known around the world, and these species vary in many ways. All salamanders go through a four-stage life cycle, from egg to larvae to juvenile to adult. In some species, juvenile salamanders have lungs. However, lungs are not present at the larvae stage of any salamander species.
Salamanders are amphibians, meaning they live part of their lives in water and part of their lives on land. Adult salamanders lay their eggs in water, and these eggs hatch into a larval form that uses gills to breathe underwater. Most amphibian larvae have tails, which are lost during the transition to juvenile or adult; only salamanders keep their tails through maturity. When the larvae change into juveniles, they begin to look similar to their adult versions. In frogs, for example, juveniles begin breathing through lungs and developing legs. The changes between the larval, juvenile and adult stages of salamanders' lives vary by species. However, all of them have gills during the larval stage.
In some salamander species, juveniles lose their gills and develop lungs. The blue-spotted salamander is one example. These salamanders attach their egg masses to twigs or plants that lie in water so when their larvae hatch they are in the water. The larvae have visible gills on the outside of their bodies. When they become juveniles, however, they lose their fins and gills (both are absorbed into their bodies) and they begin to breathe through their

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Retrieved Text: Most salamanders start life as aquatic larvae and metamorphose to become terrestrial adults, returning to the water only to lay eggs. But mudpuppy salamanders (Necturus maculosus) remain aquatic throughout life. By retaining their juvenile features, along with other adaptations, they are able to inhabit rivers, perennial streams, ponds and lakes throughout eastern North America, from southern Canada to Georgia. They can even be found in the Midwest.
Mudpuppies, also called waterdogs, have gray-brown to black, spotted skin, which helps them merge with the muddy river bottoms where they live. Their long, flattened bodies -- 8 to 20 inches in length -- make it easy for these aquatic salamanders to hide during the day under rocks and logs. They come out at night to feed on fish, other amphibians and invertebrates.
Larval salamanders usually absorb their gills during metamorphosis, but mudpuppies retain large, feathery reddish brown gills positioned on both sides of their heads. External gills more efficiently extract oxygen from water than internal lungs. In habitats in which the water is well-oxygenated, mudpuppies have shorter gills than those inhabiting poorly oxygenated waters. As they can absorb oxygen through their skin and rise to the water's surface to breathe using their internal lungs, mudpuppies can survive when oxygen levels are low. They also use their lungs for buoyancy in the water, just as fish use their swim bladders.
Mudpuppies walk about the bottoms of ponds and rivers. Their short, flattened limbs make this easy. They can swim well, too. Their short, laterally compressed tails -- high and narrow, rather than

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Retrieved Text: If You Want How Do Fish Gills Work Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Fish use their gills to extract oxygen from the water. So they need them as much as you need your lungs. The main difference between lungs and gills (other than water vs. air) is that lungs are tidal - air flows in one way, and back out the other way.
Why Do Fish Have Gills? Fish have gills because these organs are used to extract oxygen from the surrounding water in which a fish lives. Gills are different from lungs because gills generally work unidirectionally: water moves in one direction across the gills in order for the organs to extract oxygen.
Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called the operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Fish have gills because they need them to survive underwater. Gills absorb oxygen from the water just like we absorb oxygen from the air. At some point way back in time, the ancestors of fish needed to be able to breathe underwater, and those that evolved gills were able to.
A fish breathes by taking water into its mouth and forcing it out through the gill passages. As water passes over the thin walls of the gills, dissolved oxygen moves into the blood and travels to the fish's cells. If fish can breathe underwater, then why

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Retrieved Text: Larval members of this family tend to be found in small streams and rivers in areas of slow flow; however, they can be found in lentic-littoral habitats as well. They are often found sprawling on many different substrates, such as sand, silt, or even gravel, as well as clinging to root masses, woody debris, or among various plants. They usually collect and gather small bits of organic particles for food, or some taxa also filter feed. The larvae in this family have gills well-adapted to their environment; the gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate, covering the rest of the abdominal gills to prevent them from getting damaged by sediment. Larvae also fan their gills in order to increase the flow of water across their surface area, increasing the amount of oxygen they can absorb. Adults and duns (sub-adults) in the genus Trycorythodes (Dark Brown Spinner, Pale Olive Dun, and Reverse Jenny Spinner) are especially important to the fly-fishing community due to their extremely large emergences.
Family: The gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate or semioperculate, roughly triangular or oval, and not touching or fusing medially. Abdominal segments 3–6 with lamelliform (plate-like) portion of gills simple or with two lobes, never with fringed margins.

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Retrieved Text: Frogs, like salamanders, newts and toads, are amphibians. Most amphibians begin their life cycles as water-dwelling animals, complete with gills for breathing underwater. As they grow to adulthood, amphibians normally become land-dwelling creatures, lose their gills and develop lungs for breathing. Frogs are no exception to this process and are able to breathe through their lungs once they reach adulthood.
Frogs still in the larval stage, called tadpoles, are very different in outward appearance and internal physiology from their adult counterparts. Most notable is the presence of gills instead of lungs during this stage. Tadpoles can also take in oxygen through their skin, a trait that aids in gas exchange (bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, as with lung respiration) while the tadpole is living completely underwater.
As a frog matures from tadpole to adult, it loses its gills and develops functioning lungs. During this transition, and after maturity, frogs are still able to breathe through their skin. This trait is known as “bimodal breathing,” in which an animal uses two different systems for bringing in oxygen. These two different breathing systems allow adult frogs to shift between aquatic habitats (which require skin respiration) and land habitats (which are more suited to lung respiration) with ease.
An adult frog’s thin and permeable skin allows it to take in oxygen, even when completely submerged. Oxygen readily passes through this thin membrane-like skin, providing the frog with the oxygen it needs to stay alive under water without the need for gills. Because of the permeability of a frog’s skin, moisture

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Retrieved Text: A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills. Most are cold-blooded, though some, such as some species of tuna and shark, are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a paraphyletic group whose exact relationships are much debated.
Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 metres (52.49 feet) whale shark to a 8 millimetre (just over a quarter of an inch) long stout infant fish. Many types of aquatic animals named ‘fish’, such as jellyfish and cuttlefish, are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like dolphins, while closely resembling fish in outer appearance, are actually mammals.
Fish are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish are often called ‘fish’ when used as food.
Difference between male and female fish: In some species the males and females have different shaped bodies or different colouring; in other species there is no visible difference.
How fish breathe: Some fish have lungs and breathe air, but most breathe through gills. Gills are made up of thin sheets of tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As water passes over them dissolved oxygen is absorbed into the blood and waste products such as carbon dioxide pass out into the water. The gills are protected by a large bony plate called an operculum.
What is a lateral line: Lateral lines are usually visible as faint lines running lengthwise down each side, from the vicinity of the gill covers to the base of the tail

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Retrieved Text: All dogs are at risk for potentially deadly heartworm disease. Heartworms live in the heart and blood vessels of the lungs of dogs, cats and other mammals like wolves, foxes and coyotes. Heartworms cannot be spread directly from animal to animal without a mosquito as an intermediary.
Heartworms are spread when a mosquito bites an infected dog and picks up tiny larvae called microfilariae from the bloodstream. Then that mosquito bites another dog infecting it with the heartworm larvae.
Over the next several months the heartworm larvae grow and migrate to the heart and lungs. These larvae mature into adults, which can be a foot in length, and they produce microfilariae that circulate in the bloodstream. Now this dog is a reservoir of heartworms and is ready for another mosquito to bite and infect yet another dog.
Untreated, heartworm disease can lead to severe problems with the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys and may result in death.

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Retrieved Text: All about Tadpoles for your smartphone, your iPhone or any phone.Animations of anuran amphibian larvae. The frogs and toads larvae have a long tail and no legs.
Animated gifs and animations of Tadpoles to share on social networks, download or send to other phones for Whatsapp, Line or Skype. Tadpoles are hatchlings or larvae of frogs and toads. Their main physical characteristics are their oval body, lack of legs and a long tail with which they swim. Tadpoles vary greatly in size, in their development and between species. The larvae of frogs breathe through external gills, so they always live in the water. When they reach adulthood spend a process of metamorphosis (they grow four legs and their tails disappear). Most tadpoles are herbivorous, feeding on plants and algae.

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Life > Fish > How do fish breathe?
"How do fish breathe?." Life, Fish, Q-files Encyclopedia, 4 Nov. 2016.
Life, Fish, s.v. "How do fish breathe?," accessed April 20, 2019.
To breathe, fish open their mouths, and take in water that contains oxygen (1). When they pump it out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over the gills and tiny blood vessels extract the oxygen (2).
Most kinds of fish cannot survive out of water, because they do not have lungs to breathe air. Instead, they are able to filter oxygen from the water around them using slits in their heads called gills. To breathe, fish open their mouths and take in water that contains oxygen. When they pump the water out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over feathery filaments (thread-like fibres) in the gills. These filaments contain blood vessels with thin walls through which oxygen from the water passes into the blood. At the same time, waste carbon dioxide in the blood passes into the water. Bony fish usually have a hard protective flap over their gills, called the operculum. It controls the flow of water through the gills so that the maximum amount of oxygen is absorbed.
Gills removed from a fish’s head. We are looking towards the mouth, which is pointed directly away from us.
Bony fish have a single external gill opening on either side of their heads. Most have five pairs of gills. Sharks and rays—cartilaginous fish—have a separate gill slit for each gill (between

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Retrieved Text: Fish force water through their gills, past many tiny blood vessels. The gills take oxygen from the water and let water whisk away carbon dioxide. Gill filaments are the red, fleshy part of the gills; they are the smallest division of the gill and they take oxygen into the blood. Each filament has thousands of fine branches which are exposed to the surface of the water. The branches contain a thin epithelium that separates them from the water, allowing oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through easily.
Not all fishes completely rely on their gills to breathe. Some species absorb a large part of their necessary oxygen through the skin, particularly when they're juveniles. Others have lungs that have developed to breathe air in will actually drown if they don't have access to the water's surface.
The gills in fish are like lungs in people: it's the organ responsible for absorbing oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide waste. The gills also regulate levels of ions and the pH of the blood.
The gill filaments of bony fishes are called "primary lamellae." They are intricate structures that have a large surface area. Smaller secondary lamellae are offshoots of the primary filaments. The secondary lamellae contain small blood capillaries and blood flows in the opposite direction of the water. As a result, the water flowing beside the secondary lamella always has a higher oxygen concentration than that in the blood so oxygen is absorbed along the full length of the secondary lamellae.
Active swimming fish have gill filaments that are highly developed

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Retrieved Text: Following on from my last article, spring migration is gaining momentum. In the amphibian world, these cold-blooded vertebrates have made their way from their overwintering underground refuges to their breeding waterbodies where many have already mated.
The mating process in amphibians takes place in water and is called amplexus, which is the Latin word for embrace.
This is when the male clasps the female and they deposit eggs and sperm externally together.
The fertilised eggs (in newts) or spawn (in frogs and toads) hatch and larvae or tadpoles emerge.
These have gills enabling them to breathe underwater where they stay for about 4-5 months until they have grown legs, absorbed their gills, developed lungs and resemble small adults.
Once they have undergone this metamorphosis, they then leave the water and live on land for the rest of the year where they feed on invertebrates such as insects, slugs and worms.
Amphibians that are native to the UK are common frog (Rana temporaria), common toad (Bufo bufo), smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus), great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), native pool frog (Pelophylax lessonae) and natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita).
The latter two species are not known in Yorkshire.
This species which has been around for approximately 40 million years, has suffered a large decline due to habitat loss and changes in farming practices.
As such great crested newts and their eggs, breeding and resting places are fully protected by European and UK law.
In my consultancy work the season for surveying for our rarest and largest newt, the great crested newt, runs between mid-March to mid-June

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Retrieved Text: Frogs and toads are cold-blooded vertebrates. The colour of frogs varies. Generally, frogs are brown, light brown or olive green. The underside of frogs is generally white, and at the tops of their legs they are often yellow.
The frog normally spawns in April but in Lapland not until June. Males wait for females in the spawning grounds in large groups, and they attract them by croaking. In frogspawn, there is a transparent jelly that surrounds the eggs and acts like a small greenhouse. The black core warms up during the daytime in the sun, and the blanket of jelly provides insulation and stops heat from escaping. A frog will lay 1,500-3,000 eggs at a time. The eggs develop into larvae, which are called tadpoles. Initially, the tadpoles have gills, but gradually they metamorphose so that they ultimately breathe using lungs. During metamorphosis, the frogs develop hind legs first.
The female frog is often larger than the male. Frogs are generally 5-9 cm long, seldom more. They spend the winter in hibernation in the mud at the bottom of ditches, lakes and bays. Some individuals also hibernate on dry land or in other drier places. Often on a good winter site you can find dozens, if not hundreds, of individuals. During hibernation, frogs move every now and then. Frogs are at their most active when it is dark. They are common across the whole of Finland, but they have become rarer in recent years due to the loss of wetlands. The European common frog is a protected species.

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Retrieved Text: “It’s a little bit creepy,” says Catnip Editorial Board member Elizabeth Rozanski, DVM. “Larvae migrate from the intestine into the bloodstream and, from there, to the lungs, where they set up housekeeping. They get bigger, maturing into adult worms, and then lay more eggs, or larvae.” In the meantime, the worms can cause asthma-like symptoms — difficulty breathing, coughing, and, if things become severe enough, even emphysema, fluid in the lungs, or pneumonia.
After a rough start as a stray found in a snowstorm, Esme, a delightful kitten adopted by a Tufts Cummings School employee, was cured of lungworms.
One of them was Esme, a stray found by a family on their porch in western Massachusetts during a freak snow, ice, and wind storm last Halloween weekend. Shivering, meowing, and hungry, Esme was brought by the family to the Cummings School, where you could see her respiratory effort was increased just by watching her sides.
Kittens tend to get lungworms by eating snails and slugs that are already infected with them. “While adult cats are effective hunters who can catch a mouse or bird and sometimes become infected that way,” Dr. Rozanski says, “kittens are not. But it’s easy for them to catch a slow-going snail or other slow-going animal. A couple of years ago, we took care of three kittens with lungworms found in an old, abandoned mill. The mill was by the water,” where snails are apt to hang around.
“It’s not going to happen in a house cat that eats Fancy Feast and never goes anywhere,” Dr.

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Retrieved Text: If You Want Horseshoe Crab Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Find Horseshoe Crab. Examine Now.
Tired of Endless Searching? Find Horseshoe Crab on DealsNow.
How Do Crabs Live Out of Water On Land and Breathe Air With Their Gills When They Have No Lungs? By Karen Hill. True crabs are crustaceans that have a short projecting “tail” or reduced hidden abdomen, while others such as hermit crabs, horseshoe crabs and crab lice, are not true crabs.
There are different types of crabs like hermit crab, king crab, horseshoe crab, etc. Crabs have a flat body and can breathe under the water as well as on the land. The crabs don’t have a nose or any such openings for breathing. This gives rise to a very interesting question: how do the crabs breathe?
Horseshoe crabs are used as bait to fish for eels (mostly in the United States) and whelk, or conch. However, fishing with horseshoe crab was banned indefinitely in New Jersey in 2008 with a moratorium on harvesting to protect the red knot, a shorebird which eats the crab's eggs.

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Retrieved Text: (1) Frogs were not symbols of death but, on the contrary, of rebirth and renewal, because of its remarkable metamorphosis of egg into tadpole and from tadpole into frog.(2) Early in its development a tadpole breathes with gills.(3) Young amphibians, like the larval frog or tadpole pictured here, spend their early years in the water, breathing through gills in the side of their head in much the same way as fish do.(4) One of the characteristics of amphibians is metamorphosis; when the larva or tadpole living in water and breathing with gills develops into an adult, it leaves the aquatic environment and breathes with lungs like a land animal.(5) He'd always bring a jar of the stuff in and we'd have lessons where we'd document the life of the frog by watching the frog spawn hatch and metamorphose from tadpoles to frogs.(6) We have observed that green frog tadpoles react less strongly to predators at very low resource levels.(7) Inside the pouch, the tadpoles live on the yolk leftover from their hatching.(8) These species tend to have shorter larval periods on average when compared to tadpoles that develop in more permanent ponds.(9) Biologists now find that slightly elevated UV exposure reduces the chance that tadpoles will become frogs.(10) Many familiar animals have a larval form: caterpillars turn into butterflies, and tadpoles into frogs.(11) The young snakes prey on recently hatched steelhead trout and chinook salmon and on the tadpoles of yellow-legged frogs.(12) As the tadpoles become frogs, the gills initially used to breathe are replaced with

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Retrieved Text: A salamander is an amphibian which falls under the animal order Caudata. A typical salamander is characterized by a short nose, a long tail and a slim body. The normal eye may look upon a salamander as another form of lizard; however there are some basic differences in the physical structures of a salamander and a lizard. A salamander is longer in size when compared to a lizard. Moreover, a salamander’s body scales are smooth and glossy as compared to the course skin of lizards. Also, a salamander is always found in and around water bodies, while lizards are typically terrestrial creatures. Like all amphibians, a salamander too has two pairs of limbs. But unlike all amphibians, they have four toes each on the front limbs while the hind limbs show five toes each. Male and female salamanders are usually characterized by very bright skin colors, though some of them may not even show any color due to lack of essential skin pigments. Read on for more interesting facts on salamanders.
If you assumed all salamanders to have same respiratory organ, you are in for a surprise. While some breathe through lungs, others take in air through gills. The difference is essentially between terrestrial and aquatic salamanders respectively. Again, the gills of many salamanders are visible externally as formations on the sides of their heads.
Some salamanders have neither lungs nor gills to breathe through. In this case they breathe in and out of their skins, a process which is known as valerian respiration.
Capillary beds are present all

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Retrieved Text: Dog owners may have recently become aware of a relatively new disease which has been diagnosed more frequently over the last twelve months or so throughout the country, and, from my personal experience as a vet, locally as well.
This parasite can be known either as lungworm infection or French Heartworm. The adult worms live within the pulmonary artery and right ventricle of the heart of the dog. The eggs hatch in the lungs and the young larvae eventually pass out in microscopic form in the faeces. If these larvae are then ingested by slugs and snails and the infected slugs and snails are then eaten by other dogs, (perhaps deliberately, perhaps unintentionally whilst eating grass), the now infective larvae migrate through the intestinal wall and make their way back to the heart to start the life cycle again.
This is a true lungworm in that the adult form of this parasitic worm lives and breeds in the bronchi within the lungs. The adults are visible within the lungs when using a scope and also cause nodular changes within the tissue of the airway. Unlike the Angiostrongylus worms, they can transmit infective larvae directly either in saliva and sputum or via the larvae in their faeces. Infection is either via direct contact between dogs or from infective larvae on the ground passed from either dogs or foxes. Infected animals may develop a chronic cough which may again be easily mistaken for kennel cough initially. Not all affected animals show symptoms but any dog with a persistent cough, especially

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Retrieved Text: Northern or cold-water shrimp is one of the most abundant shrimp species found in the North Atlantic and Pacific. They are live in soft, muddy substrate on the ocean floor. To grow, they must periodically shed their outer shells in a process known as molting whereby they crawl out of their old shells and their bodies absorb water to increase in size before the new soft shell begins to harden.
Northern shrimp have a hard outer shell and jointed legs, and can grow up to 16 cm long. They have large, bulbous eyes and breathe through their gills. The bright pink shell covering the head and body has a long, curved, sword-like structure called a rostrum that is covered in numerous spikes. Northern shrimp are sweet and delicate, and are often served in sushi restaurants as ebi.
In the northwest Atlantic, northern shrimp mate in late summer and fall. Once fertilized, the eggs remain attached to a female's abdomen until the following spring. A female usually carries around 1,700 eggs. After incubating for seven to eight months, the eggs hatch in April or May in the form of larvae. The larvae feed on plankton as they drift near the top of the water column. After a few months, they begin to spend more time near the bottom and start to look more like adults. Most shrimp reach male sexual maturity during the second or third year of life. In the winter of their fourth or fifth year, northern shrimp will transition from a male form to a female

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Retrieved Text: These frogs are found in warm humid rainforest areas surrounded by dry savannah and always near small streams among moss covered rocks.
Blue poison arrow frogs are found only in the Sipaliwini savannah in the South American country of Suriname.
Although many frogs are green or have muted colors and patterns that help them hide from potential predators, some frogs like the blue poison arrow frog use bright colors as a means of defense. The brilliant blue color of these frogs serves as a warning to potential predators not to eat it. Often the more vibrant and colorful a frog is, the more poisonous it may be.
The most amazing adaptation these frogs have is their ability to produce toxins. The toxins in the skin of these frogs are found in high concentrations in the prey they eat, especially ants. After eating the ants, these toxic compounds are secreted by glands in the frog’s skin providing them with a powerful means of defense. The toxin is capable of paralyzing or even killing potential predators. The blue poison arrow frog contains an average of 200 micrograms of poison which would cause harm and could possibly prove fatal even to a human.
The blue poison arrow frog is 1.2 to 1.8 inches (3-4.5 cm) long; females are larger than males.
These frogs weigh about one-tenth of an ounce (3 grams).
These frogs have azure blue on their legs, sky blue on the back and darker blue on the belly with an irregular pattern of dark blue and black spots covering their back and head.
In

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Retrieved Text: There are so many interesting Fun Frog Facts for Kids!
Let’s learn with facts about frogs for kids!
So I made a life cycle of a frog worksheets a few days ago and I have to admit their life cycle is pretty fascinating, more fascinating than most other animals.
However there are a ton more Frog Facts for Kids about these amphibians that your kids (and you) just need to know (as some are downright odd).
So let’s do some hopping and learn about frogs!
They typically lay their eggs in the water.
A group of eggs is called a frogspawn.
Tadpoles have no lungs, they have gills.
They grow lungs before they mature into a frog.
Frogs don’t drink water – they soak it into their body through their skin.
They breathe through the nose and their skin.
They need to live near water as their skin must constantly be moist. If it dries out the frog dies.
They catch their pray with their tongue.
Their eyeballs assist them in swallowing food – they push the food down their throat by pushing down the eyeballs.
Their vision field is almost 360° so they can see all that is around them all the time!
Their call is called a croak.
Frogs can hibernate. In extreme conditions they can also enter a state called torpor which can last for months.
Free Printable PDF with Ant Facts!
Get your free printable Frog Facts for Kids here.

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Retrieved Text: Amphibian man is real or not? Can human beings become really amphibious, by adapting themselves to the ocean depths as other mammals have done? Is it possible for human beings to adapt themselves to breathing in water? There are a lot of questions and it seems impossible. However, scientists are studying this possibility.
Observations have shown that lungs can, in fact, absorb oxygen from water just as the fishes’ gills do. Water normally contains about seven cubic centimeters of oxygen per liter, which is enough for fish. To be breathed by animals, water must contain at least 10 times as much oxygen as it normally does.
Scientists found out that oxygen for breathing might be obtained from water algae known as chlorella. This simple plant growing in ponds and lakes has the reputation of being a nutrient factory, producing proteins, fats and vitamins. It also produces huge amounts of oxygen.
Scientists have also found that a man has a markedly slower heartbeat when he is diving. This effect, called bradycardia, is shared by diving animals.
Ichthyander, or Amphibian Man, is one of the most remarkable literary images created by the best Soviet science fiction writer Alexander Romanovich Belyaev (1884-1942). A science-fiction novel about a man who was able to live under water, The Amphibian Man, was written in 1927.
Surgeon Salvator tried to save a child with excessively weak lungs. He transplanted the gills of a young shark and the child not only remained alive, BUT, got the opportunity to live under water.
For several years the film directors were afraid of

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Retrieved Text: In fresh-water prawn culture, diseases have a greater occurrence in hatcheries than in grow- out ponds.
In fresh-water prawn culture, diseases have a greater occurrence in hatcheries than in grow- out ponds. Several diseases have been identified in larvae, juveniles and adults, but many of them are of undetermined aetiology. Even among those for which the aetiology is known, appropriate prophylactic and curative measures have not yet been developed. But most of the diseases appear to be directly or indirectly due to poor sanitation, inadequate water exchange, poor feeds or low oxygen levels.
Among the diseases identified in larval prawns, those caused by microbial epibionts appear to be more common. The epibionts are mainly filamentous and non-filamentous bacteria, algae or aquatic protozoa. The protozoan agents include the genera Epistylis,Zoothamnium and Vorticella. These organismsattach themselves to the epicuticular surfaces, but do not cause any inflammatory responses. Zoothamnium appears to attach itself to the gilllamellae, while other protozoans do not exhibit any site specificity. Bacterial fouling of proximal appendages, gills or the body surface often results in severe mortality. Antibiotic treatment is likely to control the disease. As the disease is triggered by poor biological conditions in hatchery systems, the best control measure is the identification and control of the primary cause.
Brown-spot disease, also known as black-spot or shell disease, occurs commonly in juveniles and adult Macrobrachium. It can be recognized by the presence of brown to black, ulcerative to raised lesions on the body surface or appendages. This disease occurs only in animals which have developed prior cuticular damage

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Retrieved Text: A variety of insect pests, as well as mites and snails, attack water garden plants. Many are the same kinds of pests that attack other ornamental, garden, and vegetable plants, pests such as spider mites, aphids, beetles, borers, leaf miners, leaf rollers, whiteflies, leafhoppers, and moth larvae. Other pests, such as caddis fly larvae and water snails, are peculiar to water plants.
All of these pests, familiar and otherwise, present special treatment challenges when found in or adjacent to water features. Many ponds include fauna as well as flora. Fish, amphibians, and other desirable fauna, including desirable insects, may be harmed or killed by some pesticides normally used for pest control. Some water plants also can be damaged or killed by pesticides commonly used on non water-garden plants.
While most ponds and water gardens, once established, can do quite well with minimum pest management intervention, all aquatic, shoreline and marginal water side plants are subject to attack. Newly established ponds and those that have been cleaned and refilled are most vulnerable.
Since most pests we deal with are not purely aquatic, a close examination of non-submerged surfaces can reveal the culprits. Various leaf miners tunnel between leaf layers. Some tunnels resemble those of the boxwood leaf miner, others are more characteristically serpentine. False leaf-mining midges and some caterpillars chew trails along the leaf surface or water lilies. These trails eventually rot through the leaf.
Leaf rollers roll up entire leaves or cut portions and roll up edges to form homes. Iris sawfly larvae take out chunks of iris leaves, sometimes

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Retrieved Text: Take a deep breath. Feel your diaphragm lower as your chest rises. Take another breath. Feel the air as it moves past the back of your throat. Right now you’re meditating, that’s all it is. Just focusing on the breath and letting other thoughts fade. The breath plays an important role in our lives even though it often takes a backseat to other thoughts. Well not today! I guarantee you’ll be thinking about your breathing while discovering how and why we breathe in the first place.
Let’s start by looking back at our evolutionary grandparents, the fish. Living in water means you can move in all three dimensions. Fish can adjust their buoyancy (ability to float) by pulling in or letting out gas from their swim bladder. We know that mutations are random which means there were a few individuals who developed multiple swim bladders. Now let’s say a drought hits and some fish living in rivers are stranded in shallow pools. Less water with the same amount of fish means that there is less oxygen for each fish. Those individuals that could gulp air into their extra swim bladders had a better chance of absorbing more oxygen.
Those swim bladders would eventually adapt into what we call lungs. Some of the gulping fish continued life underwater, using a mix of gills and lungs to breathe. Others wandered out of their aquatic environment and onto the land to find more sources of food; those individuals would become the first amphibians.
Over time, muscles developed to surround the lungs to

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Retrieved Text: What are flukes in koi?
Another type of microscopic parasite that invades the koi world is fluke. There are two main categories of freshwater flukes; Dactylogyrus, gill fluke and Gyrodactylus, skin fluke. They feed on the epidermis of the skin and gills of the host koi fish. The fluke parasite on koi will thrive in poor pond conditions such as low dissolved oxygen, heavy organic matter load and pond overcrowding. And, flukes do quite well in cool water temperatures.
Both types of fluke parasites have a slender cylinder shaped body. On the bottom, or foot end, of Dactylogyrus and Gyrodactylus is a pair of large anchor hooks and a rim of tiny hooks called a haptor. This haptor acts like a suction to dig in and adhere to the host. These hooks cause considerable damage as the parasite moves around on the fish. To make matters worse, the haptor usually carries and transmits bacteria into the injured tissue whereby encouraging outbreaks of Aeromonas and Psudomonas (ulcers).
As the obnoxious parasites move around the host they cause damage and irritation. The koi’s reaction to this assault of constant digging and chewing is excess mucus production.
Skin fluke parasite, Gyrodactylus, is physically similar to gill fluke; the body shape is the same and it also has a series of gruesome hooks called haptor for attaching to the koi. However, it has several differences. Gyrodactylus koi parasite is generally found on the body or flank rather than on and around the gills of a host fish. There are no eyespots on the skin

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Retrieved Text: These are the most common macroinvertebrates identified from samples from Fox Meadow Brook in Westchester County, New York.
This genus of Tipulidae is rather large as compared with other genera. Tipula larvae are generally dark brown and have creeping welts.
These damselfly larvae (sub-order Zygoptera) can be distinguished from dragonfly larvae (sub-order Anisoptera) by their more slender bodies and the presence of three leaf-like gills at the end of the abdomen, seen here and here. The family Coenagrionidae is characterized by its distinctly shaped labium, which may or may not be extended.
Top picture (adult): Adult Dytiscidae have streamlined bodies and hind-legs modified for swimming. They are characterized by the division of the first abdominal segment by the hind coxae, seen here.

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Retrieved Text: Where does the air go when you breathe?
Starting at the top at number "2" and connect the EVEN numbers to see the path where you breathe IN.
Then start at the bottom at number "1" and connect the ODD numbers to find the path where you breathe OUT!
The graphic shows a picture of air entering into the body through the nose, and traveling into the lungs.
The inside of your nose is full of smell receptors.
Air moves your vocal cords so you can speak.
Food goes to your stomach through another tube.
After air gets to your lungs, it moves from there into the bloodstream.
Your ribs protect all the organs in your chest. Can you feel your ribs move in and out as you breathe?
Carbon Dioxide also leave the blood from the lungs and is expelled when you exhale.
My Health My World Explorations for Children and Adults are publications of the Center for Educational Outreach at Baylor College of Medicine, made possible by a grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Science. For more information, contact Center for Educational Outreach, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX.

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Retrieved Text: The list of winners and solutions for the second contest have been shared below.
Click here to take part in the ongoing student contest!
Answer the following questions on the basis of this diagram.
In which of the following regions will you find terrestrial animals? Give examples of each.
In which region will you place a fish?
Which of the following animals will you place in region E: Dolphin, Crocodile, Bird?
In which of the following region/s will you find carnivores: A, C, D, F? Give examples of each.
Question: Where will you place a hen in this diagram?
Answer: Hen is an animal which lives on land and lays eggs so it must be in a region common to yellow and blue circle i.e. F and G. But since, hen breathes through lungs and not through gills so they must not be present in a region common to all three circles i.e. G. So, the final answer will be F.
Terrestrial animals are those which are found on land. In area B and F, we will find terrestrial animals. Animals having gills need water to breathe. They can’t survive without water for long. So, animals in E and G will not be called as terrestrial.
In region D, we can place fish, as they have gills and reproduce through laying eggs.
None of them will be placed in region E. Animals on land cannot breathe through gills. Dolphin breathes through lungs but live in water. Crocodile can live both on land and water but breathes through lungs. Birds live on land and breathe through lungs.
Carnivores are

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Retrieved Text: Respiratory System Questions including "Why are there red bumps in the back of your throat"
The respiratory system includes the lungs and the airway. The questions in this category focus mainly on the anatomical and physiological processes associated with breathing.
Alveolar ducts alveolar sacs terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles bronchi bronchioles What is the order from largest to smallest?
What lung disease turns lungs to leather?
Pulmonary Fibrosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the lung. It was described by the doctor as the lung turning to leather. It can also be described as scarring of the lung. We were told that there is no known cause.
What are the complications of manual ventilation?
If the manual ventilation is not performed correctly it leads tostomach inflation and thus leads to gastricregurgitation,aspiration, pneumonia.This stomach inflation mayincrease intra-gastric pressure, restrict lung movements, and soreduce the respiratory system compliance.
What are the tiny air sacs called in the bronchi branches?
Do amphibians breathe with gills or lungs?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange transportation Supplying the blood with oxygen (which can then be transferred to the cells ), and cleaning it from CO2 ( carbon dioxide ). Or simply: breathing.
What does a lung capacity of 39 percent mean?
What is the meaning of findings suggestive of PTB right lung and left upper lung?
PTB stands for Pulmonary Tuberculosis. It is located in your rightlung, the upper lobe. You were exposed to the bacteria, could havebeen by a cough or sneeze.
What kind of tissue are the lungs made of?
Trachea allows air to draw into the lungs?
yes you

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Retrieved Text: Dirofilaria immitis (heartworms) are one of the most insidious and deadly worms. Heartworms can infect many species, including cats and humans, but dogs are particularly susceptible. Detecting heartworms can be difficult in the initial stages as many dogs show no symptoms.
Heart worms are introduced into the host through mosquitoes that are infected with heartworm larvae. Once a mosquito has biten the dog the larvae take 6 - 7 months to develop into sexually mature male or female worms. Even as immature adults they can begin to reproduce and the females release microfilariae into the bloodstream. Microfilariae are a pre-larval stage of heartworms (pronounced: micro fil ar ee).
This is how the life cycle continues. At this point if the dog were to be bitten by a mosquito the mosquito would become infected with microfilariae in the blood. That mosquito could then go on to infect another animal.
Heartworms take about a year to become fully mature adults. Males grow to 4 - 6 inches while females get to be 10 - 12 inches long.
This is my blue merle Aussie, Jackson, at Walchensee in Germany. He loves to swim at Walchensee Lake.
Detecting the presence of heartworms can be difficult in the initial stages as many dogs show no symptoms. This is more true of dog breeds that are less active. This is because the heartworm works its way into the lower lungs and eventually the right ventricle of the heart.
Since Australian Shepherds are so active changes caused by heartworms to the functioning of lungs and heart will show up

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "DNA contains what for proteins where polymerase joins the nucleotides together." and the following answer choices: 
- genetic instructions
 - Most plants
 - energy
 - allow growth
 - acids
 - it needs them
 - bases
 - Chemical energy

Now knowing that dNA contains genetic instructions for proteins, and RNA helps assemble the proteins and rNA polymerase joins the RNA nucleotides together, choose the best answer.

Target Text: genetic instructions

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Download "Molecular Genetics. RNA, Transcription, & Protein Synthesis"
14 Review What is the function of RNA? RNA carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the cytosol to be used in protein synthesis. What is the structure of RNA? RNA is a single strand of nucleotides made up of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and nitrogen base pairs (A,U,G,C).
15 Review Describe the structure and function of the 3 types of RNA. Messenger RNA (mrna) is a single, uncoiled strand of nucleotides that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytosol. Transfer RNA (trna) is a single coil of RNA in a hairpin shape that binds to a certain amino acid. Ribosomal RNA (rrna) is made of RNA nucleotides in a globular form and joins with proteins to form ribosomes. Describe transcription. RNA polymerase binds to DNA promoters and separates the two strands of DNA. RNA polymerase then moves along the DNA strand and adds complimentary RNA nucleotides to form an RNA molecule. It stops at the terminal signal.
Lecture 5. 1. Transfer of proper aminoacyl-trna from cytoplasm to A-site of ribosome.
ECO-1.1: I can describe the processes that move carbon and nitrogen through ecosystems.
Lecture 8. Protein Trafficking/Targeting. Protein targeting is necessary for proteins that are destined to work outside the cytoplasm.

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Retrieved Text: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transcription is the process by which DNA inside cells in the human body are converted into ribonucleic acid (RNA) in order to create genes and produce proteins. DNA transcription occurs when an enzyme known as RNA polymerase unzips the double-stranded DNA molecule by breaking down the bonds between connecting nucleotides, the molecules that form the basis of DNA and RNA. Once the DNA is unzipped, RNA nucleotides join up with their complementary DNA nitrogenous bases to form a long strand of RNA. The RNA polymerase then helps to form a sugar-phosphate backbone that links all the RNA bases together. Upon completion of the RNA strand, it is released from the DNA molecule, and the process of transcription is accomplished.
RNA is very similar to DNA, except that it consists of a single strand and not a double strand. It also has a slightly different molecular structure in that it contains uracil, a nitrogen-based compound that is a part of live tissue. On the other hand, DNA contains thymine, a compound that consists of nitrogen and carbon. The process by which the code for a specific protein is transferred from DNA to RNA is known as DNA transcription.
Once DNA transcription has taken place, a new protein can be created through the process of DNA translation. In translation, the newly formed RNA strand pairs up with complementary bases to create a code for producing a protein. This code serves as a type of instruction manual and can then be used by ribosomes inside the cell to

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Retrieved Text: The two-stranded, double helix-shaped molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stores the genetic code for most organisms. DNA not only contains genetic instructions for cell division and reproduction, but it also functions as the basis for thousands of proteins. This entails two processes: transcription and translation.
For protein synthesis, messenger RNA must be made from one strand of DNA called the template strand. The other strand, called the coding strand, matches the messenger RNA in sequence except for its use of uracil in place of thymine.
For protein synthesis, DNA must first be copied to messenger ribonucleic acid, or mRNA. This process is called transcription. The mRNA holds the coding information to make proteins. Unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded and not helical in shape. It contains ribose instead of deoxyribose, and its nucleotide bases differ by having uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Initially, the enzyme RNA polymerase must assemble the pre-mRNA molecule that complements a section of one DNA’s two strands. Since the goal is not replication but protein synthesis, only one strand of DNA needs copying. The RNA polymerase first attaches to the double helix of DNA and works with proteins called transcription factors to determine what information needs transcribing. The RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to this DNA strand, called the template strand.
The unit of RNA polymerase and transcription factors moves along the strand in a 3’ to 5’ (3 prime to 5 prime) direction and makes a new strand of mRNA with complementary base pairs. RNA polymerase builds the mRNA with additional nucleotides in elongation. The

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Retrieved Text: fundamental process occurring in all living organisms to copy their DNA. DNA replication takes place by semi-conservative method.
After Helicase unwinds the DNA helix, this enzyme helps to stablize the unwinded strands from forming helix again.
Enzyme that synthesize an RNA primer at 5' end of leading strand and at each okazaki fragments of lagging strand.
Using parental DNA, this enzyme synthesizes new DNA strand by covalently adding nucleotides to the 3' end of pre-existing DNA strand or at 3' end of RNA primer.
This enzyme removes RNA nucleotides of primer from newly forming DNA strands and replace them by DNA nucleotides.
After DNA polymerase I works, enzyme DNA Ligase joins all those newly added DNA nucleotides with rest of the nucleotides.
Enzyme that cuts the DNA nucleotide during correction.
strand of the DNA double helix that is oriented in a 5' to 3' manner (with respect to direction of DNA replication) and this is the strand in which DNA replication occurs continuously without any okazaki fragments.
strand of the DNA double helix that is oriented in a 3' to 5' manner (with respect to direction of DNA replication) and this is the strand in which DNA replication occurs dis-continuously with many okazaki fragments.
DNA REPLICATION fundamental process occurring in all living organisms to copy their DNA. DNA replication takes place by semi-conservative method.
Single Strand Binding Protein After Helicase unwinds the DNA helix, this enzyme helps to stablize the unwinded strands from forming helix again.
Primase Enzyme that synthesize an RNA primer at 5' end of leading strand and at each okazaki fragments of lagging strand.
DNA

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Retrieved Text: Two Main Process: Transcription and Translation DNA copy itself: Replication DNA synthesize RNA Transcription RNA synthesize protein Translation DNA replication: to transmit the genetic information between parents and progeny, the DNA must be replicated faithfully. Replication is carried out by a complex group of proteins that unwind the superhelix, unwind the double-stranded DNA helix, and, using DNA polymerase and its associated proteins, copy or replicate the master template itself. DNA Transcription: Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is transferred to a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). It is facilitated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors. DNA Translation: Eventually, this mature mRNA finds its way to a ribosome, where it is translated. In prokaryotic cells, which have no nuclear compartment, the process of transcription and translation may be linked together. In eukaryotic cells, the site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes.
6 3.5.2 DNA Transcription RNA polymerase forms covalent bonds between nucleotides. Transcription continues until one entire gene has converted to RNA. The single-stranded messenger RNA separate and the DNA strands rejoin.
7 3.5.3The Genetic Code How do nucleotides specify 20 amino acids?
4 different nucleotides (A, G, C, T) Possible codes: 1 letter code 	4 AAs	<20 2 letter code 	4 x 4 = 16 AAs	<20 3 letter code 	4 x 4 x 4 = 64 AAs >>20 Three letter code

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Retrieved Text: Of all the enzymatic functions needed for replication of DNA, the ability to catalyze the incorporation of deoxynucleotides into DNA is most central. Enzymes that catalyze this reaction, DNA polymerases, have been isolated from many species, and many species have multiple DNA polymerases. Our earliest and most complete understanding of the mechanism of these enzymes comes from studies of the first DNA polymerase isolated, called DNA polymerase I.
In 1956 Arthur Kornberg and his co-workers isolated a protein from E. colithat has many of the properties expected for a DNA polymerase used in replication. In particular, it catalyzes synthesis of DNA from deoxynucleotides, it requires a template and it synthesizes the complement of the template. It is a single polypeptide chain of 928 amino acids, and it is the product of the polAgene. We now understand that this an abundant polymerase, but rather than synthesizing new DNA at the replication fork, it is used during the process of joining Okazaki fragments after synthesis and in DNA repair. Detailed studies of DNA polymerase I have been invaluable to our understanding of the mechanisms of polymerization. Although DNA polymerase I is not the replicative polymerase in E. coli, homologous enzymes are used in replication in other species. Also, the story of how the replicative DNA polymerases were detected in E. coliis a classic illustration of the power of combining biochemistry and genetics to achieve a more complete understanding of an important cellular process.
DNA polymerase I catalyzes the polymerization of dNTPs into DNA. This occurs by the addition of a

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Synthetic activity of Sso DNA polymerase Y1, an archaeal DinB-like DNA polymerase, is stimulated by processivity factors proliferating cell nuclear antigen and replication factor C.
Synthetic activity of Sso DNA polymerase Y1, an archaeal DinB-like DNA polymerase, is stimulated by processivity factors proliferating cell nuclear antigen and replication factor C.
DNA replication efficiency is dictated by DNA polymerases (pol) and their associated proteins. The recent discovery of DNA polymerase Y family (DinB/UmuC/RAD30/REV1 superfamily) raises a question of whether the DNA polymerase activities are modified by accessory proteins such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). In fact, the activity of DNA pol IV (DinB) of Escherichia coli is enhanced upon interaction with the beta subunit, the processivity factor of DNA pol III. Here, we report the activity of Sso DNA pol Y1 encoded by the dbh gene of the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is greatly enhanced by the presence of PCNA and replication factor C (RFC). Sso pol Y1 per se was a distributive enzyme but a substantial increase in the processivity was observed on poly(dA)-oligo(dT) in the presence of PCNA (039p or 048p) and RFC. The length of the synthesized DNA product reached at least 200 nucleotides. Sso pol Y1 displayed a higher affinity for DNA compared with pol IV of E. coli, suggesting that the two DNA polymerases have distinct reason(s) to require the processivity factors for efficient DNA synthesis. The abilities of pol Y1 and pol IV to bypass DNA lesions and their sensitive sites to protease are also discussed.

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is the process by which the information in DNA is copied to make RiboNucleic Acid (RNA). RNA in turn synthesizes proteins through a process called translation. These two steps are together the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
There are mainly three kinds of RNA that are produced by transcription.
RNA are single stranded molecules that are synthesized in the nucleus, but are mainly found in the cytoplasm and ribosomes in all the cells of every living organism.
RNA has a chemical make-up similar to DNA, but is less stable than DNA. RNA, like DNA is composed of nucleotides, with the same phosphate group, but the sugar is a five-carbon compound. The two complementary pairs of bases are adenine and uracil (instead of thymine), and guanine and cytosine.
The process is basically the same in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One of the DNA strands is used as the template by RNA polymerase to form the RNA strand that is complementary to the template strand. Thus the base sequence in the RNA strand is the same as the non template DNA strand which is called coding strand or sense strand. The template DNA strand is also called anti-sense strand.
In prokaryotes, there is only one RNA polymerase that produces all the three types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are three groups. RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA, RNA polymerase II transcribes mRNA, while RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA.
During transcription, only sections of the DNA with the gene to be expressed are involved. There can be different genes that are transcribed at any given time.

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Retrieved Text: The DNA contains the master plan for the creation of the proteins and other molecules and systems of the cell, but the carrying out of the plan involves transfer of the relevant information to RNA in a process called transcription. The RNA to which the information is transcribed is messenger RNA (mRNA).
The process associated with RNA polymerase is to unwind the DNA and build a strand of mRNA by placing on the growing mRNA molecule the base complementary to that on the template strand of the DNA. In the mRNA, Uracil is substituted for thymine as the base complementary to adenine. Since the other strand of the DNA has bases complementary to the template strand, the mRNA has the same sequence of bases at the upper strand of DNA shown above (with U substituted for T) , which is called the coding strand. According to Karp, the RNA polymerase is capable of adding 20 to 50 nucleotides per second to the growing mRNA chain. Electron microscope images suggest that there can be over a hundred RNA polymerases operating simultaneously.
A coding region of the DNA for a specific protein (a gene) contains the pattern for the creation of the protein. The coding region is preceded by a promotion region, and a transcription factor binds to that promotion region of the DNA. It recruits the necessary RNA polymerase to activate the copying of the pattern of the coding region over to RNA. The segment of DNA transcribed to the RNA contains some material that is not translated on

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Retrieved Text: Deoxyribonucleic acid is synthesized by making copies of nucleic acid strands. This process takes place by a mechanism known as DNA replication. DNA replication is fueled by polymerase chain reactions. Structurally, DNA consists of a long chain polymer made up of nucleotides. DNA is made of two chains of nucleotides, wound in a double helix type structure. Furthermore, this structure is wound around histone proteins and folded upon itself to form chromosomes (in eukaryotes). Prior to cell division, DNA synthesis occurs byway of replication. First the two strands of DNA are separated by enzymes. Now each strand can become a template. The enzyme DNA polymerase catalyzes the DNA replication process. Each nucleotide in the single strand DNA sequence has a complimentary nucleotide. DNA polymerase can assist in the location of the compliment nucleotide and the formation of the daughter strand of DNA (the compliment of one strand of the original DNA).
Anti-CDT1 antibody binds against CDT1. CDT1 cooperates with CDC6 which promotes the loading of the mini-chromosome maintenance complex onto chromatin to form the pre-replication complex that is necessary to initiate DNA replication. CDT1 is localized in the nucleus. Anti-DNA primase binds against DNA primase. DNA primases are enzymes that are involved in the initiation of DNA replication. DNA primase catalyzes the polymerization of short ribonucleic acid primers on the template DNA.

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Retrieved Text: RNA Polymerase II: A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. It functions in the nucleoplasmic structure and transcribes DNA into RNA. It has different requirements for cations and salt than RNA polymerase I and is strongly inhibited by alpha-amanitin. EC 2.7.7.6.Transcription, Genetic: The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.DNA-Directed RNA Polymerases: Enzymes that catalyze DNA template-directed extension of the 3'-end of an RNA strand one nucleotide at a time. They can initiate a chain de novo. In eukaryotes, three forms of the enzyme have been distinguished on the basis of sensitivity to alpha-amanitin, and the type of RNA synthesized. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992).RNA Polymerase III: A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. It functions in the nucleoplasmic structure where it transcribes DNA into RNA. It has specific requirements for cations and salt and has shown an intermediate sensitivity to alpha-amanitin in comparison to RNA polymerase I and II. EC 2.7.7.6.RNA Polymerase I: A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. The enzyme functions in the nucleolar structure and transcribes DNA into RNA. It has different requirements for cations and salts than RNA polymerase II and III and is not inhibited by alpha-amanitin. EC 2.7.7.6.Transcriptional Elongation Factors: Transcription factors whose primary function is to regulate the rate in which RNA is transcribed.Amanitins: Cyclic peptides extracted from carpophores of various mushroom species. They are potent inhibitors of RNA polymerases in most

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Retrieved Text: When referring to DNA transcription, the coding strand is the DNA strand whose base sequence corresponds to the base sequence of the RNA transcript produced (although with thymine replaced by uracil). It is this strand which contains codons, while the non-coding strand contains anticodons. During transcription, RNA Pol II binds to the non-coding strand, reads the anti-codons, and transcribes their sequence to synthesize an RNA transcript with complementary bases.
By convention, the coding strand is the strand used when displaying a DNA sequence. It is presented in the 5' to 3' direction.
Wherever a gene exists on a DNA molecule, one strand is the coding strand (or sense strand), and the other is the noncoding strand (also called the antisense strand, anticoding strand, template strand or transcribed strand).
During transcription, RNA polymerase unwinds a short section of the DNA double helix near the start of the gene (the transcription start site). This unwound section is known as the transcription bubble. The RNA polymerase, and with it the transcription bubble, travels along the noncoding strand in the opposite, 3' to 5', direction, as well as polymerizing a newly synthesized strand in 5' to 3' or downstream direction. The DNA double helix is rewound by RNA polymerase at the rear of the transcription bubble. Like how two adjacent zippers work, when pulled together, they unzip and rezip as they proceed in a particular direction. Various factors can cause double-stranded DNA to break; thus, reorder genes or cause cell death.
Where the helix is unwound, the coding strand consists of unpaired bases, while

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Retrieved Text: What Are mRNA, rRNA and tRNA?
RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a linear polymer of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and uracil that is created in the cell by a process called transcription, and it differs from DNA in several ways. First, the ribose sugars on DNA nucleotides are short one hydroxyl group compared to RNA, hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid. This key modification makes RNA much more chemically reactive. Second, DNA uses thymine to base pair with cytosine, while RNA uses uracil. Third, DNA tends to form into a helix of double-stranded nucleotides, with base pairs making up the "rungs" of the helical ladder. RNA can be found in single-stranded form, but it more commonly forms complex three-dimensional structures, and this feature usually serves to confer functionality on RNA molecules.
RNA transcription is a process mediated by RNA polymerase, an enzyme that creates an RNA complement to template DNA with the help of a complex of proteins. Transcription is heavily regulated by promoter elements and inhibitors. All three types of RNA are synthesized in this manner.
mRNA, or messenger RNA, is the link between a gene and a protein. The gene is transcribed by RNA polymerase, and the resulting mRNA travels to the cytoplasm, where it is translated by ribosomes into a protein with the help of tRNA. This form of RNA is extensively altered post-transcriptionally with modifications such as methylguanosine caps and polyadenosine tails. Eukaryotic mRNA frequently includes introns which must be spliced out of the message to form the mature mRNA molecule.
rRNA, or ribosomal RNA, is a major

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Retrieved Text: Nucleosides are the precursor molecules for the monomers (nucleotides) that make up the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. They consist of glycoslyamines made by attaching an organic nucleobase (like adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil or thymine) to a five-carbon (pentose) ribose sugar ring for RNA or to a deoxyribose ring for DNA. They are converted into nucleotides by the addition of a phosphate group in the process of phosphorylation. They can also be formed by partial hydrolysis of a nucleic acid. Nucleotides are single monomer units for DNA and RNA molecules consisting of a base nucleoside, adenine, thymine, guanine or cytosine, a ribose or deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate group. Adenine, guanine and cytosine occur in both RNA and DNA. Thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil only in RNA. They are abbreviated A, G, C and T in DNA and A, G, C and U in RNA. Thousands of nucleotides linked together make up a DNA or RNA molecule. The base sequences in DNA and RNA contain the genetic information of a cell. The sequence of the bases within the nucleic acid determines which proteins will be made. The sequence of a DNA or RNA molecule is usually described as the sequence of its bases, e.g. AAAAGTTCGTCTAGGTC. Three nucleotides in a gene form a codon that encodes a single amino acid in a protein sequence. Ribose-containing nucleosides include ribonucleoside monophosphate (NMP), ribonucleoside diphosphate (NDP), and ribonucleoside triphosphate (NTP). When the nucleoside contains the sugar deoxyribose, the nucleotides are called deoxyribonucleoside mono-, di-, or tri-phosphates (dNMP, dNDP,

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Retrieved Text: What name is given to the process in which a strand of DNA is used as a template for the manufacture of a strand of pre-mRNA?
What name is given to the process in which the information encoded in a strand of mRNA is used to construct a protein?
What name is given to the process in which pre-mRNA is edited into mRNA?
Polypeptides are assembled from _____.
RNA processing converts the RNA transcript into _____.
True or false? A codon is a group of three bases that can specify more than one amino acid.
A knock-out mutation results in a total absence of the mutated protein.
If a DNA sequence is altered from TAGCTGA to TAGTGA, what kind of mutation has occurred?
Which mutation(s) would not change the remainder of the reading frame of a gene sequence that follows the mutation(s)?
One addition and one deletion mutation.
If the sequence ATGCATGTCAATTGA were mutated such that a base were inserted after the first G and the third T were deleted, how many amino acids would be changed in the mutant protein?
If a mutated DNA sequence produces a protein that differs in one central amino acid from the normal protein, which of the following kinds of mutations could have occurred?
An addition mutation and a deletion mutation.
In the diagram below, the green unit represents _____.
In the diagram below, the two blue strands represent _____.
Which of these correctly illustrates the pairing of DNA and RNA nucleotides?
The direction of synthesis of an RNA transcript is _____.
Which of the following statements best describes the promoter of a protein-coding gene?
The promoter is

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Retrieved Text: Gene expression involves two separate but interrelated processes, transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. During translation, information encoded on an mRNA transcript is deciphered to synthesize a protein.
The enzyme RNA polymerase catalyzes the process of transcription, producing a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary and antiparallel to the DNA template (figure 7.7). To describe the two strands of DNA in a region that is transcribed into RNA, the terms minus (-) strand and plus (+) strand are sometimes used (table 7.2). The strand that serves as the template for RNA synthesis is called the minus (-) strand, whereas its complement is called the plus (+) strand. Recall that the base-pairing rules of DNA and RNA are the same, except that RNA contains uracil in place of thymine. Therefore, because the RNA is complementary to the (-) strand, its nucleotide sequence is the same as the (+) strand, except it has uracil in place of thymine. Likewise, the RNA transcript has the same 5' to 3' direction, or polarity, as the (+) strand.
In prokaryotes, an mRNA molecule can carry the information for one or multiple genes. A transcript that carries one gene is called monocistronic (a cistron is synonymous with a gene). Those that carry multiple genes are called polycistronic. Generally, the proteins encoded on a polycistronic message are all involved in a single biochemical pathway. This enables the cell to express related genes in a coordinated manner.
Strand of DNA that serves as the template for RNA synthesis; the

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Retrieved Text: String of nucleic acid bases that together encode the transcription of a single piece of RNA.
Genes have to attract the binding of RNA polymerase, have a location where transcription begins, are transcribed linearly from approximately one end of the gene to the other, and then signal the RNA polymerase to stop transcribing.
Genes can range in length from any tens of nucleotides to many thousands of nucleotides. Only one strand of DNA making up a double helix typically encodes an individual gene, the template strand, with the other strand typically serving solely as its complement, that is, simply the other half of the double helix.

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Processivity of the gene 41 DNA helicase at the bacteriophage T4 DNA replication fork.
Processivity of the gene 41 DNA helicase at the bacteriophage T4 DNA replication fork.
The gene 41 protein is the DNA helicase associated with the bacteriophage T4 DNA replication fork. This protein is a major component of the primosome, being essential for coordinated leading and lagging strand DNA synthesis. Models suggest that such DNA helicases are loaded only onto DNA at origins of replication, and that they remain with the ensuing replication fork until replication is terminated. To test this idea, we have measured the extent of processivity of the 41 protein in the context of an in vitro DNA replication system composed of eight purified proteins (the gene 43, 44/62, 45, 32, 41, 59, and 61 proteins). After starting DNA replication in the presence of these proteins, we diluted the 41 helicase enough to prevent any association of new helicase molecules and analyzed the replication products. We measured an association half-life of 11 min, revealing that the 41 protein is processive enough to finish replicating the entire 169-kilobase T4 genome at the observed replication rate of approximately 400 nucleotides/s. This processivity of the 41 protein does not require the 59 protein, the protein that catalyzes 41 protein assembly onto 32 protein-covered single-stranded DNA. The stability we measure for the 41 protein as part of the replication fork is greater than estimated for it alone on single-stranded DNA. We suggest that the 41 protein interacts with the polymerase holoenzyme at the

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Retrieved Text: Direct Tissue PCR Kit enables to perform PCR reactions directly from tissue samples with no prior DNA purification.
The Direct Tissue PCR Kit allows to use samples such as: animal tisues, mouse ear and tail, zebrafish fin, Drosophila, human hair, saliva and other liquid samples.
The samples can either be fresh or stored at -20°C.
The Direct Tissue PCR Kit employs a hot start and genetically engineered thermophilic DNA polymerase with high tolerance to blood inhibitors.
Tissue DNA Polymerase activity is restored during 7 min initial denaturation step.
Tissue DNA Polymerase catalyzes the polymerization of nucleotides into duplex DNA in the 5’→3′ direction.
The enzyme exhibits the 3’→5′ proofreading activity, resulting in over 10-fold higher PCR fidelity than possible with Taq DNA Polymerases.
The enzyme generates blunt ends.
Enhanced polymerase processivity allows to use shorter extension times.
Due to the genetic modification of the polymerase, the optimal reaction conditions (especially annealing temperatures) differ from standard PCR protocols.
The Direct Tissue PCR Kit contains reagents for two alternative protocols: Direct and Extract protocols.
The master mix contains premixed gel loading reagent and dyes which allow direct sample loading on the gel.
The Direct Tissue PCR Kit allows to obtain a wide range of product size (over 4 kb).
Dla użytkowników starego systemu dane logowania nie uległy zmianie.

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Retrieved Text: A thermostable DNA polymerase for multiplex PCR and RAPDs.
Q-BioTaq DNA Polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase which can be used effectively for PCR and DNA sequencing by the chain termination method. This enzyme is encoded by a modified form of the Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase gene with an N-terminal deletion. The properties of Q-BioTaq DNA Polymerase include high thermostability (98°C) and absence of 5'-3' exonuclease activity. This polymerase is particularly useful in applications where multiple amplifications are required. The enzyme is highly purified and is free of endo- and exonucleases.
Unit Definition: One unit is the amount of enzyme required to catalyse the incorporation of 10nmol of nucleotides into acid insoluble material in 30 min. at 74 °C under assay conditions.

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Retrieved Text: Only a very small percentage (1.2% in humans) of the DNA in vertebrate genomes encodes proteins (the "proteome") because the exons of most genes are separated by much-longer introns between our genes lie vast amounts of DNA much of which appears to regulate the expression of our genes but is not transcribed and translated into a protein product. So even when the complete sequence of a genome is known, it is often difficult to spot particular genes (open reading frames or ORFs).
getting ready to secrete a protein product.
ESTs are short (200–500 nucleotides) DNA sequences that can be used to identify a gene that is being expressed in a cell at a particular time.
Treat it with reverse transcriptase. Reverse transcriptase is a DNA polymerase that uses RNA as its template. Thus it is able to make genetic information flow in the reverse (RNA ->DNA) of its normal direction (DNA -> RNA).
This produces complementary DNA (cDNA). Note that cDNA differs from the normal gene in lacking the intron sequences.
Sequence 200–500 nucleotides at both the 5′ and 3′ ends of each cDNA.
Examine the database of the organism's genome to find a matching sequence.

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Retrieved Text: Table 8.5 Molecular Probes ChromaTide and aha labeled nucleotides.
* All products are supplied as either 25 µL (dUTPs and UTPs) or 50 µL (dCTPs) of a 1 mM solution in TE buffer. † Excitation (Ex) and emission (Em) maxima, in nm, for the labeled nucleotide. ‡ Except where otherwise noted, the following applications were tested: PCR, Taq polymerase for DNA amplification; TDT, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase for 3'-end labeling of dsDNA; RP, Klenow polymerase for labeling DNA by random hexamer priming; RT, murine leukemia virus (MLV) reverse transcriptase for synthesizing DNA from an RNA template; NT, nick translation using DNase I and DNA polymerase I. ChromaTide UTP nucleotides were incorporated into RNA by standard transcription reactions using the indicated RNA polymerases (SP6, T3, T7). We also offer unlabeled aha-dUTP (50 µL of a 50 mM solution in TE buffer, A32761) and unlabeled aha-dCTP (50 µL of a 50 mM solution in TE buffer, A32769; 500 µL of a 2 mM solution in TE buffer, A32768).

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Retrieved Text: DNA replication occurs through a semiconservative mechanism, because each new molecule is made up of one old strand and one new strand.
DNA is the genetic material and is propagated throughout generations. Since it has to be inherited, it must also be copied from a cell to its daughter cell. This is required during mitotic cell division or through the process of producing gametes by meiosis. This must be done with high accuracy during every cell division to prevent mistakes accumulating and being passed onto the next generation.
Cells need to copy their DNA very quickly, and with very few errors. The accumulation of errors increases the risk of diseases such as cancer. To ensure accurate replication of DNA, cells use a variety of enzymes and proteins that work together to make sure DNA replication is performed smoothly and correctly.
As previously described, DNA is made up of two strands that wrap around one another to form a helix. The DNA polymer is made up of nucleotide monomers that also define the sequence of the DNA that needs to be copied to the next generation of cells. The two strands of DNA are complementary to one another (i.e. the sequence of one strand can be determined from the sequence of its pair). Additionally, the strands have directionality determined by the orientation of the sugar-phosphate backbone. Importantly, the directionality of the strand pairs runs in opposite directions.
DNA replication is defined as semiconservative. This means each strand in the DNA double helix acts as a template for the synthesis of a

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Retrieved Text: Polbase - Reference: Spatial relationship between polymerase and exonuclease active sites of phage T4 DNA polymerase enzyme.
Spatial relationship between polymerase and exonuclease active sites of phage T4 DNA polymerase enzyme.
The spatial relationship between the polymerase and exonuclease active sites of bacteriophage T4 DNA polymerase enzyme has been examined using a bulky biotin-streptavidin block at a specified position in an oligonucleotide (Fig. 1). The idea was to monitor the closest distance of approach of the T4 enzyme before being blocked by the bulky biotin-streptavidin complex while performing either of its activities. The results indicated a distance of 4-5 nucleotides between the biotin-streptavidin probe and the exonuclease site and a distance requirement of at least 7 nucleotides between the bulky probe and the 3'-primer terminus for efficient polymerization by the T4 enzyme. The difference in the two distances suggested a separation of 2-3 nucleotides between the two active sites of the T4 enzyme.

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Retrieved Text: The atoms attached to which carbon of a nucleotide sugar allows one to determine whether the nucleotide is a ribonucleotide (RNA) or a deoxyribonucleotide (DNA)?
What gives a DNA molecule its negative charge?
As a carrier of amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.
Viral genomes having double-stranded RNA helices.
Why is DNA resistant to hydrolysis under alkaline conditions?
the number of times a specific nucleotide has been sequenced.
replication initiates from a single origin, creating a single replication bubble in the plasmid.
Why does each replication fork require both leading and lagging strand synthesis?
What is responsible for the high processivity of the Pol III holoenzyme?
The β sliding clamp allows Pol III to stay associated with the DNA template as each nucleotide is added.
Catalyze the formation of covalent bonds between adjacent nucleotides.
When performing automated DNA sequencing, why can all four sequencing reactions be analyzed together in the capillary gel?
How is initiation at oriC regulated in bacteria?
SeqA binds to hemimethylated DNA and sequesters the newly replicated origin.
DnaA-ADP, formed when DnaA hydrolyzes its ATP, cannot maintain the destabilization of the origin so the closed complex reforms.
DNaC loads DnaB helicase onto each strand forming the prepriming complex.
Upon binding ATP, DnaA destabilizes (melts) A -T rich 13-mer repeats (facilitated by HU).
Termination occurs at sequences called Ter sites.
Binding of Tus proteins to Ter sites blocks the advance of the replication fork by interacting with DNA B helicase.
There are two clusters of Ter sites oriented in opposite directions.
Tus-Ter complex activity is polar; the replication forks can pass through the first set but are blocked by the second.
Why is

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Retrieved Text: Molecular genetics laboratories employ multiple different methods to detect the variety of genetic alterations that are therapeutically relevant in cancers. For solid tumors, most of these tests are performed on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) cancer tissues. Therefore, we review here practical techniques for detection from FFPE tissues.
The main types of tests fall into three major classes: those that analyze DNA, those that analyze mRNA expression, and those that analyze protein expression. Results from DNA, mRNA, and protein analyses can have different implications. Furthermore, although all three classes of tests can analyze the same target in a tissue, the clinical significance can vary. For example, in lung cancer, EGFR DNA mutations predict very well sensitivity to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, while EGFR DNA copy number levels, mRNA expression levels, or protein levels have little or no predictive value.
Genetic information is passed from one cell to another in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA encodes messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), which is then transcribed into protein. The building blocks of DNA involve four nucleotides, including adenosine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymidine (T). The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, of which there are 20. The human genome is comprised of about 3 billion nucleotides. Of these 3 billion nucleotides, only ~5% encodes for genes which are translated into proteins within a cell. A gene is further divided into exons, which contain the actual information used in coding for protein synthesis, and introns, which are segments between exons that are removed before the protein is translated (introns

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Retrieved Text: 产品描述 HOT TERMIPol DNA Polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase suited for MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and other primer extension platforms. The enzyme has 5’→3’ polymerase activity and enhanced efficiency for incorporating unconventional nucleotides (ddNTPs and labeled ddNTPs). HOT TERMIPol DNA polymerase is a chemically modified TERMIPol DNA polymerase. At ambient temperatures it is inactive, having no polymerase activity. HOT TERMIPol DNA polymerase is fully activated by a 8-12 minute incubation at 95 篊. This prevents extension of non-specifically annealed primers.

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Retrieved Text: ○ 16H + 9N = 144?
● How does influenza virus enter the host cell?
● Which enzyme replicates the influenza virus and where does replication occur?
Transcription? Primer for transcription? Translation? Assembly?
● Can Tamiflu/oseltamivir be used to treat influenza virus infection?
● Is lysogeny a type of non-productive infection?
similar strains of phages by repressing the incoming phage genome.
genome into the host cell.
■ T7 early genes are transcribed by the bacterial RNA polymerase.
enzyme that takes over transcription of T7 genes.
■ Late genes are transcribed from strong T7 promoters.
■ T7 RNA polymerase recognizes only T7 promoters.
nucleotides for T7 replication, which uses T7 DNA polymerase.
end, the first end to enter the host cell.
Describe the structural features of the influenza virus. Enveloped, (8) segmented (-) rna circular/spherical genome (filamentous when initially isolated, spherical after passing through cells) Contains hemagglutinin (h) antigen glycoprotein spikes on the surface, neuraminidase (n) antigen spikes, and m2 ion channel protein. H protein and low-ph dependent membrane fusion. H protein must be cleaved by cellular proteases for the virus to be infectious. Transcription complexes are initially released into the cytoplasm - then enter the nucleus. Transcription occurs in nucleus, replication also occurs in the nucleus. Transcripts have 5" cap and 3" polyadenylation. 5" cap of mrna transcript has viral pb2 protein attached along with host mrna nucleotides - cap-snatching process. Viral pb2 snatches the host cap nucleotides - function as the primer for transcription - host genome primer. Complex pa and pb1 dissociate from pb2 - create the poly-a tail of the transcripts - viral genome polyadenylation. Replication and

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Retrieved Text: DNA replication involves many activities in the cell. These activities need to be performed gradually and very precisely, as any malfunction in the activities can appear in severe birth defects in offspring and can be fatal in some cases.
First, among the DNA Replication activities, that launches the process is that a nick is formed by DNA gyrase. Unlike the C-G base pairs, the A-T base pairs have only two Hydrogen bonds holding them together; hence the location with an abundance of A-T bases is the ideal spot to crack the double helix with minimum energy required. This breaking up of hydrogen bonds, by the way, is an important movement in DNA replication. Uncoiling of the twisted double-stranded DNA is carried out by helicase enzyme. This activity exposes bases in DNA.
As part of the DNA replication activities, DNA polymerase gets into the picture and enlarges each exposed strand by adding more nucleotides to it. The base-pairing rule is of course followed here.
In the elongation process, the original DNA strand is taken as a guide that DNA polymerase follows all the way. However, the DNA polymerase can only read this guide of DNA strand in 3’-5’ course and this causes a jumping of back and forth by DNA polymerase while reading and making way for RNA primers to be fastened to the strands. The replicated chain gets broken due to this jumping activity and Okazaki fragments are formed, which are nothing but minute parts of DNA.
Repair mechanism checks the errors in the new strands and removes the wrong

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Retrieved Text: MCLAB's All-In-One 5X Reverse Transcription Mix Kit is optimized to synthesize the first strand cDNA for RT-PCR and RT-qPCR.
First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit can be used to synthesize the first strand cDNA.
SmartRTTM Reverse Transcriptase is an engineered MMLV RT that improves the thermostability of the enzyme, reduces RNase H activity and its cDNA synthesis ability. The enzyme also has a terminal transferase activity, where it adds a few extra nucleotides to the end of the synthesized cDNA. Together with a 3’ modified oligo dT primer and a 5’ SMART universal oligo, which contains a terminal complementation to nucleic acids at the 3’ end of the first-strand cDNA, the SmartRTTM reverse transcriptase will produce RACE ready full-length cDNA.
Phage RNA polymerases are widely used for in vitro synthesis of RNA transcripts from DNA templates, which have a double-stranded promoter (at least 19 bases) upstream of the sequence to be transcribed.
The RNA Poly(A) Tailing Kit provides a highly pure and active enzyme and other reagents for quickly and easily adding a poly(A) tail to the 3' end of any RNA.
QuantumScriptTM HD Reverse Transcriptase is a unique mutant version with increased thermostability and reduced RNase H activity. It can be used to synthesize the first strand cDNA by reverse transcription (RT) at higher temperatures than other types of Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (M-MuLV) RT to reach higher cDNA yields for difficult RNA transcriptions.
Universal Reverse Transcriptase is a mutation of M-MLV reverse transcriptase with a reduced RNase H activity and increased thermostability.
T7 RNA polymerase is a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that catalyzes

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Splitting into what is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes?" and the following answer choices: 
- fewer cells
 - merged cells
 - two cells
 - Chlorophyll
 - five cells
 - autumn
 - allow growth
 - Leptospirosis

Now knowing that cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes and during cytokinesis , the cell body splits into two cells, choose the best answer.

Target Text: two cells

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Eukaryotes are organisms having very complex cellular structure. This article deals with eukaryotic cell cycle along with its phases and regulation.
Let's get to the roots of what eukaryotes are before we proceed upon discussing life cycle of a eukaryotic cell. Cells are the building blocks of life as a single cell, in itself, is a functional unit of life. Sometimes a single cell can compose an entire organism (lesser, unicellular life forms like bacteria) while on other occasions, a cluster, sometimes reaching a count of millions, of cells may combine together to take the shape of a higher organism like mammals, reptiles, etc. With regards to cell biology, based upon their structures and corresponding functions, cells can be classified under two broad categories - prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Let's take a brief look at each of these cell types and follow it up with a detailed study of the cycle of eukaryotic cells.
A prokaryotic cell is composed of a cell envelop which consists of a cell wall and a plasma membrane beneath the cell wall. Enclosed within this cell envelop is the cytoplasmic area that houses the cell genome (DNA or RNA, as the case may be) along with ribosomes and various other material. Although there exists a nuclear region in the cytoplasmic are, prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus. This is the most significant aspect that differentiates prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells. Archaebacteria and eubacteria are the two chief prokaryote life forms.
Eukaryotic cells are greater in dimension than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotes have a

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate by binary fission. For unicellular organisms, cell division is the only method to produce new individuals. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the outcome of cell reproduction is a pair of daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. In unicellular organisms, daughter cells are individuals.
To achieve the outcome of identical daughter cells, some steps are essential. The genomic DNA must be replicated and then allocated into the daughter cells; the cytoplasmic contents must also be divided to give both new cells the machinery to sustain life. In bacterial cells, the genome consists of a single, circular DNA chromosome; therefore, the process of cell division is simplified. Mitosis is unnecessary because there is no nucleus or multiple chromosomes. This type of cell division is called binary fission.
The cell division process of prokaryotes, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much quicker process than cell division in eukaryotes. Because of the speed of bacterial cell division, populations of bacteria can grow very rapidly. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell. As in eukaryotes, the DNA of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size. The packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to some of the proteins involved in the chromosome compaction of eukaryotes.
The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the plasma membrane (Figure

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Retrieved Text: The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells. In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA. During the mitotic phase, the chromosomes separate. During the final stage, cytokinesis, the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.
The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotes were the first kind of organisms to evolve. They are single-celled organisms that don’t have a well-defined nucleus and also lack other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. The genetic material in prokaryotic cells exists within an irregularly shaped area of the cell known as the nucleoid.
All water-soluble components within prokaryotes such as DNA, proteins and metabolites are found in the cytoplasm, enclosed within the cell membrane and not in separate compartments of the cell. However, bacteria have protein-based micro-compartments that behave like basic organelles within protein shells.
The two types of prokaryotic cell are Archaea and bacteria. Prokaryotes have a cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes, but no nucleus. They have a cell wall that offers an additional layer of protection, prevents dehydration and maintains the shape of the cell. The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Some prokaryotic cells also have a polysaccharide layer, referred to as a capsule, that enables specific attachment of the cell to certain surfaces.
Prokaryotes have a plasma membrane, which separates intracellular components from the external environment. Prokaryotic cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like substance called the cytosol, in which cell components are contained.
As is the case for all cells, bacteria have a cytoskeleton, a network of filaments and tubules that provides structural support and maintains the shape of the cell. The cytoskeleton also forms a whip-like, external structure called the flagella, which the cell uses to move from one place to another (locomotion). Thin, hair- like structures called pili are also found in some bacteria, which aid in adhesion

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Retrieved Text: the division of a cell in reproduction or growth.
Sometimes one cell is seen in each lacuna, sometimes shortly after cell-division a lacuna may contain two or more cells.
This cell-division is modified in a way which leads to a separation of the first two cells.
This form of cell-division is known as simple or direct division.
It was, however, many years before the details of this “cell-division” were laid bare (see Cell-Division below).
The process by which a cell divides to form two daughter cells, each of which contains the same genetic material as the original cell and roughly half of its cytoplasm.
The process by which a cell divides into two or more cells. Among prokaryotes, cell division occurs by simple fission. Among eukaryotes, the cell nucleus divides first, and then a new cell membrane is formed between the nuclei to form the new cell. Cell division is used as a means of reproduction in organisms that reproduce asexually, as by fission or spore formation, and sexually reproducing organisms form gametes through cell division. Cell division is also the source of tissue growth and repair in multicellular organisms. The two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms are mitosis and meiosis.

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Retrieved Text: Animals (kingdom Animalia) are distinguished from protests because animals are composed of many cells arranged into tissues. Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts, which are present in most plants.
Exactly what is a plant and how is it different from other life-forms? This may initially seem like a simple question. Everyone knows that an elm tree is a plant, whereas a dog is not. Nevertheless, the precise definition of plants is still a matter of debate among some scientists. All living things are made up of protoplasm, a complex material composed of organic substances such as sugars, proteins, and fats. Protoplasm is arranged in tiny units called cells. All living things are composed of cells.
As recently as the late 1960s, scientists believed that all organisms could be classified as members of either the plant or the animal kingdom. Life-forms that are green and that can synthesize their own food using light energy were put in the plant kingdom. Those organisms that lack green pigment and are able to move about were considered to be animals. Researchers now agree that living things are more properly divided into two groups—prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These major groups comprise five kingdoms. Major differences between cells are used to distinguish between these groups and kingdoms.
Prokaryotes are very small, single-celled organisms that constitute a single kingdom, the Monera. They include bacteria. Some prokaryotes can produce food using light energy much as plants do. Prokaryote cells are very simple. The protoplasm within the cell, called the cytoplasm, lacks many of the structures found in

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryote, also spelled procaryote, any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes. Bacteria are among the best-known prokaryotic organisms. The lack of internal membranes in prokaryotes distinguishes them from eukaryotes. The prokaryotic cell membrane is made up of phospholipids and constitutes the cell’s primary osmotic barrier. The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, which carry out protein synthesis, and a double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome, which is usually circular. Many prokaryotes also contain additional circular DNA molecules called plasmids, with additional dispensable cell functions, such as encoding proteins to inactivate antibiotics. Some prokaryotes have flagella. Prokaryotic flagella are distinct in design and movement from the flagella found on some eukaryotes. See also eukaryote; bacteria.

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Retrieved Text: Browse Relevant Sites & Find Eukaryotes Vs Prokaryotes. All Here!
What are some examples of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotic- bacteria Eukaryotic- protist, amoeba, etc. An example of a prokaryote would be bacteria or any single cellular organism and an example of a eukaryote would be any multicellular organism.
Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things. However, due to their generally much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is estimated to be about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes evolved approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago, during the Proterozoic eon.
The eukaryotic cells are identified by the presence of a distinct nucleus with the genetic material enclosed inside it. They also have differences in the process of protein synthesis, RNA structures, etc. See for more details the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Examples of eukaryotic cells include: 1.
The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide.
Start studying Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

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Retrieved Text: Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.
In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two new cells. After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated, then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).
During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules. The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium. At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells. After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.
Binary fission occurs in eukaryotic tissue cells, but the process is more complicated: see mitosis.
↑ A., Mason, Kenneth; H., Raven, Peter; 1942-, Johnson, George B. (George Brooks),; R., Singer, Susan. Foundations of life : chemistry, cells, and genetics : selected materials from Biology, 10th edition. Boston, Mass. ISBN 0077775805. OCLC 846845827.
This page was last changed on 10 April 2019, at 14:09.

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Retrieved Text: Ans: The structural and functional unit of the living organism is called cell.
Ques: Name the instrument by which cell can be seen.
Ques: What is unicellular organism?
Ans: The organism which is made of only one cell that is called unicellular organism. Ex – amoeba and paramecium.
Ques: What are multi cellular organisms?
Ans: The organism which is made of more than one cell are called multi cellular organism. Ex – human and tree.
Ques:Which part of the cell contains organelles?
Ques:Distinguish between plant cell and animal cell.
cell wall is present in it.
Cell wall is absent in it.
Ques: Name the projection in amoeba by which it take food.
Ans: A tissue is a group of similar cells having a specific function.
Ques:What are the basic components of a cell?
Ans: The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Ques:Name the components of cell which are enclosed within the cell membrane.
Ques:State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The organisms which cells have a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
Ex. Onion and other animals’ cells.
The organisms which cells do not have nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes.
Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.

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Retrieved Text: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The purpose of the ribosome is to translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to proteins with the aid of tRNA. In eukaryotes, ribosomes can commonly be found in the cytosol of a cell, the endoplasmic reticulum or mRNA, as well as the matrix of the mitochondria. Proteins synthesized in each of these locations serve a different role in the cell. In prokaryotes, ribosomes can be found in the cytosol as well. This protein-synthesizing organelle is the only organelle found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, asserting the fact that the ribosome is a trait that evolved early on, most likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that only bind together during protein synthesis. The purpose of the ribosome is to take the actual message and the charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex to generate the protein. To do so, they have three binding sites. One is for the mRNA; the other two are for the tRNA. The binding sites for tRNA are the A site, which holds the aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and the P site, which binds to the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide chain.
Peptide synthesis by a ribosome.: The ribosome assembles amino acids into a protein. The specific amino acids are controlled by the mRNA sequence. This is required by all living cells

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic symbionts are common in invertebrates and play an essential metabolic role in deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities.
This basic difference in how prokaryotes and eukaryotes function allows for the isolation of natural products or development of new materials that inhibit the growth of prokaryotes, yet have no toxic effects on eukaryotes .
A cross-section of a prokaryotic cell, as depicted in the upcoming scientific journal Invisible Monsters: Man's Struggle Against a Miniature Nemesis.
Whatever the case, the interim "B" might be a prokaryote version of the proposed Oakland Streetcar Project, which would run all the way from Jack London Square to Piedmont Avenue, near Kaiser Hospital.
Multiple coding regions in prokaryotic translation (Shine-Dalgarno sequences) can be modeled as a sequence of initiation (sinks) and termination (sources) sites.
Though there have been a variety of insights into the combinatorial aspects of transcriptional control, the mechanism of DNA looping as an agent of combinatorial control in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes remains unclear.
In the setting of transcriptional regulation, there are a host of regulatory architectures both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes which require the interaction of sequences on the DNA that are not adjacent [4, 5, 6, 7].
Martin W, Russell MJ (2003) On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells.
As discussed at length by Zeh et al. (2009), eukaryotic genomes contrary to prokaryotic ones have a very low relative amount of sequences coding for RNA or proteins: non-coding ones cover the vast majority of DNA.
ISBN 9780387254937. b. Dworkin M, Falkow

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Retrieved Text: What is a Unicellular Eukaryote?
Life on Earth consists of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with no defined nucleus; their DNA floats in a circle inside them, and they have no organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular or multicellular. Eukaryotes carry a defined nucleus, which houses DNA and organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and in the case of plants, chloroplasts. Unicellular eukaryotes comprise the majority of species, and have existed on Earth for billions of years.
Unicellular eukaryotes are single-celled micro-organisms with a defined nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles. They include phytoplankton, or algae, and zooplankton, or protozoa. Unicellular eukaryotes originated billions of years ago.
Eukaryotes likely descended from prokaryotes. Mitochondria may actually be an example of an amalgam of two prokaryotes, one consuming the other. The smaller bacterium could have survived after consumption and produced energy while the larger bacterium provided nutrients, and one theory holds that this symbiotic relationship led to eukaryotes. As for genomics, scientists continue to tease out at what point Superkingdom (or Domain) Eukaryota split off from the others, Bacteria and Archaea, as tiny protists prove to be more diverse than originally thought. Examining the microfossil record indicates that ancient unicellular eukaryotes evolved some time between 2 billion and 3.5 billion years before the present day.
Most algae are unicellular plants and are also known as phytoplankton. Phytoplankton, as tiny plants, generate their energy from the sun via photosynthesis. They possess a cell wall. Since they perform photosynthesis, phytoplankton are sensitive to the position of the sun and the length

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Retrieved Text: On the evolution of neurochemical transmission.
"The roots of chemosignalling systems are likely to be found in prokaryotes."
"...eukaryotic signal systems have prokaryotic roots...the signal transduction systems seen in unicellular eukaryotes represent a transitional stage in the evolution of chemosignaling systems between prokaryotes and higher eukaryotes." Note: the expression "higher eukaryotes" refers to more advanced animals including humans.
Although this site is 9 years old and doesn't have active links, it nevertheless provides much evolutionary information based on genomics and is well worth looking at. "The genome of the nematode worm contains an estimated 1049 G-protein coupled receptors. "... the archaebacterial ancestor of eukaryotes may have contributed a seven transmembrane precursor of modern seven transmembrane receptor proteins."
This article from 1991 conflates transmembrane transport with transmembrane signaling. In particular, it considers transmembrane transport to be a form of transmembrane signaling, and there's nothing illogical about this. However, I think it's helpful to distinguish between the two, which I've done.
It also does not distinguish receptors from transporters and signalers, as I have done. Again, there's nothing logically inconsistent about this, but it lumps together three different aspects of a cells relationship with its environment which are more easily understood when one considers them separately.

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Retrieved Text: Cells will not grow unless conditions allow them to do so. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are subject to these constraints. The fundamental requirements for cells to grow in size or to divide are the availability of food, the temperature and pH of the environment, a properly functioning internal status, and physical space in which to grow. These factors are interconnected and often go hand-in-hand as they influence a cell’s decision to grow or not.
Cells are microscopic factories that contain many protein machines. Machines run on fuel. For a cell, the fuel is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is considered the $20 bill of the cell, since one ATP is enough for a protein machine to do one task, just as a $20 bill is usually enough to buy a typical meal in America. For most cells, the sugar molecule glucose is a common food source. Glucose is broken down to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration, which is also why animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.
Each organism, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, has a preferred temperature and pH range within which it lives. This is because the enzymes within cells only function within certain temperature and pH ranges. Extremes temperature and pH, too high or too low, causes enzymes to denature, meaning they lose the 3D shape that is essential to their function. Human body temperature is 37.5 degrees Celsius. Most enzymes in the body will denature starting at 40 degrees Celsius.
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in

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Retrieved Text: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis. Chapter 5. 5.1 – The Cell Cycle. Key Concept: Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions. When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?.
Cells have distinct phases of growth, reproduction, and normal functions.
When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
Does an animal get larger because each cell increases in size or because it produces more of them?
What are some things that all cells in your body must have?
The cell cycle has 4 main stages.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
The main stages of the cell cycle are: Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2, & Mitosis.
Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for that type of cell.
Cell volume increases faster than surface area.
Cells need to stay small to allow diffusion and osmosis to work efficiently.
Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesisinto two new daughter cells.
Chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis.
Chromosomes: carry genetic information (DNA) that is passed from one generation of cells to the next.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.
DNA plus proteins (histones) is called chromatin.
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.
Interphase prepares the cell to divide.
Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.
Sister chromatids

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Retrieved Text: A cell is a pool of controlled chemical composition bounded by an outer membrane. It is the main structure of undifferentiated single-celled organisms and the essential building block of highly complex multicellular animals composed of many different cell types. A cell (1) sequesters biological resources relative to the outside world, and also internally; (2) maintains the necessary concentrations of chemical components, pH, and so forth; (3) localizes, transports, exports, and imports select molecules; (4) uses selected, controlled, context-dependent subsets of its genes and controls whether gene products are kept local, for use by this cell, or are sent outside the cell; (5) allows differentiation from the surrounding medium, and (6) provides a building-block mechanism by which life can evolve more complex traits.
Although there is extensive variation in cells found in the biosphere, generalizations can be made about them and hence about life, a fact basic to our understanding of how life works and evolved. These generalizations have placed at least some constraints on what has evolved and on what can or will evolve in the future. All known organisms (except very primitive "life" forms like viruses and prions, which, although not cells themselves, depend on cells to replicate and to continue to exist) are composed of one of two basic cell types, prokaryote and eukaryote, shown schematically in Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2 provides a detail of the cell membrane. See Table 6-1 for details of the structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
All cells use the DNA-RNA coding system for replication and for coding proteins. All cells are

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Retrieved Text: Prokaryotic mRNA is most of the times polycistronic, while the eukaryotic mRNA is monocistronic. The 5′-7 methyl guanosine is absent in prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes is present. 3′ poly A tail is absent on prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes it is not. Furthemore, the Ribosome Binding Site (Shine Dalgarno Sequence) is only present on prokaryotes. Also on prokaryotes, the mRNA consists of an exact transcribed copy of DNA, while in eukaryotes mRNA is more elaborate. The prokaryotic mRNA degrades easier, while the eukaryotic one is more stable due to the cap structure and polyA tail. Eukaryotic mRNA is composed of small templates of the original gene that is cleaved and rejoined by assistance of pre-mRNA. Their similarities include the fact they contain the same nucleotides and use the same start codon AUG. The codons needed for the termination of the translation are also the same: UAG,UGA,UAA. There are differences in the mode of translation initiation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The inititation codon is AUG in eukaryotes. Also in 5′ side of eukaryotes, a specific purine-rich sequence is not used for separation of the initiator AUG from the internal ones. Generally the AUG near the 5′ end plays the role of the initiator in eukaryotes assisted by the 40S ribosome that binds the 5′ end and moves toward the 3′ direction to search the AUG codon and by the helicases that hdrolyze ATP. When the Met-tRNAi joins the AUG codon the process can begin. On the other hand in the prokaryotes, mRNA has several Shine-Dalgarno sequences that serve

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Retrieved Text: Archaea, and the more complex Eukaryotes, which include multicellular organisms such as fungi, plants, animals1. However, the origin of these complex eukaryotic cell types has been the subject of debate ever since. In particular, the evolutionary relationships between Eukaryotes and Archaea have become a hot topic with several studies proposing Eukaryotes are not a separate domain but rather emerged from within the Archaea.
These discussions have been fuelled by recent genomics insights into uncultured microbial lineages known as microbial dark matter. The recovery of a genome from the Deep Sea Archaeal Group (DSAG), Lokiarchaeum, has been proposed as the missing link between “Prokaryotes” and Eukaryotes2,3. However, this proposal has divided the scientific community. Critics argue that the Lokiarchaeum genome could be contaminated with unidentified eukaryotic genes, or could have acquired such genes via horizontal gene transfer from eukaryotes.
(1) Archaeal taxonomic framework: Overhauling the existing taxonomy of Archaea by reconciling traditional rRNA phylogenetics with genome-based phylogeny.
(2) Phylogenomic Placement of Eukaryotes: Screening Eukaryote genomes for nucleus-encoded marker genes with homologues in the archaeal domain. This will allow inclusion of the eukaryotic domain into the taxonomic framework, which will facilitate extensive phylogenomic testing of the 2D versus 3D hypothesis.
(3) Single-cell genomics optimisation: Establishing a new ultra-high throughput SCG workflow by combining state-of-the-art technologies with advanced microfluidics, and improving the recovery of single-cell genomes with a focus on archaeal lysis and coverage.
(4) Mining archaeal dark matter: Increasing the poor genomic coverage of archaeal candidate phyla via single-cell genomics with special emphasis on DSAG and the origin of Eukaryotes.
(5) Visualization of archaeal

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Retrieved Text: (eucaryotic) Describing cells that have a nucleus, or organisms made up of such cells (compare prokaryotic). The genetic material of eukaryotes consists of *chromatin and is divided into a number of chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells usually divide either by mitosis or meiosis while division in prokaryotes is amitotic. In certain classifications all eukaryotic organisms are placed in the kingdom Eukaryota, to emphasize the difference between these and the prokaryotes, or Prokaryota.

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Retrieved Text: Life on earth consists of three main groups. Two of these groups are represented by microbial life forms, the bacteria and the archaea. These are collectively known as the prokaryotes. The cells of these prokaryotes are generally small and simple. The third group of organisms concerns all visible life forms, such as people, animals and fungi. This group is known as the eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. The origin of the eukaryotic cell is one of the most fundamental riddles in the evolution of life on earth. Now, through the work of an international collective of researchers, led by Thijs Ettema (Wageningen University & Research and the University of Uppsala in Sweden), there has been more clarity about the evolutionary transition from simple prokaryotic to more complex eukaryotic cell types.
Previous research has shown that the eukaryotic cell originated from an archaea cell and a bacterial cell. The bacterium was absorbed into the archaea cell at some point. There is a general consensus that the cells came together because of a mutually beneficial interaction, called symbiosis. The most plausible hypotheses about the origin of eukaryotes are based on a symbiosis in which one partner produces metabolites that the other partner uses. In recent decades, however, there has been fierce debate in the scientific world about how this metabolic symbiosis actually works.
Recent research in the Ettema laboratory has already provided important information about the identity of the archaea host cell in this scenario. Based on genome research, Ettema’s team has

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Retrieved Text: Chatton gave the term prokaryote and eukaryote. Depending upon the nature of nucleus cells are classified. Incipient nucleus is present in prokaryotes, where as in eukaryotes well organised nucleus is present.
It is a single membrane system.
It is a double membrane system.
Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane.
Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane in some protists, most fungi and all plant cell. Animal cell lacks it.
Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycans. Strengthening material is murein.
It is composed of polysaccharide. Strengthening material is chitin in fungi and cellulose in others plants.
Cell membrane bears respiratory enzymes.
Cytoplasm lacks cell organelles e.g., Mitochondria, ER, Golgi body etc.
Cytoplasm contains various cell organelles.
Ribosomes are only 70 S type.
Ribosomes are both 80 S and 70 S type.
There are no streaming movements of cytoplasm.
Nuclear material is not enclosed by nuclear envelope and lies directly in cytoplasm. It is called nucleoid.
It is enveloped by nuclear envelope. Nucleus is distinct from cytoplasm.
DNA is circular and not associated with histones proteins.
Nuclear DNA is linear and associated with histone proteins extranuclear DNA is circular and histones protein free.
Sexual reproduction absent but parasexuality present.
Cell division is typically mitotic.
Mesokaryon : Dodge gave the term ‘Mesokaryon’ for dinoflagellates. These are intermediate type of cell organisation in dinophyceae of algae. In mesokaryotic there is present a true or eukaryotic nucleus with definite nuclear membrane and chromosomes.

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Retrieved Text: This is an introductory course that addresses selected topics in biology as applied to prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Cell biology, genetics, respiration, photosynthesis, evolution and ecology are discussed. (lec 3, lab 3) cr 3.

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is the process by which the information in DNA is copied to make RiboNucleic Acid (RNA). RNA in turn synthesizes proteins through a process called translation. These two steps are together the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
There are mainly three kinds of RNA that are produced by transcription.
RNA are single stranded molecules that are synthesized in the nucleus, but are mainly found in the cytoplasm and ribosomes in all the cells of every living organism.
RNA has a chemical make-up similar to DNA, but is less stable than DNA. RNA, like DNA is composed of nucleotides, with the same phosphate group, but the sugar is a five-carbon compound. The two complementary pairs of bases are adenine and uracil (instead of thymine), and guanine and cytosine.
The process is basically the same in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One of the DNA strands is used as the template by RNA polymerase to form the RNA strand that is complementary to the template strand. Thus the base sequence in the RNA strand is the same as the non template DNA strand which is called coding strand or sense strand. The template DNA strand is also called anti-sense strand.
In prokaryotes, there is only one RNA polymerase that produces all the three types of RNA. In eukaryotes, there are three groups. RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA, RNA polymerase II transcribes mRNA, while RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA.
During transcription, only sections of the DNA with the gene to be expressed are involved. There can be different genes that are transcribed at any given time.

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Retrieved Text: What Molecules Enter the Krebs Cycle & What Molecules Leave the Krebs Cycle?
What Happens When There Is No Oxygen Available at the End of Slow Glycolysis?
What Follows Glycolysis if Oxygen Is Present?
What Is Produced As a Result of Photosynthesis?
Living things, all of which consist of one or more individual cells, can be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Virtually all cells rely on glucose for their metabolic needs, and the first step in the breakdown of this molecule is the series of reactions called glycolysis (literally, "glucose splitting"). In glycolysis, a single glucose molecule undergoes a series of reactions to yield a pair of pyruvate molecules and a modest amount of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The ultimate handling of these products, however, varies from cell type to cell type. Prokaryotic organisms do not participate in aerobic respiration. This means that prokaryotes cannot make use of molecular oxygen (O2). Instead, the pyruvate undergoes fermentation (anaerobic respiration).
Some sources include glycolysis in the process of "cellular respiration" in eukaryotes, because it directly precedes aerobic respiration (i.e., the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain). More strictly, glycolysis itself is not an aerobic process simply because it does not rely on oxygen and occurs whether or not O2 is present. However, since glycolysis is a prerequisite of aerobic respiration in that it supplies pyruvate for the reactions thereof, it is natural to learn about both concepts at once.
Glucose is a six-carbon sugar that serves as the most important single carbohydrate in human biochemistry. Carbohydrates contain

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Retrieved Text: Transcription is an important part of protein synthesis, which takes place within the cell. Read this article to gain more information about this subject.
Living beings are made up of cells, which conduct many functions that help in sustaining a healthy and normal life. One of the most important functions of the cell is called protein synthesis. This is done with the help of hereditary material - DNA and RNA. Both are made up of nucleic acids, and they play an important role in transferring genetic information from one generation to the other. The protein synthesis process can be divided into two important processes: transcription and translation. Both of them are done inside the cell, but they take place at different places.
Transcription is a process in which the DNA is transcribed into mRNA. This is a very important part of the protein synthesis process. Eukaryotic cells are facilitated with the nucleus, and they can have one or more nucleus, which contains the genetic materials such as DNA and RNA. These materials actively participate in the process of protein synthesis, which takes place inside the nucleus, and subsequently, mRNA is formed. Then the transcribed mRNA comes out of the nucleus pores into the cytoplasm. The translation takes place, and thus, completes the process of protein synthesis.
This process is initiated when the DNA molecule uncoils its strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds, which hold the complementary base pairs together. When the strand uncoils, one of its parts behaves as a template for the production of mRNA, and is known

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Retrieved Text: A cytoskeleton is present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria, and archaea. It is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane. The cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. In eukaryotes, the cytoskeletal matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.
The structure, function and dynamic behavior of the cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on organism and cell type. Even within one cell the cytoskeleton can change through association with other proteins and the previous history of the network.
A multitude of functions can be performed by the cytoskeleton. Its primary function is to give the cell its shape and mechanical resistance to deformation, and through association with extracellular connective tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire tissues. The cytoskeleton can also contract, thereby deforming the cell and the cell's environment and allowing cells to migrate. Moreover, it is involved in many cell signaling pathways: in the uptake of extracellular material (endocytosis), segregates chromosomes during cellular division, is involved in cytokinesis (the division of a mother cell into two daughter cells), provides a scaffold to organize the contents of the cell in space  and for intracellular transport (for example, the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell); and can be a template for the construction of a cell wall. Furthermore, it forms specialized structures, such as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes.
A large-scale example of

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Retrieved Text: where the RNA molecules found in ribosomes are manufactured and the large and small ribosomes subunits are assembled.
proteins of R. ER, carry messages to other cells, act as a membrane transport proteins of pumps, or as enzymes.
rough ER products are packaged into vesicles and transported to various distant destinations.
parts of ER that are free of ribosomes.
reservoir for calcium ions that act as a signal triggering a wide array of activities inside cell.
products of the rough ER pass through the Golgi apparatus before they reach their final destination.
the enzymes catalase quickly "detoxifies" hydrogen peroxide by converting it to water and oxygen.
the plasma membrane of a cell surrounds a smaller cell or food particle and engulfs it, forming a structure called a phagosome.
molecules outside the cell bind to membrane protein that act as receptors.
when early endosome matures into late endosome , the structures receives digestive enzymes from the golgi apparatus and may eventually become fully functioning lysosome.
Why is the DNA in mitochondria considered vestigial or “remnant DNA”?
many of the pigments, enzymes, and molecular mechines responsible for converting light into energy into carbohydrates are embedded in the thylakoid membranes.
where critical enzymes and substrates are found outside the thylakoids.
fungi, algea, and plant have cell wall along with plasma membrane.
What makes the cell wall of a bacterium different from a plant? From a fungus?
plant cells produce a secondary cell wall that features a particularly tough molecule called lignin.
Where did the nuclear envelope come from? What advantage does this give eukaryotes over prokaryotes?
What components make up the endomembrane system? Why are lysosomes

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Retrieved Text: Have LGT of prokaryotic origin significantly contributed to current eukaryotic genes sets?
Lateral gene transfer in eukaryotes: tip of the iceberg or of the ice cube?
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the transmission of genes, sometimes across species barriers, outwith the classic vertical inheritance from parent to offspring. LGT is recognized as an important phenomenon that has shaped the genomes and biology of prokaryotes. Whether LGT in eukaryotes is important and widespread remains controversial. A study in BMC Biology concludes that LGT in eukaryotes is neither continuous nor prevalent and suggests a rule of thumb for judging when apparent LGT may reflect contamination.
Lateral (or horizontal) gene transfer (LGT) refers to the transmission of genes between individuals without direct vertical inheritance from parents to their offspring. In contrast to vertical inheritance, LGT can cross species barriers and may even allow transmission of genes across the kingdoms of life. In prokaryotes, LGT is well documented and the supporting mechanisms have been widely described .
The high prevalence of LGT in prokaryotes has even challenged the validity of a bifurcating Darwinian tree of life and led to the suggestion that an interconnected rhizome of life would be a more realistic representation of relations between species . The model bacterium Escherichia coli is a good illustration of the plasticity of bacterial gene repertoires due to gene acquisition via LGT and differential loss. While a typical E. coli genome contains ~5000 protein-coding genes, the pan-genome of E. coli, taking into account more than 60 different strains, is estimated to contain more than 15,700 genes

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Retrieved Text: A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, color) and σῶμα (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 10,000 to 1,000,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes.
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what is it when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy?" and the following answer choices: 
- A transportation fuel
 - extremely important
 - a hemisphere is tilted away from the sun
 - series of enzyme-mediated reactions
 - production of energy
 - the most widely used biofuel
 - chemical messengers
 - it helps plants in growing

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and cellular respiration involves a series of enzyme-mediated reactions, choose the best answer.

Target Text: series of enzyme-mediated reactions

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: The main end products of respiration are CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water, which are used as the starting material for Photosynthesis, and photosynthesis converts them into glucose and O2 (oxygen).
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all energy rich carbon compounds used by all organisms; it is responsible for the continual supply of atmospheric O2 (oxygen), without which all the aerobic organisms, that use oxygen would not exist.
Green plants, algae, some unicellular green flagellates and 2 bacteria groups are the only organisms that photosynthesize. Each year they release half of all the O2 (oxygen) in the atmosphere.
Plants use CO2 (carbon dioxide) when they produce O2 (oxygen). CO2 is converted to O2 during photosynthesis. At the same time, animals through their respiration process use this O2 from their metabolism and replace it with CO2, which is then used by plants to begin the cycle again.
Photosynthesis is a solar powered process. SUNLIGHT is a key component of the process.
Light is a form of ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY. When light meets matter, it can be reflected, transmitted or ABSORBED.
PIGMENT absorbs light. Plant pigment, CHLOROPHYLL (the main light-absorbing molecule of green plants), is a pigment that absorbs LIGHT ENERGY.
Chlorophyll is found in specialized structures called CHLOROPLAST; they give plants their green color. Each chloroplast contains all the chlorophyll and enzymes needed to complete the complex chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll participates directly in LIGHT REACTIONS.
The site of photosynthesis is typically the leaf of green plants. Each cell has about 30 to 40 chloroplast.
The large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants allows it

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: First, a quick word about what "respiration" is not.
Not all living things need to "breathe", in the sense that you and I breathe. Most living things don't have lungs, for a start!
The Great Challenge called "Respiration" is not about drawing air into the organism's body.
Respiration is the process by which all living things, except viruses, provide themselves with the energy to do all the other things which make us call the organism alive.
For many organisms, including plants, the chemistry is as follows: The organism converts food and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water... and converts some of the chemical energy in the food+oxygen into other forms... forms which make it possible for the organism to do things.
What does the organism do with the energy it has obtained from the food+oxygen? That is what the rest of this essay will one day be about. How many of the things living things do can you list? Do you see how energy is needed?
Obtaining the food and the oxygen is part of the subject of the Great Challenge "Assimilation"; getting rid of the carbon dioxide and water is part of the subject "Excretion".

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The present invention is directed generally to electrochemical systems and more particularly to co-production of electricity and hydrogen in a high temperature fuel cell system.
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. A solid oxide regenerative fuel cell (SORFC) is an electrochemical device that converts electrical energy directly into chemical energy and subsequently reconverts chemical energy back to electrical energy. This device differs significantly from rechargeable batteries in that the chemicals are stored outside of the SORFC converter. The SORFC system has many building electrical energy storage applications that cannot be satisfied by batteries. For example, a SORFC system for building power generation is discussed in the Proceedings of the 2001 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-570-30535. A SORFC system which generates hydrogen in the electrolysis mode and which generates electricity in the fuel cell mode is described in Proceedings of the 2002 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-610-32405. This SORFC system may contain a separate electrolyzer unit which operates in the electrolysis mode and which is operatively connected to the fuel cell stack to generate hydrogen. However, these SORFC systems have certain environmental and economic drawbacks.
The SOFC and SORFC are high temperature electrochemical systems. Another high temperature electrochemical system is a molten carbonate fuel cell. Fuel cells often use hydrogen as fuel. For example, fuel cell powered vehicles would require hydrogen refueling stations for operation. However, distribution of hydrogen from centralized hydrogen producing plants to refuel vehicles is not currently economical. Furthermore, hydrogen production is fairly expensive.
A

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: first law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
second law of thermodynamics Energy tends to disperse spontaneously.
potential energy Energy stored in the position or arrangement of a system’s components.
reactants Molecule that enters a reaction and is changed by participating in it.
endergonic Describes a reaction that requires a net input of free energy.
exergonic Describes a reaction that ends with a net release of free energy.
Activation energy Minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction.
catalysis The acceleration of a reaction rate by a molecule that is unchanged by participating in the reaction.
substrates Molecule that an enzyme acts upon and converts to a product; reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
induced-fit model Of enzyme activity, interacting with a substrate causes the active site to change shape so that the fit between them improves and catalysis occurs.
metabolic pathway Series of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells build, remodel, or break down an organic molecule.
allosteric regulation Control of an enzyme’s activity by a regulatory molecule that binds outside the active site.
feedback inhibition Regulatory mechanism in which a change that results from some activity decreases or stops the activity.
electron transfer chain In a cell membrane, series of enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons, thus releasing the energy of the electrons in small, usable steps.
cofactors A coenzyme or metal ion that associates with an enzyme and is necessary for its function.
antioxidants substance that interferes with the oxidation of other molecules.
phosphorylation Reaction in which a phosphate group is added to a molecule.
ATP/ADP cycle Process by which cells regenerate ATP. ADP forms

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Retrieved Text: Hydrogen cells are already powering buses in cities such as London.
From turning carbon dioxide into a fuel to enabling cars to run on water, scientific researchers worldwide are unlocking the potential of new energy sources.
LONDON, 14 January, 2016 – Molecular biology has been used by scientists in the US to make a catalyst that can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. It means that a truly renewable biotechnological material could be used to help cars run on water.
In China, chemists have announced a nanofabric – a catalyst put together atoms at a time – that could begin the process of turning the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide back into fuel.
And with what seems like perfect timing, a new technological venture in Switzerland hopes to be the first commercial plant to harvest carbon dioxide from the air.
The first two propositions are still in the laboratory stage, and the third has yet to prove its viability. But the laboratory advances keep alive the hopes of the ultimate in energy recycling.
In the first process, water provides the energy for a chemical reaction that propels a vehicle, and then ends up again as water from the exhaust pipe of a car. And in the second, a gas released as emissions from fossil fuel could get turned back into fuel.
The hydrogen fuel cell long ago began to deliver energy for manned space flight, and is already in use in urban public transport, with a platinum catalyst fusing hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to release electrical energy and water.
But platinum is

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: This event occurred perhaps three billion years ago. It was a turning point in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria began to use the energy of sunlight to manufacture glucose. Because of it, on two counts—food and the waste product oxygen—we are here. Photosynthesis.
We are 100 percent dependent on photosynthesis. Either we have to eat the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food or we have to eat some formerly alive thing that ate the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food. We ourselves cannot capture the Sun’s energy to make food.
Photosynthesis requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Sunlight arrives in the form of a stream of particles called photons. Photons hit the leaf, which is made up of cells. Each cell has a structure called a chloroplast—which in turn contains the pigment chlorophyll. This is the factory, the means of production. The raw materials are water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The leaf gets its CO2 from the air. When photosynthesis began, Earth’s atmosphere did not contain free oxygen. It did contain a lot more carbon dioxide. Slowly, over millions of years, photosynthesis put oxygen—a waste product to plants, algae, and photosynthesizing bacteria—into the air. And so, happily, we breathe.
When you look at this simple but profound transformation in chemical form, you see that carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen have been reshuffled, and oxygen has been expelled.
Photosynthesis happens in two stages. First, the light reaction: Sunlight hits the leaf, jiggles electrons in the chlorophyll until an electron belonging to the chlorophyll jumps

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Retrieved Text: What Molecules Enter the Krebs Cycle & What Molecules Leave the Krebs Cycle?
What Happens When There Is No Oxygen Available at the End of Slow Glycolysis?
What Follows Glycolysis if Oxygen Is Present?
What Is Produced As a Result of Photosynthesis?
Living things, all of which consist of one or more individual cells, can be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Virtually all cells rely on glucose for their metabolic needs, and the first step in the breakdown of this molecule is the series of reactions called glycolysis (literally, "glucose splitting"). In glycolysis, a single glucose molecule undergoes a series of reactions to yield a pair of pyruvate molecules and a modest amount of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The ultimate handling of these products, however, varies from cell type to cell type. Prokaryotic organisms do not participate in aerobic respiration. This means that prokaryotes cannot make use of molecular oxygen (O2). Instead, the pyruvate undergoes fermentation (anaerobic respiration).
Some sources include glycolysis in the process of "cellular respiration" in eukaryotes, because it directly precedes aerobic respiration (i.e., the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain). More strictly, glycolysis itself is not an aerobic process simply because it does not rely on oxygen and occurs whether or not O2 is present. However, since glycolysis is a prerequisite of aerobic respiration in that it supplies pyruvate for the reactions thereof, it is natural to learn about both concepts at once.
Glucose is a six-carbon sugar that serves as the most important single carbohydrate in human biochemistry. Carbohydrates contain

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: A Latham, N.Y., company wants to put a power plant in your backyard. Plug Power is testing a residential fuel cell system in a proof-of-concept home. The house taps into the natural gas distribution network, processing the gas into a hydrogen-rich stream that combines with oxygen in the air to drive the fuel cell’s chemical reaction. The system generates electricity for 7 to 10 cents per kilowatt-hour (on par with utility prices) and emits only carbon dioxide, water and heat (which can be recycled to warm the home’s air and water). The refrigerator-size unit converts 40 percent of the gas’s energy into electricity, providing all the power for the 3-bedroom test home. Merrill Lynch analyst Sam Brothwell has been watching Plug Power and sees “tremendous potential.” He predicts early adopters will get their hands on these systems in 2001 or 2002.

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Zebec's clients can rely on Zebec to deliver to an agreed scope, on budget and on programme, whilst meeting Health & Safety and Environmental requirements.
Anaerobic Digestion as a resource recovery technology is relevant for a range of industries. It can be applied as a pre-treatment step to reduce the volume of waste and to control odours and pathogens in order to keep final disposal costs down. More often today it is utilised as primary treatment of biomas to produce valuable products such as biogas that can be converted into heat and energy plus digestate which can used as fertiliser.
Anaerobic digestion is the simple, natural breakdown of organic matter into carbon dioxide, methane and water, by two groups of microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. Since many of these are intolerant to oxygen, this process is known as anaerobic.
There are four main stages of the anaerobic digestion process.
Each stage breaks the matter into smaller and smaller parts, until the only remaining substances are methane, carbon dioxide and water, three very simple molecules.
Hydrolysis breaks down the complex organic matter – carbohydrates, fats and proteins – into simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates, long chains of simple sugars, are broken down into single glucose molecules; proteins, long folded chains of amino acids, become individual amino acids; while fats, made up of head groups and fatty acid chains, have the latter part removed from the head groups and cut into smaller and smaller pieces.
Acidogenesis sees those single sugar molecules, fatty acids and amino acids broken down further into alcohols and

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Retrieved Text: Oxidation is defined as one of the processes by which energy is obtained from the diet. During this process, nutrients are broken down and converted into energy for normal metabolic function. The browning of an apple or rusting of metal is a common example of oxidation in our everyday life. The rate of oxidation depends on the amount of activity that is occurring. At rest, the rate of oxidation is at its lowest level. However, during stress, exercise, growth, pregnancy, or lactation, the rate of oxidation is elevated because the body is rapidly breaking down nutrients (like protein, carbohydrates, and fat) to produce energy needed during these times. During these metabolic processes if the regulatory systems in the body are overwhelmed, oxidative stress can occur.Oxidative stress causes an overabundance of circulating molecules called reactive oxygen species (ROS), sometimes commonly referred to as “free radicals.” It is important to note that all free radicals are ROS, but not all ROS are free radicals. These free radicals are normally produced from oxygen metabolism (see equation below).When we inhale, we take in oxygen (O2), in our cells the oxygen uses an electron (e-) and a hydrogen (H+) to form water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), then the carbon dioxide gets exhaled. The free radicals shown in the equation include superoxide radical (O2•), hydroxyl radical (HO•), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). They contain oxygen, but they are much more reactive than the oxygen in the air we breathe. Free radicals are ROS with a missing electron, therefore, making them unstable molecules.

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, amino acids and fatty acids and is the main way the body generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which supplies energy to the muscles. After glycolysis (the anaerobic breakdown of glucose into pyruvate – see our separate article for more detail), pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA in the matrix of the energy-transferring mitochondria, via the link reaction. Next is the Krebs cycle, which occurs twice per glucose molecule, producing – among other chemicals that feed into the aerobic part of the process – more ATP.
A diagram showing the stages of the link reaction and Krebs cycle, taken from our cellular respiration poster.
The aerobic part of the process depends on a series of protein complexes that are organised along the folds of the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondria. These are arranged so that electrons pass from one reacting molecule to the next, in a series of steps known as the electron transport chain. This process ends with ATP synthase, an enzyme that produces ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (up to around 30 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose, according to current thinking), capturing the final portion of the energy released by the whole process in a form that the rest of the cell can use.
Below, we look a little closer at the specific reactions that take place during the steps of aerobic respiration.
The link reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and converts pyruvate into the two-carbon molecule acetyl CoA by removing carbon dioxide and hydrogen,

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "The opposite of when cells convert oxygen and carbs into carbon dioxide, water, and energy is what?" and the following answer choices: 
- Greenhouse gases
 - Evaporation
 - photosynthesis
 - dangerous
 - slow and inefficient
 - dormant state
 - chemical messengers
 - It remains dormant

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and chemically, cellular respiration is the exact opposite of photosynthesis, choose the best answer.

Target Text: photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: What Is the Definition of a C4 Pathway?
The C4 pathway is a method plants use to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into a chemical compound containing four carbons. About.com explains that plans that utilize this pathway usually originate in subtropical areas. Examples include maize, sugarcane, sorghum, millet and papyrus. These plants commonly grow at latitudes below 45 degrees, in the tropics.
While photosynthesis normally takes place in the leaves of plants, in those plants using the C4 pathway, it takes place in a special leaf structure, the Kranz anatomy, which includes vascular bundles surrounded by sheath cells. Once the fixation of carbon dioxide completes, transforming it into the four-carbon compound through tehmesophyll cells, the plant transports it to the sheath cells where ribosco, the enzyme necessary for photosynthesis, is stored. This process prevents exposing the enzyme to oxygen and conserves energy for the plant.
Reference.com says that C4 photosynthesis gives plants an advantage over those using the classic C3 type of photosynthesis in drought conditions as well as in locations where carbon dioxide and nitrogen are limited. In C3 plants, as much as 97 percent of the water is lost due to transpiration. C4 plants make up approximately 5 percent of the world's biomass yet fix 30 percent of terrestrial carbon.

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Retrieved Text: Harvard researchers develop a device that uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create fuel.
Humans burn millions of tons of fossil fuels every day, putting a massive amount of carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. Recently, a team of researchers figured out a way to reverse the process and turn some of that CO2 back into fuel.
Harvard researchers Daniel Nocera and Pamela Silver have developed a bionic leaf' that mimics natural photosynthesis, converting water and carbon dioxide into fuel, according to a paper published in Science. The researchers developed a two-part system that uses solar power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, then uses bacteria to convert the hydrogen along with atmospheric carbon dioxide into liquid fuels.
The new bionic leaf converts 180 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of energy, which is ten times more efficient than actual plants. The researchers hope that this technology will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels in the future.
The bionic leaf is an improvement on an earlier design, one that also used solar power to convert water into pure hydrogen for use in fuel cells. The previous design was limited, both because hydrogen is not a common fuel source and because the conversion rate was very inefficient. However, this new design used a superior alloy to create the hydrogen, allowing a much greater efficiency, and also incorporated bacteria to convert the hydrogen into fuel, using atmospheric CO2.
Currently, the bionic leaf can only generate a few products, like isobutanol and isopropanol, but the research team is confident they can expand the

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Retrieved Text: 3. What does the heart look like inside?
5. Why does the heart have two atria and two ventricles?
Inhaled air contains oxygen that enters our lungs. We breathe in air with 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. We breathe out 16 % oxygen and 4 % carbon dioxide. Below the lungs works a large muscle called the diaphragm. When the muscle tenses (contracts), it pulls the lower part of the chest cavity downward. The lower parts of the lungs are pulled along as well. The chest cavity is enlarged and the lungs as well. Air is flowing into the lungs. The diaphragm is shown in red.
Left image: Inhalation. Active process - the muscle is contracting.
Right image: Exhalation. Passive process – the muscle is relaxing – is stretched.
The trachea divides into two bronchi (air pipes). One bronchus connects to each lung. The bronchus divides itself and at the end of each branch is an alveolus. The oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from the heart (shown blue - dark red in reality) absorbs oxygen from the air. This makes the blood oxygen-rich (oxygenated: shown red - light red in reality). Carbon dioxide from the blood enters the alveolus cavity and is exhaled.
The oxygen migrates into the bloodstream from the alveoli because the oxygen pressure is higher in the air and lower in the blood. This pressure difference evens out automatically the best it can. The same principle applies to carbon dioxide, but the pressure difference is the opposite.
Small cells in the blood called red blood cells absorb the oxygen.

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Retrieved Text: Unlike internal combustion engines that burn fuel for power, direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) use a polymer electrode membrane to convert chemical energy to electrical energy. Methanol fuel is delivered to the anode side of the membrane, where it is split into protons and electrons. The electrons pass to a circuit and create electrical current, while the protons pass thorough the membrane to the cathode side of the fuel cell. When the electrons are also delivered to the cathode side of the fuel cell, they reunite with the protons and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

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Retrieved Text: When a plant takes in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and receives adequate sunlight and water, chloroplasts in the plant's cells convert the reactants, water and carbon dioxide, into oxygen and glucose. Glucose is stored in the tissue of the plant for food and energy. In essence, this is the process of photosynthesis. Glucose is often stored in plants in the form of starch, which is composed of glucose molecules linked in long chains.
Plants convert sources of energy from their environment in to a long lasting fuel: starch.
Beer and whiskey producers use their knowledge of starch degradation and fermentation in cereal grains to make their products.
Plants have to produce starch to store energy for cell metabolism. Human bodies, on the other hand, do not synthesize starch. When a human eats starchy plant material, some of the starch breaks down into glucose for energy: any unused remnant of this ingested energy is stored as fat deposits.
When the plant cell requires energy for a cell process, it releases enzymes to degrade part of the starch chain. As starch in plant cells degrades, carbon is released to be utilized in producing sucrose. At the same time, the carbon produced allows cells to continue to grow and maintain themselves.
In some plants, starch is stored in cell organelles called amyloplasts. Some plant roots and embryos, in the form of seeds and fruit, also serve as storage units for starch. Cells in plant leaves produce starch in the presence of sunlight.
To test for presence of starch, apply tincture of iodine to a

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: 3 What Enzymes Does Mercury Inhibit?
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that plants and algae use to convert light energy, water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In the light reactions, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy and harnesses it to create the high-energy molecules ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, ATP and NADPH are used to fix carbon in the Calvin cycle.
In the chloroplasts of plant cells there are a series of enzymes and other proteins called photosystems I and II. Some of these proteins hold chlorophyll molecules and, when chlorophyll is struck by a photo of light, an electron becomes energized and water molecules bind. An enzyme in photosystem II splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The energized electron is then passed along through another enzyme called the cytochrome b6-f complex, which in turn pumps positively charged hydrogen molecules across a membrane to create a store of potential energy. An enzyme called ATP synthase uses that potential energy to synthesize a molecule called ATP, which is the most common energy currency for cells, and which is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain a second light-capturing mechanism called photosystem I, which acts similarly to photosystem II, except that the end result is a molecule called NADPH instead of ATP. Photosystem I is connected to photosystem II by a small protein called plastocyanin, which donates electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to

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Retrieved Text: You need to be a member of Brock Shores Financial #ImprovingFutures to add comments!
Wheat is a grass, converting sunlight energy into carbohydrates and surprisingly a high percentage of protein and that protein is part of the gluten that many people have an intolerance too. Interesting side bar on protein that I had forgotten about and had no idea about the gluten. We hand grind our own flour from wheat, corn, rice and other grains, so hopefully the lower processing results in a better spectrum of nutrition.
“More than half the supply of palladium and its congenerplatinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: A semiconductor has been created that can make use of infrared light to power an artificial photosynthesis reaction. The photocatalyst can split carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen in what could be a new way to make the most of all of the sun’s energy.
Technologies that mimic plants by harnessing solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into hydrocarbons and oxygen are highly sought after due to their potential for sustainable chemical production. While artificial photosynthesis systems are already more efficient than most plants, so far none have been able to harness infrared (IR) light – despite the fact that this makes up around half of the solar energy that reaches the Earth.
‘Since the first report of carbon dioxide photoreduction in 1978, IR light constituting almost 50% of the solar energy has never been utilised to drive carbon dioxide reduction to fuels. This could be ascribed to the fact that the energy of IR light is relatively low, and so cannot drive carbon dioxide overall splitting,’ says the University of Science and Technology of China’s Yi Xie.
However, Xie and her team have now developed a semiconductor made of oxygen-deficient WO3 layers that is capable of absorbing IR light and using this energy to power the carbon dioxide splitting reaction. The introduction of oxygen vacancies to the semiconductor material creates an intermediate band energy level that enables the reaction to take place.
‘Semiconductors which have small enough bandgaps to absorb IR light do not possess sufficient redox potentials for photocatalysis such as water splitting or carbon

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Retrieved Text: Scientists in Switzerland have split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen using a solar reactor. The technology uses a thermochemical process to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful fuels.
Splitting carbon dioxide and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas (syngas) is the first step to producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels for cars and aeroplanes. Current approaches for splitting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen suffer from low mass conversions, poor selectivity and low energy efficiencies.
The solar reactor has a 100mm inner diameter, a 75mm deep receiver with a 4cm diameter circular aperture sealed by a 4mm thick quartz window so it can access the concentrated solar radiation. The cavity contains an octagonal 25mm thick porous ceramic structure made of pure ceria. With this arrangement, the structure is directly exposed to high-flux irradiation, enabling volumetric absorption and uniform heating.
Now, a team led by Aldo Steinfeld at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, has made a 4kW solar reactor containing cerium oxide or ceria, a well-known redox material. The reactor can split carbon dioxide into separate streams of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The technology uses a two-step cyclic process based on the reduction and oxidation reactions of ceria and a swing in temperature and pressure to control the oxygen exchange. In the first step, 3000-fold concentrated solar power heats the ceria to 1500°C under reduced pressure to generate oxygen. In the second step, carbon dioxide reoxidises the reduced ceria at 900°C to generate carbon monoxide. This redox cycle can also

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: first law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
second law of thermodynamics Energy tends to disperse spontaneously.
potential energy Energy stored in the position or arrangement of a system’s components.
reactants Molecule that enters a reaction and is changed by participating in it.
endergonic Describes a reaction that requires a net input of free energy.
exergonic Describes a reaction that ends with a net release of free energy.
Activation energy Minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction.
catalysis The acceleration of a reaction rate by a molecule that is unchanged by participating in the reaction.
substrates Molecule that an enzyme acts upon and converts to a product; reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
induced-fit model Of enzyme activity, interacting with a substrate causes the active site to change shape so that the fit between them improves and catalysis occurs.
metabolic pathway Series of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells build, remodel, or break down an organic molecule.
allosteric regulation Control of an enzyme’s activity by a regulatory molecule that binds outside the active site.
feedback inhibition Regulatory mechanism in which a change that results from some activity decreases or stops the activity.
electron transfer chain In a cell membrane, series of enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons, thus releasing the energy of the electrons in small, usable steps.
cofactors A coenzyme or metal ion that associates with an enzyme and is necessary for its function.
antioxidants substance that interferes with the oxidation of other molecules.
phosphorylation Reaction in which a phosphate group is added to a molecule.
ATP/ADP cycle Process by which cells regenerate ATP. ADP forms

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Retrieved Text: Turning fossil fuel into energy is easy: You just burn it. And live with the carbon dioxide byproduct. What if we could reverse the process and turn water and carbon dioxide back into fuel?
A dream solution, but it may seem like trying to put the genie back in the bottle.
Not for University of Minnesota researcher Jane Davidson. She and her colleagues are using concentrated light energy equal to 3,000 suns to find the most efficient way to convert carbon dioxide and water into synthetic gas, or "syngas," with solar power.
Syngas is easy to transport via pipelines and is readily converted to high-energy-density liquid hydrocarbon fuels, or "synfuels," with properties equivalent to what we derive from petroleum. “We are aiming for unprecedented solar-to-fuel efficiencies that will enable the entire sunlight-to-synfuels process to be done with 10 percent efficiency and no input of fossil fuels,” says Davidson, a mechanical engineering professor.
At the University's Solar Energy Laboratory, the process begins with an indoor solar simulator in the form of seven mirrored, 6,500-watt lamps that concentrate the light on a 10-centimeter spot with an irradiance of 3,000 suns. (One "sun" equals 1,000 watts of solar energy falling per square meter of surface.) With this concentrated radiant energy, one can generate temperatures of more than 3,600 F in a chemical reactor. There, carbon dioxide and water are split to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the two components of syngas.
Davidson, along with mechanical engineering professor Tom Chase and their students, have developed two prototype reactors to split water and CO2. Deploying these

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Retrieved Text: Plants have oxygen-producing capabilities. In the process of photosynthesis, plants and some species of bacteria possess the ability to use the energy from the sun to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals present in the environment into organic material that is essential for plant growth. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.
To create an ideal tank environment where plants and the fish population can thrive well, there must be a light source of sufficient intensity which will be the source of energy for photosynthesis to take place. There should also be a continuous supply of carbon dioxide when the tank is lit as well as a reliable supply of other essential nutrients needed by plants for photosynthesis to occur.

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Retrieved Text: People who live at very high altitudes live significantly longer; they have a lower incidence of cancer (Weinberg, et al., 1987) and heart disease (Mortimer, et al., 1977), and other degenerative conditions, than people who live near sea level. As I have written earlier, I think the lower energy transfer from cosmic radiation is likely to be a factor in their longevity, but several kinds of evidence indicate that it is the lower oxygen pressure itself that makes the biggest contribution to their longevity.
The end product of respiration is carbon dioxide, and it is an essential component of the life process. The ability to produce and retain enough carbon dioxide is as important for longevity as the ability to conserve enough heat to allow chemical reactions to occur as needed.
Carbon dioxide protects cells in many ways. By bonding to amino groups, it can inhibit the glycation of proteins during oxidative stress, and it can limit the formation of free radicals in the blood; inhibition of xanthine oxidase is one mechanism (Shibata, et al., 1998). It can reduce inflammation caused by endotoxin/LPS, by lowering the formation of tumor necrosis factor, IL-8 and other promoters of inflammation (Shimotakahara, et al., 2008). It protects mitochondria (Lavani, et al., 2007), maintaining (or even increasing) their ability to respire during stress.
In other types of tissue, a high level of carbon dioxide has a similar stabilizing effect on cells, preserving stem cells, limiting stress and preventing loss of function. In the lining of the mouth, where the oxygen tension is lower, and

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: This event occurred perhaps three billion years ago. It was a turning point in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria began to use the energy of sunlight to manufacture glucose. Because of it, on two counts—food and the waste product oxygen—we are here. Photosynthesis.
We are 100 percent dependent on photosynthesis. Either we have to eat the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food or we have to eat some formerly alive thing that ate the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food. We ourselves cannot capture the Sun’s energy to make food.
Photosynthesis requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Sunlight arrives in the form of a stream of particles called photons. Photons hit the leaf, which is made up of cells. Each cell has a structure called a chloroplast—which in turn contains the pigment chlorophyll. This is the factory, the means of production. The raw materials are water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The leaf gets its CO2 from the air. When photosynthesis began, Earth’s atmosphere did not contain free oxygen. It did contain a lot more carbon dioxide. Slowly, over millions of years, photosynthesis put oxygen—a waste product to plants, algae, and photosynthesizing bacteria—into the air. And so, happily, we breathe.
When you look at this simple but profound transformation in chemical form, you see that carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen have been reshuffled, and oxygen has been expelled.
Photosynthesis happens in two stages. First, the light reaction: Sunlight hits the leaf, jiggles electrons in the chlorophyll until an electron belonging to the chlorophyll jumps

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis comes from the Greek words "light" and "putting together." During photosynthesis, plants absorb light energy and use it to make molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the building block for plants in much the same way as DNA is for humans.
Researchers have shown that plants subjected to certain shades of colour rather than the entire spectrum have varying degrees of growth.
Light travels in waves but also as little energy packets called photons. A photon of light contains the entire visible spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Plants absorb red, orange, yellow, blue, indigo and violet wavelengths of light but reflect green. When wavelengths of light are absorbed, they are no longer available for eyes to see, which is why plants look green.
Pigments absorb light. The pigment chlorophyll, found in green plants, absorbs violet, blue and red wavelengths. Carotenoids absorb red, orange and yellow wavelengths, while phycobilins absorb red and blue wavelengths.
During the process of photosynthesis, pigments absorb light and convert it to energy. The energy, along with carbon dioxide and water, is used to make sugar. This sugar molecule bonds with the adenine, a colourless crystalline substance, and three phosphate groups to form the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Carbon dioxide exists in the air just like oxygen. It's true that plants use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen as a waste product. During photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide plus six molecules of water plus the light energy yields a molecule of sugar and six molecules of oxygen. The carbon dioxide is

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: Fossil fuels such as crude oil and bituminous coal can take more than a million years to form. On the other hand, wood and other types of biomass can be grown in a matter of years, and are available almost anywhere. Properly managed biomass constitutes an important, affordable, and renewable source of energy for the entire planet.
A metal-supported solid oxide fuel cell has been developed that can harness the chemical energy stored in plants to directly produce electricity through a reaction that is essentially a mirror of the plant’s natural process of photosynthesis. Plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbon compounds and oxygen. Solid oxide fuel cells are able to capture these carbon compounds to produce electricity.
A novel application of the technology is an ingenious fuel cell charger that obtains it’s chemical energy from burning wood or charcoal. The charger may be used to power an LED light, radio or even to recharge mobile telephones.
The potential of the fuel cell technology to materially improve the quality of life for people living without grid electricity in the developing nations is difficult to overstate.

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Retrieved Text: Answer: Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzyme called lipase for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Answer: In double circulation there is complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Because of this the blood passes twice through the heart in one cycle of circulation hence the name double circulation.
This is necessary for optimum oxygen utilization as humans are warm blooded animals and need extra energy to maintain their body temperature.
Answer: Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which breaks complex molecules into sugar.
What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its byproducts?
Answer: Conditions necessary for photosynthesis: Sunlight, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.
Answer: In aerobic respiration there is complete oxidation of glucose and the end product is water and carbon dioxide.
In anaerobic respiration there is incomplete oxidation of glucose and the end product is either lactic acid or alcohol.
Yeast and bacteria use anaerobic mode of respiration.
Answer: The wall of alveoli contains a fine network of blood capillaries. This ensures maximum exchange of gases.
Answer: Haemoglobin is the carrier of oxygen in blood. Deficiency of haemoglobin will lead to less supply of oxygen to different cells. This will, in turn lead inefficient utilization of food by the body. Finally

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Retrieved Text: Hydrogen cells are already powering buses in cities such as London.
From turning carbon dioxide into a fuel to enabling cars to run on water, scientific researchers worldwide are unlocking the potential of new energy sources.
LONDON, 14 January, 2016 – Molecular biology has been used by scientists in the US to make a catalyst that can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. It means that a truly renewable biotechnological material could be used to help cars run on water.
In China, chemists have announced a nanofabric – a catalyst put together atoms at a time – that could begin the process of turning the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide back into fuel.
And with what seems like perfect timing, a new technological venture in Switzerland hopes to be the first commercial plant to harvest carbon dioxide from the air.
The first two propositions are still in the laboratory stage, and the third has yet to prove its viability. But the laboratory advances keep alive the hopes of the ultimate in energy recycling.
In the first process, water provides the energy for a chemical reaction that propels a vehicle, and then ends up again as water from the exhaust pipe of a car. And in the second, a gas released as emissions from fossil fuel could get turned back into fuel.
The hydrogen fuel cell long ago began to deliver energy for manned space flight, and is already in use in urban public transport, with a platinum catalyst fusing hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to release electrical energy and water.
But platinum is

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Retrieved Text: What is the Function of Plant Stomata?
Illustration by J.R. Bee. ThoughtCo.
Stomata are tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow for gas exchange. Stomata are typically found in plant leaves but can also be found in some stems. Specialized cells known as guard cells surround stomata and function to open and close stomatal pores. Stomata allow a plant to take in carbon dioxide, which is needed for photosynthesis. They also help to reduce water loss by closing when conditions are hot or dry. Stomata look like tiny mouths which open and close as they assist in transpiration.
Plants that reside on land typically have thousands of stomata on the surfaces of their leaves. The majority of stomata are located on the underside of plant leaves reducing their exposure to heat and air current. In aquatic plants, stomata are located on the upper surface of the leaves. A stoma (singular for stomata) is surrounded by two types of specialized plant cells that differ from other plant epidermal cells. These cells are called guard cells and subsidiary cells.
Guard cells are large crescent-shaped cells, two of which surround a stoma and are connected to at both ends. These cells enlarge and contract to open and close stomatal pores. Guard cells also contain chloroplasts, the light capturing organelles in plants.
Subsidiary cells, also called accessory cells, surround and support guard cells. They act as a buffer between guard cells and epidermal cells, protecting epidermal cells against guard cell expansion. Subsidiary cells of different plant types exist in various shapes and sizes.

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "what breathe with gills as larvae and lungs as adults?" and the following answer choices: 
- fish
 - snakes
 - frogs
 - salmon
 - breathe
 - bats
 - lungs
 - animals

Now knowing that most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults and frogs are amphibians, iguanas and snakes are reptiles, choose the best answer.

Target Text: frogs

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Retrieved Text: The term "salamander" refers to a collection of amphibian species that keep their tails as adults. Over 380 salamander species are known around the world, and these species vary in many ways. All salamanders go through a four-stage life cycle, from egg to larvae to juvenile to adult. In some species, juvenile salamanders have lungs. However, lungs are not present at the larvae stage of any salamander species.
Salamanders are amphibians, meaning they live part of their lives in water and part of their lives on land. Adult salamanders lay their eggs in water, and these eggs hatch into a larval form that uses gills to breathe underwater. Most amphibian larvae have tails, which are lost during the transition to juvenile or adult; only salamanders keep their tails through maturity. When the larvae change into juveniles, they begin to look similar to their adult versions. In frogs, for example, juveniles begin breathing through lungs and developing legs. The changes between the larval, juvenile and adult stages of salamanders' lives vary by species. However, all of them have gills during the larval stage.
In some salamander species, juveniles lose their gills and develop lungs. The blue-spotted salamander is one example. These salamanders attach their egg masses to twigs or plants that lie in water so when their larvae hatch they are in the water. The larvae have visible gills on the outside of their bodies. When they become juveniles, however, they lose their fins and gills (both are absorbed into their bodies) and they begin to breathe through their

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Retrieved Text: Most salamanders start life as aquatic larvae and metamorphose to become terrestrial adults, returning to the water only to lay eggs. But mudpuppy salamanders (Necturus maculosus) remain aquatic throughout life. By retaining their juvenile features, along with other adaptations, they are able to inhabit rivers, perennial streams, ponds and lakes throughout eastern North America, from southern Canada to Georgia. They can even be found in the Midwest.
Mudpuppies, also called waterdogs, have gray-brown to black, spotted skin, which helps them merge with the muddy river bottoms where they live. Their long, flattened bodies -- 8 to 20 inches in length -- make it easy for these aquatic salamanders to hide during the day under rocks and logs. They come out at night to feed on fish, other amphibians and invertebrates.
Larval salamanders usually absorb their gills during metamorphosis, but mudpuppies retain large, feathery reddish brown gills positioned on both sides of their heads. External gills more efficiently extract oxygen from water than internal lungs. In habitats in which the water is well-oxygenated, mudpuppies have shorter gills than those inhabiting poorly oxygenated waters. As they can absorb oxygen through their skin and rise to the water's surface to breathe using their internal lungs, mudpuppies can survive when oxygen levels are low. They also use their lungs for buoyancy in the water, just as fish use their swim bladders.
Mudpuppies walk about the bottoms of ponds and rivers. Their short, flattened limbs make this easy. They can swim well, too. Their short, laterally compressed tails -- high and narrow, rather than

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Retrieved Text: If You Want How Do Fish Gills Work Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Fish use their gills to extract oxygen from the water. So they need them as much as you need your lungs. The main difference between lungs and gills (other than water vs. air) is that lungs are tidal - air flows in one way, and back out the other way.
Why Do Fish Have Gills? Fish have gills because these organs are used to extract oxygen from the surrounding water in which a fish lives. Gills are different from lungs because gills generally work unidirectionally: water moves in one direction across the gills in order for the organs to extract oxygen.
Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called the operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Fish have gills because they need them to survive underwater. Gills absorb oxygen from the water just like we absorb oxygen from the air. At some point way back in time, the ancestors of fish needed to be able to breathe underwater, and those that evolved gills were able to.
A fish breathes by taking water into its mouth and forcing it out through the gill passages. As water passes over the thin walls of the gills, dissolved oxygen moves into the blood and travels to the fish's cells. If fish can breathe underwater, then why

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Retrieved Text: Frogs, like salamanders, newts and toads, are amphibians. Most amphibians begin their life cycles as water-dwelling animals, complete with gills for breathing underwater. As they grow to adulthood, amphibians normally become land-dwelling creatures, lose their gills and develop lungs for breathing. Frogs are no exception to this process and are able to breathe through their lungs once they reach adulthood.
Frogs still in the larval stage, called tadpoles, are very different in outward appearance and internal physiology from their adult counterparts. Most notable is the presence of gills instead of lungs during this stage. Tadpoles can also take in oxygen through their skin, a trait that aids in gas exchange (bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, as with lung respiration) while the tadpole is living completely underwater.
As a frog matures from tadpole to adult, it loses its gills and develops functioning lungs. During this transition, and after maturity, frogs are still able to breathe through their skin. This trait is known as “bimodal breathing,” in which an animal uses two different systems for bringing in oxygen. These two different breathing systems allow adult frogs to shift between aquatic habitats (which require skin respiration) and land habitats (which are more suited to lung respiration) with ease.
An adult frog’s thin and permeable skin allows it to take in oxygen, even when completely submerged. Oxygen readily passes through this thin membrane-like skin, providing the frog with the oxygen it needs to stay alive under water without the need for gills. Because of the permeability of a frog’s skin, moisture

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Retrieved Text: Larval members of this family tend to be found in small streams and rivers in areas of slow flow; however, they can be found in lentic-littoral habitats as well. They are often found sprawling on many different substrates, such as sand, silt, or even gravel, as well as clinging to root masses, woody debris, or among various plants. They usually collect and gather small bits of organic particles for food, or some taxa also filter feed. The larvae in this family have gills well-adapted to their environment; the gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate, covering the rest of the abdominal gills to prevent them from getting damaged by sediment. Larvae also fan their gills in order to increase the flow of water across their surface area, increasing the amount of oxygen they can absorb. Adults and duns (sub-adults) in the genus Trycorythodes (Dark Brown Spinner, Pale Olive Dun, and Reverse Jenny Spinner) are especially important to the fly-fishing community due to their extremely large emergences.
Family: The gills on abdominal segment 2 are operculate or semioperculate, roughly triangular or oval, and not touching or fusing medially. Abdominal segments 3–6 with lamelliform (plate-like) portion of gills simple or with two lobes, never with fringed margins.

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Retrieved Text: A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills. Most are cold-blooded, though some, such as some species of tuna and shark, are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a paraphyletic group whose exact relationships are much debated.
Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 metres (52.49 feet) whale shark to a 8 millimetre (just over a quarter of an inch) long stout infant fish. Many types of aquatic animals named ‘fish’, such as jellyfish and cuttlefish, are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like dolphins, while closely resembling fish in outer appearance, are actually mammals.
Fish are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish are often called ‘fish’ when used as food.
Difference between male and female fish: In some species the males and females have different shaped bodies or different colouring; in other species there is no visible difference.
How fish breathe: Some fish have lungs and breathe air, but most breathe through gills. Gills are made up of thin sheets of tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As water passes over them dissolved oxygen is absorbed into the blood and waste products such as carbon dioxide pass out into the water. The gills are protected by a large bony plate called an operculum.
What is a lateral line: Lateral lines are usually visible as faint lines running lengthwise down each side, from the vicinity of the gill covers to the base of the tail

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Retrieved Text: You are here: Life > Fish > How do fish breathe?
"How do fish breathe?." Life, Fish, Q-files Encyclopedia, 4 Nov. 2016.
Life, Fish, s.v. "How do fish breathe?," accessed April 20, 2019.
To breathe, fish open their mouths, and take in water that contains oxygen (1). When they pump it out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over the gills and tiny blood vessels extract the oxygen (2).
Most kinds of fish cannot survive out of water, because they do not have lungs to breathe air. Instead, they are able to filter oxygen from the water around them using slits in their heads called gills. To breathe, fish open their mouths and take in water that contains oxygen. When they pump the water out through slits in the sides of their heads, it passes over feathery filaments (thread-like fibres) in the gills. These filaments contain blood vessels with thin walls through which oxygen from the water passes into the blood. At the same time, waste carbon dioxide in the blood passes into the water. Bony fish usually have a hard protective flap over their gills, called the operculum. It controls the flow of water through the gills so that the maximum amount of oxygen is absorbed.
Gills removed from a fish’s head. We are looking towards the mouth, which is pointed directly away from us.
Bony fish have a single external gill opening on either side of their heads. Most have five pairs of gills. Sharks and rays—cartilaginous fish—have a separate gill slit for each gill (between

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Retrieved Text: All about Tadpoles for your smartphone, your iPhone or any phone.Animations of anuran amphibian larvae. The frogs and toads larvae have a long tail and no legs.
Animated gifs and animations of Tadpoles to share on social networks, download or send to other phones for Whatsapp, Line or Skype. Tadpoles are hatchlings or larvae of frogs and toads. Their main physical characteristics are their oval body, lack of legs and a long tail with which they swim. Tadpoles vary greatly in size, in their development and between species. The larvae of frogs breathe through external gills, so they always live in the water. When they reach adulthood spend a process of metamorphosis (they grow four legs and their tails disappear). Most tadpoles are herbivorous, feeding on plants and algae.

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Retrieved Text: Fish force water through their gills, past many tiny blood vessels. The gills take oxygen from the water and let water whisk away carbon dioxide. Gill filaments are the red, fleshy part of the gills; they are the smallest division of the gill and they take oxygen into the blood. Each filament has thousands of fine branches which are exposed to the surface of the water. The branches contain a thin epithelium that separates them from the water, allowing oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through easily.
Not all fishes completely rely on their gills to breathe. Some species absorb a large part of their necessary oxygen through the skin, particularly when they're juveniles. Others have lungs that have developed to breathe air in will actually drown if they don't have access to the water's surface.
The gills in fish are like lungs in people: it's the organ responsible for absorbing oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide waste. The gills also regulate levels of ions and the pH of the blood.
The gill filaments of bony fishes are called "primary lamellae." They are intricate structures that have a large surface area. Smaller secondary lamellae are offshoots of the primary filaments. The secondary lamellae contain small blood capillaries and blood flows in the opposite direction of the water. As a result, the water flowing beside the secondary lamella always has a higher oxygen concentration than that in the blood so oxygen is absorbed along the full length of the secondary lamellae.
Active swimming fish have gill filaments that are highly developed

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Retrieved Text: All dogs are at risk for potentially deadly heartworm disease. Heartworms live in the heart and blood vessels of the lungs of dogs, cats and other mammals like wolves, foxes and coyotes. Heartworms cannot be spread directly from animal to animal without a mosquito as an intermediary.
Heartworms are spread when a mosquito bites an infected dog and picks up tiny larvae called microfilariae from the bloodstream. Then that mosquito bites another dog infecting it with the heartworm larvae.
Over the next several months the heartworm larvae grow and migrate to the heart and lungs. These larvae mature into adults, which can be a foot in length, and they produce microfilariae that circulate in the bloodstream. Now this dog is a reservoir of heartworms and is ready for another mosquito to bite and infect yet another dog.
Untreated, heartworm disease can lead to severe problems with the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys and may result in death.

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Retrieved Text: Following on from my last article, spring migration is gaining momentum. In the amphibian world, these cold-blooded vertebrates have made their way from their overwintering underground refuges to their breeding waterbodies where many have already mated.
The mating process in amphibians takes place in water and is called amplexus, which is the Latin word for embrace.
This is when the male clasps the female and they deposit eggs and sperm externally together.
The fertilised eggs (in newts) or spawn (in frogs and toads) hatch and larvae or tadpoles emerge.
These have gills enabling them to breathe underwater where they stay for about 4-5 months until they have grown legs, absorbed their gills, developed lungs and resemble small adults.
Once they have undergone this metamorphosis, they then leave the water and live on land for the rest of the year where they feed on invertebrates such as insects, slugs and worms.
Amphibians that are native to the UK are common frog (Rana temporaria), common toad (Bufo bufo), smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus), great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), native pool frog (Pelophylax lessonae) and natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita).
The latter two species are not known in Yorkshire.
This species which has been around for approximately 40 million years, has suffered a large decline due to habitat loss and changes in farming practices.
As such great crested newts and their eggs, breeding and resting places are fully protected by European and UK law.
In my consultancy work the season for surveying for our rarest and largest newt, the great crested newt, runs between mid-March to mid-June

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Retrieved Text: Frogs and toads are cold-blooded vertebrates. The colour of frogs varies. Generally, frogs are brown, light brown or olive green. The underside of frogs is generally white, and at the tops of their legs they are often yellow.
The frog normally spawns in April but in Lapland not until June. Males wait for females in the spawning grounds in large groups, and they attract them by croaking. In frogspawn, there is a transparent jelly that surrounds the eggs and acts like a small greenhouse. The black core warms up during the daytime in the sun, and the blanket of jelly provides insulation and stops heat from escaping. A frog will lay 1,500-3,000 eggs at a time. The eggs develop into larvae, which are called tadpoles. Initially, the tadpoles have gills, but gradually they metamorphose so that they ultimately breathe using lungs. During metamorphosis, the frogs develop hind legs first.
The female frog is often larger than the male. Frogs are generally 5-9 cm long, seldom more. They spend the winter in hibernation in the mud at the bottom of ditches, lakes and bays. Some individuals also hibernate on dry land or in other drier places. Often on a good winter site you can find dozens, if not hundreds, of individuals. During hibernation, frogs move every now and then. Frogs are at their most active when it is dark. They are common across the whole of Finland, but they have become rarer in recent years due to the loss of wetlands. The European common frog is a protected species.

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Retrieved Text: (1) Frogs were not symbols of death but, on the contrary, of rebirth and renewal, because of its remarkable metamorphosis of egg into tadpole and from tadpole into frog.(2) Early in its development a tadpole breathes with gills.(3) Young amphibians, like the larval frog or tadpole pictured here, spend their early years in the water, breathing through gills in the side of their head in much the same way as fish do.(4) One of the characteristics of amphibians is metamorphosis; when the larva or tadpole living in water and breathing with gills develops into an adult, it leaves the aquatic environment and breathes with lungs like a land animal.(5) He'd always bring a jar of the stuff in and we'd have lessons where we'd document the life of the frog by watching the frog spawn hatch and metamorphose from tadpoles to frogs.(6) We have observed that green frog tadpoles react less strongly to predators at very low resource levels.(7) Inside the pouch, the tadpoles live on the yolk leftover from their hatching.(8) These species tend to have shorter larval periods on average when compared to tadpoles that develop in more permanent ponds.(9) Biologists now find that slightly elevated UV exposure reduces the chance that tadpoles will become frogs.(10) Many familiar animals have a larval form: caterpillars turn into butterflies, and tadpoles into frogs.(11) The young snakes prey on recently hatched steelhead trout and chinook salmon and on the tadpoles of yellow-legged frogs.(12) As the tadpoles become frogs, the gills initially used to breathe are replaced with

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Retrieved Text: A salamander is an amphibian which falls under the animal order Caudata. A typical salamander is characterized by a short nose, a long tail and a slim body. The normal eye may look upon a salamander as another form of lizard; however there are some basic differences in the physical structures of a salamander and a lizard. A salamander is longer in size when compared to a lizard. Moreover, a salamander’s body scales are smooth and glossy as compared to the course skin of lizards. Also, a salamander is always found in and around water bodies, while lizards are typically terrestrial creatures. Like all amphibians, a salamander too has two pairs of limbs. But unlike all amphibians, they have four toes each on the front limbs while the hind limbs show five toes each. Male and female salamanders are usually characterized by very bright skin colors, though some of them may not even show any color due to lack of essential skin pigments. Read on for more interesting facts on salamanders.
If you assumed all salamanders to have same respiratory organ, you are in for a surprise. While some breathe through lungs, others take in air through gills. The difference is essentially between terrestrial and aquatic salamanders respectively. Again, the gills of many salamanders are visible externally as formations on the sides of their heads.
Some salamanders have neither lungs nor gills to breathe through. In this case they breathe in and out of their skins, a process which is known as valerian respiration.
Capillary beds are present all

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Retrieved Text: “It’s a little bit creepy,” says Catnip Editorial Board member Elizabeth Rozanski, DVM. “Larvae migrate from the intestine into the bloodstream and, from there, to the lungs, where they set up housekeeping. They get bigger, maturing into adult worms, and then lay more eggs, or larvae.” In the meantime, the worms can cause asthma-like symptoms — difficulty breathing, coughing, and, if things become severe enough, even emphysema, fluid in the lungs, or pneumonia.
After a rough start as a stray found in a snowstorm, Esme, a delightful kitten adopted by a Tufts Cummings School employee, was cured of lungworms.
One of them was Esme, a stray found by a family on their porch in western Massachusetts during a freak snow, ice, and wind storm last Halloween weekend. Shivering, meowing, and hungry, Esme was brought by the family to the Cummings School, where you could see her respiratory effort was increased just by watching her sides.
Kittens tend to get lungworms by eating snails and slugs that are already infected with them. “While adult cats are effective hunters who can catch a mouse or bird and sometimes become infected that way,” Dr. Rozanski says, “kittens are not. But it’s easy for them to catch a slow-going snail or other slow-going animal. A couple of years ago, we took care of three kittens with lungworms found in an old, abandoned mill. The mill was by the water,” where snails are apt to hang around.
“It’s not going to happen in a house cat that eats Fancy Feast and never goes anywhere,” Dr.

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Retrieved Text: If You Want Horseshoe Crab Find Them Here & Save Time and Money!
Find Horseshoe Crab. Examine Now.
Tired of Endless Searching? Find Horseshoe Crab on DealsNow.
How Do Crabs Live Out of Water On Land and Breathe Air With Their Gills When They Have No Lungs? By Karen Hill. True crabs are crustaceans that have a short projecting “tail” or reduced hidden abdomen, while others such as hermit crabs, horseshoe crabs and crab lice, are not true crabs.
There are different types of crabs like hermit crab, king crab, horseshoe crab, etc. Crabs have a flat body and can breathe under the water as well as on the land. The crabs don’t have a nose or any such openings for breathing. This gives rise to a very interesting question: how do the crabs breathe?
Horseshoe crabs are used as bait to fish for eels (mostly in the United States) and whelk, or conch. However, fishing with horseshoe crab was banned indefinitely in New Jersey in 2008 with a moratorium on harvesting to protect the red knot, a shorebird which eats the crab's eggs.

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Retrieved Text: These frogs are found in warm humid rainforest areas surrounded by dry savannah and always near small streams among moss covered rocks.
Blue poison arrow frogs are found only in the Sipaliwini savannah in the South American country of Suriname.
Although many frogs are green or have muted colors and patterns that help them hide from potential predators, some frogs like the blue poison arrow frog use bright colors as a means of defense. The brilliant blue color of these frogs serves as a warning to potential predators not to eat it. Often the more vibrant and colorful a frog is, the more poisonous it may be.
The most amazing adaptation these frogs have is their ability to produce toxins. The toxins in the skin of these frogs are found in high concentrations in the prey they eat, especially ants. After eating the ants, these toxic compounds are secreted by glands in the frog’s skin providing them with a powerful means of defense. The toxin is capable of paralyzing or even killing potential predators. The blue poison arrow frog contains an average of 200 micrograms of poison which would cause harm and could possibly prove fatal even to a human.
The blue poison arrow frog is 1.2 to 1.8 inches (3-4.5 cm) long; females are larger than males.
These frogs weigh about one-tenth of an ounce (3 grams).
These frogs have azure blue on their legs, sky blue on the back and darker blue on the belly with an irregular pattern of dark blue and black spots covering their back and head.
In

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Retrieved Text: What are flukes in koi?
Another type of microscopic parasite that invades the koi world is fluke. There are two main categories of freshwater flukes; Dactylogyrus, gill fluke and Gyrodactylus, skin fluke. They feed on the epidermis of the skin and gills of the host koi fish. The fluke parasite on koi will thrive in poor pond conditions such as low dissolved oxygen, heavy organic matter load and pond overcrowding. And, flukes do quite well in cool water temperatures.
Both types of fluke parasites have a slender cylinder shaped body. On the bottom, or foot end, of Dactylogyrus and Gyrodactylus is a pair of large anchor hooks and a rim of tiny hooks called a haptor. This haptor acts like a suction to dig in and adhere to the host. These hooks cause considerable damage as the parasite moves around on the fish. To make matters worse, the haptor usually carries and transmits bacteria into the injured tissue whereby encouraging outbreaks of Aeromonas and Psudomonas (ulcers).
As the obnoxious parasites move around the host they cause damage and irritation. The koi’s reaction to this assault of constant digging and chewing is excess mucus production.
Skin fluke parasite, Gyrodactylus, is physically similar to gill fluke; the body shape is the same and it also has a series of gruesome hooks called haptor for attaching to the koi. However, it has several differences. Gyrodactylus koi parasite is generally found on the body or flank rather than on and around the gills of a host fish. There are no eyespots on the skin

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Retrieved Text: Dog owners may have recently become aware of a relatively new disease which has been diagnosed more frequently over the last twelve months or so throughout the country, and, from my personal experience as a vet, locally as well.
This parasite can be known either as lungworm infection or French Heartworm. The adult worms live within the pulmonary artery and right ventricle of the heart of the dog. The eggs hatch in the lungs and the young larvae eventually pass out in microscopic form in the faeces. If these larvae are then ingested by slugs and snails and the infected slugs and snails are then eaten by other dogs, (perhaps deliberately, perhaps unintentionally whilst eating grass), the now infective larvae migrate through the intestinal wall and make their way back to the heart to start the life cycle again.
This is a true lungworm in that the adult form of this parasitic worm lives and breeds in the bronchi within the lungs. The adults are visible within the lungs when using a scope and also cause nodular changes within the tissue of the airway. Unlike the Angiostrongylus worms, they can transmit infective larvae directly either in saliva and sputum or via the larvae in their faeces. Infection is either via direct contact between dogs or from infective larvae on the ground passed from either dogs or foxes. Infected animals may develop a chronic cough which may again be easily mistaken for kennel cough initially. Not all affected animals show symptoms but any dog with a persistent cough, especially

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Retrieved Text: Northern or cold-water shrimp is one of the most abundant shrimp species found in the North Atlantic and Pacific. They are live in soft, muddy substrate on the ocean floor. To grow, they must periodically shed their outer shells in a process known as molting whereby they crawl out of their old shells and their bodies absorb water to increase in size before the new soft shell begins to harden.
Northern shrimp have a hard outer shell and jointed legs, and can grow up to 16 cm long. They have large, bulbous eyes and breathe through their gills. The bright pink shell covering the head and body has a long, curved, sword-like structure called a rostrum that is covered in numerous spikes. Northern shrimp are sweet and delicate, and are often served in sushi restaurants as ebi.
In the northwest Atlantic, northern shrimp mate in late summer and fall. Once fertilized, the eggs remain attached to a female's abdomen until the following spring. A female usually carries around 1,700 eggs. After incubating for seven to eight months, the eggs hatch in April or May in the form of larvae. The larvae feed on plankton as they drift near the top of the water column. After a few months, they begin to spend more time near the bottom and start to look more like adults. Most shrimp reach male sexual maturity during the second or third year of life. In the winter of their fourth or fifth year, northern shrimp will transition from a male form to a female

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Retrieved Text: In fresh-water prawn culture, diseases have a greater occurrence in hatcheries than in grow- out ponds.
In fresh-water prawn culture, diseases have a greater occurrence in hatcheries than in grow- out ponds. Several diseases have been identified in larvae, juveniles and adults, but many of them are of undetermined aetiology. Even among those for which the aetiology is known, appropriate prophylactic and curative measures have not yet been developed. But most of the diseases appear to be directly or indirectly due to poor sanitation, inadequate water exchange, poor feeds or low oxygen levels.
Among the diseases identified in larval prawns, those caused by microbial epibionts appear to be more common. The epibionts are mainly filamentous and non-filamentous bacteria, algae or aquatic protozoa. The protozoan agents include the genera Epistylis,Zoothamnium and Vorticella. These organismsattach themselves to the epicuticular surfaces, but do not cause any inflammatory responses. Zoothamnium appears to attach itself to the gilllamellae, while other protozoans do not exhibit any site specificity. Bacterial fouling of proximal appendages, gills or the body surface often results in severe mortality. Antibiotic treatment is likely to control the disease. As the disease is triggered by poor biological conditions in hatchery systems, the best control measure is the identification and control of the primary cause.
Brown-spot disease, also known as black-spot or shell disease, occurs commonly in juveniles and adult Macrobrachium. It can be recognized by the presence of brown to black, ulcerative to raised lesions on the body surface or appendages. This disease occurs only in animals which have developed prior cuticular damage

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Retrieved Text: Amphibian man is real or not? Can human beings become really amphibious, by adapting themselves to the ocean depths as other mammals have done? Is it possible for human beings to adapt themselves to breathing in water? There are a lot of questions and it seems impossible. However, scientists are studying this possibility.
Observations have shown that lungs can, in fact, absorb oxygen from water just as the fishes’ gills do. Water normally contains about seven cubic centimeters of oxygen per liter, which is enough for fish. To be breathed by animals, water must contain at least 10 times as much oxygen as it normally does.
Scientists found out that oxygen for breathing might be obtained from water algae known as chlorella. This simple plant growing in ponds and lakes has the reputation of being a nutrient factory, producing proteins, fats and vitamins. It also produces huge amounts of oxygen.
Scientists have also found that a man has a markedly slower heartbeat when he is diving. This effect, called bradycardia, is shared by diving animals.
Ichthyander, or Amphibian Man, is one of the most remarkable literary images created by the best Soviet science fiction writer Alexander Romanovich Belyaev (1884-1942). A science-fiction novel about a man who was able to live under water, The Amphibian Man, was written in 1927.
Surgeon Salvator tried to save a child with excessively weak lungs. He transplanted the gills of a young shark and the child not only remained alive, BUT, got the opportunity to live under water.
For several years the film directors were afraid of

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Retrieved Text: There are so many interesting Fun Frog Facts for Kids!
Let’s learn with facts about frogs for kids!
So I made a life cycle of a frog worksheets a few days ago and I have to admit their life cycle is pretty fascinating, more fascinating than most other animals.
However there are a ton more Frog Facts for Kids about these amphibians that your kids (and you) just need to know (as some are downright odd).
So let’s do some hopping and learn about frogs!
They typically lay their eggs in the water.
A group of eggs is called a frogspawn.
Tadpoles have no lungs, they have gills.
They grow lungs before they mature into a frog.
Frogs don’t drink water – they soak it into their body through their skin.
They breathe through the nose and their skin.
They need to live near water as their skin must constantly be moist. If it dries out the frog dies.
They catch their pray with their tongue.
Their eyeballs assist them in swallowing food – they push the food down their throat by pushing down the eyeballs.
Their vision field is almost 360° so they can see all that is around them all the time!
Their call is called a croak.
Frogs can hibernate. In extreme conditions they can also enter a state called torpor which can last for months.
Free Printable PDF with Ant Facts!
Get your free printable Frog Facts for Kids here.

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Retrieved Text: Where does the air go when you breathe?
Starting at the top at number "2" and connect the EVEN numbers to see the path where you breathe IN.
Then start at the bottom at number "1" and connect the ODD numbers to find the path where you breathe OUT!
The graphic shows a picture of air entering into the body through the nose, and traveling into the lungs.
The inside of your nose is full of smell receptors.
Air moves your vocal cords so you can speak.
Food goes to your stomach through another tube.
After air gets to your lungs, it moves from there into the bloodstream.
Your ribs protect all the organs in your chest. Can you feel your ribs move in and out as you breathe?
Carbon Dioxide also leave the blood from the lungs and is expelled when you exhale.
My Health My World Explorations for Children and Adults are publications of the Center for Educational Outreach at Baylor College of Medicine, made possible by a grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Science. For more information, contact Center for Educational Outreach, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX.

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Retrieved Text: A variety of insect pests, as well as mites and snails, attack water garden plants. Many are the same kinds of pests that attack other ornamental, garden, and vegetable plants, pests such as spider mites, aphids, beetles, borers, leaf miners, leaf rollers, whiteflies, leafhoppers, and moth larvae. Other pests, such as caddis fly larvae and water snails, are peculiar to water plants.
All of these pests, familiar and otherwise, present special treatment challenges when found in or adjacent to water features. Many ponds include fauna as well as flora. Fish, amphibians, and other desirable fauna, including desirable insects, may be harmed or killed by some pesticides normally used for pest control. Some water plants also can be damaged or killed by pesticides commonly used on non water-garden plants.
While most ponds and water gardens, once established, can do quite well with minimum pest management intervention, all aquatic, shoreline and marginal water side plants are subject to attack. Newly established ponds and those that have been cleaned and refilled are most vulnerable.
Since most pests we deal with are not purely aquatic, a close examination of non-submerged surfaces can reveal the culprits. Various leaf miners tunnel between leaf layers. Some tunnels resemble those of the boxwood leaf miner, others are more characteristically serpentine. False leaf-mining midges and some caterpillars chew trails along the leaf surface or water lilies. These trails eventually rot through the leaf.
Leaf rollers roll up entire leaves or cut portions and roll up edges to form homes. Iris sawfly larvae take out chunks of iris leaves, sometimes

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Retrieved Text: [motion picture] Studies the early stages of the development of the axolotl, an aquatic salamander, with emphasis upon genetically determined characteristics. Mates two wild-type, dark axolotls, each heterozygous for white and albino mutations. Uses time-lapse photography to show cleavage to the blastula stage, gastrulation, and neurulation.  Observes rotation and elongation of the embryo, followed by identification of the gills, somites, and eyes.  Records as the embryo breaks free of the vitelline membrane.  Shows the well-developed gills, heart, and eyes in a later state.  Concludes by showing the dark, golden albino, white, and white albino larvae.

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Retrieved Text: These are the most common macroinvertebrates identified from samples from Fox Meadow Brook in Westchester County, New York.
This genus of Tipulidae is rather large as compared with other genera. Tipula larvae are generally dark brown and have creeping welts.
These damselfly larvae (sub-order Zygoptera) can be distinguished from dragonfly larvae (sub-order Anisoptera) by their more slender bodies and the presence of three leaf-like gills at the end of the abdomen, seen here and here. The family Coenagrionidae is characterized by its distinctly shaped labium, which may or may not be extended.
Top picture (adult): Adult Dytiscidae have streamlined bodies and hind-legs modified for swimming. They are characterized by the division of the first abdominal segment by the hind coxae, seen here.

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Retrieved Text: Take a deep breath. Feel your diaphragm lower as your chest rises. Take another breath. Feel the air as it moves past the back of your throat. Right now you’re meditating, that’s all it is. Just focusing on the breath and letting other thoughts fade. The breath plays an important role in our lives even though it often takes a backseat to other thoughts. Well not today! I guarantee you’ll be thinking about your breathing while discovering how and why we breathe in the first place.
Let’s start by looking back at our evolutionary grandparents, the fish. Living in water means you can move in all three dimensions. Fish can adjust their buoyancy (ability to float) by pulling in or letting out gas from their swim bladder. We know that mutations are random which means there were a few individuals who developed multiple swim bladders. Now let’s say a drought hits and some fish living in rivers are stranded in shallow pools. Less water with the same amount of fish means that there is less oxygen for each fish. Those individuals that could gulp air into their extra swim bladders had a better chance of absorbing more oxygen.
Those swim bladders would eventually adapt into what we call lungs. Some of the gulping fish continued life underwater, using a mix of gills and lungs to breathe. Others wandered out of their aquatic environment and onto the land to find more sources of food; those individuals would become the first amphibians.
Over time, muscles developed to surround the lungs to

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Retrieved Text: Bess Beetles Archives - What's That Bug?
Currently viewing the category: "Bess Beetles"
Your letter to the bugman: What kind of beetle is this. It makes a hissing noise. It digs and buries itself in mulch.
These are Bess Beetles or Patent Leather Beetles, Odontotaenius disjunctus, and they make sound by rubbing body parts together, a behavior known as stridulation. Bess Beetles are among the most interesting Beetles in the world because of their unique care giving behavior toward their young. According to BugGuide: “Lifestyle of this family is unique for beetles: live in small colonies where larvae are cared for by adults of both sexes. Long life cycle, apparently more than one year. Larvae eat a rotting wood pre-chewed by adults. (Some references state larvae eat feces of adults as well.) Larvae and adults also cannibalize injured larvae.
Subject: What beetle is this? It hisses!
Found this beetle in my barn in S.M.L. Va. Very pretty, shinny, and if you pick it up it hisses. So kool. Would you please let me know what kind of beetle this is? Love your website, thanks for all you and staff do to educate everyone!
This is a Bess Beetle in the family Passalidae. According to BugGuide: “Lifestyle of this family is unique for beetles: live in small colonies where larvae are cared for by adults of both sexes. Long life cycle, apparently more than one year. Larvae eat a rotting wood pre-chewed by adults. (Some references state larvae eat feces of adults as well.) Larvae and adults also cannibalize injured larvae. Adults reported

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Retrieved Text: Genera and species identification can be performed by standard entomological aspects such as exterior, arrangement of eggs, habitus etc. Further and newer techniques include biochemical techniques such as enzyme electrophoresis and gas chromatography of cuticular carbons, and DNA probes. Those have been successfully used to distinguish between morphologically similar species in a species complex (e.g. Anopheles gambiae-complex, Culex pipiens-complex).
Eggs are black, laid on the water surface and possess lateral floats. They cannot withstand desiccation and hatch within 2-3 days, although hatching can take up to 2-3 weeks in colder climates.
The larvae lack a siphon and lay parallel to the water surface where they breathe and feed. They only descend, when they are disturbed.
Larval habitats range from small water aggregations (hoofprints, puddles) to rice-fields and marshy areas, including salt-water marshes and mangrove swamps. Very few species breed in water-filled tree holes and some in leaf axils (of bromeliad plants). Generally clean water without animal or vegetable matter is preferred.
The maxillary palps of adults are long in both sexes, and clubbed in the male (instead of short maxillary palps in females of culicines). Adult Anopheles wings are usually spotted, due to groups of differently coloured scales on the wings. In a resting position adults of this genus have the body and proboscis in a straight line and at an angle to the surface on which they rest. Some species almost seem to "stand on their head". Adults mainly feed in the evenings and at night.
Eggs of Aedes and Ochlerotatus species are black and usually deposited on damp substrate

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy?" and the following answer choices: 
- kinetic energy
 - requirement for life
 - Evaporation
 - Organic compounds
 - they body they live in
 - requirement for eating
 - requirement for oxygen
 - requirement for carbon

Now knowing that cellular respiration is when a cell converts from oxygen and carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, water, and energy and cellular respiration is a requirement for life, choose the best answer.

Target Text: requirement for life

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Retrieved Text: Home » Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers » How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
How Do Plants Give off Oxygen?
Plants give off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Using green chlorophyll (which gives them their color), the leaves of plants use the energy of sunlight to change carbon dioxide and water into food the plant needs to live. During this process, oxygen is released into the air.
This oxygen is breathed in by animals. Animals, in turn, breathe carbon dioxide back into the air, where it is again used by plants to produce food and oxygen. Because of green plants, the amount of oxygen in the air has always remained at about the same level.
As photosynthesis requires sunlight, this process only happens during the day. We often like to think of this as plants `breathing in carbon dioxide and `breathing out oxygen. Just like animals, plants need to break down carbohydrates into energy. Oxygen is required to do this.
Then why do the plants get rid of oxygen they produce during photosynthesis?
The answer is, they do not. Plants actually hold on to a small amount of the oxygen they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates to give them energy.
But what happens at night when there is no sunlight which is needed in photosynthesis?
Interestingly, in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide (which is exactly what animals do). Plants produce approximately ten times more oxygen during the day

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Retrieved Text: Topic 2.8 Cellular Respiration Understandings Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from.
Topic 2.8 Cellular RespirationUnderstandingsCell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell.Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose.
Details of the metabolic pathways of cell respiration are not needed but the substrates and final waste products should be known.There are many simple respirometers which could be used. Students are expected to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO2, so reductions in volume are due to oxygen use. Temperature should be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations.
Topic 4.3 Carbon CyclingUnderstandingsAutotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds.In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere.Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis is a biological reaction that utilizes energy of the sunlight and converts it into high energy electrons. These electrons are consumed in the two reaction phases that finally generate sugar (chemical energy) with the help of chlorophyll (a green pigment) present in leaves.
This process occurs only in plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. According to the geological history, photosynthesis is thought have occurred roughly 3.5 billion years ago. The overall formula of the process involves conversion of six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. As a result, all the oxygen present in the earth’s atmosphere as well as seas is because of photosynthesis.
In plants and photosynthetic protozoans, chloroplasts are vital to the biological machinery that regulates photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that act as the reaction sites and have there own genes and DNA. It is believed that chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic organisms that were related to modern-age cynobacteria. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, chloroplasts are considered as a result of a symbiotic relationship between early microbes similar to ancestors of mitochondria.
Plants contain chlorophyll inside their leaves that captures energy for photosynthesis. The captured energy is utilized to build complex carbohydrates from simple raw materials (that is, carbon dioxide, water and minerals). These carbohydrates (or sugars) are consumed by plants to derive energy. Some part of this complex sugar is stored for performing other vital functions.
The process involves various steps that fall under two phases: the dark phase and

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Retrieved Text: Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both part of a cyclic process of biochemical reactions. Photosynthesis requires the products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and water), while aerobic respiration requires the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen). Together, these reactions are involved in how cells make and store energy. The energy transfers in both processes and in how the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs and the end products that result from each process are somewhat opposite processes, thus aerobic respiration and photosynthesis are in some ways complete opposites of each other. Photosynthetic organisms such as plants use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. During respiration glucose is oxidised back to carbon dioxide, in the process, releasing energy that is captured in the bonds of ATP. Although these two energy producing processes differ in their uses and also their goals, they do have several similarities.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place in the presence of sunlight, wherein plants manufacture their food and build stores of energy. This phenomenon occurs in chlorophyll containing plant cells. Chlorophyll is a pigment found in plant leaves that gives the plant its green colour. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and utilises it to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These carbohydrates produced are used by the plants as a source of immediate energy for growth, reproduction, and absorption of nutrients. The chemical reaction produces oxygen which is released into the atmosphere.
Occurring in the chloroplast light reaction converts solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.The

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Retrieved Text: The main end products of respiration are CO2 (carbon dioxide) and water, which are used as the starting material for Photosynthesis, and photosynthesis converts them into glucose and O2 (oxygen).
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all energy rich carbon compounds used by all organisms; it is responsible for the continual supply of atmospheric O2 (oxygen), without which all the aerobic organisms, that use oxygen would not exist.
Green plants, algae, some unicellular green flagellates and 2 bacteria groups are the only organisms that photosynthesize. Each year they release half of all the O2 (oxygen) in the atmosphere.
Plants use CO2 (carbon dioxide) when they produce O2 (oxygen). CO2 is converted to O2 during photosynthesis. At the same time, animals through their respiration process use this O2 from their metabolism and replace it with CO2, which is then used by plants to begin the cycle again.
Photosynthesis is a solar powered process. SUNLIGHT is a key component of the process.
Light is a form of ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY. When light meets matter, it can be reflected, transmitted or ABSORBED.
PIGMENT absorbs light. Plant pigment, CHLOROPHYLL (the main light-absorbing molecule of green plants), is a pigment that absorbs LIGHT ENERGY.
Chlorophyll is found in specialized structures called CHLOROPLAST; they give plants their green color. Each chloroplast contains all the chlorophyll and enzymes needed to complete the complex chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll participates directly in LIGHT REACTIONS.
The site of photosynthesis is typically the leaf of green plants. Each cell has about 30 to 40 chloroplast.
The large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants allows it

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Retrieved Text: Light reactions occur when plants synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, referring specifically to the part of energy production that requires light and water to generate electrons needed for further synthesis. Water provides the electrons by splitting into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms combine into a covalently bonded oxygen molecule of two oxygen atoms while the hydrogen atoms become hydrogen ions with a spare electron each.
As part of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen -- as a gas -- into the atmosphere while the electrons and hydrogen ions or protons react further. These reactions no longer need light to continue, and are known in biology as the dark reactions. The electrons and protons pass through a complex transportation chain that allows the plant to combine the hydrogen with carbon from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrates.
Light reactions -- light energy in the presence of chlorophyll -- splits water. Splitting water into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons produces the energy for subsequent electron and proton transport and provides the energy to produce the sugars the plant needs. These subsequent reactions form the Calvin cycle.
Green plants that use photosynthesis to produce energy for growth contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll molecule is a key component of photosynthesis in that it is capable of absorbing energy from light at the start of the light reactions. The molecule absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects, and which is why plants look green.
In light reactions, a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs one photon of light, causing a chlorophyll electron to

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Retrieved Text: a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light. adj., adj photosynthet´ic.
1. The compounding or building up of chemical substances under the influence of light.
2. The process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide, liberating molecular oxygen in the process.
The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and a source of hydrogen (usually water), using light as an energy source. Most forms of photosynthesis release oxygen as a byproduct.
a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria containing chlorophyll synthesize organic compounds, chiefly carbohydrates, from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, using light for energy and liberating oxygen in the process. photosynthetic, adj.
the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into organic chemicals using the energy of light, with the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are known as AUTOTROPHS. CYANOBACTERIA also carry out photosynthesis. See LIGHT REACTIONS and CALVIN CYCLE.
n metabolic process by which plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce glucose. Oxygen is a by product of this process.
a chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under the influence of light.
As we reveal the building blocks that make up CAM photosynthesis, we will be able to bioengineer the

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Retrieved Text: First, a quick word about what "respiration" is not.
Not all living things need to "breathe", in the sense that you and I breathe. Most living things don't have lungs, for a start!
The Great Challenge called "Respiration" is not about drawing air into the organism's body.
Respiration is the process by which all living things, except viruses, provide themselves with the energy to do all the other things which make us call the organism alive.
For many organisms, including plants, the chemistry is as follows: The organism converts food and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water... and converts some of the chemical energy in the food+oxygen into other forms... forms which make it possible for the organism to do things.
What does the organism do with the energy it has obtained from the food+oxygen? That is what the rest of this essay will one day be about. How many of the things living things do can you list? Do you see how energy is needed?
Obtaining the food and the oxygen is part of the subject of the Great Challenge "Assimilation"; getting rid of the carbon dioxide and water is part of the subject "Excretion".

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Retrieved Text: What Are the Three Most Abundant Gases in the Earth's Atmosphere?
The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. These three cycles working in balance are responsible for carrying away waste materials and replenishing the ecosystem with the nutrients necessary to sustain life. If any of these three cycles should become unbalanced, the effects on the ecosystem can be catastrophic.
There are a lot of things that come together to form a functioning ecosystem, but there are three cycles that are key to understanding the big picture: the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
The water cycle begins with precipitation. Water from lakes, rivers and oceans evaporates into the atmosphere. These water vapors gather, under the right conditions, to form clouds. Eventually, these vapors condense and become rain or another form of precipitation. This precipitation falls to the earth's surface. Next, some of the precipitation flows into the ground and becomes part of the ecosystem's water table. The rest flows into streams and rivers, and eventually back into the lakes and oceans from where it came. Along this journey, lifeforms in the ecosystem use the water to sustain life.
The carbon cycle can be broken into two smaller subcycles: respiration and photosynthesis. These subcycles are dependent upon one another. In the respiration cycle, fauna, or animal life inhabiting the biosphere, consume carbohydrates (in the form of plant life) and oxygen and output carbon dioxide, water and energy. The animals use the energy produced to power their biology.
Flora,

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Retrieved Text: What Happens to the Heart Rate After Exercise?
Why Does Your pH Level Drop When You Exercise?
Does Glycogen Increase During Exercise?
What Happens to the Intercostal Muscles in Exercise?
Why Are Proteins Used As the Last Source of Energy?
All adults in the United States are encouraged to get at least 30 minutes a day of exercise most days of the week, according to recommendations by the American Heart Association. Exercise relies on a complex set of reactions within your body to provide the work and energy needed to perform physical activity. One of the main players in this series of reactions is the lungs, especially in relation to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide output relies largely on the amount of energy your body is using. Your body constantly needs energy for basic operations such as your heart beat and digestive system, which means carbon dioxide is always being produced as well. However, as you exercise, you significantly increase the energy needs in your body as your muscles work at an accelerated and more intense pace.
To create new energy, oxygen must be present in the bloodstream. The more energy being used through exercise, the more oxygen is needed to create new energy. To meet these needs, your body initiates an increase in both your respiratory rate and your heart rate. The increased respiratory rate increases how much oxygen is inhaled into the lungs and transferred into the bloodstream. The increased heart rate speeds up how quickly oxygen can be transported to the cells for energy creation.
Once oxygen makes it to

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Retrieved Text: The present invention is directed generally to electrochemical systems and more particularly to co-production of electricity and hydrogen in a high temperature fuel cell system.
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. A solid oxide regenerative fuel cell (SORFC) is an electrochemical device that converts electrical energy directly into chemical energy and subsequently reconverts chemical energy back to electrical energy. This device differs significantly from rechargeable batteries in that the chemicals are stored outside of the SORFC converter. The SORFC system has many building electrical energy storage applications that cannot be satisfied by batteries. For example, a SORFC system for building power generation is discussed in the Proceedings of the 2001 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-570-30535. A SORFC system which generates hydrogen in the electrolysis mode and which generates electricity in the fuel cell mode is described in Proceedings of the 2002 DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-610-32405. This SORFC system may contain a separate electrolyzer unit which operates in the electrolysis mode and which is operatively connected to the fuel cell stack to generate hydrogen. However, these SORFC systems have certain environmental and economic drawbacks.
The SOFC and SORFC are high temperature electrochemical systems. Another high temperature electrochemical system is a molten carbonate fuel cell. Fuel cells often use hydrogen as fuel. For example, fuel cell powered vehicles would require hydrogen refueling stations for operation. However, distribution of hydrogen from centralized hydrogen producing plants to refuel vehicles is not currently economical. Furthermore, hydrogen production is fairly expensive.
A

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Retrieved Text: How Well Do You Know Photosynthesis?
1. Which of the following are capable of photosynthesis?
Photosynthetic organisms include higher plants, some bacteria, and some algae. Photosynthetic organisms are also known as photoautotrophs because they can make their own food from sunlight.
2. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the ____ .
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in plant leaves in organelles known as chloroplasts.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen, water, and _____ .
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose, water, and oxygen. Glucose is used for energy and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is used by many organisms for cellular respiration.
4. This green pigment captures the sun's energy in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are produced in chloroplasts and are the pigments of photosynthesis.
5. Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Light reactions in photosynthesis mostly occur in grana. These are dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs found in plant chloroplasts.
6. Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in which part of the chloroplast?
Dark reactions in photosynthesis occur in the stroma. Stroma is dense fluid within the chloroplast where reactions occur to produce carbohydrates.
7. Dark reactions in most plants occur during the day.
Dark reactions occur during the day in most plants. Dark reactions are light-independent and use energy molecules generated in the light reaction phase to produce carbohydrates.
8. In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to ____ .
In the Calvin Cycle, carbon dioxide is converted to the sugar glucose. These reactions occur in chloroplast stroma.
9. Both ATP and NADPH

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Retrieved Text: 3. Organism burn their food (metabolize) to get special form of energy called_________.
4. The substances required by organisms to obtain energy are called _________.
5. Carbonhydrates contain Carbon, Hyderogen and Oxygen in which Hydrogen and Oxygen exist in _________ ratio.
6. Disaccharides are formed by condensation of ___________ monosaccharide units.
7. _________ and starch are examples of polysaccharides.
8. The enzymes which control different chemical reaction in the body are ________ in nature.
9. _________ fatty acids molecules have one or more than one double bonds.
10. _________ fatty acids molecules are without double bond.
11. The amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about ___________.
12. If the amount of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1 % , rate of photosynthesis also __________.
13. Chlorophyll converts light energy to __________ energy and makes food in plants.
14. The __________ cells are packed loosely with large intercellular spaces.
15. The solar energy is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen is called ____________.
16. Utilizing energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form ___________.

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Retrieved Text: The majority of life on Earth is based on energy that's received from the sun.
alternative energy sources in a little bit.
For the most part, we can think of, terrestrial life is based on solar power.
How do we extract the energy from the sun?
We don't all have the solar panels sitting on our head.
Well, we do it through the process of photosynthesis.
which takes carbon dioxide and water, and combines them together.
carbon dioxide is everywhere in the at, in the atmosphere.
Water is everywhere in the atmosphere.
place, so, carbon dioxide and water do not react naturally.
They require energy to react.
We call that an endothermic reaction.
with each other forever, unless you add energy into the system.
When you do add energy into the system, you can get out oxygen.
And, what's left over is CH2O.
I'm going to draw that as the symbol for a photon.
what enables life here on the surface of the earth.
The energy from the photons.
waste product, gives out this oxygen, but it makes this carbohydrate.
Why is making carbohydrates important?
Oh, carbohydrates are amazing things.
First off, they are organic molecules.
They have that carbon in them.
Its carbon chemistry is the, one of the richest.
Chemistries that we have for molecules.
and you can build bigger, and bigger, and bigger, carbon molecules out of them.
carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy.
So what you're doing is taking this photon energy.
carbohydrate, basically, and allowing that carbohydrate now, that, that molecule.
You, it's, you can think of it as a battery.
It takes the photon and stores it into this carbohydrate battery.
that you can move it to different

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Retrieved Text: Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms.
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits ([link]). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red.
The protein inside (a) red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is (b) hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical subunits and four heme groups. Iron associated with the heme binds oxygen. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color.
It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the

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Retrieved Text: first law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
second law of thermodynamics Energy tends to disperse spontaneously.
potential energy Energy stored in the position or arrangement of a system’s components.
reactants Molecule that enters a reaction and is changed by participating in it.
endergonic Describes a reaction that requires a net input of free energy.
exergonic Describes a reaction that ends with a net release of free energy.
Activation energy Minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction.
catalysis The acceleration of a reaction rate by a molecule that is unchanged by participating in the reaction.
substrates Molecule that an enzyme acts upon and converts to a product; reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
induced-fit model Of enzyme activity, interacting with a substrate causes the active site to change shape so that the fit between them improves and catalysis occurs.
metabolic pathway Series of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells build, remodel, or break down an organic molecule.
allosteric regulation Control of an enzyme’s activity by a regulatory molecule that binds outside the active site.
feedback inhibition Regulatory mechanism in which a change that results from some activity decreases or stops the activity.
electron transfer chain In a cell membrane, series of enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons, thus releasing the energy of the electrons in small, usable steps.
cofactors A coenzyme or metal ion that associates with an enzyme and is necessary for its function.
antioxidants substance that interferes with the oxidation of other molecules.
phosphorylation Reaction in which a phosphate group is added to a molecule.
ATP/ADP cycle Process by which cells regenerate ATP. ADP forms

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Retrieved Text: Hydrogen cells are already powering buses in cities such as London.
From turning carbon dioxide into a fuel to enabling cars to run on water, scientific researchers worldwide are unlocking the potential of new energy sources.
LONDON, 14 January, 2016 – Molecular biology has been used by scientists in the US to make a catalyst that can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. It means that a truly renewable biotechnological material could be used to help cars run on water.
In China, chemists have announced a nanofabric – a catalyst put together atoms at a time – that could begin the process of turning the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide back into fuel.
And with what seems like perfect timing, a new technological venture in Switzerland hopes to be the first commercial plant to harvest carbon dioxide from the air.
The first two propositions are still in the laboratory stage, and the third has yet to prove its viability. But the laboratory advances keep alive the hopes of the ultimate in energy recycling.
In the first process, water provides the energy for a chemical reaction that propels a vehicle, and then ends up again as water from the exhaust pipe of a car. And in the second, a gas released as emissions from fossil fuel could get turned back into fuel.
The hydrogen fuel cell long ago began to deliver energy for manned space flight, and is already in use in urban public transport, with a platinum catalyst fusing hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to release electrical energy and water.
But platinum is

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Retrieved Text: Biomass Energy - Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc.
To many people, the most familiar forms of renewable energy are the wind and the sun. Biomass energy, used since our ancestors learned the secret of fire, is the oldest source of renewable energy.
Until recently, biomass energy supplied far more renewable electricity—or “biopower”—than wind and solar power combined.
If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource.
Biomass is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it comes from the sun, but also because biomass can re-grow over a relatively short period of time. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Burning these carbohydrates turns them back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably—meeting current needs without diminishing resources or the land’s capacity to re-grow biomass and recapture carbon—the battery will last indefinitely and provide sources of low-carbon energy.
Mechanical Electrical Systems Inc. in 2010 designed, built, installed, and started up a 250kW Blinkless® Microgrid for SAIC. The Microgrid used power produced by an on-board generator, which ran off of fuel produced by a pyrolysis process that turned trash into gas for

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Retrieved Text: What Are Light Dependent Reactions?
Plants act as a good complement to humanity, as the latter species breathes out carbon dioxide, which the plants then turn it into the oxygen humans need to live. Plants take in carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water, and sunlight and create oxygen and a kind of simple sugar that they use for energy. This is a process necessary to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis acts as an important factor that sustains life on Earth. Plants take in carbon dioxide, sunlight, water, and nutrients from the Earth and turn it into sugar and oxygen, which many species need to breathe.
Humans and animals exhale carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. Plants extract the carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis process to feed themselves. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves of the plant through small pores called stomata. Once the carbon dioxide enters the plant, the process begins with the help of sunlight and water.
During this process, the plant combines carbon dioxide with water to allow the plant to extract what it needs for food. The plant uses sunlight as energy to perform this chemical reaction. Photosynthesis separates carbon dioxide and water — known as CO2 and H2O, respectively — into their individual molecules and combines them into new products. Once the process is done, the plant releases Oxygen, or O2, into the surrounding air. It also creates C6H12O6, a substance similar to glucose, that feeds the plant.
Because they often receive more carbon dioxide and water than they need to

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Retrieved Text: A Latham, N.Y., company wants to put a power plant in your backyard. Plug Power is testing a residential fuel cell system in a proof-of-concept home. The house taps into the natural gas distribution network, processing the gas into a hydrogen-rich stream that combines with oxygen in the air to drive the fuel cell’s chemical reaction. The system generates electricity for 7 to 10 cents per kilowatt-hour (on par with utility prices) and emits only carbon dioxide, water and heat (which can be recycled to warm the home’s air and water). The refrigerator-size unit converts 40 percent of the gas’s energy into electricity, providing all the power for the 3-bedroom test home. Merrill Lynch analyst Sam Brothwell has been watching Plug Power and sees “tremendous potential.” He predicts early adopters will get their hands on these systems in 2001 or 2002.

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Retrieved Text: The term biomass refers to organic matter such as plants, residue from agriculture and forestry, the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes, and animal waste. Some types of biomass can be burnt or decomposed to produce energy. A good example of this is the burning of wood; for thousands of years it has been used to provide heat.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because plants can re-grow over a relatively short time for use as an energy source. By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these carbohydrates are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide and water, and release the energy they captured from the sun. Biomass is, therefore, a form of solar energy since it receives its original energy from the sun by photosynthesis.
Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions from biomass become part of a carbon cycle. Biomass carbon emissions are taken up or recycled by subsequent plant growth within a relatively short time, resulting in low net carbon emissions. This is because, through photosynthesis, plants absorb roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as is given off through the burning of them. On the other hand, the burning of fossil fuels add new and additional carbon to the atmosphere.
A very common source of biomass energy is wood. For thousands of years it has been burnt to produce heat,

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Retrieved Text: This event occurred perhaps three billion years ago. It was a turning point in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria began to use the energy of sunlight to manufacture glucose. Because of it, on two counts—food and the waste product oxygen—we are here. Photosynthesis.
We are 100 percent dependent on photosynthesis. Either we have to eat the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food or we have to eat some formerly alive thing that ate the lettuce that captured the Sun’s energy to make food. We ourselves cannot capture the Sun’s energy to make food.
Photosynthesis requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Sunlight arrives in the form of a stream of particles called photons. Photons hit the leaf, which is made up of cells. Each cell has a structure called a chloroplast—which in turn contains the pigment chlorophyll. This is the factory, the means of production. The raw materials are water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The leaf gets its CO2 from the air. When photosynthesis began, Earth’s atmosphere did not contain free oxygen. It did contain a lot more carbon dioxide. Slowly, over millions of years, photosynthesis put oxygen—a waste product to plants, algae, and photosynthesizing bacteria—into the air. And so, happily, we breathe.
When you look at this simple but profound transformation in chemical form, you see that carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen have been reshuffled, and oxygen has been expelled.
Photosynthesis happens in two stages. First, the light reaction: Sunlight hits the leaf, jiggles electrons in the chlorophyll until an electron belonging to the chlorophyll jumps

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Retrieved Text: What Molecules Enter the Krebs Cycle & What Molecules Leave the Krebs Cycle?
What Happens When There Is No Oxygen Available at the End of Slow Glycolysis?
What Follows Glycolysis if Oxygen Is Present?
What Is Produced As a Result of Photosynthesis?
Living things, all of which consist of one or more individual cells, can be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Virtually all cells rely on glucose for their metabolic needs, and the first step in the breakdown of this molecule is the series of reactions called glycolysis (literally, "glucose splitting"). In glycolysis, a single glucose molecule undergoes a series of reactions to yield a pair of pyruvate molecules and a modest amount of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The ultimate handling of these products, however, varies from cell type to cell type. Prokaryotic organisms do not participate in aerobic respiration. This means that prokaryotes cannot make use of molecular oxygen (O2). Instead, the pyruvate undergoes fermentation (anaerobic respiration).
Some sources include glycolysis in the process of "cellular respiration" in eukaryotes, because it directly precedes aerobic respiration (i.e., the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain). More strictly, glycolysis itself is not an aerobic process simply because it does not rely on oxygen and occurs whether or not O2 is present. However, since glycolysis is a prerequisite of aerobic respiration in that it supplies pyruvate for the reactions thereof, it is natural to learn about both concepts at once.
Glucose is a six-carbon sugar that serves as the most important single carbohydrate in human biochemistry. Carbohydrates contain

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Retrieved Text: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) is a chemical substance that occupies about 96 % of Mars's atmosphere.
The metabolism of human beings, animals and various microbes depends on the oxidation of carbohydrates, resulting in carbon dioxide and water exhalation. Plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and release the oxygen back to the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
CO2 will be extracted in-situ by atmospheric processing using compression and cooling.
Carbon dioxide is required in the settlement atmosphere for plant metabolism. Standard concentration on Earth is increasing, so the value is a moving target. However, a concentration between 300ppm (0,03%) and 1000ppm (0,1%) is considered acceptable. Nuclear submarines have varying carbon monoxide levels that can reach 9000 ppm in normal operations.
The Sabatier process can be used in place of photosynthesis to complete the atmospheric part of the carbon cycle. Synthesis of carbohydrates from methane would be required to complete the carbon metabolic cycle without the use of plants. Or food can be supplied from Earth or Mars for a partial cycle, where Methane from the Sabatier process can be stored for use as a propellant.
Photosynthesis by plants in greenhouses to create carbohydrates for plant metabolism.
Synthetic materials, hydrocarbons using the Fischer Tropsch reaction process.
Propellant production. Methane (CH4) and Oxygen (O2), through ISRU using the Sabatier process. The hydrogen comes from Electrolysis of water or is brought from Earth.
Carbon using the Bosch reaction process. The Bosch reaction consumes hydrogen to produce carbon and water. The hydrogen can come from electrolysis of water.
This page was last edited on 18 April

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Retrieved Text: The latter occurs not only in plants but also in when the energy from plants is passed through a. Oxygen meters would tell you how much oxygen is given off. Note: These numbers do not include how many trees are cut down eachyear. Remove your thumb and check for any bubbles in the tube. The light energy is usually from sunlight, however, certain light bulbs can also be used. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the ; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the , to achieve the same end.
The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly at. Change the conditions of photosynthesis by altering light intensity and carbon dioxide amount, and determine the effects on the photosynthesis rate. Most 5 out of 6 molecules of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. Stir the solution until it is fully dissolved. The process of gaseous exchange occurs by the process of diffusion in these cases. Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology Third ed. Though it only makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere, it is vital to photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to into that can later be to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy fromsunlight to transform water and carbon dioxide along with

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Retrieved Text: Carbon cycle - is the process by which carbon moves between the living and non-living world in a cycle flow.
Photosynthesis - is the process by which plants make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Respiration - is the process by which living things release energy from carbohydrates, as well as producing water and carbon dioxide.
Chlorophyll - is the green substance found in chloroplasts, this is where light energy is trapped for photosynthesis.
Leaf - is the plant organ specialized for photosynthesis.
Palisade layer - is a layer of tall columnar cells containing chloroplasts, this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place in a leaf.
Stomata - are the pores on the surface of a leaf that allows water, carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the leaves.
Phloem - is the plant tissue made up of living cells that has the function of transporting food substances through the plant.
Xylem - is a compound plant tissue that helps provide support and conducts water and nutrients upwards from the roots.
Transpiration stream - is the uninterrupted flow of water through the xylem of the plant, from the roots up to the leaves where it will evaporate.
Limiting factor - carbon dioxide level, temperature and/or light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, if it is in short supply it affects plant growth. By increasing these limiting factors it will increase the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
Rate of photosynthesis - is how quickly a plant is photosynthesising. Factors such as carbon dioxide levels, temperature and/or light intensity affects the

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Retrieved Text: Journey into the chloroplast, where photosynthesis takes place, to learn how plants convert sunlight into usable chemical energy - one of the most vital processes on Earth.
Leaves are small solar-powered food factories.
Through a process called photosynthesis they make their own food.
Using only water, carbon dioxide and the Sun's energy they produce glucose and oxygen.
They form the basis of the global food chain.
Plants are able make their own food using only carbon dioxide, water, and the energy from sunlight.
This chemical reaction is called photosynthesis and it supports all other complex life on Earth.
Every leaf is a solar-powered food factory, producing the food a plant requires from simple ingredients: water and carbon dioxide.
Water enters the plant via root hair cells and travels up to the leaves in tubes called xylem.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through tiny holes called stomata.
It is here in the chloroplasts, tiny cellular bags filled with chlorophyll, that photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorophyll is key: it traps energy from the Sun and uses it to bond carbon dioxide from the air to hydrogen from the water.
This process produces glucose, which is used for the plant's growth and stored as starch.
A waste gas – oxygen – is produced.
Like carbon dioxide, oxygen is exchanged through the stomata.
Photosynthesis is a simple equation.
Without this essential process, plants couldn't grow.
And if plants couldn't grow and reproduce, other organisms would have nothing to eat.
Plants are the basis of the global food chain.
Plants' consumption of carbon dioxide, and production of oxygen by photosynthesis, is what creates our life-sustaining atmosphere.
Which is why photosynthesis

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Retrieved Text: Oxidation is defined as one of the processes by which energy is obtained from the diet. During this process, nutrients are broken down and converted into energy for normal metabolic function. The browning of an apple or rusting of metal is a common example of oxidation in our everyday life. The rate of oxidation depends on the amount of activity that is occurring. At rest, the rate of oxidation is at its lowest level. However, during stress, exercise, growth, pregnancy, or lactation, the rate of oxidation is elevated because the body is rapidly breaking down nutrients (like protein, carbohydrates, and fat) to produce energy needed during these times. During these metabolic processes if the regulatory systems in the body are overwhelmed, oxidative stress can occur.Oxidative stress causes an overabundance of circulating molecules called reactive oxygen species (ROS), sometimes commonly referred to as “free radicals.” It is important to note that all free radicals are ROS, but not all ROS are free radicals. These free radicals are normally produced from oxygen metabolism (see equation below).When we inhale, we take in oxygen (O2), in our cells the oxygen uses an electron (e-) and a hydrogen (H+) to form water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), then the carbon dioxide gets exhaled. The free radicals shown in the equation include superoxide radical (O2•), hydroxyl radical (HO•), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). They contain oxygen, but they are much more reactive than the oxygen in the air we breathe. Free radicals are ROS with a missing electron, therefore, making them unstable molecules.

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Retrieved Text: Zebec's clients can rely on Zebec to deliver to an agreed scope, on budget and on programme, whilst meeting Health & Safety and Environmental requirements.
Anaerobic Digestion as a resource recovery technology is relevant for a range of industries. It can be applied as a pre-treatment step to reduce the volume of waste and to control odours and pathogens in order to keep final disposal costs down. More often today it is utilised as primary treatment of biomas to produce valuable products such as biogas that can be converted into heat and energy plus digestate which can used as fertiliser.
Anaerobic digestion is the simple, natural breakdown of organic matter into carbon dioxide, methane and water, by two groups of microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. Since many of these are intolerant to oxygen, this process is known as anaerobic.
There are four main stages of the anaerobic digestion process.
Each stage breaks the matter into smaller and smaller parts, until the only remaining substances are methane, carbon dioxide and water, three very simple molecules.
Hydrolysis breaks down the complex organic matter – carbohydrates, fats and proteins – into simple sugars, fatty acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates, long chains of simple sugars, are broken down into single glucose molecules; proteins, long folded chains of amino acids, become individual amino acids; while fats, made up of head groups and fatty acid chains, have the latter part removed from the head groups and cut into smaller and smaller pieces.
Acidogenesis sees those single sugar molecules, fatty acids and amino acids broken down further into alcohols and

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Retrieved Text: Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, amino acids and fatty acids and is the main way the body generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which supplies energy to the muscles. After glycolysis (the anaerobic breakdown of glucose into pyruvate – see our separate article for more detail), pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA in the matrix of the energy-transferring mitochondria, via the link reaction. Next is the Krebs cycle, which occurs twice per glucose molecule, producing – among other chemicals that feed into the aerobic part of the process – more ATP.
A diagram showing the stages of the link reaction and Krebs cycle, taken from our cellular respiration poster.
The aerobic part of the process depends on a series of protein complexes that are organised along the folds of the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondria. These are arranged so that electrons pass from one reacting molecule to the next, in a series of steps known as the electron transport chain. This process ends with ATP synthase, an enzyme that produces ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (up to around 30 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose, according to current thinking), capturing the final portion of the energy released by the whole process in a form that the rest of the cell can use.
Below, we look a little closer at the specific reactions that take place during the steps of aerobic respiration.
The link reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and converts pyruvate into the two-carbon molecule acetyl CoA by removing carbon dioxide and hydrogen,

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "Igneous rocks are what through volcanoes erupting and lava?" and the following answer choices: 
- cracking
 - mandated
 - formed
 - blastoids
 - evolved
 - tube
 - disturbed
 - started

Now knowing that igneous rocks are formed from magma cooling and magma that erupts through volcanoes is known as lava, choose the best answer.

Target Text: formed

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Log in. Sign up. 20 terms. Paulette_W A volcanic tremor indicates that magma is moving beneath the surface and an eruption is likely to be soon. True False Lava domes form from: Intermediate and felsic magmas usually arise where. Composite volcanoes are typically formed from intermediate magmas which are more viscous and C) has shown no evidence of activity over recorded history. Answer to Felsic magmas usually form, when: Choose all the correct answers. alzakiraherbal.com converge at C-C convergent plate boundari.
In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to those rocks rich in silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more. It forms within the upper mantle, much deeper than felsic magma. Effusive eruptions commonly occur at hot spots, like Hawai'i and Iceland, and at areas of. Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further cooling. .. volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history.
Felsic magma tends to form when seawater and the earth's crust meet, causing The simplest form of volcano, cinder cone volcanoes happen when lava blobs is either currently erupting or has erupted during some time in recorded history. The felsic magmas formed by partial melting of mafic igneous and magmas typically ended with explosive eruptions causing

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Retrieved Text: Igneous rocks, born from molten rock called magma, dominate the western portions of the Eno River. All igneous rocks originate deep in the Earth as magma that rises toward the Earth’s surface at temperatures ranging from 1,800 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (°C)). Igneous rocks are separated into two main categories: intrusive and volcanic rocks. Intrusive rocks form when magma solidifies within the Earth’s crust. Volcanic rocks form when magma solidifies on top of the Earth’s crust on land or in water.
Magma that cools and solidifies before reaching the surface of the Earth forms intrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are also commonly known as plutonic rocks. The word plutonic comes from Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Plutonic rocks form bodies known as plutons. Intrusive rocks cool slowly since they are insulated by the surrounding earth. This slow cooling allows the chemical elements within the magma to organize themselves into individual crystals that are visible with the naked eye. Figure 5 shows an example of a circa 630 million-year-old intrusive rock from the Eno River area. East of Roxboro Road, in the Triassic basin, a relatively young intrusive rock called diabase is present. The diabase is around 200 million years old and is present as tabular-shaped bodies that either intruded the surrounding sedimentary rocks parallel to the existing layering as sills or cut across the existing layering as dikes (fig. 6).
Figure 5 - Example of a 630 million year old igneous intrusive rock of the Carolina terrane.	The rock is a

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Retrieved Text: Gem-quality minerals within rocks may be accessible at the earth’s surface or lie buried deep beneath it.
Igneous rocks come out of volcanoes as either lava or ashes. The slower the rock cools the bigger the crystal gets. Gemstones can form when elements like limestone, for example, has been subjected to immense pressure and high temperatures.
Many gemstones form into a kind of igneous rocks called pegmatite.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous rocks changed by heat and pressure from the earth make new rocks with minerals.
When this happens gemstones can grow inside them.
Sedimentary rocks are made by the rock fragments produced by weather.
Sedimentary rocks are usually laid down in layers.
The gemstones are then refined for jewelry. There are gemstones in the sea also, where seawater, for example, helps create amber gems (fossilized tree resin).
Other examples can include opals found in sedimentary rocks or the alluvial mining for sapphire gemstones.
« Women’s Wedding Bands: Feminine Attraction!

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Retrieved Text: Olivine is sometime present as phenocrysts but is not essential. And although this specimen does not show it, vesicular (cellular) varieties are quite common, and these grade completely into scoria.
Basalt is one of the most common igneous rocks found. It is the major constituent of the upper layer of the ocean floors (usually as pillow lava), and hot spot volcanoes (such as the Hawaiian islands). Basalt commonly forms on the continents too, usually the result of hot spot activity. Here it may exist as intrusive dikes and sills, or extrusive cinder volcanoes and lava flows. In the western U.S. such occurances are common and usually quite visible since the volcanoes are relatively young. But basalt is also common in the east, if you can get through the vegetation to see it. In the east basalt shows up mostly as dikes, or more spectacularly in the 1000 foot thick Palasides sill, across the Hudson river from New York City.

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Retrieved Text: Most volcanoes look like peaceful mountains, unless they've erupted recently. When Mt. Saint Helens in Washington erupted in 1980 it hadn't erupted for 123 years. People just thought it was a beautiful mountain. Although an eruption can happen without warning, lava flows from volcanoes rarely kill people because they move slowly enough for people to get out of the way. However, blankets of ash can be thick enough to suffocate plants, animals and people.
One of the most interesting and breathtaking things about a volcano eruption is how high lava shoots out. Large explosive eruptions can shoot lava ash to heights of 25 miles (40 km.) Volcanoes erupt because of pressure. Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and turn into a thick substance called magma. Because it is lighter than the solid rock around it, magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Eventually some of the magma pushes through vents and shoots into the sky. To get a visual, shake a can of pop and then get someone else to open it. Magma that has erupted out of a volcano is called lava. Eruptions can last anywhere from a few hours to 100,000 days. Most seem to last about 49 days.
The stories about going down into the opening of an old volcano are all pretty much science fiction. The final stage of most eruptions includes lava, ash or debris falling back down into the hole. There usually are no long chambers to climb down. The deepest depressions are called calderas,

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Retrieved Text: Question: What do you think is the type of energy that emerges while volcanoes are erupting? What unit is used to measure them?
Asked by meliscetin to Rhian on 6 Mar 2015.
during eruptions, there is a lot of energy released. you have sound energy (the sound of the explosions) and heat energy (from the lava) and kinetic energy (all the material which is erupting and moving through the air and along the ground).
˚C or ˚F. Some lava flows can measure over 1200˚C when they are erupting!
Which is the oldest volcano in the entire world? Have you ever been there?
What is most surprising volcano that you saw ?
What instrumentstools do you use to study volcanoes ?
how much energy we can create with a fusion of two atoms?
What is the most interesting volcano in the world ?and why?
What are the relationships between geysers and volcanoes ?
Can some vocanoes erupt at once?

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Retrieved Text: Igneous Rock - Middle School Science Rocks!
Scientists tell us that the Earth began as a huge ball of molten material. As it cooled it solidified. The first that formed was Igneous Rock -- meaning formed from fire. It took a long time for the molten material to cool. As it was cooling, it was still hot enough for atoms to move around. These atoms combined with other atoms forming compounds. These compounds formed minerals.
A rock is an Aggregate (mixture) of minerals.
The Sedimentary rock is baked and forms Metamorphic rock. If there is too much heat the rock melts into magma. It will cool and form Igneous rock again.
Crystallization-- cooling; sometimes under pressure.
We end up with what we started with. We have gone around in a circle. This called the Rock Cycle.
In this lesson we will only talk about Igneous Rock.
Igneous rock comes from two sources --- Magma and Lava. Both are liquid rocks.
Magma: liquid rock containing many dissolved gases (found inside the earth).
The magma rises up from the mantle region of the earth; the temperature there is 1400ºC.
Radioactive rocks are present at the crust-mantle boundary. The radioactivity gives enough heat to melt the rock.
Magma moves upward along cracks in the crust. If it overflows onto the earths surface, it is called lava.
The magma cools slowly. The atoms come together to form compounds and minerals. A combination of minerals gives rise to different Igneous rocks.
When the magma reaches the Earth's surface as Lava, it cools fast. The atoms don't have the time to move around forming various

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Retrieved Text: The Hawaiian Islands are created by volcanoes. Each island is made up of at least one volcano, many islands are composites of more than one. The Big Island is constructed of 5 major volcanoes: Kilauea, Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, Hualalai and Kohala. Mauna Loa is the very largest active volcano on Earth. Kilauea is presently one of the most productive volcanoes on Earth (in terms of how much lava it erupts each year). The primary volcanoes on each of the islands are known as a shield volcanoes, which are gently sloping mountains produced from a large number of lava that flows from these volcanoes.
The lava produced from the volcano is cooled by the sea water, the cooling of lava results in the rocks called basalt. Hence these islands are made up of basalt rocks. These islands grow by time.
Hawaiian volcanoes are primarily erupted by a type of rock known as basalt. When molten,the basalt produces liquids of relatively high fluidity, compared to volcanoes that erupt more silica rich magma types such as andesite, dacite or rhyolite. The fluidity of molten basalt favors the formation of lava flows, which is why the Hawaiian volcanoes generally have gentle sloping sides. By contrast, lavas with higher silica content are more viscous and commonly produce either thicker, shorter lava flows, thick blocky deposits and/or thick beds of ash that fall from the sky following explosive eruptions. These other types of volcanoes (common outside of Hawaii) are typically steeper sided.
The Hawaiian volcanoes were produced by the Hawaiian hot spot, which is

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Retrieved Text: Christ Church CE Primary and Nursery Academy > Class Blogs > Year 3 > Amethyst > Volcanoes erupting in Amethyst Class!
Volcanoes erupting in Amethyst Class!
In Year Three we have been exploring the life cycle of a volcano in our ‘Earth Rocks’ Learning Adventure. After making papier mache volcanoes, we then created the lava by combining vinegar and bicarbonate of soda to create an acid and alkali reaction .
Below are some photos from the actual eruption event!
Alongside this, the children have been writing some brilliant formal recounts about the process. Below is Hollie’s writing in it’s draft form. We are so proud of Hollie because, not only has she written a very engaging piece, but she has worked extremely hard on her targets, as have so many in Year Three.
We hope you are as impressed as we are!

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Retrieved Text: This week, students in Primary are studying rocks and the Earth. We talked about the three types of rock and how each type of rock is part of the rock cycle. Molten rock fromed beneath the earth’s crust is brought to the surface by volcanoes. After the lava cools, this igneous rock can be transformed into sedimentary or metamorphic rock. Then it can be pushed deep inside the earth again, where it will melt and the cycle will start again.
We demonstrated these three kinds of rocks with soft candy—adding pressure to simulate sedimentary rocks, some heat and pressure for metamorphic rocks, and a lot of heat for igneous rocks. We watched the components of dirt separate when mixed with water and allowed to settle and erupted our volcano model. We also sliced open a hard boiled egg to see that it has layers similar to our planet.
This topic has led to numerous drawings and the writing of books showing the incredible information gained by studying rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Lava rock or Volcanic rock are rocka formed from magma erupted from a volcano. It differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Volcanic rocks are among the most common rock types on Earth's surface, particularly in the oceans. On land, they are very common at plate boundaries and in flood basalt provinces. The lavas of different volcanoes, when cooled and hardened, differ much in their appearance and composition. If a rhyolite lava-stream cools quickly, it can quickly freeze into a black glassy substance called obsidian. When filled with bubbles of gas, the same lava may form the spongy appearing pumice. Allowed to cool slowly, it forms a light-colored, uniformly solid rock called rhyolite.

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Retrieved Text: Earth is made up of rocks and minerals.
A rock consists of two or more minerals.
Minerals are made of one or more chemicals.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and matamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed when volcanoes erupt and liquid rock, called magma, is forced to the surface. When magma cools slowly and hardens inside the Earth’s crust, it forms granite, a very hard rock. Most mountains are made of granite. Other igneous rocks include periodite, obsidian and pumice. Pumice is the only rock that floats.
Sedimentary rocks are formed over millions of years. Mountains are worn down by erosion, and rivers and streams wash bits of rock away. This sediment settles in layers at the bottom. Gradually the weight of the layers and mud in lakes and oceans turns into sedimentary rock.
Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils are animals or plants that have died and been quickly covered by sediments (rock and mud) usually on the bottom of a river or other water body. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone and shale. Over time lots of plants and animals are caught in the layers of sediment and become part of the rock, forming carbon which eventually turns into coal, natural gas or petroleum. These are called fossil fuels.
Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed by great heat or pressure due to the movement of the Earth’s crust. Marble is one example of sedimentary rock that has been changed into metamorphic rock.
Over time, the Earth changes a rock from one type to another.

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Retrieved Text: Explain how igneous rock is formed. Describe the difference between exclusive igneous rock and inclusive igneous rock.
Minerals grains, that grow and rearrange, but don't form layers are what type of rock?
Which set of rocks would most likely be formed from the eruption of material from a fissure vent?
rock is formed from the cooling of lava on Earth's surface.
lower in density than granitic rock.
high in iron and magnesium.
When a volcano erupts, liquid rock called lava flow from the surface. What type of rock is formed from cooled lava?
Melted rock cools and hardens to form .
What type of rock are most fossils found in?
the shells of small sea creatures.
pebbles and other rocks cemented together.
the remains of living things.
crystals left behind when water evaporated.
meteorites that fell to Earth.
melted rock material that cooled and hardened.
layers of sediment that were squeezed together.
This rock is most likely because it is .
Lava that cools quickly forms rocks.
Granite is formed as an igneous rock.
They are formed from sediments that collected in ocean beds.
They are formed from cooled magma or lava.
They are formed over many years of pressure and heat within Earth.
They are the hot lava the moment it is expelled from a volcano.
Igneous rock transforms to sediment by .
Plutons are bodies of rocks that form the ground.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanoes form in areas where magma has made its way to the Earth's surface. Magma in the asthenosphere has a lower density than the rocks of the Earth's crust. This difference in density, combined with its extreme heat makes magma rise upwards pushing into the Earth's crust.
Sometimes, the magma is able to push and melt its way up all the way through the rocks of the Earth's crust and makes it to the surface. Here the magma cools forming a mound we call a volcano.
HOT SPOTS ARE SUPER HEATED AREAS OF THE MANTLE.
These areas are hot enough to melt rock and cause hot magma to rise upwards through the asthenosphere and into the crust. Eventually the superheated magma on a hotspot burns its way up through the crust and creates a volcano.
IN MANY CASES, HOT SPOTS OCCUR IN THE OCEAN, AND THE VOLCANO THEY PRODUCE BECOMES AN ISLAND. OVER TIME CONTINENTAL DRIFT MOVES THE VOLCANIC ISLAND AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT. WHEN THIS HAPPENS THE VOLCANO IS CUT OFF FROM THE SUPPLY OF MAGMA SO IT GOES EXTINCT, AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND WILL FORM OVER THE HOT SPOT.
THIS IS HOW MANY ISLAND CHAINS, LIKE HAWAII FORM!
SHIELD CONE VOLCANOES FORM AS LOW MOUNTAINS WITH BROAD GENTLY SLOPING SIDES, AND NON EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS THAT FORM NEAR HOT SPOTS AND DIVERGING BOUNDARIES.
They get their name from the fact that they look like a shield laid flat on the ground. They form into this shape because of the way the erupt. Shield cone eruptions are not explosive. Instead the

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Retrieved Text: The crater lake of Paniri is the highest place on Earth where crustaceans have been found.
Paniri is part of a volcanic belt running through the Antofagasta region of Chile.
Paniri is a stratovolcano located in Chile’s El Loa Province, near Chile’s border with Bolivia. The volcano is part of the San Pedro-Linzor volcanic chain. San Pablo and San Pedro (the twin volcanoes) lie to its northwest, while Cerro Del León lies to the southeast. Paniri is separated from Cerro Del León by the Cerro Chao lava dome. The stratovolcano has a cinder cone on its peak. Lava that flows from the volcano is preserved on the southwest flanks. The volcano features three summit craters and a single vent, and one of the craters contains a crater lake. The foot of Paniri is formed by thick lava, and its southeastern slope shows evidence of glacial activity. The western and northern flanks of the volcano have roads, and the town of Cupo is located to the west-southwest of the volcano, while the town of Turi is located to the south-southwest. The Paniri, together with the Ubinas, Sabancaya, Lascar volcanoes and the El Tatio geothermal field and other geothermal fields, form a volcanic belt in the Andes known as the Central Volcanic Zone.
Development of the volcano occurred in different stages. First, a shield-like volcano was formed that makes up most of the volcano’s volume. Later stages involved the formation of the main edifice and cone. Rocks of the Paniri vary from black volcanic rocks (basaltic andesite) to igneous volcanic rock

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Retrieved Text: The ongoing eruption of Mount Kilauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, has been changing Hawaii's landscape, turning the tropical paradise into a living hell, with rivers of lava pouring into the ocean.
HONOLULU (Sputnik) – The volcanic activity on Hawaii’s Big Island continues with new fissures opening up in the eastern rift zone of the island’s Kilauea volcano, the Hawaii County Civil Defense said.
Lava burst forth to create a smiley face in this Hawaiian volcano crater.
A partial collapse of a crater wall at the summit of the erupting Kilauea volcano, located on Hawaii's Big Island, caused an explosion in the Overlook crater sending molten lava and fist-sized rocks into the air.

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Retrieved Text: Why are igneous rocks called primary rocks?
As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are created from the cooling of molten magma/lava. All other rocks are derived from them, which is why you will also find them referred to as parent rocks on occasion.
As you can see, it starts with magma #-># igneous rock. From there, all other manner of rocks can be made.
How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?
How does crystal size relate to how long the rock took to cool?
What are some types of intrusive igneous rocks?
How are igneous rocks classified and differentiated from each other?
Why igneous rocks are hard?
Why do igneous rocks have crystals?

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Retrieved Text: Geology of the Grand Canyon showing calculated radioisotope ‘dates’ (after Austin3).
One sobering example comes from the Grand Canyon in Arizona (see diagram, left). The Cardenas Basalt in the bottom of the canyon is an igneous rock layer suitable for radioisotope technology. When dated by the rubidium-strontium isochron method, the Cardenas Basalt yielded an age of 1.07 billion years. Most geologists consider this a ‘good’ date because it agrees with their evolutionary chronology.3 However, we know the date can’t be right, because it conflicts with Biblical chronology.
It is a different story when the same rubidium-strontium method is used to date lava from volcanoes on the north rim of the Grand Canyon. We know these volcanoes are some of the youngest rocks in the canyon, because they spilled lava into the canyon after it had been eroded. Geologists generally think that these volcanoes erupted ‘only’ a million years or so ago. The measured age? 1.34 billion years.3 If we were to believe the dating method, the top of the canyon would be older than the bottom! Of course, geologists don’t believe the result in this case, because it does not agree with what they believe to be the right age. We don’t agree with the result either. Such an obviously conflicting age speaks eloquently of the great problems inherent in radioisotope dating. It also speaks volumes about the way ‘dates’ are accepted or rejected by the geological community.
Table A. Potassium-argon ‘ages’ for historic lava flows (from Dalrymple1).
Dalrymple, G.B., 40Ar/36Ar analysis of historic lava flows, Earth and Planetary Science

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Retrieved Text: The volcanic activity comes to no surprise as Kilauea sits above the Hawaiian hotspot. Scientists have been studying and monitoring Kilauea for years trying to better understand how volcanoes operate in hopes of being able to better predict when eruptions will occur and to lessen the impact on humans.
Over the last couple weeks, Kilauea, one of the volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii and one of the world’s most active volcanoes, has heated up. There have been almost two dozen eruptions in Kilauea’s East Rift Zone and explosive eruptions from Kilauea’s main crater. Since May 3, eruptions have been spewing lava into residential areas, destroying homes, roads, and numerous other structures. These eruptions are a result of an increase in pressure of the magma chamber that fuels the volcano in addition to the intrusion of magma into the side of the volcano.
A hotspot is an area of volcanic activity at a relatively stationary location. What makes hotspot volcanism unique is that it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates, where most other volcanoes are located. Instead, volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centers within tectonic plates as a result of a mantle plume. Mantle plumes act like a stream of heated lava rising in a lava lamp where they represent the rising of extremely hot rock within the Earth’s mantle. Like the lava lamp where the lamp is heated at the base by the light bulb, the mantle is heated at its base by Earth’s outer core causing the warmer (less dense) mantle

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Retrieved Text: 1) How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma as it cools.
Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface.
3) What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Extrusive rocks are fine-grained igneous rocks that cool quickly on the Earth’s surface.
4) What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained igneous rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
Magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, gases, and mineral crystals.
6) Why is silica an important magma compound?
Because silica is the most abundant compound in magma, it has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
The 3 classes of magma are basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
They are classified according to their silica content.
Rocks melt at temperatures between 800°C and 1200°C.
These temperatures are found in the upper mantle and lower crust.
Because different minerals have different melting points, not all parts of a rock melt at the same time. Thus, this partial melting is why magma is slushy.
When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting. Fractional crystallization is the process by which the first minerals to crystallize from magma are the last to melt during partial melting.
12) Name 4 properties by which geologists classify igneous rocks.
13) Describe the mineral composition of the 3 major groups..
When magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, large mineral crystals may form. These are intrusive rocks.
Extrusive rocks have no visible grains because they are made from lava that cooled too quickly for crystals to form.
Porphyritic texture forms when slowly cooling magma suddenly cools rapidly.
This forms a rock with large, well-formed crystals surrounded by finer-grained

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Retrieved Text: All the children were invited to create their own Easter Garden.
There were some fabulous entries- well done everyone!
The children were invited to colour an Easter Egg in using their own design.
have a look at our entrants and the winner and second place eggs.
In numeracy this week we played triominoes.
We had to look at the multiplication and division facts and use them to match the triominoes together.
Everyone enjoyed it so there is a set being sent home with each child. You could do this for your homework and stick it in your learning log, or even take a photo of your game or you playing the game.
This week is Science week.
Today we had a visit from a Science circus.
We had a demonstration first then the children got to practise their skills of balancing peacock feathers on different body parts and also spinning plates. Have a look at our skills.
Are you going to enter an invention to our competition? Bring it on Friday.
This week we had Mark from Magnetic Majic visit us to help us with our learning about magnets.
This is our hook for our new topic "Do Opposites Attract".
The children really enjoyed this and learnt a lot.
4W’s timeline from the Stoneage on.
To start our learning about the Stoneage we put periods of history in order to create a timeline.
We used BCE ( before common era) and CE ( common era) to help us.
4W made vlolcanoes out of modroc. We put a bottle of coke down the centre then put mentos down the bottle of coke to make

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Retrieved Text: Scoria uses in construction industry include Cement manufacture, Construction aggregate, For road aggregate, In landscaping and drainage works. Scoria rock is not yet used in the medical industry. Some types of rocks have exceptional properties and can be used in medical industry.
uses of igneous rocks in construction industry. What are some uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry Igneous rocks may be used to manufacture tiles, countertops and as building ornamentation or in the .
However, some rocks have rare properties. Tuff uses in construction industry include Building houses or walls, Construction aggregate. Tuff rock is not yet used in the medical industry. Some types of rocks have exceptional properties and can be used in medical industry.
Rocks: Igneous. Rocks Unit Chapter 4. STUDY. PLAY. igneous rock is a rock that. forms from magma or lava. igneous rocks are classified by. origin, texture, and composition. this type of igneous rock forms from lava. ... Igneous rocks are mostly used for construction, cleaning, and gardening.
appli ion of stone appli ions of jaw Stone Quarying, ... appli ion igneous rocks in construction industry. Read More. igneous rock in construction industry. 99+ customer review . What are some uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry. Igneous rocks may be used to manufacture tiles, ... Appli Ion Igneous Rocks In Construction Industry.
igneous rock in construction industry - twadsafewater. uses of igneous rocks in the construction industry . Artificial sand for construction. Construction buildings need a lot of sand, but the sand quality requirements also varies, comparing these two, the main

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Retrieved Text: Download "5thscience earth science (5thscience_earth)"
4 Erosion. Critical Thinking 1. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between weathering and erosion?
Earth s Rocky Surface Earth s surface is not permanent and is constantly changing. Some changes take place very slowly over millions of years, such as crustal plates moving and creating mountains or valleys.
to change. Let s look at what happens to rocks that spend some time on the surface.
Chapter 2: Earth s Structure. The BIG Idea: Heat escaping from Earth s internal layers constantly changes the planet s surface.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition shape Earth s surface.
Think about the landforms where you live. How do you think they have changed over time? How do you think they will change in the future?
WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
Chapter 6. Table of Contents. Section 1 Volcanic Eruptions. Section 2 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions. Section 3 Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.
Earth and Space Science. Semester 2 Review. Part 2. - Minerals that split easily or break apart in one direction along a flat surface.
Ride the Rock Cycle. Suggested Goals: Students will gain an understanding of how a rock can move through the different stages of the rock cycle.
The Earth System. The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth s interior.
Igneous rocks formed when hot molten material (magma) cools and hardens (crystallizes).
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions

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Retrieved Text: Officials are scrambling to replace this resource.
HONOLULU (AP) — Lava has burned down two buildings at a geothermal plant near Hawaii's erupting Kilauea volcano.
By Jolyn Rosa HONOLULU (Reuters) – Lava from Hawaii’s erupting Kilauea volcano has covered a potentially explosive well at a geothermal power station and threatened another, after flowing onto the site, officials said. The Hawaii Civil Defense Agency said the wells “are stable and secure”, and Hawaii Governor David Ige said that the plant was “sufficiently safe” from the lava that has plowed through backyards and streets and burned dozens of homes. The molten rock was expected to continue to flow across the Puna Geothermal Venture (PGV) facility, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
By Marco Garcia VOLCANO, Hawaii (Reuters) – The restive Kilauea Volcano belched clouds of ash into the skies over Hawaii’s Big Island twice more on Wednesday as civil defense authorities reported that pressurized geothermal wells at a nearby power plant had been secured from approaching lava. The latest back-to-back upheavals of ash from the main summit crater of Kilauea — one before dawn and another several hours later — came on the 21st day of what geologists rank as one of the biggest eruption cycles in a century from one of the world’s most active volcanoes. The Hawaii County Civil Defense agency warned in its latest bulletin that residents downwind of Kilauea should take care to avoid exposure to ash, which can cause eye irritation and breathing difficulties, particularly in people with respiratory problems.
After Kilauea erupted more than two weeks

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Retrieved Text: Freshwater stored in polar ice caps is more than the combined quantity of freshwater in lakes, rivers and groundwater.
Atmosphere has more freshwater than all surface rivers on the earth.
The average salinity of the oceans in 35 parts per thousand.
All of the above given statements are correct.
Salinity is the amount of salt in grams present in 1000 grams of water.
The average salinity of the oceans is 35 parts per thousand.
P waves or longitudinal waves travel through solid crust and liquid part of the earth’s core.
S waves or transverse waves travel only through solid parts of the earth and not liquid.
L waves or surface waves stick to the skin of the earth’s crust thereby causing massive structural damage during earthquakes.
Deccan plateau, Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Island have volcanic origin.
Cooled lava within the crustal portions that assumes different forms are called intrusive forms.
Lacoliths are large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of large domes.
Igneous rocks do not contain fossils whereas sedimentary rocks often contain fossils.
Igneous rocks are non-crystalline in nature whereas sedimentary rocks are crystalline in structure.
Igneous rocks may be sub-divided on the basic of mineral composition whereas sedimentary rocks arc classified according to their age.
Igneous rocks are crystalline in nature whereas sedimentary rocks are non-crystalline in structure.
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma) from beneath earth’s crust and are crystalline in structure.
They do not occur in strata (layer) nor do they contain fossils.
Igneous rocks may be sub-divided on the basic

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Retrieved Text: Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) from 2014 to present.
intracontinental sedimentary basin that originated during Carboniferous-Early Permian rifting.
During the Early Cretaceous, the Sverdrup Basin underwent tectonic rejuvenation and acquired the attributes of a volcanic basin. Over a period of ~ 45 Myr, successive magmatic episodes included the widespread intrusion of tholeiitic sills and dykes; the emplacement of continental flood basalts; the eruption of mildly alkaline, ferrobasaltic lava flows at discrete volcanic-intrusive complexes; and the emplacement of a suite of alkaline lava flows erupted from central volcanoes. The timing of igneous activity in the Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province (SBMP) coincides with the emplacement of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province (HALIP) preserved onshore at the margins of circum-Arctic landmasses and offshore at the site of the Alpha Ridge. Remarkably, each episode is characterized by a distinctive eruptive style and coherent geochemical signature regardless of the mode of emplacement. In this context, each igneous episode of the Canadian HALIP can be viewed as a time-marker in the evolution of the Sverdrup Basin and Canadian Arctic rifted margin. However, a recent GSC mapping initiative under the Geo-mapping for Energy & Minerals Program (GEM2-HALIP, 2014-2017) reveals a more complex igneous history.
Expedition under Canada’s ECS-UNCLOS Program dredged approximately 100 kg of volcanic rocks from the Alpha Ridge. The size and pristine state of the samples enabled the first comprehensive study of a single eruptive event in the volcanic record of the Alpha Ridge. The sample is a lapilli tuff containing vitric and basaltic clasts that record a phreatomagmatic eruption in a subaerial

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Retrieved Text: ROCKS AND MINERALS What is in a Rock? Rocks are made up of many tiny pieces of minerals. Even if you smash a rock into a hundred pieces, ALL those would still be all the same mineral. Breaking it into pieces would not change the rock’s makeup. What are Minerals? Minerals are natural, nonliving crystals. They come in many sizes, shapes, and colors which is how scientists tell them apart. Minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as: color, luster, hardness, and streak color. Color is obvious, but what are luster, hardness, and streak color? • Luster refers to the way surface of mineral reflects light. • The hardness of a mineral refers to how easily it can be scratched. • Streak color is a physical property of minerals, which refers to the color streak a mineral leaves when scratched against a surface. Scientists use all these characteristics of minerals to identify them in nature. Lesson Checkpoint: What are rocks made of? Types of Rocks There are several types of rocks, and each is formed in a different way. Sedimentary Rocks How do sedimentary rocks form? Erosion is the process of bits of rocks, sand, soil, and dead matter being moved by the wind, water, and gravity. All the eroded materials that eventually settle on land or at the bottom of a body of water are known as sediment. As layers of sediment pile up, the top layers of sediment press the bottom layers together. The weight and pressure from the top layers cause

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Retrieved Text: Rocks are composed of minerals, which are natural inorganic (nonliving) substances with specific chemical compositions and structures. A rock may consist of many crystals of one mineral or combinations of many minerals. Hundreds of different kinds of minerals make up hundreds of different kinds of rocks. Geologists, scientists who study Earth and rocks, divide rocks into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These distinctions are made on the basis of the types of minerals in the rock, the shapes of individual mineral grains, and the overall texture of the rock. All of these properties indicate the environment, pressure, and temperature in which the rock formed.
The first rocks on Earth were igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of molten material called magma. The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning "fire." There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form within Earth's crust: the molten material rises, filling any available crevices in the crust, and eventually hardens. These rocks are not visible until Earth above them has eroded away. A good example of intrusive igneous rock is granite. Extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma pours out onto Earth's surface or erupts at Earth's surface from a volcano. Once on the surface (where it is called lava), it begins to cool and the minerals in the rock crystallize or grow together so that the individual crystals lock together. Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic rocks. Basalt, formed from hardened lava, is

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Retrieved Text: Question 1. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(ii) A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Rocks can be of different colour, size and texture.
Igneous rocks also known as primary rocks.
(iv) When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are extrusive igneous rocks.
Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are actually intrusive igneous rocks.
(v) One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle. Let’s understand it through example—Igneous rocks change into sedimentary rocks. When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure meet down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks.
(vi) Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings. Stones are used in many games, such as seven stones (pitthoo), hopscotch (stapu/kitkit), Five stones (gitti).
(vii) When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

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Retrieved Text: Volcanos are some of planet Earth’s most powerful and destructive forces, but they also produce some incredibly beautiful moments when molten lava is involved.
Lava itself is rock that has been heated to such incredibly high temperatures that it actually turns into a liquified state.
When rock is exposed to temperatures that are 1,292 degrees Fahrenheit or hotter, it turns into molten rock, which then turns into lava when it gets expelled through cracks in the Earth’s crust or begins to flow from an active volcano.
Active volcanoes are almost always the main source of energy that produces flowing lava, and these rivers of lava can end up traveling great distances before the molten rock cools off to the point of solidifying.
But what happens when things get in the way of this extremely hot substance?
Erik Strom of Kilauea Ecoguides set out to answer this very question with a small GoPro camera, which was probably not the best idea, considering how hot lava actually is, even when it is still moving.
The group that Strom belongs to actually provides private tours of volcanoes with their “lava hikes,” which take people right next to the real-life lava flows of an actively erupting volcano.
In order to show what these flows look like from a head-on perspective, Strom prepared his GoPro camera and set it directly in the path of a slowly approaching stream of deadly hot lava.
The footage starts off with some incredibly beautiful views of a slowly moving lava flow that is almost relaxing. But things start to ramp up quickly when

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Input Text: You are presented with the question "What in soil converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants?" and the following answer choices: 
- compound of hydrogen oxygen
 - carbohydrates
 - single-celled organisms
 - excretory structures
 - peachleaf willow
 - members of their own species
 - It helps them survive
 - deoxyribonucleic acid

Now knowing that bacteria in soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and bacteria are single-celled organisms, choose the best answer.

Target Text: single-celled organisms

#### Retrieved Documents ####

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Retrieved Text: Law of Conservation of Matter - Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
There are two interrelated parts of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen gas forms about 80% of the atmosphere. However, no animals and few plants can utilise nitrogen in this gaseous form.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen to amino acids, which are the components of proteins. Examples of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the cyanobacteria Nostoc, soil bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium, and the legume root bacteria Rhizobium.
Atmospheric nitrogen can also be fixed or converted to a more solid form by lightning.
In reverse, Denitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia, a nitrogenous waste in urine, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen in animals and plants is in the form of amino acids and proteins. As one organism eats another along the food chain, the nitrogen passes from one organism to another.
Animals also excrete nitrogenous wastes in urine as urea, uric acid or ammonia. This passes to the soil.
When animals and plants die, Putrefactive Bacteria in the soil converts the body amino acids and proteins to ammonia in the soil. These decay bacteria also convert urea and uric acid to ammonia in the soil.
Nitrite Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia to nitrites in the soil.
Nitrate Bacteria in the soil convert those nitrites to nitrates in the soil. These are used by the plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus is an essential component of many chemicals within living organisms. Examples include the energy-rich compound ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and the phosphates used by plants as fertilisers.
Phosphorus

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Retrieved Text: Let’s talk about nitrogen. What is nitrogen, and why does it matter to us?
Nitrogen is chemical element number 7. It’s crucial to living organisms. It’s a necessary component in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. While it’s common knowledge that proteins make up muscles, they also perform a wide variety of functions and are involved in virtually all cell processes that keep you alive.
Nitrogen is also a component of nucleic acids in DNA, the blueprint of life. DNA determines your eye color, your height, your metabolism, even to an extent your intelligence and behavior. Clearly, living organisms require nitrogen to survive.
Eye color is determined by DNA, made from proteins built up with nitrogen.
In many types of ecosystems, however, there is a scarcity of usable nitrogen. Nitrogen has a limited availability for biological use. Yet, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere. 78% of the air around us consists of nitrogen in the form N2.
78% of the atmosphere is composed of N2.
How do you explain this apparent dichotomy between abundant atmospheric nitrogen, and the scarcity of nitrogen in ecological systems?
While abundant, atmospheric nitrogen is in the form N2. Other significant forms of nitrogen in ecosystems are ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen from animal waste is excreted in the form of ammonia. Plants intake nitrogen in the form of nitrate. From N2 in the atmosphere to nitrate absorbed as nutrients by plants, nitrogen is converted through different chemical forms by ecological processes and cycled over and over again.
These processes compose the nitrogen

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Retrieved Text: Provide an example of an ecosystem evolving in a manner that preserves or recycles nutrients.
In tropical environments with stable geological topography, there is very little phosphorus in the soil. This is due to the age and stability of the soil. The soil itself is so old that the clays in it have broken down. Because rain is the only input of water, there is no opportunity for the addition of new minerals. The phosphorus necessary to sustain the ecosystem is stored in the vegetation, and is retained phosphorus during growth. When those plants die, the return the phosphorus to the ecosystem in the form of plant litter detritus, and is quickly taken back up into other organisms in the system. The other organisms in the environment have evolved to pull the phosphorus directly out of the litter instead of the soil.
How is it that a nutrient like nitrogen, which is typically qualified as limiting, is present in such excess in many locations?
Nitrogen is historically not easily obtained in natural systems. It exists primarily as N2 gas in the atmosphere and plants are not able to obtain this form directly. Most plants rely on other organisms to fix nitrogen into usable forms like NH4+ and NO3- which they are able to use. This means that the plants are dependent primarily on microorganisms in the soil or in their root structures thus their growth is limited by the productivity of the microorganisms.
Humans have changed this case in three ways. Humans cultivate a variety of plants such as legumes

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Retrieved Text: process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
1. The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies or various industrial processes.
2. The conversion by certain soil microorganisms, such as rhizobia, of atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that plants and other organisms can assimilate.
the process by which free nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted by biological or chemical means to ammonia and to other forms usable by plants and animals. Biological nitrogen fixation is the more important process and is accomplished by microorganisms in the soil, either free living or in close association with root nodules of certain plants. In contrast, chemical nitrogen fixation, as is used in industry, requires extremely high temperatures and pressures.
the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen in the synthesis of AMINO ACIDS by some bacteria. Such bacteria can be free-living (e.g. Azotobacter, an aerobe; Clostridium, an obligate anaerobe) while others (e.g. Rhizobium) live in association with plants, occupying swellings in the root called root nodules. The latter relationship is one of SYMBIOSIS, in that the plant gains nutrients and thus can live in nitrogen-poor soils, while the nitrogen-fixer obtains a supply of carbohydrates from the plant. The nitrogen is reduced to ammonia in the microbes by action of the enzyme nitrogenase: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, the ammonia then reacting with keto acids to form amino acids.
Nitrogen fixation potential of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Variation in seedling growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia nilotica inoculated with eight rhizobial strains.
Nitrogen fixation and its improvement through genetic engineering.
Nitrogen fixation associated

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen fixing bacteria help plants grow.
Custom N2 is a nitrogen fixing product that increases the nitrogen content of the soil. N2 contains a nitrogen fixing bacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa. This beneficial soil bacteria takes atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and converts it to ammonium. The ammonium is then usable to the plant.
Nitrogen fixation is a vital process for the plant as nitrogen is a key element in plant growth.
Custom N2 improves root size and root health. This healthier root allows the plant to take up additional nutrients thereby improving overall yield and quality of the crop.
Green soybean, called edamame in the United States, needs a large quantity of nitrogen to grow and produce crop. In this case study, we added Custom N2 and had a much larger yield of edamame.
Use of Custom N2, improves roots in green soybeans, edamame, and other crops. Notice the case study in the final picture, the root on the right has been treated with Custom N2. The root on the right is the untreated control. The treated root is larger and has more offshoots. Its easy to see why this treated plant will thrive and perform better than the untreated plant.
Custom Biologicals manufactures a number of biological products for use in agriculture, farming and gardening including, biofertilizers, soil inoculants and biological seed treatments. Contact Custom directly at (561) 797-3008 or via email at Bill@Custombio.biz for additional information.
Custom N2 is a liquid concentrate containing the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Paenibacillus polymyxa. N2 is available in two sizes 50ml and 1 L. The 50 ml size treats

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Retrieved Text: Guar Resourcees, LLC ("GR") offers U.S. farmers a way to maintain nutrient-rich soil while reaping the benefits of growing guar. You can contract with GR prior to planting with our commitment to purchase your entire crop at harvest.
GR maintains a large seed base, and licenses guar seed to growers. Incorporating guar into the planting cycle can replenish and improve the soil due to its nitrogen-enhancing properties. Its drought-tolerant characteristics help to ensure profitability in ever-changing climates and drought conditions.
Guaranteed purchase of your entire harvest.
Converts atmospheric nitrogen to plant-available nitrogen – improves your soil.
Works well in rotation with cotton – University research has demonstrated up to 15% yield increases in cotton grown following guar.
Plants are extremely hardy with minimal disease and insect pressures.
Read what growers just like you are saying about guar and its benefits.
Download our flyer that explains more about guar, planting stats & details.
You have our invitation to connect with our team of agronomists who will be glad to provide complete information on the benefits of growing guar and how you can get started today.

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Retrieved Text: Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles.
What is evaporation? Water gets warm and changes from liquid water to water vapor.
Are humans primary consumers of carbon dioxide or secondary consumers? Neither. Humans produce carbon dioxide.
Another method for fixing nitrogen? Lightning converts nitrogen gas into soluble nitrates.
When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.
Some bacteria have the ability to "fix" nitrogen. This means they convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically useful forms of nitrogen.
The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that the reservoir for phosphorous exists in mineral form in rocks rather than in the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is difficult for plants and animals to access in nature because most phosphorus in the environment is stored in reservoirs.

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Retrieved Text: Carbon Cycle VIDEO by FUSE SCHOOL!
What in the world is BIOGEOCHEMICAL RECYCLING?
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO..
These cycles are different from the energy cycles of the food chain and food web in whic h the Energy Flow through the ecosystem flows in ONE DIRECTION. Also some of this energy gets lost from “the system” as heat.
These five cycles are particularly important to organisms because these materials make up the chemical compounds of cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE is the global circulation of carbon from the environment to living organisms and from living organisms back to the environment. Carbon EXISTS in the abiotic environment as 1) Carbon dioxide [CO2 (gas)] in the atmosphere, 2) dissolves in H2O to form HCO3 (BICARBONATE) and Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)., 3) Carbonate rocks (limestone & coral = CaCO3 [Calcium Carbonate], 4) Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are derived from once living things (fossil fuels), and 5) Dead organic matter.
The Carbon Cycle Step 1 - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion (burning).
The Carbon Cycle Step 2 - Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.
The Carbon Cycle Step 3 - Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
The Carbon Cycle Step 4 - The dead

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Retrieved Text: Which products do we offer?
What does your crop need?
How can you improve your performance?
Along with carbon, nitrogen is a fundamental component of organic matter. Although 78% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, our nitrogen requirements can only be met with plant or animal protein. Other than legumes, plants only have access to nitrogen at the end of the mineralisation process of organic matter. Agriculture was revolutionised by the discovery, over a century ago, of the ammonia manufacturing process by combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (Haber-Bosch process, 1918 and 1931 Nobel prize-winners). Without such mineral nitrogen, the world’s farming output would be reduced by half.
Along with other elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc.), nitrogen is a constituent of the amino acids that build up proteins. Nitrogen is an essential element for cell constitution and for photosynthesis (chlorophyll). It is the main factor in plant growth. It has an influence on quality, mainly on the protein content of plants.
Nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3-) dissolved in the soil solution. Organic, ammonia or urea nitrogen present in the soil gradually turns into the nitrate form as a result of different microbial and physical-chemical processes. By absorbing water from the soil to make up for evaporation losses, the plant passively absorbs the nitrates present in a flow that rises up to the leaves. Here, the nitrates are reduced and reorganised in organic form, and then redistributed throughout the plant.
Nitrogen is generally the first factor limiting plant growth, with the exception of

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Retrieved Text: Bacteria with nitrogen-fixing ability, play a very important rule in the biological cycle. This article provides detailed information about various types of such bacteria.
You must have heard about nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants that enrich the soil where they grow. They have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the ground and make their own fertilizers. Actually, these plants do not pull off this feat on their own. They owe partial credit for this effort to their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The leguminous plants provide nutrients to the bacteria, in return for which they fix atmospheric nitrogen through anaerobic processes (processes that work without oxygen).
The primary function of these bacteria is 'Survival' and in their efforts directed towards this goal, they enter into a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants or some survive on their own. As a part of their metabolic cycle, they fix nitrogen.
There are many complex processes which make this nitrogen fixation possible and the reaction above is a simplified one. The end products are Ammonia (NH3) and water. Nitrogenase, the vital ingredient which make nitrogen fixation possible, is destroyed when it comes in contact with oxygen.
So the process of nitrogen fixation only occurs in anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) conditions or the oxygen is neutralized by its combination with chemicals like Leghemoglobin. Nitrogen fixation is one stage in the cycle which maintains the balance of this element in nature.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other micro organisms that fix nitrogen are collectively called 'Diazotrophs'. There are many strains of these bacteria in soil, which perform this function. They

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Retrieved Text: Read this article to learn about the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen cycle.
The most abundant element in the atmosphere is nitrogen. In its elemental form it is a colourless and odorless gas which cannot be used by plants or animals. But in combination with oxygen or other elements, nitrogen is available to living organisms as a nutrient. The nitrogen cycle may be defined as the circular flow of nitrogen from free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to nitrates in the soil, and, finally, back to atmospheric nitrogen.
By this process, nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates.
(i) There are some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in the soil or in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. They can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate. Nitrogen fixation is also done by some types of blue-green algae and fungi.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation also occurs in the atmosphere. This is natural nitrogen fixation. It takes place when lightning occurs, because the electrical current that passes through the atmospheric nitrogen converts some of the nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds. These compounds can be used by plants.
(iii) Nitrates are also released from dead and decaying plants and animals and animal wastes.
At the same time, when nitrates are being produced from nitrogen gas, other nitrates are breaking down and releasing nitrogen gas back to the atmosphere. This process of reversal is called de-nitrification.
(ii) When run-off water carry nitrates into surface water which constantly exchanges nitrogen with the atmosphere.
There are some ecosystems where the process of nitrogen fixation and de-nitrification are attuned according to the productivity demands

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Retrieved Text: The nature balances the elements the plants need to produce amino acids. Carbon and oxygen are abundant in the atmosphere, and hydrogen is available as long as water is present. Nitrogen is recycled mainly through compost and manure with the help of bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen can also be utilized with the help of bacteria.
Organic nitrogen in compost and manure.
Inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and chemical fertilizers.
Modern agriculture focuses on efficiency. But the natural nitrogen balance in the soil is disrupted, because the plants are removed from the site (no decomposition) and animals are prevented from entering the area (no manure). To compensate for this are nitrogen and other elements added to the soil in the form of chemical fertilizers.
While fertilizers improve plant growth, do they also create problems. Soil health relies on a balance of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as microbial health. It is much more complicated then simply adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to the soil.
Increased acid levels in the soil, which is damaging the balance in the soil.
Nitrous oxide, which is a byproduct of nitrogen, is a significant greenhouse gas.
Groundwater contamination, which is linked to several health issues.
Eutrophication. Groundwater contamination also contributes to marine "dead zones". The increase in the water-soluble nitrates creates an influx of plant-life, which eats up oxygen and starves out fish and crustaceans.

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Retrieved Text: Nitrogen compounds are essential to plant development, but atmospheric nitrogen must be fixed (transformed) into molecules that plants can use. Bacteria are the only organisms able to carry out nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in many environments. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil have the additional ability to live inside the root nodules of certain plants, such as legumes, and provide fixed nitrogen to the plant host.
Most plants utilized for bioenergy production are not capable of hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so they require applications of nitrogen to increase the speed of growth. However, nitrogen application is costly, environmentally damaging, and potentially hazardous to human health.
We received funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop mechanisms to engineer bioenergy crops so that these plants can fix nitrogen via root nodule symbioses. If we are successful, engineered bioenergy crops could be cultivated in marginal lands that have little agricultural value due to poor soil or other characteristics.
Our phylogenomic approach involves obtaining genomic data form 15,000 species. We are collecting tissues of these species from different herbaria across the world.
We will verify the function of candidate genes discovered in Aim One for their effect on root nodule development in Medicago (nodulating) and poplar root organ cultures (non-nodulating).
We will engineer promising genes identified in Aim Two into poplar, evaluate the development of nodules, and test the impact of these introduced genes on N-fixation and whole-plant properties.
This project is funded by the Biosystems Design Program from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Office of Science at the U.S. Department of

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Retrieved Text: Copy to Clipboard Experienced and driven Compliance Officer with a proven track record of helping to lead companies by ensuring they are functioning in complete compliance with all national and international rules and regulations.
If students can draw a picture of the problem even using simple representations like squares or circles for the units discussed in the problemthen it can help them visualize exactly what's occurring.
Pada tahunkebanyakan dari perangkat lunak yang mereka miliki bebas karena mereka tidak berpikiran untuk membatasinya. Para pengguna hanya menerima berkas berupa deretan angka-angka yang dapat dijalankan.
This template, Velli, is great if you have images of visual work that you'd like to form part of your resume, and there's also space for a cover letter.
For Students: Essay in punjabi on internet and academic success!
Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.
Building capacity in health research in the developing world. The access to the English-speaking reviews is a dominating factor in a scientific community which publishes mainly in English.
A number of explanations are possible.
We should recognize this as a parabola that opens up and has been shifted 2. Completing the Square and Shifting Parabolas getting parabola to vertex form and analyzing the shift of a vertex F-IF.
We may also: Do I need to attend an interview?
Step 4: Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. New vs. The best

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Retrieved Text: Many present-day coffee plantations use chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous and phosphatic ones. These types of fertilizers are bad for two main reasons: they are very expensive, and these chemical fertilizers often make use of non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels, which can deplete nature’s precious resources. Furthermore, these synthetic fertilizers can harm Mother Earth due to water pollution. Thus, these chemical fertilizers are disastrous for the fragile ecology of coffee-growing regions.
Many generations of coffee farmers have ignored and abused the soil. The soil imbalance process takes time and the changes in each generation are minute, so no one cared – and many people still don’t care. Now, many farmers need to enrich the soil, so they turn to chemical fertilizers. The core issue for farming is how can we foster development and production without negatively affecting environment?
Faced with a problem of such a enormous magnitude, one can find a easy, yet effective solution for fertilizer needs of Coffee Plantations by just looking at the soil as a major natural resource. Most people think of soil as a dead, inert material. However, from an agricultural standpoint a healthy soil is the lifeline of any nation.
Soil itself is a living system with millions of beneficial microbes, acting as factories that provide biological nitrogen and other nutrients to the plant. Consider that 83.3% of the earth’s atmosphere is made up of inert nitrogen gas. Microorganisims can convert this atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant in the soluble form (such as ammonia) that the plant can absorb

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Rank: 15
Score: 40.491604
Retrieved Text: South Texas is a hot and dry land, and when a good rain comes, our plants rejoice. But rain brings more than water to replenish the countryside. Rain also contains fertilizer.
The air in the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen. Plants require nitrogen to grow, but they can’t process the inert nitrogen gas in the sky. It takes an enormous blast of energy to break apart those nitrogen molecules and convert them to a compound that plants can use.
This is where lightning comes into play. A lightning bolt is 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit, hotter than the sun, and contains up to a billion volts of electricity. A single lightning bolt can stretch for miles as it tears apart the sky with its power.
The unbridled energy of lightning shatters the nitrogen molecules in the air. Some of the free nitrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form compounds called nitrates that mix with the rain.
These nitrates are a powerful natural fertilizer. Raindrops carry the nitrates to the ground in a soluble form that plants can absorb. This process is called atmospheric nitrogen fixation, where lightning creates fertilizer in the sky.
The falling raindrops also capture other particles in the air, such as dust and pollen. The rain delivers this biologically rich material to the soil while cleansing the grit and grime from the leaves of plants.
The rain gives its water to the thirsty land, but it is the lightning that adds fertilizer. We can water our gardens ten times and not do as much good as one lightning-charged rainstorm. Our lack of

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Score: 40.120422
Retrieved Text: Most people—even non-gardeners—have a vague idea about the process of nitrogen-fixation. This knowledge usually stems from hearing about planting clover to rejuvenate the soil in between rotations of crops. Clover is a classic “green manure” that acts against soil depletion, but it is merely one of many plants that can remediate worn-out earth.
Most—but not all—of these nitrogen-restorative plants are legumes, meaning they’re in the Fabaceae (pea) family. The nitrogen fixation they exhibit is a process whereby bacteria (called rhizobia) exist in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria live in nodules on the plant’s roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is bioavailable.
Although these symbioses primarily exist on the roots of members of the aforementioned Fabaceae family, there are plants like alders (Alnus spp.), sea buckthorns (Hippophae spp.) and gunneras (Gunnera spp.) that also have symbioses with bacteria or cyanobacteria.
In the garden, you can use these nodule-dwelling rhizobia to your advantage in a single season: Planting peas, beans or alfalfa (all legumes) alongside or between your other crops helps to share the wealth these plants bring to the soil. A classic planting formation that operates on these principles is the Haudenosaunee Three Sisters plot, where maize (corn), beans and squash are grown together.
In between seasons, consider cover-cropping your plots, pots and raised beds with a leguminous seed mix. Or even let a bed lay fallow and unproductive for a season under a cover crop: Your soil will thank you next year. When it comes time to plant again, you can compost the biomass

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Score: 40.062817
Retrieved Text: micro nutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B), and of occasional significance there are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V) plus rare mineral catalysts.
The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilisers. The macro nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a “fixed” form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.
Fertilizers are any solid, liquid or gaseous substances containing one or more plant nutrients in known amount, that is applied to the soil, directly on the plant (foliage) or added to aqueous solutions (as in fertigation) to maintain soil fertility, improve crop development, yield and/or crop quality.

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Rank: 18
Score: 39.847725
Retrieved Text: Prefers part shady, moderately dry, well-drained, sandy-loam soil to moist areas and stream banks. Can tolerate drought and wind, but not maritime exposure.
Seed or division, though divisions are difficult.
From seed there are several options: Direct sow outdoors in fall; winter sow in vented containers, cold-frame or unheated greenhouse; stratify if sowing indoors and sow before last frost.
Prefers an acid to neutral soil, though can succeed in poor soils. Dislikes root disturbance.
This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.

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Rank: 19
Score: 39.837967
Retrieved Text: a. Microorganisms may be unicellular or ___________.
b. __________ bacteria help to make curd from milk.
c. Disease-causing microorganisms are called _______.
d. Ammonium salt in the soil is converted first into nitrites by _________ bacteria.
e. _______ coagulation takes place only when milk is hot.
f. Salting draws out _______ from food.
g. Nitrate in the soil is converted by _________ bacteria into nitrogen gas.
h. The process of preventing food spoilage by chemical or physical methods is called food ________.
Q2: Name any two antibiotics.
Q3: Give the names of any two communicable diseases.
Q4: What are the two common food preservatives used in our homes?
Answer: Salt, sugar and oil.
Q5: Name the bacteria that are present in root nodules of leguminous plants that fix nitrogen.
Q6: Very often we observe greenish pond water in our surroundings. What type of microbes they are likely to be?
Q8: Name any unicellular algae.
Q10: Which organisms are interlinked between living and non-living organisms?
Answer: The process in which milk is heated up to 72°C for 15 to 30 minutes and then chilled and stored is called pasteurization. This prevents the growth of most microorganisms.
Q12: Pasteurisation led to another process, critical to surgery. Name the process.
Q13: What are the advantages of food preservation?
1) This prevents spoilage of food.
2) Food can be preserved for a longer period.
3) Quality of food is ensured for a long time.
4) Variety of food items may be available in faraway places, in any season.
Q14: How do microbes cause food poisoning?
Answer: Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning. e.g. Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella are

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Rank: 20
Score: 39.67554
Retrieved Text: Yeates et al. (2003) report a number of interesting results they obtained from a season-long FACE study of a 30-year-old grazed pasture at Bulls, Manawatu, New Zealand, where three experimental plots had been maintained at the ambient atmospheric CO2 concentration of 360 ppm and three others had been maintained at a concentration of 475 ppm (a CO2 enhancement of only 32%) for a period of four to five years. The pasture contained about twenty species of plants, including C4 and C3 grasses (of which Lolium perenne was prominent), legumes and forbs; but the scientists' attention was focused more on what happened to the microfauna inhabiting the soil in which the plants grew than on the plants themselves. So what did they learn?
Nematode populations increased significantly in response to the 32% increase in the air's CO2 concentration. Of the various feeding groups studied, Yeates et al. report that the relative increase "was lowest in bacterial-feeders (27%), slightly higher in plant (root) feeders (32%), while those with delicate stylets (or narrow lumens; plant-associated, fungal-feeding) increased more (52% and 57%, respectively)." The greatest nematode increases, however, were recorded among omnivores (97%) and predators (105%). Most dramatic of all, root-feeding populations of the Longidorus nematode taxon rose by a whopping 330%, while rotifer populations increased by an equally astounding 310%.
Also increasing in abundance were earthworms: Aporrectodea caliginosa by 25% and Lumbricus rubellus by 58%. Enchytraeids, on the other hand, decreased in abundance, by approximately 30%. What are some of the ramifications of these observations?
With respect to earthworms, Yeates et al.

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Retrieved Text: Improved composting of green waste with zeolite by breaking down naturally bound nitrogen into usable plant nutrients. Zeolite can help you get usable compost quicker, with higher nitrogen retention and less odor.
Composting is a process that converts organically bound nitrogen to ammonium nitrate and ammonia, both of which are plant-accessible nutrients. It also kills pathogens, dries manure, and kills weed seeds. Ultimately, the goal is to produce high-quality compost that can be used as a bio-based soil amendment (Olds College, 2004).
Methane and nitrous oxide are two greenhouse gases produced during the composting process (Olds College, 2004). Scientists have concluded that both gases are more potent than carbon dioxide. Aluminum silicates (such as zeolite) can sequester nitrates, sulphates, and hydrogen ions, which can prevent methane and nitrous oxide production during the composting process; studies have demonstrated that aluminum silicates can reduce emissions by 20 percent (Olds College, 2004).
Natural zeolite provides value to the composting processes because of its ability to absorb water and adsorb plant- available nitrogen through cation exchange. Also, zeolite prevents soil compaction and works to increase infiltration, both of which promote soil aeration. This benefit is made possible by the mineral’s high surface area and porosity.
A study by Zhang and Sun (2015) examined the effects of an earthworm cast and zeolite mixture on the composting of green waste. The results indicated that the mix improved the quality of the compost products in regards to nitrification, enzyme activities, and microbial numbers. Also, the compost matured in only 21 days as opposed to the common 90

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Retrieved Text: Fertilizers in the Soil main content.
In the fall man takes crops away, and unless he makes replacements of some sort, the soil becomes poor and useless.
He adds commercial fertilizers such as phosphate, nitrates, and potash, or he may grow clover and alfalfa which he plows back into the soil.
These plants have root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which take nitrogen directly from the air and turn it into usable nitrates.
Bacteria enter roots from the soil and establish themselves in cells of the root tissues. These cells become enlarged and finally nodules are formed. The enclosed bacteria fix nitrogen into nitrates which are released when the roots decay.

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Score: 39.426876
Retrieved Text: Describe the short term cycling of carbon through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Identify carbon sinks and carbon sources.
Describe short term and long term storage of carbon.
Describe how human actions interfere with the natural carbon cycle.
Carbon is a very important element to living things. As the second most common element in the human body, we know that human life without carbon would not be possible. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats are all part of the body and all contain carbon. When your body breaks down food to produce energy, you break down protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and you breathe out carbon dioxide.
Carbon occurs in many forms on Earth and is found throughout the environment (Figure below). The element moves through organisms and then returns to the environment. When all this happens in balance, the ecosystem remains in balance too. In this section, let’s follow the path of a carbon atom over many years and see what happens.
These are some of the structures that carbon takes.
Nitrogen is also a very important element, used as a nutrient for plant and animal growth. First, the nitrogen must be converted to a useful form. Without “fixed” nitrogen, plants, and therefore animals, could not exist as we know them.
The short term cycling of carbon begins with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
The production of food energy by land plants.
Plants and animals engage in the reverse of photosynthesis, which is respiration. In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert the organic carbon in sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go through

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Retrieved Text: stimulated by a lack of bound nitrogen in the environment. When nitrogen is in a constant supply, the formation of Heterocysten is slowed or completely stopped.
There are also forms of blue agae which do not form specialized cells, but can fix nitrogen. These forms contrary to those using heterocysten, separate the processes of binding nitrogen and CO2 during the daylight hours they operate standard photosynthesis for sugar production. However, during the night the Phycobiliprotein, which is used in photosynthesis, are reduced and in their place Nitrotrogenase is formed. Thus the functions of the oxygen producing photo system II is stopped, and N2 fixing becomes possible. When sufficient nitrogen is stored as Cyanophycin, the Nitrogenase is reduced by CO2, which leeches into the cell over the course of the night. At the same time Phycobiliprotein is again synthesized, so that the photo system II can again function.
How quickly the nitrogen in the Cyanobacteria becomes effective, depends on the composition of nitrogen.
Organically bound N is slower but also usable for longer periods. This is the type of nitrogen constructed by Cyanobacteria in the form of Glutamin and Cyanophycin. The presence of amino acids like Glutamin serve to enrich humus, and lead to improved ground fertility. Also through these processes nitrogen is gradually released, and the total nitrogen content of the soil increased. This means that with the constant and long term presence of Cyanobacteria in the soil, the humus content and quality will be continually increased/replenished. Over years as a pool of available nitrogen forms, CO2 is also

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Retrieved Text: Citation: Tang, Q., Liu, H., Tewolde, H., Jiang, P., Lei, B., Zhai, L., Ren, T. 2018. Nitrogen uptake and transfer in broad bean and garlic strip intercropping systems. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 17(1):220-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61772-6.
Interpretive Summary: Broad bean, like other legume crops, has the ability to convert inert nitrogen gas to chemical forms that can be used by plants for growth. Garlic, however, does not have this ability. The nitrogen need by garlic may partially be met by intercropping it with broad bean. This study was conducted to quantify the amount of nitrogen that transfers from broad bean to garlic when both crops are planted in the same soil. Field and pot studies were carried out in the Erhai Lake region in China using stable nitrogen isotope (15N) as a tracer applied to the soil or injected into broad bean plants. The results showed that intercropping of garlic and broad bean increased the absorption of soil-applied fertilizer nitrogen from 32% for monocrop broad bean and 41% for monocrop garlic to 47% if the two crops were intercropped. Nearly 15% of isotopic nitrogen injected into petioles of broad bean plants intercropped with garlic was recovered in garlic plant parts at harvest. The transfer of 15% of nitrogen from broad bean to intercropped garlic suggests garlic production can benefit from the ability of broad bean to convert nitrogen gas to plant-usable forms. The results provide a basis for optimizing the nitrogen fertilizer management of non-legume crops like garlic when intercropped with legumes like broad bean.
Technical Abstract:

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Retrieved Text: enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two broad ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like most on fertilizers, emphasizes the nutritional aspect.
micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni), and sometimes boron (B), silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), vanadium (V).
The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers.
The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.

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Retrieved Text: ‘The Martian’: What Would It Take to Grow Food on Mars?
(Spoiler alert) In the movie, when Watney (played by Matt Damon) gets stranded on Mars, he plants potatoes in a greenhouse using Martian soil and his own “metabolic waste.” And it works: He’s able to stay alive for more than a year living largely on potatoes.
Martian soil is devoid of the nutrients found in Earth’s soil, and it is also fine, meaning water would likely seep through it much more quickly than it would on Earth. Using human poop or other fertilizers could provide a quick boost of nutrients, such as nitrogen, and may also change the texture of the soil so it would cling to water longer, said Sokoloff, who was a crewmember last year at the Mars Desert Research Station in Hanksville, Utah.Earthly soil gets its nitrogen from the atmosphere, though atmospheric nitrogen is in a form that is not easy for plants to use. To transform nitrogen into a better “food” for plants, bacteria “fix” it.
Martian soil is also laced with nasty chemicals called perchlorates, which would have to be chemically removed for plants to grow there, Sokoloff said.
And then there’s gravity. Mars has about one-third the gravity of Earth. Though experiments have shown that some plants can grow relatively normally in microgravity on the International Space Station (ISS), there’s really no way to mimic the “gravity-lite” of the Red Planet.
“Plants use gravity as a way of orienting themselves, so some plant species may or may not be confused,” Sokoloff said.
For instance, willow

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Retrieved Text: Mission Statement : "To impart relevant quality higher education to the students, to groom them to be conscious, researchers, technologists, professionals and citizens, bearing the torch for disseminating knowledge in masses for suitable socio-economic development of the society."
Agriculture occupies the most crucial place in India. It provides largest employment to the people with as much as 70 % of our total population for livelihood. The agricultural policies in past bore fruits as the country achieved the first Green revolution making it self- sufficient in food grains. India needs to increase the food production at the rate of 500 million tons per year to feed the population increasing at the rate of 2.1 % per year as against the world average of 1.33% per year. By 2025, the population of India will be >1500 million. On the other hand, the country has 182 million ha of land cultivation and total crop area under multiple cropping is 213 million ha. Now, there is no room available to increase cultivable land or crop area any more. Therefore, the promotion of agriculture need to upshot only by innovative and sustainable technology through cautious approach in using fertilizers. Taking into account the past experience, present situation in the country and global economic scenario, it is imperative to achieve the second green revolution.
Presently, India is recognized as the 4th largest user of chemical fertilizer (11.4- 12.2 mmt of NPK) on global scale. The chemical fertilizer inputs in agriculture has rendered India self reliance in terms of its food requirement for the population.

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Retrieved Text: You are a little tiny nitrogen (N) atom floating around the atmosphere in a gaseous state, the state that you and your nitrogen friends are usually in. You are an element on the periodic table that is very important to life on Earth. You make up DNA, which carries genetic information in organisms.
You also make up about 78% of the air surrounding all living things. The problem is, you like to hang really close to your nitrogen boyfriend in the air, joining together as N2. You have a very strong bond to your nitrogen boyfriend, and the two of you are hard to break apart, which makes you unable to be used by living organisms. That is why you must go through the nitrogen cycle in order to be useful.
The nitrogen cycle is composed of four steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification.
During the first step of the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, you and your boyfriend (N2) are pulled out of the air by bacteria in the soil. The bacteria turns you both into ammonium by mixing you with hydrogen atoms.
In the next step, nitrification, is the transition of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate through oxidation. Look at it this way: you start off as a nitrogen atom in ammonium, surrounded by hydrogen atoms. More bacteria in the soil convert you into nitrite and then nitrate, so you are now surrounded by oxygen atoms. As part of nitrate, you can now be brought into plants through their roots in order to be used. You might

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